Structural Analysis Notes

A Course Material on
Structural Analysis II
By
Mr.N.Sathishkumar
Assistant Professor
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

QUALITY CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the e-course material
Subject Code : CE2351
Scubject : Structural Analysis II
Class : III Year CIVIL
being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name: N.Sathishkumar
Designation: Assistant Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr.N.Sathishkumar is of adequate quality.
He has referred more than five books amont them minimum one is from aborad author.
Signature of HD
Name: N.Sathish Kumar
SEAL
Table of Contents
Chapter No Title Page No
1 Construction Planning
1.1 Basic Concepts in the Development of Construction
1
Plans
1.2 Choice of Technology and Construction Method 2
1.3 Defining Work Tasks 3
1.4 Defining Precedence Relationships Among Activities 6
1.5 Estimating Activity Durations 10
1.6 Estimating Resource Requirements for Work Activities 14
1.7 Coding Systems 15
1.8 References 17
2 Fundamental Scheduling Procedures
2.1 Relevance of Construction Schedules 18
2.2 The Critical Path Method 19
2.3 Calculations for Critical Path Scheduling 20
2.4 Activity Float and Schedules 22
2.5 Presenting Project Schedules 25
2.6 Critical Path Scheduling for Activity-on-Node and with
30
Leads, Lags, and Windows
2.7 Calculations for Scheduling with Leads, Lags and
33
Windows
2.8 Resource Oriented Scheduling 34
2.9 Scheduling with Resource Constraints and Precedence 36
2.10 Use of Advanced Scheduling Techniques 38
2.11 Scheduling with Uncertain Durations 38
2.12 Crashing and Time/Cost Tradeoffs 42
2.13 Improving the Scheduling Process 45
2.14 References 46
3 Cost Control, Monitoring and Accounting
3.1 The Cost Control Problem 47
3.2 The Project Budget 47
3.3 Forecasting for Activity Cost Control 48
3.4 Financial Accounting Systems and Cost Accounts 49
3.5 Control of Project Cash Flows 51
3.6 Schedule Control 52
3.7 Schedule and Budget Updates 54
3.8 Relating Cost and Schedule Information 54
3.9 References 56
4 Quality Control and Safety During Construction
4.1 Quality and Safety Concerns in Construction 57
4.2 Organizing for Quality and Safety 57
4.3 Work and Material Specifications 58
4.4 Total Quality Control 59
4.5 Quality Control by Statistical Methods 61
4.6 Statistical Quality Control with Sampling by Attributes 61
4.7 Statistical Quality Control with Sampling by Variables 66
4.8 Safety 71
4.9 References 71
5 Organization and Use of Project Information
5.1 Types of Project Information
73
5.2 Accuracy and Use of Information
74
5.3 Computerized Organization and Use of Information 76

5.4 Organizing Information in Databases 78
5.5 Relational Model of Databases 80
5.6 Other Conceptual Models of Databases 81
5.7 Centralized Database Management Systems 84
5.8 Databases and Applications Programs 85
5.9 Information Transfer and Flow 87
5.10 References 88
CE2351 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS – II L T P C
3104
OBJECTIVE
This course is in continuation of Structural Analysis – Classical Methods. Here in advanced
method of analysis like Matrix method and Plastic Analysis are covered. Advanced topics such
as FE method and Space Structures are covered.
UNIT I FLEXIBILITY METHOD 12
Equilibrium and compatibility – Determinate vs Indeterminate structures – Indeterminacy -
Primary structure – Compatibility conditions – Analysis of indeterminate pin-jointed plane
frames, continuous beams, rigid jointed plane frames (with redundancy restricted to two).
UNIT II STIFFNESS MATRIX METHOD 12
Element and global stiffness matrices – Analysis of continuous beams – Co-ordinate
transformations – Rotation matrix – Transformations of stiffness matrices, load vectors and
displacements vectors – Analysis of pin-jointed plane frames and rigid frames( with redundancy
vertical to two)
UNIT III FINITE ELEMENT METHOD 12
Introduction – Discretisation of a structure – Displacement functions – Truss element – Beam
element – Plane stress and plane strain - Triangular elements
UNIT IV PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES 12
Statically indeterminate axial problems – Beams in pure bending – Plastic moment of resistance
– Plastic modulus – Shape factor – Load factor – Plastic hinge and mechanism – Plastic
analysis of indeterminate beams and frames – Upper and lower bound theorems
UNIT V SPACE AND CABLE STRUCTURES 12
Analysis of Space trusses using method of tension coefficients – Beams curved in plan
Suspension cables – suspension bridges with two and three hinged stiffening girders
TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
53
TEXT BOOKS
1. Vaidyanathan, R. and Perumal, P., “Comprehensive structural Analysis – Vol. I & II”, Laxmi
Publications, New Delhi, 2003
2. L.S. Negi & R.S. Jangid, “Structural Analysis”, Tata McGraw-Hill Publications, New Delhi,
2003.
3. BhaviKatti, S.S, “Structural Analysis – Vol. 1 Vol. 2”, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New
Delhi, 2008
REFERENCES
1. Ghali.A, Nebille,A.M. and Brown,T.G. “Structural Analysis” A unified classical and Matrix
approach” –5th edition. Spon Press, London and New York, 2003.
2. Coates R.C, Coutie M.G. and Kong F.K., “Structural Analysis”, ELBS and Nelson, 1990
3. Structural Analysis – A Matrix Approach – G.S. Pandit & S.P. Gupta, Tata McGraw Hill
2004.
4. Matrix Analysis of Framed Structures – Jr. William Weaver & James M. Gere, CBS
Publishers and Distributors, Delhi.
CE2351 Structural Analysis II
CHAPTER 1
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
Equilibrium and compatibility – Determinate vs Indeterminate structures –
Indeterminacy -Primary structure – Compatibility conditions – Analysis of indeterminate
pin-jointed planeframes, continuous beams, rigid jointed plane frames (with redundancy
restricted to two).
1.1 INTRODUCTION
These are the two basic methods by which an indeterminate skeletal structure is
analyzed. In these methods flexibility and stiffness properties of members are employed.
These methods have been developed in conventional and matrix forms. Here conventional
methods are discussed.
Thegivenindeterminatestructureisfirstmadestaticallydeterminatebyintroducing
suitable numberof releases. The number of releases required is equal to
staticalindeterminacy∝s. Introductionofreleasesresultsin
displacementdiscontinuitiesatthesereleases under the externally applied loads. Pairs
ofunknown biactions(forces
andmoments)areappliedatthesereleasesinordertorestorethecontinuityorcompatibility of
structure.
The computation of these unknown biactions involves solution of linear
simultaneousequations.Thenumberoftheseequationsisequaltostaticalindeterminacy∝s.
Aftertheunknownbiactionsarecomputedall
theinternalforcescanbecomputedintheentirestructureusingequationsofequilibriumandfreeb
odiesofmembers.Therequired displacements can also be computed using methods of
displacement computation.
Inflexibilitymethodsinceunknownsareforces atthereleasesthemethodisalsocalled
force method.Since computation of displacement is also required at releases for
imposing conditions of compatibility the method is also called compatibility method. In
computationofdisplacementsuseismadeof flexibilityproperties,hence,themethodis also
called flexibility method.
1.2 EQUILIBRIUM and COMPATABILITY CONDITIONS

Thethreeconditionsofequilibriumarethesumofhorizontalforces,verticalforcesandmom
ents at anyjoint should beequal to zero.
i.e.∑H=0;∑V=0;∑M=0
Forces should be in equilibrium
i.e.∑FX=0;∑FY=0;∑FZ=0
i.e.∑MX=0;∑MY=0;∑MZ=0
Displacement of a structure should be compatable
The compatibility conditions for the supports can be given as
1.Roller Support δV=0
2.Hinged Support δV=0, δH=0
3.Fixed Support δV=0, δH=0, δө=0
SCE 1 Dept of Civil

1.3.DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS
Ifskeletalstructureissubjectedtograduallyincreasingloads,withoutdistortingthe
initialgeometryofstructure,thatis,causingsmalldisplacements,thestructureissaidto be stable.
Dynamic loads and buckling or instability of structural system are not
consideredhere.Ifforthestablestructureitispossibletofindtheinternalforcesinall the members
constituting the structure and supporting reactions at all the supports providedfrom
staticallyequationsofequilibrium only,thestructureissaidtobe determinate.
Ifitispossibletodetermineallthesupport reactionsfromequationsof equilibrium

alonethestructureissaidtobeexternallydeterminateelseexternally indeterminate.If structureis
externallydeterminatebutitisnotpossible todetermineall
internalforcesthenstructureissaidtobe internallyindeterminate. Thereforeastructural
systemmaybe:
(1)Externally indeterminate but internally determinate

(2)Externally determinate but internally indeterminate
(3)Externallyand internallyindeterminate
(4)Externally and internallydeterminate
1.3.1.DETERMINATEVs INDETERMINATESTRUCTURES.
Determinatestructurescanbesolvingusingconditionsofequilibriumalone(∑H=0;∑V=0
;∑M=0). No otherconditions arerequired.
Indeterminatestructurescannotbesolvedusingconditionsofequilibriumbecause(∑H≠0;
∑V≠0;∑M≠ 0).Additionalconditionsarerequiredforsolvingsuchstructures.
Usuallymatrixmethods areadopted.
1.4 INDETERMINACYOF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

The indeterminacy of a structure is measured as statically (∝s) or kinematical
(∝k)Indeterminacy.
∝s= P (M – N + 1) – r = PR– r ∝k= P (N – 1) + r – s+∝k= PM –c
P = 6 for space frames subjected to general loading
P = 3 for plane frames subjected to inplane or normal to plane loading.
N = Numberof nodes in structural system.
M=Numberofmembersofcompletelystiffstructurewhichincludesfoundationas
singlyconnectedsystem ofmembers.
Incompletelystiffstructurethereisnorelease present.Insinglyconnectedsystem
ofrigidfoundationmembersthereisonlyoneroute
betweenanytwopointsinwhichtracksarenotretraced. Thesystemisconsidered comprising of
closed rings or loops.
R = Numberof loops or rings in completely stiff structure.
r = Number of releases in the system.
c = Number of constraints in the system.
R = (M – N + 1)
SCE 2 Dept of Civil
For plane and space trusses∝sreduces

to:∝s=M- (NDOF)N+ P
M= Number ofmembers in completely stifftruss.
P = 6 and 3 for space and plane trussrespectively
N= Number of nodes in truss.
NDOF = Degrees of freedomat node which is 2 for plane truss and 3 for space truss.
For space truss∝s=M- 3N+ 6
For plane truss∝s= M- 2 N+ 3
Test for static indeterminacy of structural system
If ∝s> 0 Structure is statically indeterminate

If ∝s= 0 Structure is statically determinate
and if∝s<0 Structure is a mechanism.
Itmaybenotedthatstructuremaybemechanismevenif ∝s >0ifthereleasesare
presentinsuchawaysoastocausecollapseasmechanism.Thesituationofmechanism is
unacceptable.
Statically Indeterminacy
Itisdifferenceoftheunknownforces(internalforcesplusexternalreactions)andthe
equations of equilibrium.
Kinematic Indeterminacy
Itisthenumberofpossiblerelativedisplacementsofthenodesinthedirectionsofstress
resultants.
1.5 PRIMARY STRUCTURE

Astructure formed bythe removingthe excess orredundant restraints froman
indeterminatestructuremakingit staticallydeterminateis called primarystructure. This is
required forsolvingindeterminatestructures byflexibilitymatrixmethod.
Indeterminatestructure PrimaryStructure
SCE 3 Dept of Civil

1.6.ANALYSIS OF INDETERMINATE STRUCTURES :BEAMS
1.6.1Introduction
 Solvestaticallyindeterminate beams of degree more than one.

 Tosolvetheprobleminmatrixnotation.
 Tocomputereactionsatallthesupports.
 To compute internal resisting bending moment at any section of the
continuousbeam.
Beamswhicharestaticallyindeterminatetofirstdegree,wereconsidered. If the structure is
statically indeterminate to a degree more than one, then the approach presented in the
force method is suitable.
Problem 1.1
Calculate the support reactions in the continuous beam ABC due to loading as shown in
Fig.1.1 Assume EI to be constant throughout.
Fig 1.1
Fig 1.2
Select two reactions vise, at B(R1 ) and C(R2 ) as redundant, since the given beamis
statically indeterminate to second degree. In this case the primary structure is a cantilever
beam AC.The primary structure with a given loading is shown in Fig. 1.2
In the present case, the deflections (Δ L)1 and (Δ L) 2 of the released structure at B and C
can be readily calculated by moment-area method. Thus
SCE 4 Dept of Civil

(Δ L) 1 = − 819.16 / EI
(Δ L) 2 = − 2311.875/ EI (1)
Forthepresentproblemthe flexibility matrix is,
a11= 125/3EI ,a21= 625/6EI
a12= 625/6EI , a22 = 1000/3EI (2)
In the actual problem the displacements atBandCare zero. Thus the

compatibility conditions for the problem may be written as,
a11 R1+ a12 R2 + (Δ L) 1 = 0
a21 R1+ a22 R2+ (Δ L) 2 = 0(3)
Substituting the value of E and I in the above equation,
R1 = 10.609 KN and R2 = 3.620 KN
Using equations of static equilibrium, R3 = 0.771 KN m and R4 = −0.755KN m
Problem 1.2
AFixedbeamAB ofconstantflexuralrigidityisshowninFig.1.3Thebeam
2
issubjectedtoauniformdistributedloadofwmomentM=wL
kN.m.DrawShearforceandbendingmomentdiagramsbyforcemethod.
Fig 1.3 Fixed Beam
SCE 5 Dept of Civil

Fig 1.3 Fixed Beam with R1 and R2 as Redundant
Select vertical reaction(R1)and the support moment(R2)at B as the

redundant.Theprimarystructureinthiscaseisacantileverbeamwhichcould
beobtainedbyreleasingtheredundant R1 andR2.
TheR1 isassumedto
positive in the upward direction andR2 is assumed to be positive in the
counterclockwisedirection.Now,calculatedeflectionat B duetoonlyapplied
loading.Let (ΔL )bethetransversedeflectionat
1
B and(ΔL 2 ) betheslopeatB
duetoexternalloading.Thepositivedirectionsoftheselectedredundantare showninFig.8.3b.
Fig 1.4 Primary Structure with external loading
Fig 1.5 Primary Structure with unit load along R1
SCE 6 Dept of Civil

Fig 1.6 Primary Structure with unit Moment along R2
Fig 1.7 Reaction
Fig1.8.Bending Moment Diagram
Fig1.9.Shear Force Diagram
The deflection(Δ L1)and(Δ L2)of the released structure can be evaluated from unit load
method. Thus,
(Δ L1) =wL4/8EI – 3wL4/8EI = −wL4/2EI (1)

(Δ L2) = wL3/6EI – wL3 /2EI = − 2wL3/3EI (2)
SCE 7 Dept of Civil
The negativesign indicates that (ΔL)isdownwards
1 and rotation(ΔL2)is
clockwise.
Problem 1.3.
A continuous beam ABC is carrying a uniformly distributed loadof 1 kN/m in addition
toaconcentratedloadof10kNasshowninFig.7.5a, Draw bending momentandshearforce
diagram.Assume EItobeconstantforallmembers.
Fig1.10.Continuous Beam
Fig1.11.Primary Structure
SCE 8 Dept of Civil

Fig1.12.Flexibility Coefficients
Fig1.13.Reactions
Itisobservedthatthecontinuousbeamisstaticallyindeterminatetofirstdegree.
ChoosethereactionatB, RBy astheredundant.Theprimarystructureisa
SCE 9 Dept of Civil

simplysupportedbeamasshowninFig.1.11.Now, compute the deflection at B, in the
releasedstructure due to uniformly distributed load and concentrated load. Thisis
accomplished by unit load method.Thus,
−2083.33 1145.84
ΔL = −
EI EI
−3229.17(1)
ΔL=
EI
Inthenextstep,applyaunitloadatBinthedirectionof
RBy(upwards)and
calculatethedeflectionat B of the following structure.Thus(seeFig.7.5c),
3
L 166.67
a11 = = (2)
48EI EI
Now,deflectionatBintheprimary structure due to redundant RB is,
Δ B= 166.67 ×RB
(3)
EI
In theactual structure, the deflection at B is zero. Hence, thecompatibility equation may be
written as
Δ L+Δ B=0(4)
Theothertworeactionsarecalculatedbystaticequilibriumequations(videFig.
1.13)
RA =7.8125kN
RB =2.8125kN
SCE 10 Dept of Civil

UNIT II STIFFNESS MATRIX METHOD
Element and global stiffness matrices – Analysis of continuous beams – Co-ordinate

transformations – Rotation matrix – Transformations of stiffness matrices, load vectors and
displacements vectors – Analysis of pin-jointed plane frames and rigid frames( with redundancy
vertical to two)
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Thegivenindeterminatestructureisfirstmadekinematic allydeterminatebyintroducing
constraints atthenodes.Therequirednumberofconstraintsisequaltodegrees offreedomatthe
nodesthatis kinematicindeterminacy∝k.Thekinematic allydeterminatestructurecomprises
offixedendedmembers,hence,allnodal displacementsarezero.Theseresultsinstress resultant
discontinuitiesatthesenodesundertheactionofappliedloadsorin otherwordstheclamped
jointsarenotinequilibrium.
Inordertorestoretheequilibriumofstressresultantsatthenodes
thenodesareimpartedsuitableunknowndisplacements.Thenumberofsimultaneousequationsrepresen
tingjointequilibriumofforcesisequaltokinematicindeterminacy∝k.Solutionof
theseequationsgivesunknownnodaldisplacements.Usingstiffnesspropertiesofmembersthe
memberendforcesarecomputedandhencetheinternalforcesthroughoutthestructure.
Since nodal displacements are unknowns, the method is also called displacement method.
Since equilibriumconditionsareappliedatthejointsthemethodisalsocalledequilibriummethod.
Sincestiffness properties ofmembers areusedthemethodis alsocalledstiffnessmethod.
In the displacement method of analysis the equilibrium equations are written by
expressingtheunknownjointdisplacementsintermsofloadsby usingload-displacementrelations.
Theunknownjointdisplacements(thedegreesoffreedomof thestructure)are calculated by solving
equilibriumequations.Theslope-deflection andmoment-distributionmethodswereextensively used
beforethehigh speedcomputingera.Aftertherevolutionincomputerindustry,only directstiffness
methodisused.
2.1.1.PROPERTIES OFTHESTIFFNESS MATRIX
Theproperties ofthestiffness matrixare:

 It isasymmetricmatrix
 Thesum of elements in anycolumn must be equal to zero.
 It is an unstableelementthereforethedeterminantis equal to zero.
2.2.ELEMENT AND GLOBAL STIFFNESS MATRICES
Local co ordinates
In the analysis for convenience we fix the element coordinates coincident with the member
axis called element (or) local coordinates (coordinates defined along the individual member axis )
Global co ordinates
It is normally necessary to define a coordinate system dealing with the entire structure is
called system on global coordinates (Common coordinate system dealing with the entire structure)
Transformationmatrix
The connectivitymatrixwhich relates theinternalforcesQ and theexternal forces R is known

as the forcetransformation matrix. Writingit in amatrixform,
{Q} =[b]{R}
whereQ=member forcematrix/vector, b=forcetransformationmatrix
R = external force/loadmatrix/ vector
2.3 ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS
Fig 2.1 Cantilever Beam Fig 2.2 Cantilever Beam with unit load along P1
Fig 2.3 Cantilever Beam with unit Moment along P2
Fig 2.4 Cantilever Beam with unit Displacement along U1



Fig 2.5 A Four member Truss
Fig 2.6 Kinematic ally Determinate Structures

Fig 2.7Unit Displacement along U



2.4.ANALYSIS OF PIN JOINTED PLANE FRAMES

An introduction to thestiffnessmethodwasgivenin thepreviouschapter.Thebasicprinciples
involvedin the analysisof beams,trusseswerediscussed.Theproblemsweresolvedwith hand
computation by thedirectapplicationofthebasicprinciples. Theprocedurediscussedin theprevious
chapterthough enlighteningarenotsuitableforcomputerprogramming.Itisnecessary to keephand
computation to aminimumwhileimplementingthisprocedureon thecomputer.
In thischaptera formalapproachhasbeen discussedwhichmay bereadily programmedon a
computer.In thislesson thedirectstiffnessmethod asapplied toplanar truss structureisdiscussed.
Planetrussesaremadeupofshortthinmembersinterconnectedathingestoformtriangulated
patterns.Ahingeconnectioncanonlytransmitforcesfromonemembertoanothermemberbutnot
themoment. For analysispurpose, thetruss is loaded atthe joints. Hence, atruss member is
subjectedtoonlyaxialforcesandtheforcesremain constant alongthelengthofthemember.The forcesin
thememberatitstwo endsmustbeof thesamemagnitudebutactin theoppositedirections for
equilibriumas shown in Fig.2.8
Fig 2.8 Truss member in Equilibrium
Fig 2.9 Force Displacement Relationship

Fig 2.10 Frame Member in Local Coordinate System

Fig 2.11Plane Frame Member in (a) Local Coordinate System (b) Global coordinate System

Fig 2.12 Rigid Frame

Fig 2.13 Node and Member Numbering



Fig 2.14 Fixed end action due to external loading in element 1 and 2
Fig 2.14 Equivalent Joint Load

Fig 2.15 Support Reactions



CHAPTER III
FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
Introduction – Discretization of a structure – Displacement functions – Truss element –

Beamelement – Plane stress and plane strain - Triangular elements
3.1.INTRODUCTION
TherearetwoversionofFEM:
1. FlexibilityMethodorForceMethod
2. StiffnessMethodorDisplacementMethod.
 Thesetofequationsinthestiffnessmethodaretheequilibriumequationsrelatingdisplacement
sofpoints.
 Rayleigh-Ritzisanapproximatemethodbasedonenergyprincipleby
whichwecanobtainequilibriumequationsinmatrixform.
3.1.1 IMPORTANT DEFINITION

Nodesarepointsonthestructureatwhichdisplacementsandrotations are tobefoundorprescribed.
Element is a small domainonwhichwecan solvethe boundaryvalue
problemintermsofthedisplacementsandforcesofthe nodesonthe element.
Thediscrete representationofthe structuregeometrybyelements and nodesis called a mesh.
Theprocessofcreating a mesh(discreteentities) is called discretization.
Interpolationfunctionisakinematicallyadmissibledisplacementfunctiondefinedonanelement that
canbeusedforinterpolatingdisplacement valuesbetweenthe nodes.
Themesh,boundaryconditions,loads,andmaterial propertiesrepresentingthe actual structureis
called a model.
Element stiffnessmatrix relate thedisplacementstothe forcesat the elementnodes.
Globalstiffnessmatrix is anassemblyofelement stiffnessmatrix that relates the
displacementsofthe nodesonthemeshtoappliedexternal forces.
3.1.2.StepsinFEMprocedure
1.Obtainelementstiffnessandelementloadvector.
2.Transformfromlocalorientationtoglobalorientation.
3.Assembletheglobalstiffnessmatrixandloadvector.
4.Incorporatetheexternalloads
5.Incorporatetheboundaryconditions.
6.Solvethealgebraicequationsfornodaldisplacements.
7.Obtainreactionforce,stress,internalforces,strainenergy.

8.Interpretandchecktheresults.
9.Refinemeshifnecessary,andrepeattheabovesteps.
3.2.DISCRETISATION OF STRUCTURE
Discretizationis the process of separating the length, area or volume we want to analyze into
discrete (or separate) parts or elements.


3.3.DISPLACEMENT FUNCTIONS
 The continuum is separated by imaginarylines or surfaces into a number of finite element
 The elements are assumed to beconnected at discrete number of nodal points situated on
their boundaries.
 Generalized displacements are the basic unknowns.
 A function uniquely defines displacement field in terms of nodal displacements.
 Compatibility between elements.

 2D – 3D elasticity problems, displacement compatibility.
 Plates and shells, displacements and their partial derivatives.
 All possible rigid body displacements included (if not will not converge).
 All uniform strain states included.The displacement function, uniquely defines
strain within an element in terms of nodal displacements.
 These strains with any initial strain, together with elastic properties define the
stress state.



3.4 TYPES OF ELEMENT
Three are three types of elements are available.
 1D Elements
 2D Elements
 3D Elements
3.4.11D Elements (Beam Element)
A beam can be approximated as a one dimensional structure. It can be split into one
dimensional beam elements. So also, a continuous beam or a flexure frame can be discretized
using 1D beam elements.
A pin jointed truss is readily made up of discrete 1D ties which are duly assembled.
3.4.22 D Elements(Triangular Element)
A planewall ,plate, diaphragm, slab, shell etc., can be approximated as an assemblage of
2D elements. Triangular elements are the most used ones. when our 2D domain has curved
boundaries it may be advantageous to choose elements that can have curved boundaries.
3.4.33 D Elements(Truss Element)
Analysisof solid bodies call for the use of 3 D elements. These have the drawback that
the visualizations is complex. The size of the stiffness matrix to be handled can become
enormous and unwieldy.

3.5 PLANE STRESS AND PLANE STRAIN
The plane stress problem is one in which two dimensions ,length and breadth are
comparable and thickness dimension is very small (less than 1/10).Hence normal stress σ 2 and
shear stresses τxz,τyzare zero.
{σ }= [D]{e }
[D]=Stress strain relationship matrix (or) constitutive matrix for plane stress problems.
We have seen that in the Z direction the dimension of the plate in the plane stress
problem is very small. In plane strain problem, on the contrary the structure is infinitely long in
the Z direction. Moreover the boundary and body forces do not vary in the Z directions.
{σ }= [D]{e }
[D]=Stress strain relationship matrix (or) constitutive matrix for plane strain problems.

CHAPTER 4
PLASTIC ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
Statically indeterminate axial problems – Beams in pure bending – Plastic moment of resistance
Plastic modulus – Shape factor – Load factor – Plastic hinge and mechanism – Plastic
analysis of indeterminate beams and frames – Upper and lower bound theorems
4.1.Statically indeterminate axial problems
Intheseanalysesweused superposition often,knowing thatforalinearly

elasticstructureitwasvalid.However,an elastic analysisdoesnotgiveinformation about
theloadsthatwill actually collapseastructure.An indeterminatestructuremay sustainloads
greaterthantheloadthatfirstcauses ayieldtooccur at anypointinthestructure.
Infact,astructurewillstandaslongasitisabletofindredundancies toyield.Itisonly when
astructurehasexhaustedallofitsredundancieswillextraloadcausesit tofail.Plasticanalysisis
themethodthroughwhichtheactualfailureloadof astructureis
calculated,andaswillbeseen,thisfailureloadcanbesignificantly greaterthan the elasticload capacity.
Tosummarizethis,Prof.SeandeCourcy(UCD)usedtosay:
“astructureonlycollapseswhenithas exhaustedallmeans ofstanding”.
Before analyzingcomplete structures, we review material and cross section
behaviorbeyondtheelasticlimit.
4.2. Beams in pure bending
4.2.1. MaterialBehavior
Auniaxialtensilestressonaductile materialsuchasmild steeltypicallyprovidesthe

followinggraphofstress versus strain:
Ascanbeseen,thematerialcansustainstrainsfarinexcessofthestrainatwhichyield occurs
beforefailure.This propertyofthematerialis calledits ductility.Thoughcomplex models do exist to
accurately reflect theabovereal behaviourofthe
material,themostcommon,andsimplest,modelistheidealizedstress-straincurve.Thisis
thecurveforanidealelastic-plasticmaterial(whichdoesn’texist), andthegraphis:

As canbeseen, oncetheyieldhasbeenreacheditis takenthatanindefiniteamountofstraincan

occur. Sincesomuchpost-yieldstrainismodeled, theactualmaterial(orcross section)mustalso
becapableofallowingsuchstrains.Thatis,itmustbesufficientlyductilefortheidealized stress-
straincurvetobevalid.Nextweconsiderthebehaviourof acrosssectionofanideal elastic-
plasticmaterialsubjecttobending.In doingso,weseektherelationshipbetween applied
momentandtherotation(ormoreaccurately, thecurvature)ofacross section.
4.2.2.Moment-RotationCharacteristics ofGeneralCross Section
Weconsider anarbitrarycross-sectionwithaverticalplaneofsymmetry,whichisalsotheplane
ofloading.Weconsiderthecrosssectionsubjecttoanincreasingbendingmoment,andassess thestresses
ateach stage.
Cross sectionandStresses

Moment-Rotation Curve
Stage1– ElasticBehaviour
Theappliedmomentcauses stresses overthecross-sectionthatareallless thantheyieldstress of

thematerial.
Stage2–YieldMoment
Theappliedmomentisjustsufficientthattheyieldstressof thematerialisreachedatthe
outermostfibre(s)ofthecross-section.Allotherstressesinthecrosssectionarelessthanthe
yieldstress.Thisislimitofapplicabilityofanelasticanalysisandof elasticdesign.Sinceall
fibresareelastic, theratioofthedepthoftheelastictoplasticregions,
Stage3–Elasto-PlasticBending
Themomentapplied to thecrosssection hasbeenincreasedbeyond theyieldmoment.Sinceby

theidealizedstress-strain curvethematerial cannotsustain astressgreaterthanyieldstress,the
fibresattheyieldstresshaveprogressedinwardstowardsthecentreof thebeam.Thusoverthe cross
sectionthereisanelasticcoreandaplasticregion.Theratioofthedepthoftheelasticcore
totheplasticregionis .Sinceextramomentis beingappliedandnostressisbiggerthantheyield
stress,extrarotationof thesectionoccurs:themoment-rotationcurvelossesitslinearityand curves,
givingmorerotationperunitmoment(i.e.loosesstiffness).
Stage4–PlasticBending
Theappliedmomenttothecrosssectionissuch thatallfibresin thecrosssection areatyield

stress.ThisistermedthePlasticMomentCapacityof thesection sincetherearenofibresatan
elasticstress,Alsonotethatthefullplasticmomentrequiresaninfinitestrainattheneutralaxis

andsoisphysicallyimpossibletoachieve.However,itisclosely approximatedin practice.Any

attemptatincreasingthemomentat thispointsimply resultsinmorerotation,oncethecross-
sectionhassufficientductility.Thereforeinsteelmembersthecrosssectionclassificationmust
beplasticandinconcretemembers thesectionmustbeunder-reinforced.
Stage5–StrainHardening
Duetostrainhardeningofthematerial,asmallamountofextramomentcanbesustained.
Theabovemoment-rotationcurverepresents thebehaviourofacrosssectionofaregular elastic-

plasticmaterial.However,itis usuallyfurthersimplifiedasfollows:
With thisidealizedmoment-rotation curve,thecrosssectionlinearlysustainsmomentupto the

plasticmomentcapacityofthesectionandthenyieldsinrotationanindeterminateamount.
Again,tousethisidealization,theactual sectionmustbecapableofsustaininglargerotations–
thatisitmustbeductile.
Analysis ofRectangularCross Section
Sincewenowknowthatacross
sectioncansustainmoreloadthanjusttheyieldmoment,weareinterestedinhowmuchmore.Inotherword
swewanttofindtheyieldmomentandplasticmoment,andwedosoforarectangularsection.Takingthestre
ssdiagramsfromthoseofthe moment-rotationcurveexaminedpreviously,wehave:

4.3.ShapeFactor
Thus theratioofelastictoplasticmomentcapacityis:
Thisratioistermedtheshapefactor,f,andisapropertyofacrosssectionalone.Fora
rectangularcross-section,wehave:
Andsoarectangularsectioncansustain50%moremomentthantheyieldmoment,
beforeaplastichingeisformed.Thereforetheshapefactorisagoodmeasureoftheefficiency
ofacross sectioninbending.Shapefactors forsomeothercross sections are

4.4.PlasticHinge
Notethatoncetheplasticmomentcapacityisreached,thesectioncanrotatefreely–
thatis,itbehaveslikeahinge,exceptwithmomentofMpatthehinge.Thisis termedaplastichinge,and
isthebasisforplasticanalysis.Attheplastichingestressesremainconstant,butstrainsand hencerotations
canincrease.
4.4.1.Methods ofPlasticAnalysis
1. TheIncrementalMethod
Thisisprobably themostobviousapproach:theloadson thestructureareincrementeduntilthe

firstplastichingeforms.Thiscontinuesuntilsufficient hingeshaveformedtocollapsethe
structure.Thisisalabour-intensive,‘brute-force’,approach,butonethatismostreadilysuited
forcomputerimplementation.
2. TheEquilibrium(orStatical) Method
In thismethod,freeandreactantbendingmomentdiagramsaredrawn.Thesediagramsare
overlaidtoidentifythelikelylocations of plastichinges.Thismethodthereforesatisfies the
equilibriumcriterionfirstleavingthetwo remainingcriteriontoderivedtherefrom.
3.The Kinematic (or Mechanism) Method

In this method, a collapse mechanism is first postulated. Virtual work equations are then written for
this collapse state, allowing the calculations of the collapse bending moment diagram. This method
satisfies the mechanism condition first, leaving the remaining two criteria to be derived there from.
We will concentrate mainly on the Kinematic Method, but introduce now the Incremental Method
to illustrate the main concepts.
4.4.1.1. IncrementalMethod
Example1– ProppedCantilever
We now assess the behaviorof a simple statically indeterminate structure under
increasingload.Weconsideraproppedcantilever withmid-spanpointload:


Sincethepeakmomentsarelessthan theyieldmoments,weknow
thatyieldstresshasnotbeen reachedatany pointin
thebeam.Also,themaximummomentoccursatAandsothispointwill firstreachtheyieldmoment.
4.4.1.2.EquilibriumMethod
Introduction
Toperformthis analysis wegenerallyfollowthefollowingsteps:
1.Findaprimary structurebyremoving redundantuntilthestructureis staticallydeterminate;
2.Drawtheprimary(orfree)bendingmomentdiagram;
3.DrawthereactantBMDforeachredundant,as appliedtotheprimary structure;
4.ConstructacompositeBMDbycombingtheprimaryand reactantBMDs;

5.DeterminetheequilibriumequationsfromthecompositeBMD;
6.Choosethepointswhereplastichingesarelikelytoformandintroduceintotheequilibrium equations;
7.Calculatethecollapseloadfactor,orplasticmomentcapacityas required.
Fordifferentpossiblecollapsemechanisms,repeatsteps 6and7,varyingthehingelocations.
WenowapplythismethodtotheIllustrativeExamplepreviouslyanalyzed.
Steps 1to3oftheEquilibriumMethodareillustratedinthefollowingdiagram:
ForStep4,inconstructingtheCompositeBMD,wearbitrarilychoosetensionontheunderside of
thebeamaspositive.ByconventionintheEquilibrium Method,insteadof drawingthetwo BMDson
oppositesides(asisactually thecase),thereactantBMDisdrawn‘flipped’overthe
lineandsubtractedfromtheprimaryBMD:thenetremainingareais thefinal BMD.Thisisbest
explainedbyillustrationbelow:

ForStep7, wesolvethis equationforthecollapseload:

4.4.1.3 KinematicMethodUsingVirtualWork
Introduction
Probably theeasiestway tocarry outaplasticanalysisisthrough theKinematicMethodusing
virtual work.Todothisweallowthepresumedshapeatcollapsetobethecompatible
displacementset,andtheexternalloadingandinternalbendingmomentstobetheequilibrium set.Wecan
thenequate externalandinternalvirtualwork,andsolveforthecollapseloadfactor
forthatsupposedmechanism.
Remember:
Equilibrium set:theinternalbendingmoments atcollapse;
Compatibleset:thevirtualcollapsedconfiguration (seebelow).
Notethatin theactual collapseconfiguration thememberswillhaveelasticdeformationin

betweentheplastichinges.However,sinceavirtual displacementdoesnothavetobereal,only
compatible,wewillchoosetoignoretheelasticdeformationsbetweenplastichinges,andtake
themembers tobestraightbetweenthem.

4.5.CollapseMechanism
Soforourpreviousbeam,we know thatwe require twohingesforcollapse(onemore thanits

degreeofredundancy),andwethinkthatthehinges willoccurunderthepoints ofpeakmoment,
AandC.Thereforeimposeaunitvirtual displacementatCandrelatethecorrespondingvirtual rotations
ofthehinges using,

4.5.1 OtherCollapseMechanisms
Forthecollapsemechanismlookedatpreviously,itseemed obviousthat theplastichingein the
spanshouldbebeneaththeload.Butwhy?Usingvirtual workwecan examineanypossible
collapsemechanism.Solet’sconsiderthefollowingcollapsemechanismandseewhytheplastic hingehas
tobelocatedbeneaththeload.
PlasticHinge betweenAandC:
ImposingaunitvirtualdeflectionatB,wegetthefollowingcollapsemechanism:

Andsoweseethatthecollapseloadfactorforthismechanismdependsonthepositionofthe
plastichingeinthespan.
4.6.PlasticAnalysisofBeams
Example2–Fixed-FixedBeamwithPointLoad
Tostarttheproblem, weexaminetheusual elasticBMDtoseewheretheplastic hingesare

likelytoform:
Wealsoneedtoknowhowmanyhinges arerequired.Thisstructureis 3˚staticallyindeterminate

andsowemightexpectthenumberofplastichingesrequiredtobe4.However,sinceoneofthe
indeterminaciesishorizontalrestraint,removingitwouldnotchangethebendingbehaviourof thebeam.
Thusforabendingcollapseonly2indeterminaciesapplyandsoitwill only take3 plastichinges
tocausecollapse.SolookingattheelasticBMD,we’llassumeacollapsemechanismwiththe3plastichinges
at thepeakmomentlocations:A,B,andC.

WeneedtocheckthatthisisthecorrectsolutionusingtheUniquenessTheorem:

AndsotheappliedloadisinequilibriumwiththefreeBMDofthecollapseBMD.
2.Mechanism:
Fromtheproposedcollapsemechanismitis apparentthatthebeamis amechanism.
3.Yield:
FromthecollapseBMDitcanbeseenthatnowhereis exceeded.PM
Thusthesolutionmeetsthethreeconditionsandso,bytheUniquenessTheorem,isthecorrect solution.
Example3–ProppedCantileverwithTwoPointLoads
Forthefollowingbeam,foraloadfactorof2.0,findtherequiredplasticmoment capacity:

Allowingfortheloadfactor,weneedtodesignthe beamfor thefollowingloads:
Once againwe try to picture possible failure mechanisms. Since

maximummomentsoccurunderneathpointloads,thereare tworeal possibilities:

Mechanism-1
Mechanism-2
Therefore,we analyseboth and apply the UpperboundTheoremto find the

designplasticmomentcapacity.
Mechanism1:PlasticHingeatC:

Mechanism2:PlasticHingeatD:

1.Equilibrium:
UsingtheBMDatcollapse,we’llcheckthattheheightofthefreeBMDisthatof
theequivalentsimply-supportedbeam.FirstlythecollapseBMDfromMechanism1is:
Hence,thetotalheightsofthefreeBMDare:
Checkingtheseusingasimply-supportedbeamanalysis

Thus,usingappropriatefreebodydiagrams ofACandDB:
AndsotheappliedloadisinequilibriumwiththefreeBMDofthecollapseBMD.
2.Mechanism:
Fromtheproposedcollapsemechanismitisapparentthatthebeamisamechanism.Also,since
itisaproppedcantileverand thusonedegreeindeterminate,we
requiretwoplastichingesforcollapse,andthesewehave
3.Yield:
FromthecollapseBMDitcanbeseenthatnowhereis thedesignexceeded.144kNmThus
bytheUniqueness
Theoremwehavethecorrectsolution.Lastly,we’llexaminewhytheMechanism2collapseisnotthecorrect
solution.Sincethevirtual workmethodprovidesan upperbound,then,by
theUniquenessTheorem,itmustnotbethe correctsolutionbecauseitmustviolatetheyieldcondition.
Using thecollapseMechanism2todeterminereactions,wecan draw thefollowingBMDfor
collapseMechanism2:
FromthisitisapparentthatMechanism2isnottheuniquesolution,andsothedesignplastic moment
capacity must be144kNmasimpliedpreviously fromtheUpperboundTheorem.
4.BasicCollapseMechanisms:
In frames,the basicmechanismsofcollapseare:

Beam-typecollapse
SwayCollapse
CombinationCollapse
5.CombinationofMechanisms
Oneofthemostpowerfultoolsinplasticanalysisis CombinationofMechanisms.Thisallows us
toworkoutthevirtualworkequationsforthebeamandswaycollapsesseparatelyandthen
combinethemtofindthecollapseloadfactorforacombinationcollapsemechanism.
Combinationof mechanismsis based onthe ideathat thereareonlya certain number of

independentequilibriumequationsforastructure.Anyfurtherequationsareobtainedfroma

combinationoftheseindependentequations.
Sinceequilibriumequationscanbeobtainedusing
virtualworkappliedtoapossiblecollapsemechanism,itfollowsthatthereareindependent
collapsemechanisms,andothercollapsemechanismsthatmaybeobtainedformacombination
oftheindependentcollapsemechanisms.
6.SimplePortalFrame
Inthisexamplewewillconsiderabasicprismatic(soallmembershavethesame
plasticmomentcapacity)rectangularportalframewithpinnedfeet:

Wewillconsiderthisgeneralcasesothatwecaninferthepropertiesandbehaviourofallsuch
frames.Wewillconsidereachofthepossiblemechanisms outlinedabove.
7.Beam collapse:
Thepossiblebeamcollapselooks as follows:

4.7.CollapseMode
Sincewedon’tknowtherelativevaluesofHandV,wecannotdeterminethe
correctcollapsemode.However,wecanidentifythesecollapsemodesifweplot the
threeloadfactorequationsderivedaboveonthefollowinginteractionchart:
Noticethateachmechanismdefinesaboundary andthatitisonlytheregion
insidealloftheseboundariesthatissafe.Now,foragivenrationofVtoH,we
willbeabletodeterminethecriticalcollapsemechanism.Notealsothatthebeamcollapsemechanismison
lycriticalforthisframeatpointPonthechart–
thispointisalsoincludedintheCombinedmechanism.Thebendingmomentdiagramscorresponding
toeachofthemechanismsare approximately:
Aninterestingphenomenon isobserved atpointQonthechart,wheretheSway
andCombinedmechanismsgivethesameresult.Lookingatthebendingmoment diagrams,we cansee
thatthis occursasthe momentatthe topofthe leftcolumn becomesequaltothe mid-spanmomentof the

beam:

4.8. Upper bound(Unsafe)Theorem:
This canbestatedas:
If abendingmomentdiagramisfoundwhichsatisfiesthe conditionsof equilibrium
andmechanism(butnotnecessarilyyield),thenthecorresponding loadfactoris eithergreaterthanor
equalto the trueloadfactorat collapse.
Thisis calledtheunsafetheorembecauseforanarbitrarilyassumedmechanismtheloadfactoris
eitherexactly right(when theyieldcriterionismet)oriswrongandistoolarge,leadinga designer
tothinkthattheframecancarrymoreloadthanis actuallypossible.
4.9. Lowerbound(Safe)Theorem:
Ifabendingmomentdiagramisfoundwhichsatisfiestheconditionsofequilibriumandyield
(butnotnecessarilythatofmechanism),then thecorrespondingload factoriseitherlessthanor
equaltothetrueloadfactor atcollapse.


CHAPTER 5
SPACE AND CABLE STRUCTURES
Analysis of Space trusses using method of tension coefficients – Beams curved in plan
Suspension cables – suspension bridges with two and three hinged stiffening girders
5.1ANALYSIS OF SPACE TRUSSES USING METHOD OF TENSION COEFFICIENTS
5.1.1.Tension Co-efficient Method

The tension co efficient for a member of a frame is defined as the pull or tension in that
member is divided by its length.
t = T/l
Where t = tension co efficient for the member
T= Pull in the member
l = Length
5.1.2.Analysis Procedure Using Tension Co-efficient – 2D Frames
1.List the coordinates of each joint (node)of the truss.

2.Determine the projected lengths Xij and Yij of each member of the truss. Determine the support
lengths lij of each member using the equation lij =√Xij2+Yij2
3. Resolve the the applied the forces at the joint in the X and Y directions. Determine the support
reactions and their X and Y components.
4.Identify a node with only two unknown member forces and apply the equations of equilibrium.
The solution yields the tension co efficient for the members at the node.
5.Select the next joint with only two unknown member forces and apply the equations of
equilibrium and apply the tension co efficient.
6.Repeat step 5 till the tension co efficient of all the members are obtained.
7.Compute the member forces from the tension co efficient obtained as above using
Tij= tijx lij
5.1.3.Analysis Procedure Using Tension Co-efficient – Space Frames
1.In step 2 above the projected lengths Zij in the directions are also computed.Determine the
support lengths lij of each member using the equation lij =√X ij2+Yij2 +Zij2
2.In step 3 above the components of forces and reactions in the Z directions are also to be
determined.
3.In step 4 and 5,each time, nodes with not more than three unknown member forces are to be
considered.
Tetrahedron: simplestelementofstablespacetruss (sixmembers,fourjoints)expandbyadding
3members and1jointeachtime
DeterminacyandStability
b+r<3junstable
b+r=3jstaticallydeterminate(checkstability)
b+r>3jstaticallyindeterminate(checkstability)

InternalForces
In orderto obtain theinternalforcesataspecifiedpoint,weshouldmakesection cut
perpendiculartotheaxis ofthememberatthis point.This sectioncutdivides thestructureintwo
parts.Theportionofthestructureremovedfromthepartintoconsiderationshouldbereplaced
bytheinternalforces.Theinternalforcesensuretheequilibriumoftheisolatedpartsubjectedto
theactionofexternalloadsandsupportreactions.Afreebody diagramofeithersegmentofthe
cutmemberisisolatedandtheinternalloads couldbederivedbythesixequations ofequilibrium
appliedtothesegmentintoconsideration.
5.1.Example
Inthefollowingexampleweshallconstructtheinternalforces
diagramsforthegiveninFig.spaceframestructure. Theintroducedglobalcoordinatesystemis
showninthesamefigure.

The introduced local coordinate systems of the different elements of the space frame are
presentedinFig.Thetypical sectionswheretheinternalforcesmustbecalculated,inorderto
constructtherelevant diagrams,arenumbered from1to8inthesamefigure.Thetypical
sectionsareplacedatleastatthebeginningandattheendofeachelement(segment)ofthe
frame.Theinternalforces diagrams,inthelimitsof eachelement,couldbederivedbyusingthe
corresponding referenceandbasediagrams.





5.2.Example




5.2 BEAMS CURVED IN PLAN

5.2.1Introduction
Arches are in fact beams with an initial curvature. The curvature is visible only in
elevation.In plan they they would appear in straight.the other cases of curved beams are ring beams
supporting water tanks,Silos etc.,beams supporting corner lintels and curved balconies etc.,Ramps
in traffic interchanges invariably have curved in plan beams.
Curved beams in addition to the bending moments and shears would also develop torsional
moments.
5.2.2.Moment,Shear and Torsion
The three diverse force components have one thing in common – the strain energy stored
in a beam due to each type of force. Among the 3 we normally ignore the strain energy due to
shear forces as negligible.
U = ∫M 2ds/2EI+∫T 2ds/2GJ

5.3. SUSPENSION CABLE

5.3.1. Indroduction
Cablesandarchesareclosely related toeach otherandhencethey aregroupedin thiscoursein

thesamemodule.Forlongspanstructures(fore.g.incasebridges)engineerscommonlyuse
cableorarchconstructionduetotheirefficiency.Inthefirst lessonofthismodule,cables
subjectedtouniformandconcentratedloadsarediscussed.Inthesecond lesson,arches in
generalandthreehingedarchesinparticularalongwithillustrativeexamplesareexplained.
In thelasttwolessons ofthismodule, twohingedarchandhingeless arches
areconsidered.Structure may be classified into rigid and deformable structures depending on
change in geometry ofthestructurewhilesupportingtheload.Rigidstructuressupportexternallyapplied
loadswithout appreciable change intheir shape(geometry). Beamstrussesand framesare examplesof
rigidstructures.
Unlikerigidstructures,deformablestructuresundergochangesin
theirshapeaccordingtoexternallyappliedloads.However,itshouldbenotedthatdeformationsarestillsma
ll.Cablesandfabricstructuresaredeformablestructures.Cablesaremainly used to supportsuspension
roofs,bridgesand cablecarsystem. They arealsousedin electrical
transmissionlinesandforstructuressupportingradioantennas.In thefollowingsections,cables
subjectedtoconcentratedloadandcables subjectedtouniformloads areconsidered.
Theshapeassumedby aropeorachain(withnostiffness)undertheactionofexternal
loadswhenhungfromtwosupportsisknownasafunicularshape. Cableisafunicular structure.Itiseasy
tovisualizethatacablehungfromtwosupportssubjectedtoexternal loadmustbeintens
cable.Acablemaybedefinedasthestructureinpuretensionhavingthefunicularshapeof the
load.(videFig.5.1and5.2).
As stated earlier, the cables are considered to be perfectly flexible (no flexuralstiffness)
and inextensible.Astheyareflexibletheydonotresistshearforceandbendingmoment.Itissubjected to
axial tension only anditisalwaysacting tangentialtothecable at anypoint along thelength.If the
weightof thecableisnegligibleascomparedwith theexternally appliedloadsthenitsself weightis
neglectedintheanalysis.In thepresent analysisself weightisnotconsidered.
Consideracableasloadedin Fig.5.3.Letusassume thatthecablelengthsandsagat()areknown.
Thefour reactioncomponentsatACDEBandB, cable tensionsineach ofthefour segmentsand three
sagvalues:a totalof eleven unknown quantitiesaretobedetermined.Fromthegeometry,onecould
writetwoforceequilibriumequations(0,0==ΣΣyxFF)ateachofthepointandDCBA,,,Ei.e.atotal of ten
equationsandtherequiredonemoreequationmay bewrittenfromthegeometryof thecable.
Forexample,ifoneof thesagisgiven then theproblemcan besolvedeasily.Otherwiseif the total length
ofthecableisgiventhentherequired equationmaybewritten as

Fig 5.1 Deformable Structure
Fig 5.2Unloaded Cable
Fig 5.3Cable in Tension
Cablesubjectedtouniformload.
Cablesareusedtosupportthedeadweightandliveloads ofthebridgedeckshavinglongspans.
Thebridgedecksaresuspendedfromthecableusingthehangers.Thestiffeneddeckprevents
thesupportingcablefrom changingitsshapebydistributingtheliveloadmovingoverit,fora
longerlengthofcable.In suchcases cableis assumedtobeuniformlyloaded.

Fig 5.4.Cable subjected to concentrated load
Fig 5.5.Cable Subjected to Uniformly Fig 5.6.Free Body Diagram

Distributed load

Considera cable which isuniformlyloaded asshown inFig 5.4.

Duetouniformlydistributedload,thecabletakesaparabolicshape.Howeverduetoits owndeadweightit
takesashapeof acatenary. Howeverdeadweight of thecableis neglected in the presentanalysis.
5.3.Example
DeterminereactioncomponentsatA andB,tensioninthecable andthesag ofthecable shown
inFig.5.7.Neglectthe selfweightofthe cable in the analysis.

Fig 5.7.
Sincetherearenohorizontalloads,horizontalreactionsatAandBshouldbethesame. Taking
momentaboutE,yields



Fig 5.8
Fig 5.9





UNIT-I FLEXIBILITYMATRIXMETHOD FORINDETERMINATE STRUCTURES
1. Whatis meantby indeterminatestructures?

Structures that do not satisfythe conditions of equilibrium are called indeterminate
structure. Thesestructures cannot besolved byordinaryanalysis techniques.
2. Whataretheconditions ofequilibrium?
Thethreeconditionsofequilibriumarethesumofhorizontalforces,verticalforcesand
momentsat anyjoint should beequal to zero.
i.e.∑H=0;∑V=0;∑M=0
3. Differentiatebetween determinateand indeterminatestructures.

Determinatestructurescanbesolvingusingconditionsofequilibriumalone(∑H=0;∑V
=0;∑M=0). No otherconditions arerequired.
Indeterminatestructurescannotbesolvedusingconditionsofequilibriumbecause(∑H≠
0;∑V≠0;∑M≠0).Additionalconditionsarerequiredforsolvingsuchstructures.
Usuallymatrixmethods areadopted.
4. Definedegreeofindeterminacy (i).
Theexcessnumberofreactionsthatmakeastructureindeterminateiscalleddegreeof
indeterminacy,andisdenotedby(i).Indeterminacyisalsocalleddegreeofredundancy.
Indeterminacyconsists ofinternal andexternal indeterminacies.
i =II+EIwhereII=internal indeterminacyand EI=external indeterminacy.
5. Defineinternal and external indeterminacies.

Internalindeterminacy(II)istheexcessnoofinternalforcespresentinamemberthat
makeastructureindeterminate.
Externalindeterminacy(EI)isexcessnoofexternalreactionsinthememberthatmake
thestructureindeterminate.
i =II+EI;
EI=r– e;wherer=no ofsupport reactions and e=equilibrium conditions
II=i –EI
e=3 (planeframes) ande=6 (spaceframes)
6. Write theformulaefordegreeofindeterminacy for:

(a)Two dimensional pinjointed truss(2D Truss)
i =(m+r)– 2j wherem=no ofmembers
r=no ofreactions j
=no ofjoints
(b)Two dimensional rigid frames/plane rigid frames (2DFrames)
i =(3m+r)– 3j wherem=no ofmembers
r=no ofreactions j =no ofjoints

(c)Threedimensional spacetruss (3D Truss)

i =(m+r)– 3j wherem=no ofmembers
r=no ofreactions j
=no ofjoints
(d)Threedimensional spaceframes (3DFrame)
i =(6m+r)– 6j wherem=no ofmembers
r=no ofreactions j
=no ofjoints
7. Determine thedegreeofindeterminacy for the following2D truss.
i =(m+r)-2j
wherem=19
r=4
j =10
e=3
∑i =(19+4)–2x10=3
External indeterminacyEI=r–e=4–3=1
∑Internal indeterminacy II=i–EI=3-1=2
8. Determine the total, internal and external degreeofindeterminacy for theplane
rigid framebelow.
i =(3m + r)– 3j
wherem=7
r=4 j
=6
e=3
∑i =(3x7+ 4)– (3x6) =7
9. Determinei, EI, II for thegiven plane truss.
i =(m + r)– 2j
wherem=3
r=4 j
=3
e=3
∑i =(3+ 4)–(2x3) =1
∑Internal indeterminacyII=i–EI=1-1=0

10. Find theindeterminacyfor thebeams given below.

Forbeams degreeofindeterminacyisgiven byi =r–e
(a)
i =r–e wherer=no of reactions, e=no of equilibrium conditions r=4

ande=3
∑i =4–3=1
(b)
i =r–e
wherer=5 ande=3
∑i =5–3=2
11. Find theindeterminacyfor thegiven rigid planeframe.

i =(3m + r)– 3j
wherem=3
r=4
j =4
∑i =(3x3+ 4)– (3x4) =1
12. Find theindeterminacyofthespace rigid frame.

i =(6m + r)– 6j
wherem=8
r=24 (i. e. 6persupportx4)
j =8 e=6
∑i =(6x8+24)– (6x 8) =24

13. Find theindeterminacyfor thegiven space truss.

i =m +r-3j
wherem=3
r=18 (i. e. 6reactions persupport x3)
j =4
∑i =(3+18)– (3x4) =9
∑Internal indeterminacy II=i–EI=9-12=-3
14. Whatare thedifferent methods ofanalysis of indeterminatestructures.

Thevarious methods adopted forthe analysis ofindeterminatestructures include:
(a)Flexibilitymatrixmethod.
(b) Stiffness matrixmethod
(c)Finite Element method
15. Briefly mention the two types ofmatrixmethods ofanalysis ofindeterminate

structures.
Thetwo matrixmethodsof analysis ofindeterminatestructuresare:
(a)Flexibilitymatrixmethod– This method is also called the forcemethod inwhich the
forces in thestructurearetreated as unknowns. Theno of equations involved is equal to
thedegreeofstaticindeterminacyofthestructure.
(b)Stiffness matrixmethod– This is also called thedisplacement method in which the
displacements thatoccurin thestructurearetreated as unknowns. Theno of
displacements involved is equal to theno ofdegrees of freedom ofthestructure.
16. Definea primary structure.

Astructure formed bythe removingthe excess orredundant restraints froman
indeterminatestructuremakingit staticallydeterminateis called primarystructure. This is
required forsolvingindeterminatestructures byflexibilitymatrixmethod.
17. Give theprimary structures for thefollowing indeterminatestructures.

Indeterminatestructure PrimaryStructure
18. Definekinematicindeterminacy(Dk)orDegreeofFreedom (DOF)

Degrees offreedom is defined as theleast no ofindependent displacementsrequired to
definethedeformed shapeofastructure. Therearetwo types of DOF: (a)Nodal type
DOFand(b)Joint typeDOF.

19. Briefly explain the twotypes ofDOF.

(a)Nodal type DOF– This includes the DOFat thepoint of application of concentrated
load ormoment, at asection wheremoment ofinertia changes, hingesupport, roller
support and junction oftwo ormoremembers.
(b)Joint type DOF– This includes the DOFat thepoint wheremoment ofinertia
changes, hingeand rollersupport, and junction oftwo ormoremembers.
20. Forthevarious support conditions shown belowgive the DOFs.
(a) No DOF
(b) 1– DOF
(c) 2– DOF
(d) 1– DOF
21. Forthe truss shown below,whatis the DOF?

Pin jointed planeframe/truss
DOF/ Dk = 2j–r
wherer=no of reactions
j = no ofjoints
22. Define compatibility in forcemethod ofanalysis.

Compatibilityis definedas the continuitycondition on thedisplacements ofthestructure
afterexternal loads are applied to thestructure.
23. Define theForceTransformation Matrix.

The connectivitymatrixwhich relates theinternalforcesQ and theexternal forces R is
known as the forcetransformation matrix. Writingit in amatrixform,
{Q} =[b]{R}
whereQ=member forcematrix/vector
b= forcetransformationmatrix
R = external force/loadmatrix/ vector
24. Whatare therequirements to besatisfied whileanalyzing a structure?
Thethreeconditions to besatisfied are:
(a)Equilibrium condition
(b)Compatibilitycondition
(c)Forcedisplacement condition

25. Defineflexibility influence coefficient(fij)

Flexibilityinfluence coefficient(fij)is defined as thedisplacement at joint ‘i’dueto aunit
load at joint ‘j’, while all otherjoints arenot load.
26. Write theelementflexibility matrix(f)fora truss member.

The element flexibilitymatrix(f) foratruss memberis given by

UNIT –II STIFFNESS MATRIXMETHOD
1. Whatarethebasicunknowns in stiffness matrix method?

In thestiffness matrixmethod nodal displacementsaretreatedas thebasicunknowns for
thesolution ofindeterminatestructures.
2. Definestiffness coefficientkij.
Stiffness coefficient ‘kij’is defined as the forcedeveloped at joint ‘i’duetounit
displacementat joint ‘j’while all otherjoints arefixed.
3. Whatis thebasicaimofthestiffness method?

The aim ofthestiffnessmethod is to evaluatethevalues ofgeneralized coordinates ‘r’
knowingthestructurestiffness matrix‘k’ and nodal loads ‘R’through thestructure
equilibrium equation.
{R} =[K]{r}
4. Whatis thedisplacement transformationmatrix?

The connectivitymatrixwhich relates theinternaldisplacement ‘q’and theexternal
displacement‘r’is known as thedisplacement transformation matrix ‘a’.
{q} =[a]{r}
5. Howarethebasicequations ofstiffness matrixobtained?

Thebasicequations ofstiffness matrixareobtained as:
Equilibriumforces
Compatibilityofdisplacements
Forcedisplacement relationships
6. Whatis theequilibriumcondition usedin thestiffness method?

Theexternal loads and theinternal memberforcesmust bein equilibrium atthenodal
points.
7. Whatis meantby generalized coordinates?

Forspecifyingaconfiguration ofasystem, acertain minimum no ofindependent
coordinatesarenecessary. Theleast no ofindependent coordinates thatareneeded to
specifytheconfigurationis known as generalized coordinates.
8. Whatis thecompatibility condition used in theflexibility method?

Thedeformed elements fit togetherat nodal points.
9. Writeabout theforcedisplacement relationship.

Therelationship ofeachelement must satisfythestress-strain relationship oftheelement
material.
10. Writetheelementstiffness fora truss element.

Theelement stiffness matrixforatruss element isgiven by

11. Writetheelementstiffnessmatrix fora beamelement.

Theelement stiffness matrixforabeam element is given by
12. Compareflexibility method and stiffness method.

Flexibilitymatrixmethod
Theredundant forces aretreated as basicunknowns.
Thenumberofequationsinvolved is equal to thedegreeofstaticindeterminacy
ofthestructure.
Themethod is thegeneralization of consistent deformation method.
Different proceduresareused fordeterminateandindeterminatestructures
Stiffness matrixmethod
Thejoint displacements aretreatedas basicunknowns
Thenumberofdisplacements involved is equal to theno ofdegrees offreedom of
thestructure
Themethod is thegeneralization oftheslopedeflection method.
Thesameprocedureis used forboth determinateand indeterminatestructures.
13. Is itpossibleto developtheflexibility matrix foran unstablestructure?

Inorderto develop theflexibilitymatrixforastructure, it has to bestableand
determinate.
14. Whatis therelation between flexibility and stiffness matrix?

The element stiffness matrix‘k’is theinverseofthe element flexibilitymatrix‘f’ and is
givenbyf=1/k ork =1/f.
15. Whatarethetypeofstructures that can besolved using stiffness matrix method?

Structures such as simplysupported, fixed beams and portal frames can besolved using
stiffness matrixmethod.
16. Givetheformula forthesizeoftheGlobal stiffness matrix.

Thesizeoftheglobal stiffness matrix(GSM) =No: ofnodes xDegrees offreedom per
node.
17. List theproperties ofthestiffness matrix

Theproperties ofthestiffness matrixare:
 It isasymmetricmatrix
 Thesum of elements in anycolumn must be equal to zero.
 It is an unstableelementthereforethedeterminantis equal to zero.
18. Whyis thestiffness matrixmethodalso called equilibrium method ordisplacement

method?

Stiffness method is based on thesuperposition ofdisplacements and henceis also known as

thedispalcement method. And sinceit leads to the equilibrium equations themethod is also
known as equilibrium method.
19. Ifthe flexibilitymatrixis givenas
Writethe correspondingstiffness matrix.
Stiffness matrix= 1/(Flexibilitymatrix)

i.e. [K]=[F]-1
20. Writethen stiffness matrixfora 2Dbeam element.

Thestiffness matrixfora2Dbeam element is given by

UNIT III FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
1. Whatis meantbyFinite elementmethod?

Finite element method (FEM)is anumerical technique forsolvingboundaryvalue problems
in which alargedomain is divided into smallerpieces or elements. Thesolution is
determined byasuumingcertianploynomials.Thesmall pieces arecalled finite
elementand thepolynomials arecalled shapefunctions.
2. Listout theadvantages ofFEM.

 Sincetheproperties of each element are evaluatedseparatelydiffernt material
properties can beincorporated foreach element.
 Thereis no restriction in theshapeofthemedium.
 Anytypeofboundarycondition can be adopted.
3. Listout thedisadvantages ofFEM.

The computational cost is high.
Thesolution is approximate and severalchecksare required.
4. Mention thevarious coordinates in FEM.

 Local or element coordinates
 Natural coodinates
 Simplenatural coodinates
 Areacoordiantesor Triangularcoordiantes
 Generalisedcoordinates
5. Whatare thebasicsteps in FEM?

 Discretization ofthestructure
 Selection ofsuitabledisplacement fuction
 Findingtheelement properties
 Assemblingthe elementproperties
 Applyingtheboundaryconditions
 Solvingthesystem of equations
 Computingadditional results
6. Whatis meantby discretization?

Discretization is theprocess ofsubdividingthegiven bodyinto anumberof elements
which results in asystem of equivalent finite elements.
7. Whatare thefactors governing theselection of finite elements?

Thegeometryofthebody
Thenumberofindependent spacecoordinates
Thenatureofstress variation expected
8. Definedispalcementfunction.
Displcementfunction is defined as simple functions which areassumed toapproximate
thedisplacements foreach element. Theymayassumed in the form ofpoynomials, or
trignometricalfunctions.
9. Briefly explain afewterminology used in FEM.

Thevarious terms used in FEM are explained below.
 Finite element–Small elements used forsubdividingthegiven domain tobe
analysedarecalled finiteelements. Theseelements maybe1D, 2Dor 3D
elements dependin on thetypeofstructure.
 Nodes and nodal points– Theintersection ofthediffernt sides ofelementsare
called nodes. Nodes areoftwo types – external nodes and internal nodes.
oExternal nodes – Thenodal point connectingadjacent elements.
oInternal nodes– The extranodes used to increasethe accuracyofsolution.
 Nodal lines – Theinterfacebetween elements arecalled nodal lines.
 Continuum– Thedomain in which matter existsat everypoint is calleda
continuum.It can be assumed as havinginfinitenumberof connected particles.
 Primaryunknowns– Themain unknowns involved in the formulation ofthe
element properties areknown as primaryunknowns.
 Secondaryunknowns– Theseunknowns arederived from primaryunknowns are
known as secondaryunknowns.In displacement formulations, displacements
aretreatedas primaryunknowns and stress, strain, moments and shear force are
treated as secondaryunknowns.
10. Whatarediffernt types ofelements used in FEM?

Thevarious elements used in FEM are classifiedas:
 Onedimensional elements(1D elements)
 Two dimensional elements(2D elements)
 Threedimensional elements(3D elements)
11. Whatare1-D elements?Give examples.

Elements havingaminimum oftwo nodes arecalled1Delements. Beamsareusually
approximated with 1Delements. Thesemaybestraight orcurved. There can be
additional nodes within the element.

Basic1-D element 1-D element with3nodes
Curved element with 3nodes

Aplane wall, plate, diaphragm, slab, shell etc. can be approximated as anassemblageof
2-D elements.Most commonlyused elements aretriangular, rectangularand quadrilateral
elements.
Triangular elements Curved triangular

element
Rectangularand Quadrilateral elements

3-D elements areusedformodelingsolid bodies andthevarious 3-Delements are
tetrahedron, hexahedron,and curvedrectangularsolid.

14. Whatareaxisymmetricelements?
Axisymmetricelements areobtained byrotatinga1-Dlineabout an axis. Axisymmetric
elements areshown in thefigurebelow.
15. DefineShapefunction.
Shapefunction is also called an approximatefunction or an interpolation function whose
valueis equal to unityat thenodeconsidered andzeros at all othernodes.Shapefunction is
represented byNi wherei =nodeno.
16. Whataretheproperties ofshapefunctions?

Theproperties ofshape functions are:
 Theno ofshapefunctions will beequal to theno ofnodes present in theelement.
 Shapefunction will haveaunit valueat thenode considered and zero valueat
othernodes.
 Thesum ofall theshapefunction is equal to 1. i. e.Ni =1
17. Defineaspect ratio.

Element aspect ratio is defined as theratio ofthelargest dimension oftheelement to its
smallest dimension.
18. Whatarepossiblelocations fornodes?

Thepossiblelocations fornodes are:
Point of application of concentrated load.
Location wherethereis achangein intensityofloads
Locations wheretherearediscontinuities in thegeometryofthestructure
Interfaces between materials ofdifferent properties.
19. Whatarethecharacteristics ofdisplacementfunctions?

Displacement functions should havethefollowing characteristics:
 Thedisplacement field should becontinuous.

 Thedisplacement function should becompatiblebetweenadjacent elements

 Thedisplacement field must representconstant strain states of elements
 Thedisplacement function must represent rigid bodydisplacements of an
element.
20. Whatis meantby planestrain condition?

Planestrain is astateofstrain in which normal strain and shearstrain directed
perpendicularto theplaneofbodyis assumed to bezero.

UNIT –IVPLASTICANALYSIS OFSTRUCTURES
1. Whatis a plastichinge?
When asection attains full plasticmoment Mp, itacts as hingewhich is called aplastic
hinge.It is defined as theyielded zonedueto bendingat which largerotations can occur
with aconstant valueofplasticmoment Mp.
2. Whatis a mechanism?
When an-degreeindeterminatestructuredevelops n plastichinges, it becomes
determinateand theformation of an additional hingewill reducethestructureto a
mechanism. Onceastructurebecomesamechanism, it will collapse.
3. Whatis differencebetween plastichingeandmechanical hinge?

Plastichinges modifythebehaviourofstructures in thesamewayas mechanical hinges.
Theonlydifferenceis that plastichinges permit rotation with aconstant resistingmoment
equal to theplasticmoment Mp. At mechanical hinges, theresistingmoment is equal to
zero.
4. Definecollapseload.
Theload that causes the(n +1)th hingeto form amechanism is called collapseload
wheren is thedegreeofstaticallyindeterminacy.Oncethestructurebecomes a
mechanism
5. Listout theassumptions madeforplasticanalysis.

Theassumptions forplasticanalysisare:
 Planetransversesections remain planeand normal to thelongitudinal axis before
and afterbending.
 Effect ofshearis neglected.
 Thematerial is homogeneous and isotropicboth in theelasticand plasticstate.
 Modulus of elasticityhasthesamevalueboth in tension and compression.
 Thereis no resultant axial forcein thebeam.
 Thecross-section ofthebeam is symmetrical about an axis through its centroid
and parallel to theplaneofbending.
6. Defineshapefactor.
Shapefactor(S) is defined as theratio ofplasticmoment ofthesection to theyield
moment ofthesection.

WhereMp =Plasticmoment
M=Yield moment
Zp =Plasticsection modulus
Z=Elasticsection modulus
7. Listout theshapefactors forthefollowing sections.

(a)Rectangularsection S =1.5
(b)Triangularsection S =2.346
(c)Circularsection S =1.697
(d)Diamond section S =2
8. Mention thesection having maximumshapefactor.

Thesection havingmaximum shapefactorisatriangularsection, S =2.345.
9. Defineloadfactor.
Loadfactoris definedastheratio of collapseloadto workingloadand is given by
10. Stateupperbound theory.

Upperbound theorystates that of all theassumedmechanisms theexact collapse
mechanism is that whichrequires aminimum load.
11. Statelowerbound theory.

Lowerbound theorystates that thecollapseloadis determined byassumingsuitable
moment distribution diagram. Themoment distribution diagram is drawn in such away
that theconditions of equilibrium aresatisfied.
12. Whatarethedifferent types ofmechanisms?

Thedifferent types ofmechanisms are:
Beam mechanism
Column mechanism

Panel orswaymechanism
Cablemechanism
Combined or compositemechanism
13. Depending on thesupportand load conditionsindicatethepossiblelocations of

plastichinges.
14. Mention thetypes of frames.

Framesarebroadlyoftwo types:
(a)Symmetricframes
(b)Un-symmetricframes
15. Whataresymmetricframes and howthey analyzed?

Symmetricframes areframes havingthesamesupport conditions, lengths and loading
conditions on thecolumns and beams oftheframe. Symmetricframes can beanalyzed
by:
(a)Beam mechanism
(b)Column mechanism
16. Whatareunsymmetrical frames and howarethey analyzed?

Un-symmetricframes havedifferentsupport conditions, lengths and loadingconditions
on its columns and beams. Theseframes can beanalyzed by:
(a)Beam mechanism
(b)Column mechanism

(c)Panel orswaymechanism
(d)Combined mechanism
17. Defineplasticmodulusofa section Zp.
Theplasticmodulus ofasection is thefirst moment oftheareaaboveandbelowthe equal

areaaxis.It is theresistingmodulus ofafullyplasticized section.
Zp =A/2 (Z1+Z2)
18. Howis theshapefactorofa hollowcircularsection related to theshapefactorofa

ordinary circularsection?
Theshapefactorofahollow circularsection =AfactorKxshapefactorofordinary

circularsection.
SFofhollow circularsection =SFof circularsection x{(1– c3)/(1– c4)}
19. Givethegoverning equation forbending.
Thegoverningequation forbendingis given by
M/I=/y
WhereM=Bendingmoment
I=Moment ofinertia
=Stress
y=c.g. distance
20. Givethetheorems fordetermining thecollapseload.
Thetwo theorems forthedetermination of collapseload are:
(a)StaticMethod [Lowerbound Theorem]
(b)KinematicMethod [Upperbound Theorem]

UNIT-V CABLE ANDSPACE STRUCTURES
1. Whatarecablestructures?
Longspan structuressubjected to tension and usessuspension cablesforsupports.
Examples of cablestructures aresuspension bridges, cablestayed roof.
Suspension bridge– cablestructure
2. Whatis thetrueshapeofcablestructures?
Cablestructures especiallythecableofasuspension bridgeis in theform ofacatenary.
Catenaryis theshapeassumed byastring/cablefreelysuspended betweentwo points.
3. Whatis thenatureof forcein thecables?

Cables of cablestructures haveonlytension andno compression orbending.
4. Whatis a catenary?
Catenaryis theshapetaken up byacableor ropefreelysuspended betweentwo supports and
underits own selfweight.
5. Mention thedifferenttypes ofcablestructures.

Cablestructures aremainlyoftwo types:
(a)Cableoveraguidepulley
(b)Cableoverasaddle
6. Briefly explain cableovera guidepulley.

Cableoveraguidepulleyhas thefollowingproperties:
 Tension in thesuspension cable=Tension in theanchorcable
 Thesupportingtower will besubjected to vertical pressureand bendingdueto net
horizontal cabletension.

7. Briefly explain cableoversaddle.

Cableoversaddlehas thefollowingproperties:
 Horizontal component oftension in thesuspension cable=Horizontal component
oftension in theanchor cable
 Thesupportingtower will besubjected to onlyvertical pressuredueto cable
tension.
8. Whatis thedegreeofindeterminacy ofa suspension bridgewith two hinged

stiffening girder?
Thetwo hinged stiffeninggirderhas onedegreeofindeterminacy.
9. Whatarethemain functions ofstiffening girders in suspension bridges?

Stiffeninggirders havethefollowing functions.
Theyhelp in keepingthecables in shape
Theyresist part ofshearforceand bendingmoment dueto liveloads.
10. Differentiatebetween planetruss and spacetruss.

Planetruss
 All members liein oneplane
 All joints areassumed to behinged.
Spacetruss
 This is athreedimensional truss

 All joints areassumed to beball and socketed.
11. Definetension coefficientofa truss member.

Thetension coefficient foramemberofatruss isdefined as thepull ortension in the
memberdivided byits length, i. e. theforcein thememberperunit length.
12. Givesomeexamples ofbeamscurved in plan.

Curved beams arefoundin thefollowingstructures.
 Beams in abridgenegotiatingacurve

 Ringbeams supportingawatertank
 Beams supportingcornerlintels
 Beams in ramps
13. Whataretheforces developed in beams curvedin plan?
Beamscurved in plan will havethefollowingforces developed in them:
 Bendingmoments
 Shear forces
 Torsional moments
14. Whatarethesignificantfeatures ofcircularbeams on equally spaced supports?

 Slopeon eithersideof anysupport will bezero.
 Torsional moment on everysupport will bezero
15. Givetheexpression forcalculating equivalentUDL on a girder.

Equivalent UDLon agirderis given byWe:
16. Givetherangeofcentral dip ofa cable.

Thecentral dip ofacableranges from 1/10 to 1/12 ofthespan.
17. Givethehorizontal and vertical components ofa cablestructuresubjected to UDL.
Thehorizontal and vertical reactions aregiven by:

and respectively

18. Givetheexpression fordetermining thetension T in thecable.

Thetension developed inthecableisgiven by whereH=horizontal
component and V=vertical component.
19. Givethetypes ofsignificant cablestructures

Linear structures
 Suspension bridges
 Drapedcables
 Cable-stayed beams ortrusses
 Cabletrusses
 Straight tensioned cables
Three-dimensional structures
 Bicyclewheelroof
 3D cabletrusses
 Tensegritystructures
 Tensairitystructures
20. Whatarecablesmadeof?
Cablescanbeofmildsteel,highstrengthsteel,stainlesssteel,orpolyesterfibres.
Structuralcablesare made of a seriesof smallstrandstwistedor boundtogether toforma
muchlarger cable.Steelcablesare eitherspiralstrand,wherecircularrodsaretwisted together
orlockedcoilstrand,whereindividualinterlockingsteelstrandsformthecable (often with
aspiral strand core).
Spiralstrand isslightly weaker thanlockedcoilstrand. Steelspiralstrand cableshavea
Young'smodulus,Eof150±10kN/mm²andcomeinsizesfrom3to90mmdiameter.
Spiralstrandsuffers fromconstructionstretch,where thestrandscompactwhenthecable is
loaded.

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Question Paper Code: 10230

B.E.IB.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2012.
Seventh Semester
Civil Engineering
CE 2351/CE 61/CE 1352/10111 CE 602/080100036 - STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS - II
(Regulation 2008)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
Answer ALL. questions.
PART A - (10 x 2 = 20 marks)
1. What are the conditions to be satisfied for determinate structures and how are
indeterminate structures identified?
2. Write down the equation for the degree of static indeterminacy of the pin-
jointed plane frames, explaining the notations used.
3. Define degree of freedom of the structure with an example.
4. Write a short note on global stiffness matrices.
5. What are the needs to satisfy the shape function?
6. What is constant strain triangle?
7. Define plastic hinge with an example.
8. What is collapse load and define load factor?
9. Define a space frame and what is the nature of joint provided in the space
trusses?
10. What are the types of stiffening girders?
PART B - (5 x 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Analyze the pin-jointed plane frame shown in Figure Q. 11 (a) by
flexibility matrix method. The flexibility for each member. is
0.0025 mrn/kN.
to ~N
4 WV
Figure Q. 11 (a)
Or
(b) Analyze the continuous beam ABC shown in Figure Q. 11 (b) by
flexibility matrix method and draw the bending moment diagram.
EI = Constant
Figure Q. 11 (b)
12. (a) Analyze the continuous beam ABC shown in Fig. Q. 12 (a) by stiffness
method and also sketch the bending moment diagram.
EI = Constant
Figure Q. 12 (a)
Or
2 10230
(b) Analyze. the portal frame ABeD shown in Figure Q. 12 (b) by stiffness
method and also sketch the bending moment diagram .
. 4-h\..
A D
Figure Q. 12 (b)
13. (a) With a two dimensional triangular element model, derive for the
displacement in the matrix form
Or
(b) For the two dimensional truss structure shown in Figure Q. 13 (b),
formulate the global stiffness matrix [K]. The geometry and loading are
symmetrical about centre line. Assume the area of cross section of all
members is the same. Take E = 2 X 10 8 kN / m 2 •
Figure Q. 13 (b)
3 10230
14. (a) Determine the shape factor of a T-section beam of flange dimension
100 x 12 mm and web dimension 138 x 12 mm thick.
Or
(b) Determine the collapse load 'W', for a three span continues beam of
constant plastic moment 'Mp', loaded as shown in Fig. Q. 14(b).
f L. l'
Figure Q. 14 (b)
15. (a) A quarter circular beam of radius 'R' curved in plan is fixed at A and free
at B as shown in Fig. Q. 15(a). It carries a vertical load- P at its free end.
Determine the deflection at free end and draw the bending moment and
torsional moment diagrams. Assume flexural rigidity (El) = torsional
rigidity (GJ).
A_
o
Figure Q. 15 (a)
Or
(b) A three hindged stiffening girder of a suspension bridge of 100 m span
subjected to two point loads 10 kN each placed at 20 m and 40 m,
respectively from the left hand hinge. Determine the bending moment
and shear force in the girder at section 30 m from each end. Also
determine the maximum tension in the cable which has a central dip of
10m.
4 10230
Reg. No. :1,---,-_,---,- [I In
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2011.
Sixth Semester
Civil Engineering
CE 2351 - STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS - II
(Regulation 2008)
Time : Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

Answer ALL questions.
PART A - (10 x 2"" 20 marks)
1. Give the mathematical expression for the degree of static indeterminacy of

rigid jointed plane frames.
2. What are the properties which characterize the structure response by

means afforce-displacement relationship?
3. What is degree of kinematic indetenninacy and give an example?
4. Write down the equation of element stiffness matrix as applied to 2D plane

element.
5. What is the basic idea of mesh generation scheme?
6. State the stress-stain relationship in Cartesian co-ordinates.
7. Define plastic modulus and shape factor.
8. What are meant by load factor and collapse load?
9. Define tension coefficient For what type of structures tension coefficient

method is employed?
10. What are the components of forces a.cting on the beams curved in plan
and show the sign conventions of these forces?
PART B - (5 x 16 == 80 marks)
11. (a) Analyze the continuous beam ABC shown in Fig, Q 11 (a) by flexibility
matrix method and sketch the bending moment diagram.
h~~.fic ..... 4- '/'Vt-- I Z,.M.- I

eI ~ Cc"~sbA"f-
Fig. Q 11 (a)
Or
(b) Analyze the portal frame ABeD shown in Fig. Q 11 (b) by flexibility
matrix method and sketch the bendi.."lg moment diagram.
Fig. Q 11 (b)
12. (a) Analyze the continuous beam ABC shown in Fig. Q12(a) by stiffness
method and also draw the shear force diagram.
IJft. N
.£.5' /J..N/M..-
A~ . I'~'M I.~ fP:'Cla~c.
~L_ 3~ .-}--- .1' .
'3M.-
E:':r. ::. ~bt '11 t-
Fig. Q12 (a)
Or
2 66144
(b) Analyze the portal frame ABeD shown in Fig. Q 12(b) by stiffness
method and also draw the bending moment diagram.
:3pft...
_k f :----
,... ~ h1 f..2.. 5'~--
F;y.~.
A p
~:t::: c.c....sh:tt1\"" "
Fig. Q12 (b)
13. (aj Draw the typical finite elements. Explain with a triangular element
model for displacement formulation.
Or
(b) Write a note on constant strain triangle. Explain in detail about the
4-nodded rectangular element to arrive the stiffness matrix.
14. (a) A simply supported beam of span 5m is to be designed for a UDL of

25 kN / m. Design a suitable I section using plastic theory, assuming
yield stress in steel as fy = 250 N/mm 2 •
Or
(b) Analyze a propped cantilever of length 'L and subjected to UDL of
w/m length for the entire span and find the collapse load.
15. (a) A suspension bridge has a span 50 m with a 15 m wide runway. It is

subjected to a load of 30 kN/m including self weight. The bridge is
supported by a pair of cables having a central dip of 4m. Find the
cross sectional area of the cable necessary if the maximum
permissible stress in the cable material is not to exceed 600 MPa.
Or
3 66144
(b) A semi circular beam of radius 'R' in plan is subjected to UDL and
simply supported by three columns spaced equally_ Derive the
expression for bending moment and torsional moment at x-be a point
on the beam making an angle a' with axis passing through the base
of the circle,
4 66144
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Reg. No.: 1\ 1212101'6 1\ b 1:,:1; ls,,!:;T'' ",",,'',. .

t':'i'!1" \.t r.~~:~
'I Question Paper Code
B.E.IB.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRILIMA¥Q<1l1

.~
Sixth Semester
~-
-~
Civil Engineering
~
-"'"4!:-
CE 2351- STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS - II
(Regulation 2008)
Time : Three hours Maximum: 100 marks
1.
2.
3. Define static indeterminacy.
4. Define flexibility of a structure.
5. State any two advantages of FEM.

. :~~~.~ ~ ,:ft,'t. ':,:-. _.
6. D,efi:e plan;-~tress.
7.
:~ : ~_ ~." W· :i'. ;0>1"'" '"
Whtlhs shape faCtor.:;,::
I·Sta"J;e upperbound."theorem.
'f'. (,' ~"
9. c,Qive aiily:two"~xainples of beams curved in plan.
10. WEite stress$s in suspended wires due to self weight.

'!i.e; .J.
PART B - (5 x 16 = 80 marks)
11. (a) Analyse the continuous beam show in Fig .1 using force method.
100 kN
EI const
Fig. 1
Or
(b) Analyse the portal frame ABeD shown in Fig .2 using force method.
EI canst
Fig.2
12. (a) Analyse the continuous beam shown in Fig.3 using di;,;placement method.
240 kN
EI const
Fig.3
Or
2 11217
/
(b) Analyse the truss shown in FigA using displacement method.
FigA
13. (a) Develop the shape functions for an 8 noded brick element.
Or
(b) Construct the shape functions of a 2D beam element.
14. (a) Derive the shape factor for I section and circular section.
(b) Find the fully plastic momerit req!rtrt\Q. forCtb,~ frame shown in Fig.5 if all
the members have same vahle o{,;,M p • ' \
T~~
. . . . .,
2k~.],··4m
··:,'···.c ..
2m
..
7'
6m
."ii;·;'!·\'4,,,;;,,. .:'
'''Fr~.5
15. (a) A suspension cable is supported at two point "A" and "B" , "A" being one
metre above "B". The distance AB being 20m. The cable is subjected to
4 loads of 2kN, 4kN, 5kN and 3kN at distances of 4m, 8m, 12m and 16m
,respectively from "A". Find the maximum tension in the cable, if the dip
of the cable at point of application of first load is 1m with respect to level
at A. Find. also the length of the cable.
Or
(b) Derive the expressions for BM, SF and TM in a semicircular beam simply
supPdt-ted
,,5:."_
oni,'three supports equally spaced.
",,=-
3 11217

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A Course Material on

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

This is to certify that the e-course material

Subject Code : CE2351

Scubject : Structural Analysis II

Class : III Year CIVIL

Signature of the Author

Designation: Assistant Professor

Name: N.Sathish Kumar

5.3 Computerized Organization and Use of Information 76

1.2 EQUILIBRIUM and COMPATABILITY CONDITIONS

SCE 1 Dept of Civil

1.3.DETERMINATE AND INDETERMINATE STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS

Ifitispossibletodetermineallthesupport reactionsfromequationsof equilibrium

(1)Externally indeterminate but internally determinate

1.4 INDETERMINACYOF STRUCTURAL SYSTEM

For plane and space trusses∝sreduces

Test for static indeterminacy of structural system

If ∝s> 0 Structure is statically indeterminate

1.5 PRIMARY STRUCTURE

SCE 3 Dept of Civil

 Solvestaticallyindeterminate beams of degree more than one.

SCE 4 Dept of Civil

Forthepresentproblemthe flexibility matrix is,

a11= 125/3EI ,a21= 625/6EI

a12= 625/6EI , a22 = 1000/3EI (2)

In the actual problem the displacements atBandCare zero. Thus the

a21 R1+ a22 R2+ (Δ L) 2 = 0(3)

Substituting the value of E and I in the above equation,

R1 = 10.609 KN and R2 = 3.620 KN

Using equations of static equilibrium, R3 = 0.771 KN m and R4 = −0.755KN m

Fig 1.3 Fixed Beam

SCE 5 Dept of Civil

Select vertical reaction(R1)and the support moment(R2)at B as the

Fig 1.4 Primary Structure with external loading

Fig 1.5 Primary Structure with unit load along R1

SCE 6 Dept of Civil

Fig 1.7 Reaction

Fig1.8.Bending Moment Diagram

Fig1.9.Shear Force Diagram

(Δ L1) =wL4/8EI – 3wL4/8EI = −wL4/2EI (1)

SCE 8 Dept of Civil

SCE 9 Dept of Civil

Now,deflectionatBintheprimary structure due to redundant RB is,

SCE 10 Dept of Civil

Element and global stiffness matrices – Analysis of continuous beams – Co-ordinate

2.1.1.PROPERTIES OFTHESTIFFNESS MATRIX

Theproperties ofthestiffness matrixare:

2.2.ELEMENT AND GLOBAL STIFFNESS MATRICES

The connectivitymatrixwhich relates theinternalforcesQ and theexternal forces R is known

2.3 ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Fig 2.3 Cantilever Beam with unit Moment along P2

Fig 2.4 Cantilever Beam with unit Displacement along U1

SCE 12 Dept of Civil

SCE 13 Dept of Civil

SCE 14 Dept of Civil

Fig 2.5 A Four member Truss

Fig 2.6 Kinematic ally Determinate Structures

SCE 15 Dept of Civil

Fig 2.7Unit Displacement along U