Demineralized process water

Distilled,deionized and demineralized water and measuring of the purity

It is quite difficult to find clear definitions and standards for distilled, demineralized
and deionized water. Probably the easiest way to familiarise in the topic of producing (ultra)
pure water is to start with the oldest and best-know method: distilling.

Distilled water is water that has been boiled in an apparatus called a "still" and then
recondensed in a cooling unit ("condenser") to return the water to the liquid state. Distilling
is used to purify water. Dissolved contaminants like salts are left behind in the boiling pot as
the water vapour rises away. It might not work if the contaminants are volatile so that they
also boil and recondense, such as having some dissolved alcohol. Very elegant stills can
selectively condense (liquefy) water from other volatile substances, but most distillation
processes allow carry-over of at least some volatile substances, and a very little of the non-
volatile material that was carried into the water vapour stream as bubbles burst at the surface
of the boiling water. Maximum purity from such stills is usually 1.0 MWcm; and since there
is no protection from carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolving into the distillate the pH is generally
4.5-5.0. Additionally, you have to be careful not to re-contaminate the water after distilling
it.

Deionization: Process utilizing special-manufactured ion exchange resinswhich remove

ionised salts from water. Can theoretically remove 100 % of salts. Deionization typically
does not remove organics, virus or bacteria except through “accidental” trapping in the resin
and specially made strong base anion resins which will remove gram-negative
bacteria. [4]. Another possible process to creat deionized water is electrodeionization.

Demineralization: Any process used to remove minerals from water, however, commonly
the term is restricted to ion exchange processes. [1]

Ultra pure water: Highly-treated water of high resistivity and no organics; usually used in
the semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries [4]
Deionization entails removal of electrically charged (ionized) dissolved substances by
binding them to positively or negatively charged sites on a resinas the water passes through a
column packed with this resin. This process is called ion exchange and can be used in
different ways to produce deionized water of various qualities.

 Strong acid cation + Strong base anion resin systems

These systems consist of two vessels - one containing a cation-exchange resin in the
hydrogen (H+) form and the other containing an anion resin in the hydroxyl (OH-)
form (see picture below). Water flows through the cation column, whereupon all the
cations are exchanged for hydrogen ions. The decationised water then flows through
the anion column. This time, all the negatively charged ions are exchanged for
hydroxide ions which then combine with the hydrogen ions to form water (H2O). [2]
These systems remove all ions, including silica. In the majority of cases it is
advisable to reduce the flux of ions passed to the anion exchanger by installing a
CO2 removal unit between the ion exchange vessels. This reduces the CO2 content to
a few mg/l and brings about a reduction of the following strong base anion resin
volume and in the regeneration reagent requirements.
In general the strong acid cation and strong base anion resin system is the simplest
arrangement and a deionized water that may be used in a wide variety of applications
can be obtained with it. [3]
 Strong acid cation + weak base anion + Strong base anion resin systems
This combination is a variation of the previous one. It provides the same quality of
deionized water, while offering economic advantages when treating water which
contains high loads of strong anions (chlorides and sulphates). The subtitle shows
that the system is equipped with an extra weak base anion exchanger before the final
strong base anion exchanger. The optional CO2 removal unit may be installed either
after the cation exchanger, or between the two anion exchangers (see picture below).
The regeneration of the anion exchangers takes place with caustic soda (NaOH)
solution first passing through the strong base resin and then through the weak base
resin. This method requires less caustic soda than the method described before
because the remaining regeneration solution after the strong base anion exchanger is
usually sufficient to regenerate the weak base resin completely. Moreover, when raw
water contains a high proportion of organic matter, the weak base resin protects the
strong base resin. [3]
 Mixed-bed Deionization
In mixed-bed deionizers the cation-exchange and anion-exchange resins are
intimately mixed and contained in a single pressure vessel. The two resins are mixed
by agitation with compressed air, so that the hole bed can be regard as an infinite
number of anion and cation exchangers in series (mixed bed resin). [2,3]

To carry out regeneration, the two resins are separated hydraulically during the
loosening phase. As the anion resin is lighter than the cation resin it rises to the top,
while the cation resin falls to the bottom. After the separation step the regeneration is
carried out with caustic soda and a strong acid. Any excess regenerant is removed by
rinsing each bed separately.
The advantages of mixed bed systems are as follows:

- the water obtained is of very high purity and its quality remains constant throughout
the cycle,
- pH is almost neutral,
- rinse water requirements are very low.
 The disadvantages of mixed bed systems are a lower exchange capacity and a more
complicated operating procedure because of separation and remixing steps which
have to be carried out. [3]

Next to the ion exchange systems deionized water can be produced withreverse
osmosis plants. Reverse osmosis is the finest filtration known. This process will allow the
removal of particles as small as ions from a solution.Reverse osmosis is used to purify water
and remove salts and other impurities in order to improve the color, taste or properties of the
fluid. Reverse osmosis is capable of rejecting bacteria, salts, sugars, proteins, particles, dyes,
and other constituents that have a molecular weight of greater than 150-250 Daltons.
RO can meet most water standards with a single-pass system and the highest standards with
a double-pass system. This process achieves rejections of 99.9+% of viruses, bacteria and
pyrogens. Pressure in the range of 50 to 1000 psig (3.4 to 69 bar) is the driving force of the
RO purification process. It is much more energy-efficient compared to phase change
processes (distillation) and more efficient than the strong chemicals required for ion
exchange regeneration. The separation of ions with reverse osmosis is aided by charged
particles. This means that dissolved ions that carry a charge, such as salts, are more likely to
be rejected by the membrane than those that are not charged, such as organics. The larger the
charge and the larger the particle, the more likely it will be rejected. [4]

Measuring of the purity

Water purity may be measured in various ways. One can attempt to determine the weight of
all of the dissolved material ("solute"); this is most easily done for dissolved solids, as
opposed to dissolved liquids or gases. In addition to actually weighing the impurities, one
can estimate their level by the degree to which they increase the boiling point or lower the
freezing point of water. The refractive index (a measure of how transparent materials bend
light waves) is also affected by solutes in water. Alternately, water purity can be quickly
estimated on the basis of electrical conductivity or resistance — very pure water conducts
electricity poorly, so its resistance is high.

[2]

pH-value

Pure water by definition is slightly acidic and distilled water will test out aroundpH 5.8. The
reason is that distilled water dissolves carbon dioxide from the air. It dissolves carbon
dioxide until it is in dynamic equilibrium with the atmosphere. That means that the amount
being dissolved balances the amount coming out of solution. The total amount in the water is
determined by the concentration in the atmosphere. The dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with
the water and finally forms carbonic acid.

2 H2O + CO2 --> H2O + H2CO3 (carbonic acid) --> (H30+) (charged acidified water) +
(HCO3-) (charged bicarbonate ion)

Only recently been produced distilled water has a pH-value of approximately 7, but affected
by the presence of carbon dioxide it will reach a slightly acidic pH-value within a couple of
hours.
Additional, it is important to mention that the pH of ultra-pure water is difficult to measure.
Not only does high-purity water rapidly pick up contaminants - such as carbon dioxide (CO2)
- that affect its pH, but it also has a low conductivity that can affect the accuracy of pH
meters. For instance, absorption of just a few ppm of CO2 can cause the pH of ultra-pure
water to drop to 4.5, although the water is still of essentially high quality.

The most accurate estimation of the pH of ultra-pure water is obtained by measuring its
resistance; for a given resistance, the pH must lie between certain limits. For example, if the
resistance is 10.0 MWcm, the pH must lie between 6.6 and 7.6. The relationship between the
resistance and pH of high-purity water is shown in the figure below. [2]

Electrical resistivity versus pH of deionized water [2]

Compared with other beverages deionized

Beverages pH water has apparently a slightly acidic pH-
value.
Milk 6.5
According to the Merck Manual the human
Distilled water 5.8 body uses buffers to balance the pH. If a
person consumes something acid, the blood
Beer 4.0-5.0
will produce more bicarbonate and less
Coffee 2.5-3.5 carbon dioxide to neutralize the acidity.
Likewise the blood will produce more carbon
Orange juice 3.5
dioxide and less bicarbonate if a alkaline
Soft drinks 2.0-4.0 substance is consumed. So drinking distilled
water, will not put a human body in an acidic
 state.
Cola 2.5

Wines 2.3-3.8

(Stomach acid) 1.0-2.0

(Battery acid) 1.0

Sources:
[1] F. N. Kemmer; The Nalco water handbook; 2. Edition; 1988
[2] www.purite.com
[3] Degremont; Water treatment handbook; sixth edition; 1991
[4] Osmonics Pure Water Handbook; 2. Edition; 1997

For water terminology check out our Water Glossary or water FAQ overview

Should you know of any other interesting or more recent book, report, article or publication,
concerning deionized and demineralized water. Please let us know, so that we can include
some more facts in our above text.

Read more: https://www.lenntech.com/applications/demimeralized-process-

water.htm#ixzz5mpq11pffDemineralized process water
Distilled,deionized and demineralized water and measuring of the purity

It is quite difficult to find clear definitions and standards for distilled, demineralized
and deionized water. Probably the easiest way to familiarise in the topic of producing (ultra)
pure water is to start with the oldest and best-know method: distilling.
Distilled water is water that has been boiled in an apparatus called a "still" and then
recondensed in a cooling unit ("condenser") to return the water to the liquid state. Distilling
is used to purify water. Dissolved contaminants like salts are left behind in the boiling pot as
the water vapour rises away. It might not work if the contaminants are volatile so that they
also boil and recondense, such as having some dissolved alcohol. Very elegant stills can
selectively condense (liquefy) water from other volatile substances, but most distillation
processes allow carry-over of at least some volatile substances, and a very little of the non-
volatile material that was carried into the water vapour stream as bubbles burst at the surface
of the boiling water. Maximum purity from such stills is usually 1.0 MWcm; and since there
is no protection from carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolving into the distillate the pH is generally
4.5-5.0. Additionally, you have to be careful not to re-contaminate the water after distilling
it.
Deionization: Process utilizing special-manufactured ion exchange resinswhich remove
ionised salts from water. Can theoretically remove 100 % of salts. Deionization typically
does not remove organics, virus or bacteria except through “accidental” trapping in the resin
and specially made strong base anion resins which will remove gram-negative
bacteria. [4]. Another possible process to creat deionized water is electrodeionization.
Demineralization: Any process used to remove minerals from water, however, commonly
the term is restricted to ion exchange processes. [1]
Ultra pure water: Highly-treated water of high resistivity and no organics; usually used in
the semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries [4]

Deionization entails removal of electrically charged (ionized) dissolved substances by

binding them to positively or negatively charged sites on a resinas the water passes through a
column packed with this resin. This process is called ion exchange and can be used in
different ways to produce deionized water of various qualities.

 Strong acid cation + Strong base anion resin systems

These systems consist of two vessels - one containing a cation-exchange resin in the
hydrogen (H+) form and the other containing an anion resin in the hydroxyl (OH-)
form (see picture below). Water flows through the cation column, whereupon all the
cations are exchanged for hydrogen ions. The decationised water then flows through
the anion column. This time, all the negatively charged ions are exchanged for
hydroxide ions which then combine with the hydrogen ions to form water (H2O). [2]
These systems remove all ions, including silica. In the majority of cases it is
advisable to reduce the flux of ions passed to the anion exchanger by installing a
CO2 removal unit between the ion exchange vessels. This reduces the CO2 content to
a few mg/l and brings about a reduction of the following strong base anion resin
volume and in the regeneration reagent requirements.
In general the strong acid cation and strong base anion resin system is the simplest
arrangement and a deionized water that may be used in a wide variety of applications
can be obtained with it. [3]
 Strong acid cation + weak base anion + Strong base anion resin systems
This combination is a variation of the previous one. It provides the same quality of
deionized water, while offering economic advantages when treating water which
contains high loads of strong anions (chlorides and sulphates). The subtitle shows
that the system is equipped with an extra weak base anion exchanger before the final
strong base anion exchanger. The optional CO2 removal unit may be installed either
after the cation exchanger, or between the two anion exchangers (see picture below).
The regeneration of the anion exchangers takes place with caustic soda (NaOH)
solution first passing through the strong base resin and then through the weak base
resin. This method requires less caustic soda than the method described before
because the remaining regeneration solution after the strong base anion exchanger is
usually sufficient to regenerate the weak base resin completely. Moreover, when raw
water contains a high proportion of organic matter, the weak base resin protects the
strong base resin. [3]
  Mixed-bed Deionization
In mixed-bed deionizers the cation-exchange and anion-exchange resins are
intimately mixed and contained in a single pressure vessel. The two resins are mixed
by agitation with compressed air, so that the hole bed can be regard as an infinite
number of anion and cation exchangers in series (mixed bed resin). [2,3]

To carry out regeneration, the two resins are separated hydraulically during the
loosening phase. As the anion resin is lighter than the cation resin it rises to the top,
while the cation resin falls to the bottom. After the separation step the regeneration is
carried out with caustic soda and a strong acid. Any excess regenerant is removed by
rinsing each bed separately.
The advantages of mixed bed systems are as follows:

- the water obtained is of very high purity and its quality remains constant throughout
the cycle,
- pH is almost neutral,
- rinse water requirements are very low.

The disadvantages of mixed bed systems are a lower exchange capacity and a more
complicated operating procedure because of separation and remixing steps which
have to be carried out. [3]

Next to the ion exchange systems deionized water can be produced withreverse
osmosis plants. Reverse osmosis is the finest filtration known. This process will allow the
removal of particles as small as ions from a solution.Reverse osmosis is used to purify water
and remove salts and other impurities in order to improve the color, taste or properties of the
fluid. Reverse osmosis is capable of rejecting bacteria, salts, sugars, proteins, particles, dyes,
and other constituents that have a molecular weight of greater than 150-250 Daltons.
RO can meet most water standards with a single-pass system and the highest standards with
a double-pass system. This process achieves rejections of 99.9+% of viruses, bacteria and
pyrogens. Pressure in the range of 50 to 1000 psig (3.4 to 69 bar) is the driving force of the
RO purification process. It is much more energy-efficient compared to phase change
processes (distillation) and more efficient than the strong chemicals required for ion
exchange regeneration. The separation of ions with reverse osmosis is aided by charged
particles. This means that dissolved ions that carry a charge, such as salts, are more likely to
be rejected by the membrane than those that are not charged, such as organics. The larger the
charge and the larger the particle, the more likely it will be rejected. [4]

Measuring of the purity

Water purity may be measured in various ways. One can attempt to determine the weight of
all of the dissolved material ("solute"); this is most easily done for dissolved solids, as
opposed to dissolved liquids or gases. In addition to actually weighing the impurities, one
can estimate their level by the degree to which they increase the boiling point or lower the
freezing point of water. The refractive index (a measure of how transparent materials bend
light waves) is also affected by solutes in water. Alternately, water purity can be quickly
estimated on the basis of electrical conductivity or resistance — very pure water conducts
electricity poorly, so its resistance is high.

[2]

pH-value
Pure water by definition is slightly acidic and distilled water will test out aroundpH 5.8. The
reason is that distilled water dissolves carbon dioxide from the air. It dissolves carbon
dioxide until it is in dynamic equilibrium with the atmosphere. That means that the amount
being dissolved balances the amount coming out of solution. The total amount in the water is
determined by the concentration in the atmosphere. The dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with
the water and finally forms carbonic acid.

2 H2O + CO2 --> H2O + H2CO3 (carbonic acid) --> (H30+) (charged acidified water) +
(HCO3-) (charged bicarbonate ion)
Only recently been produced distilled water has a pH-value of approximately 7, but affected
by the presence of carbon dioxide it will reach a slightly acidic pH-value within a couple of
hours.
Additional, it is important to mention that the pH of ultra-pure water is difficult to measure.
Not only does high-purity water rapidly pick up contaminants - such as carbon dioxide (CO2)
- that affect its pH, but it also has a low conductivity that can affect the accuracy of pH
meters. For instance, absorption of just a few ppm of CO2 can cause the pH of ultra-pure
water to drop to 4.5, although the water is still of essentially high quality.
The most accurate estimation of the pH of ultra-pure water is obtained by measuring its
resistance; for a given resistance, the pH must lie between certain limits. For example, if the
resistance is 10.0 MWcm, the pH must lie between 6.6 and 7.6. The relationship between the
resistance and pH of high-purity water is shown in the figure below. [2]

Electrical resistivity versus pH of deionized water [2]

Compared with other beverages deionized

Beverages pH water has apparently a slightly acidic pH-
value.
Milk 6.5 According to the Merck Manual the human
Distilled water 5.8 body uses buffers to balance the pH. If a
person consumes something acid, the blood
Beer 4.0-5.0 will produce more bicarbonate and less
carbon dioxide to neutralize the acidity.
 Likewise the blood will produce more carbon
Coffee 2.5-3.5
dioxide and less bicarbonate if a alkaline
Orange juice 3.5 substance is consumed. So drinking distilled
water, will not put a human body in an acidic
Soft drinks 2.0-4.0 state.
Cola 2.5

Wines 2.3-3.8

(Stomach acid) 1.0-2.0

(Battery acid) 1.0

Sources:
[1] F. N. Kemmer; The Nalco water handbook; 2. Edition; 1988
[2] www.purite.com
[3] Degremont; Water treatment handbook; sixth edition; 1991
[4] Osmonics Pure Water Handbook; 2. Edition; 1997

For water terminology check out our Water Glossary or water FAQ overview
Should you know of any other interesting or more recent book, report, article or publication,
concerning deionized and demineralized water. Please let us know, so that we can include
some more facts in our above text.

ion exchange is an exchange of ions between two electrolytes or between an

electrolyte solution and a complex. In most cases the term is used to denote the processes of
purification, separation, and decontamination of aqueous and other ion-containing solutions with
solid polymeric or mineralic "ion exchangers".
Typical ion exchangers are ion-exchange resins (functionalized porous
or gel polymer), zeolites, montmorillonite, clay, and soilhumus. Ion exchangers are either cation
exchangers, which exchange positively charged ions (cations), or anion exchangers, which
exchange negatively charged ions (anions). There are also amphoteric exchangers that are able
to exchange both cations and anions simultaneously. However, the simultaneous exchange of
cations and anions can be more efficiently performed in mixed beds, which contain a mixture of
anion- and cation-exchange resins, or passing the treated solution through several different ion-
exchange materials.
Ion exchanges can be unselective or have binding preferences for certain ions or classes of ions,
depending on their chemical structure. This can be dependent on the size of the ions, their
charge, or their structure. Typical examples of ions that can bind to ion exchangers are:

 H+ (proton) and OH− (hydroxide).

 Singly charged monatomic ions like Na+, K+, and Cl−.
 Doubly charged monatomic ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+.
 Polyatomic inorganic ions like SO42− and PO43−.
 Organic bases, usually molecules containing the amine functional group −NR2H+.
 Organic acids, often molecules containing −COO− (carboxylic acid) functional groups.
 Biomolecules that can be ionized: amino acids, peptides, proteins, etc.
Along with absorption and adsorption, ion exchange is a form of sorption.
Ion exchange is a reversible process, and the ion exchanger can be regenerated or loaded with
desirable ions by washing with an excess of these ions.

Applications

Ion exchange is widely used in the food and beverage industry, hydrometallurgy, metals
finishing, chemical, petrochemical and pharmaceutical technology, sugar and sweetener
production, ground- and potable-water treatment, nuclear, softening and industrial water
treatment, semiconductor, power, and many other industries..
A typical example of application is preparation of high-purity water for power engineering,
electronic and nuclear industries; i.e. polymeric or mineralic insoluble ion exchangers are widely
used for water softening, water purification, water decontamination, etc.
Ion exchange is a method widely used in household (laundry detergents and water filters) to
produce soft water. This is accomplished by
exchanging calcium Ca2+ and magnesium Mg2+ cations against Na+ or H+ cations (see water
softening). Another application for ion exchange in domestic water treatment is the removal
of nitrate and natural organic matter.
Industrial and analytical ion-exchange chromatography is another area to be mentioned. Ion-
exchange chromatography is a chromatographicalmethod that is widely used for chemical
analysis and separation of ions. For example, in biochemistry it is widely used to separate
charged molecules such as proteins. An important area of the application is extraction and
purification of biologically produced substances such as proteins (amino acids) and DNA/RNA.
Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify metals, including
separating uranium from plutonium and the other actinides, including thorium, neptunium,
and americium. This process is also used to separate the lanthanides, such
as lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium, europium, and ytterbium, from each other.
The separation of neodymium and praseodymium was a particularly difficult one, and those were
formerly thought to be just one element didymium - but that is an alloy of the two.
There are two series of rare-earth metals, the lanthanides and the actinides, both of whose
families all have very similar chemical and physical properties. Using methods developed
by Frank Spedding in the 1940s, ion exchange processes were formerly the only practical way to
separate them in large quantities, until the development of the "solvent extraction" techniques
that can be scaled up enormously..
A very important case of ion-exchange is the PUREX process (Plutonium-URanium Extraction
Process), which is used to separate the plutonium-239 and
the uranium from americium, curium, neptunium, the radioactive fission products that come
from nuclear reactors. Thus the waste products can be separated out for disposal. Next, the
plutonium and uranium are available for making nuclear-energy materials, such as new reactor
fuel and nuclear weapons.
The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar chemical elements,
such as zirconium and hafnium, which is also very important for the nuclear industry. Physically,
zirconium is practically transparent to free neutrons, used in building nuclear reactors, but
hafnium is a very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor control rods. Thus, ion-exchange is
used in nuclear reprocessing and the treatment of radioactive waste.
Ion-exchange resins in the form of thin membranes are also used in chloralkali process, fuel
cells, and vanadium redox batteries.

Large cation/anion ion exchangers used in water purification of boiler feedwater[1]

Ion exchange can also be used to remove hardness from water by exchanging calcium and
magnesium ions for sodium ions in an ion-exchange column. Liquid-phase (aqueous) ion-
exchange desalination has been demonstrated.[2] In this technique anions and cations in salt water
are exchanged for carbonate anions and calcium cations respectively using electrophoresis.
Calcium and carbonate ions then react to form calcium carbonate, which then precipitates,
leaving behind fresh water. The desalination occurs at ambient temperature and pressure and
requires no membranes or solid ion exchangers. The theoretical energy efficiency of this method
is on par with electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.
Other applications[edit]

 In soil science, cation-exchange capacity is the ion-exchange capacity of soil for positively
charged ions. Soils can be considered as natural weak cation exchangers.
 In pollution remediation and geotechnical engineering, ion-exchange capacity determines the
swelling capacity of swelling or expansive clay such as montmorillonite, which can be used
to "capture" pollutants and charged ions.
 In planar waveguide manufacturing, ion exchange is used to create the guiding layer of
higher index of refraction.
 Dealkalization, removal of alkali ions from a glass surface.
 Chemically strengthened glass, produced by exchanging K+ for Na+ in soda glass surfaces
using KNO3 melts.

Regenerating wasted water[edit]

Most ion-exchange systems contain containers of ion-exchange resin that are operated on a
cyclic basis.
During the filtration process, water flows through the resin container until the resin is considered
exhausted. That happened only when water leaving the exchanger contains more than the desired
maximal concentration of the ions being removed. Resin is then regenerated by sequentially
backwashing the resin bed to remove accumulated solids, flushing removed ions from the resin
with a concentrated solution of replacement ions, and rinsing the flushing solution from the resin.
Production of backwash, flushing, and rinsing wastewater during regeneration of ion-exchange
media limits the usefulness of ion exchange for wastewater treatment.[3]
Water softeners are usually regenerated with brine containing 10% sodium chloride.[4] Aside
from the soluble chloride salts of divalent cations removed from the softened water, softener
regeneration wastewater contains the unused 50 – 70% of the sodium chloride regeneration
flushing brine required to reverse ion-exchange resin equilibria. Deionizing resin regeneration
with sulfuric acid and sodium hydroxide is approximately 20–40% efficient. Neutralized
deionizer regeneration wastewater contains all of the removed ions plus 2.5–5 times
their equivalent concentration as sodium sulfate.[5]
Ion exchange is a process in which ions of a particular species in solution are replaced
by ions with a similar charge but of different species attached to an insoluble resin. In
essence, ion exchange is a sorption process and can also be considered a
reversible chemical reaction.

Corrosion in boilers

Corrosion is the reversion of a metal to its ore form. Iron, for example, reverts to iron oxide as the result of corro
Corrosion may produce general attach over a large metal surface or it may result in pinpoint penetration of metal
nature due to the action of dissolved oxygen, to corrosion currents set up as a result of heterogeneities on metal s
While basic corrosion in boilers may be primarily due to reaction of the metal with oxygen, other factors such as
different forms of attack. It is necessary to consider the quantity of the various harmful substances that can be all
as a result of low pH water and the presence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Starting form these figures, and allowing the amount that can be blown down, the permitted concentration in the

Corrosion is caused principally by complex oxide-slag with low melting points. High temperature corrosion can
deposit is in the liquid phase and the liquid is in direct contact with the metal. Deposits also promote the transpor
surface.
Corrosion in the boiler proper generally occurs when the boiler water alkalinity is low or when the metal is expos
either during operation or idle periods. High temperatures and stresses in the boiler metal tend to accelerate the c
steam and condensate system corrosion is generally the result of contamination with carbon dioxide and oxygen.
as ammonia or sulphur bearing gases may increase attack on copper alloys in the system.
Corrosion is caused by the combination of oxide layer fluxing and continuous oxidation by transported oxygen.
Cracking in boiler metal may occur by two different mechanisms. In the first mechanism, cyclic stresses are crea
metal surface. This is usually associated with improper corrosion prevention. The second type of corrosion fatigu
misnomer. These cracks often originate where a dense protective oxide film covers the metal surfaces and cracki
cross the metal grains. They usually start at internal tube surfaces and are most often circumferential on the tube.
Corrosion control techniques vary according to the type of corrosion encountered. Major methods include mainte
operational practices.
Deaeration and recently the use of membrane contractors are the best and most diffused ways to avoid corrosion
For further information about the different types of corrosion check the following web pages:

 Galvanic corrosion
 Caustic corrosion
 Acidic corrosion
 Hydrogen embrittlement
 Oxygen attack
 Carbon dioxide attack

Protection of steel in a boiler system depends on temperature, pH, and oxygen content. Generally, higher tempera
operation factors such as velocities, metal stresses, and severity of service can strongly influence corrosion rates.
Find information about the other main problems occurring in boilers: scaling, foaming and priming. For a descrip
Check also our web page about boiler feed water and boiler water treatment.

Read
more: https://www.lenntech.com/applications/process/boiler/corrosion.htm#ixzz5mqEyIplF

STEAM GENERATORS/BOILERS

In the previous lessons we have discussed that mostly steam is used as working fluid in the steam
power plant and we have also discussed the mechanism of the formation of steam and its
properties. But now it is required to know the equipment used to produce steam.

A closed pressure vessel known as Steam generator or Boiler is used to generate steam at
desired pressure and temperature by transferring heat to water contained in a closed pressure
vessel.

Before we go in details of the boiler it is necessary to know few terms used in boiler.

Flue gas: Heat which is transferred to water in boiler is usually produced by combustion of fuel
in the furnace. The hot gas generated in a furnace is called flue gasses.

Water and steam space: It is the space occupied by water and steam in the pressure vessel
during steam generation process.
Heating surface: It is the part of the boiler which is exposed to hot gases on one side and water
or steam on the other side.
27.2. CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS

Because of differences in features and characteristics of different boilers, the boilers can be
classified on the basis of the following:

 Content of tubes  Nature of draft

 Firing method  Nature of heat source

 Mode of heating  Circulation of working fluid

 Pressure of steam  Nature of Fluid used

 Mode of circulation of working fluid (water)  Boiler shell material

 Purpose of utilization  Type of Fuel

 Position and number of drums  Shape of tubes and their spatial pos

 Gas passage  Boiler size and rating

27.2.1. Content of tubes: The boiler is either Fire-tube boiler or Water-tube boiler, depending
upon the content flowing inside its tubes.

Fire-tube boiler. In this boiler, the products of combustion/hot flue gases flows inside and the
water flow outside of the boiler tubes. Figure 27.1shows the fire-tube boiler.

The examples of the fire-tube boilers are

(a) Cochran, (b) Lancashire, (c) Cornish and (d) Locomotive boilers.

Fig. 27.1. Fire-tube Boiler

Water-tube boiler. In water-tube boiler, water flows inside the tubes and the hot flue gases flow
outside the tubes. Figure 27.2 shows the water-tube boiler.

The examples of the water-tube boilers are

(a) Babcock and Wilcox boiler and (b) Stirling boiler.

 Fig. 27.2. Water-tube Boiler

Comparative advantages and disadvantages of fire-tube and water-tube boilers:

Parameters Fire-tube boilers Water-tube boilers

Rate of steam generation slow quick

Suitability for power

unsuitable suitable
plants

Operating steam pressure Limited to 24.5 x 105 N/m2 Limited to 200 x 105N/m2

Chances of explosion Less More

Risk of damage due to

Much more Much less
explosion

Not very necessary as minor scaling would not go far enough to Required as scaling will le
Water treatment
cause overheating and tube-bursting tube-bursting

Floor space required Much Less

Cost and construction

More Much less
problem

Transportation Inconvenient due to large size of the shell Comparatively easier

Skill required for efficient

Less More
operation

Operating cost Less High

Overall efficiency Upto 75% Upto 90%

27.2.2. Firing method: The boiler is either internally fired or externally fired boiler, depending
upon the position of the furnace with respect to boiler.

Internally fired boiler: The furnace is provided inside the boiler shell and is completely
surrounded by water cooled surfaces as shown in Fig. 27.1. Lancashire, Locomotive, Cochran
and Scotch boilers are common examples of the internally fired boilers.

Externally fired boiler: The furnace is provided outside the boiler (Fig. 27.2).The furnace of
this boiler is simple and easy to construct and can be easily enlarged. Babcock and Wilcox
boileris the example of externally fired boiler.

27.2.3. Mode of heating: The boilers may be classified according to mode of heating as

Fired boiler: The water receives heat for steam generation by burning of fuel.

Non-fired boilers: The water receives heat other than that produced by burning of fuel.

27.2.4. Pressure of Steam: Boilers may be classified according to steam pressure in the boiler.

Low pressure boiler: the steam pressure in boiler is below 80 bar. Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire
and locomotive boilers are low pressure boilers.

High pressure boiler: the steam pressure in the boiler is higher than 80 bar. Babcock and
Wilcox, Lamont, Velox, Benson, power etc. are examples for high pressure boilers.

27.2.5. Mode of circulation of working fluid (water): Depending on water circulation, the
boilers are classified as Natural Circulation boiler or Forced (i.e., positive) Circulation boiler.

Natural Circulation boiler: In this, the water is circulated by natural convection current or by
gravity which are created due to temperature difference. The boilers of low capacity such as
Lancashire, Locomotive, Babcock and Wilcox boilers, etc fall under this group.

Forced (i.e., positive) Circulation boiler: In this, the water is the circulated by mechanical
means (pumps). The forced circulation helps in to increase the water circulation along with
uniform heat distribution throughout the boiler water thus results in rapid steam generation at
high pressure. The boilers of high capacity such as Lamont, Velox, power boilers, etc. fall under
this group.

27.2.6. Purpose of utilization: Boilers are also classified according to nature of service as
follows:

Stationary/land boilers: Boilers that are used for stationary plants are called stationary or land
boilers. Most of the industrial boilers used for processing work and power plant boilers used for
power generation are of stationary boilers.

Portage boilers: Boilers which can be easily dismantled and transported from one place to
another place for temporary use at sites.
Mobile boilers: The boilers which are fitted on vehicles and continuously move from place to
place are called mobile boilers. The boilers used to run Marine and locomotive are the examples
of mobile boiler.

27.2.7. Position of boiler: The boiler may be classified as (a) horizontal, (b) inclined and (c)
vertical,according to position of the boiler.

Number of Drums: The water-tube boilers may be classified as (a) Single (b) Multi-
drums,according to number of drums.

27.2.8. Gas Passage: The fire-tube boilers may be classified as (a) Single pass (b) Multi Pass,
according to number of gas passages through a cylindrical shell.

27.2.9. Nature of draught: According to this, the boiler may be classified as

Natural draft boilers: In this the draft is produced by natural circulation of air and gas. In effect
the chimney, boiler and the outer air constitute a large U-tube as shown in Fig 27.3. The column
of gases in the chimney is one vertical limb; the other limb is a column of cold outside air and the
lower horizontal portion of the U-tube represents the boiler. The difference in density/pressure in
the column of hot gases in the chimney and column of cold air in the other limb of U-tube cause
the natural circulation of air.
Fi
Factors which increase the draft:

• The temperature of the colder, more dense, outside air increases the draft.

• The temperatures of the hotter, lighter gases in the chimney increases the draft.

• Higher height produces more draft.

Forced draft boilers: Here the draft is produced by mechanical means with one or more electric
motor or steam turbine driven fans. When using a forced draft system, the entire furnace casing
must be strong enough to withstand the internal pressure and must be carefully sealed against
outward leakage as furnace casing is under a positive pressure.

27.2.10. Nature of heat Source: Depending on the nature of heat source, boilers can be
classified as:

Fuel fired boiler – These derive their heat energy by combustion of fuel which may be solid,
liquid, or gaseous.

Waste heat boilers– recovers heat from the hot waste gases of other chemical reactions.

Electrical powered boilers– generate steam by the application of electrical energy.

Nuclear powered boilers– Utilize the energy of controlled thermonuclear fission reactions to
generate steam.
27.2.11. Circulation of working fluid: Depending on the circulation of working fluid, water-
tube boilers can be classified as (a) Once through boiler and (b) recirculation boiler:

Once through Boiler: In once through boiler, there is no recirculation of water. The feed water
enters from one side of the water tube and leaves the tube as steam. The Benson boiler is an
example of once through boiler.

Recirculation boiler: In this boiler, only a part of water is evaporated and the remaining water is
circulated.

27.2.12. Nature of Fluid Used: On the basis of working fluid used in the boilers, the boilers are
classified as (a) Steam boilers (b) Mercury boilers.

In steam boilers, water is used as working fluidand in Mercury boilers, mercury is used as
working fluid.

27.2.13. Boiler Shell Material: The boilers are also classified on the basis of its shell materialas
(a) Cast iron boiler, (b) Steel boilers, (c) Copper and stainless steel boiler.

The cast iron boilers are suitable for low pressure; steel boilers are suitable for high pressure and
copper and stainless steel boilers are suitable for miniature type of boilers.

27.2.14. Type of Fuel: According to the use of fuel in boiler, the boilers are classified as

a) Coal fired boiler: Pulverized coal fired, Stoker fired and Hand fired

b) Gas fired boiler

c) Oil fired boiler

d) Wood fired boiler

e) Bagasse fired boiler

27.2.15. Shape of tubes and their spatial position

Depending on the shape of tubes the boilers may be classified as a) Straight tube boiler and b)
Bent tube boiler.

Based on the inclination of tubes the boilers may be classified as a) Horizontal boiler, b)
Vertical boiler and c) Inclined boiler.

27.2.16. Boiler size and rating: Based on their size and rating, the boilers are classified into (a)
commercial boilers, (b) residential boilers and (c) oil fired boilers.

Commercial boilers: Heating surface = 11.98 – 331.756 m2

Gross heat output = (10827-300) kW

Residential boilers: Heating surface = 1.486 – 27.313 m2

Gross heat output = upto 30 kW

Oil fired boilers: Heating surface = 1.486 – 27.313 m2

Gross heat output range is of upto 30 kW

27.3. FIRE-TUBE BOILERS

As discussed under boiler classification, in a fire-tube boiler, the flue gases flow inside one or
more number of horizontal or vertical tubes passing through the cylindrical shell and water in the
cylindrical shell surrounds these tubes.

 Lancashire boiler,

 Cochran boiler

 Locomotive boiler
come under this category and are discussed in detail in this lesson and next lesson.

27.3.1 Lancashire Fire-Tube Boilers

Features and characteristics

 Lancashire boiler is
- a stationary or land type,

- fire-tube,

- horizontal straight tubes,

- internally fired,

- natural circulation boiler.

 It can be worked upto a normal working pressure range of 15 bar and its steaming
capacity varies from 1400 to 5500 kg/h.

 Its shell size ranges from about 5.5 metres to 10 metres in length to 2 to 3.5
metres in diameter.

 Because of the simplicity of its design and ease of operation, the boiler is reliable
and popular.

 Its maintenance is easy and operating costs is less.

Uses
This is widely used in chemical industries and sugar mills where steam is used for power
generation and process work.

Construction details:

Figure 27.4 shows the front view, sectional side view and top view of a Lancashire boiler and its
brickwork setting. The parts are as follows:

Boiler shell: The cylindrical shaped boiler shell is made by steel plates which are either riveted
or welded. It contains two parallel flue tubes which run throughout the entire length of the shell.
In this shell water is converted into steam. It is a pressure vessel which is designed to withstand
high steam pressure.

Flue tubes: Two tapered flue tubes are passed through the shell for the flow of first pass of the
flue gases from front to the back of the boiler.

Furnace with fire grate: Each of flue tube has its own furnace with grate of about 2 m length
arranged at the front end of the shell.

Fire bridge is provided at the back of the grate prevents the fuel from falling over the end of the
furnace and is also used for deflecting the gases of combustion upwards.

Doors are provided in the front brick work through which the coal is fed to the grates where its
combustion takes place.

Dampers are provided in the flue passage for controlling the flow of flue gases and amount of air
entering the grate by restricting the passage of the flow. This controls the generation of steam.
These dampers are iron doors which slide up and down in the grooves (in the side flues) by
means of chains, ropes or pulley.
Fig. 27.4. Lancashire Boiler

Water level gauge indicates the level of water in the boiler and enables the attendant to regulate
the supply of feed water.

Dead weight safety valve is for safety against excessive pressure building up in a steam boiler.

Steam stop valve is mounted on the top of the boiler and is used to open and close the supply of
steam for use.

Man hole is provided for the entrance of a man inside the boiler shell and is required for
cleaning, inspection and repairing of the boiler.

Low water high steam safety valve is for blowing out steam if the steam pressure is higher than
the working pressure and blowing out steam when the water level in the boiler is low.
Bottom flue directs the flue gases from back to front along the bottom of the boiler shell.

Side flue The side flue on both sides of the shell directs the flue gases from front to back along
the side of the boiler shell.

Main flue The main flue directs the flue gases from side flues to chimney.

Ash pit is for depositing ash.

Blow of cock is situated at the lowest water space of a boiler to serve three purposes: (i) to
remove the precipitated sludge or loose scale at intervals (ii) to lower the water level whenever
the water level in the boiler has become accidentally too high (iii) to empty the water in the
boiler whenever required for periodical inspection.

Blow off pit is for disposing of the blow off water.

Gusset stays is for securing and stiffening the four corners of the shell.

Perforated feed pipe is used for uniform feeding of water in the boiler during steam generation.

Anti priming pipe is fitted inside the boiler drum or shell and is also known as steam drier. It is
used for separating out suspended water particles contained in the steam and allowing as far as
possible the dry steam through the stop valve.

Fusible plug is mounted at the required lowest safe water level in a boiler.This device is intended
to operate if the water level in the boiler falls too low, by permitting a discharge of steam into the
furnace, thus quenching the fire.

U-tube Superheater is for superheating the wet or dry saturated steam.

Working:

(i) Path of Flue gas: The flue gases complete their path in three passes in boiler before they
finally are discharged to the atmosphere.

First pass: The hot flue gases from the fuel burnt in the furnace first travel up to back of the
boiler through flue tubes and then at the end of first path they are deflected by dampener in the
downward direction towards the bottom flue to start second pass.

Second pass: There after they flow in the bottom flue from back to the front of boiler as shown
by the arrow in the front view of Fig. 27.4. As the bottom flue is situated below the water shell
the hot gases heat the lower portion of the shell.

Third pass: After completing second pass, the flue gases are then bifurcated into separate paths
in the side flues and complete their third pass by travelling from front to back of the boiler in the
side flues as shown by the arrows in the sectional top and side view of Fig. 27.4. Flue gases in
side flue thus heat the side of the water shell.
After completing three passes, the two streams of the flue gases from side flue meet again in the
main flue where they finally discharged to atmosphere through the chimney.

(ii) Path of steam flow: The feed water is supplied uniformly to the shell by a perforated feed
pipe controlled by a feed valve. When the boiler is heated, the steam is generated and collected
in steam space over the water surface of the shell. The steam in contact with the water surface
always contains water particles. To remove these water particles, the steam in the steam space
first passes through the anti-priming pipe before it comes to the steam main pipe through a steam
stop valve or it may move to the superheater. The circulation of water in the shell is shown by
solid arrows in the sectional side view.

(iii) Superheater arrangement for Lancashire boiler: Figure 27.5 shows the arrangement for
producing superheated steam in Sudgen’s hair pin type Superheater of Lancashire boiler. The
arrows show the path of the hot gases, when superheater is in use. When superheated steam is
desired to be produced, damper to superheater U-tubes is opened and the other damper to bottom
flue is closed as shown in Fig. 27.4. Then the flue gases from flue tube pass on to the superheater
U-tubes at the back of the boiler before it travel towards the bottom flue. In this case, valve
V1 and V2 are opened and valve V3 is closed so that steam from shell passes to the superheater U-
tubes and after getting superheated passes to the main steam pipe outlet. By adjusting the gas
damper, the temperature of the steam coming out of the superheater is always maintained
constant irrespective of the amount of steam through the superheater. If the superheated steam is
not required, the damper to the superheater U-tubes is closed as shown in Fig 27.4 and the other
damper to the bottom flue is opened thus the hot gasses by passing superheater U-tubes and
flows directly into the bottom flue and also valve V3 is opened and valve V1 and V2 are closed
and passing boiler steam directly out to main steam outlet through valve V3.

Fig. 27.5. Sudgen’s hair pin type Superheater of Lancashire Boilers

(iv) Draft system: The supply of air to the grate is usually done naturally with the help of a
chimney.

THEORY: For efficient operation and maintenance of safety, the boiler equipped with two
categories of components and elements.
First categories include the fittings which are primarily indicated for the safety of the boiler and
for complete control the process of steam generation. These units are called mountings. The
mounting from an integral part of the boiler and are mounted on the body of the boiler itself. The
following mountings are usually installed on the boiler.
1. Two safety valve
2. Two water level indicators
3. Pressure gauge
4. Fusible plug
5. Steam stop valve
6. Feed check valve
7. Blow-of cock
8. Man and mud hole
Second categories include the components which are installed to increase the efficiency of the
steam power plants and help in the power working of the boiler unit. These fitting are called
boiler accessories. The following accessories are given below.
1. Air pre-heater
2. Economiser
3. Super heater
4. Feed pump and
5. Injector
FUNCTION, LOCATION AND WORKING OF MOUNTINGS AND ACCESSORIES.
A) SAFETY VALVE: The function of the safety valve is to permit the steam in the boiler to
escape to atmosp0here when pressure in the steam space in the boiler. The safety valve operates
in the principle that a valve is pressed against its seat through some agency such as sturt, screw
or spring by external weight or force, when the steam force due to boiler pressure acting under
the valve exceeds the external force, the valve gets lifted off its seat and some of the steam
rushes out until normal pressure is restored again.
The commonly used safety valves are given below:
ii) Lever safety valve
iii) Spring loaded safety valve
iv) High steam-low water safety valve
 Figure of Safety valve
B) WATER LEVEL INDICATOR: The function of the water level indicator is to ascertain
constantly and exactly the level of water in the boiler shell. It is fitted in the front of the boiler
from where it is easily visible to the operator.
 Figure of Water Level Indicator
The unit consists of a strong glass tube whose ends pass through stuffing boxes consists of heat
resisting rubber packing to prevent leakage steam and water. The flanges are bolted to front end
plate of the boiler, the upper flange being fitted to the steam space and the lower to water space
in the boiler. There are two cocks namely steam cock and water cock which communicate the
boiler shell spaces to the gauge glass tube. When the handle of the cocks are vertical, they are in
operation and the water level in the tube corresponds to water level in the shell. A red mark on
the glass tube indicates the safe water level.
C) FUSIBLE PLUG: The function of the fusible plug is to extinguish the fire in the event of the
boiler shell failing below a certain specified limit. We know that when the water on heating
transforms into steam, the level of water in the boiler falls down. If the water is not replenished
and the steam generation continues then the parts, which have been uncovered by water
uncovered by water may get overheated and subsequently are melted. To safeguard against this
eventuality we use fusible plug.
 Figure of Fusible Plug
The fusible plug is inserted at the box crown or cover the combustion chamber at the lowest
permissible water level.

D) PRESSURE GAUGE: Each boiler has to be provided with a pressure gauge, which record
the pressure at which the steam is being generated in the boiler.

Figure of Pressure gauge

The gauge is usually mounted at the front top of the boiler shell or drum. The gauge should to be
clearly visible to the attendant so that he can easily record the pressure reading.
E) BLOW OFF COCK: The blow of cock serves to drain out the water from the boiler
periodically for any one of the following reasons:
1) To discharge mud, scale and other impurities which settle down at the bottom of the boiler?
2) To empty the boiler for internal cleaning and inspection.
3) To lower the water level rapidly if the level becomes too high.
The unit is fitted at the lowest portion of the boiler. It may be mounted directly to the boiler shell
or through an boiler elbow pipe, which is fitted to the boiler shell.
F) FEED CHECK VALVE: The feed check valve has the following two functions to perform:
1. To allow the feed water to pass into the boiler.
2. To prevent the back flow of water from the boiler in the events of the failure of the feed pump.

Figure of Feed check Valve

G) STOP VALVE: The function of the steam stop valve is to shut off or regulate the flow of
steam from the boiler to the steam pipe or from the steam pipe to the engine. When used for the
former purpose, it is called junction valve. Usually the junction valve means a regulating valve
of larger size and a stop valve refers to a regulating valve of smaller size.

Figure of Stop valve

The junction valve is mounted on the highest part of the steam space of the boiler and is
connected to the steam pipe, which carries the steam to the engine.
H) MAN HOLES: These are door to allow men to enter inside the boiler for the inspection and
repair
I) AIR PREHEATER: Air heater or air pre-heater is waste heat recovery device in which the
air on its way to the furnace is raised in temperature by utilizing the heat of the exhaust gases.
Air pre-heater are classified into the following two categories.

Figure of Air preheater

· Recuperative Air heater
· Regenerative Air heater
J) ECONOMISER: The economizer is a device, which serves to recover some of the heat being
carried by exhaust flue gases. The heat thus recovered is utilized in raised temperature in feed
water being supplied to the boiler. If the water is raised and thus there is a saving in the
consumption of fuel.
 Figure of economizer
The economizer unit is installed in the path of the flue gases between the boiler and the chimney.
K) STEAM SUPER HEATER: The steam generated by a simple boiler in generally wet or at
the most dry saturated. Steam super heater is a surface heat exchanger in which the wet steam is
first dried at the same temperature and pressure and then raised to temperature above the
saturation temperature at constant pressure. Heat of flue gasses utilized in super heating the
steam and as the super heater is placed in the path of the flue gasses,

Figure of Super heater

Since superheating result in the increased efficiency and economy of the steam plant.
L) FEED WATER EQUIPMENT: The pressure inside a steaming boiler is high and so the
feed water has to be raised in pressure before its entry can be affected in the boiler. Feed pump is
a device which raised the pressure of water and forces it into the boiler.
The various boiler mountings and accessories that are used in
steam boilers are water level indicator, pressure gauge, safety valves, stop
valve; blow off cock, feed check valve, fusible plug, air pre-heater, super
heater, economiser and feed pump. The boiler mounting and accessories are used
in steam boilers for its proper, efficient and satisfactory working. In this
article we will discuss about the functions of each of them.
Boiler Mountings and Accessories

The different boiler mountings and accessories that are installed on the steam boiler are as
follows
Boiler mountings

1. Water level indicator ( Water level gauge)

2. Pressure gauge
3. Safety valves
4. Stop valve
5. Blow off cock (Blow off valve)
6. Feed check valve
Boiler accessories

1. Air pre-heater
2. Super heater
3. Economiser
4. Feed pump
The function of various boiler mountings and accessories
are:
 1. Water Level Indicator
 It is fitted in front of the boiler and generally present
two in number.
 It is used to indicate the water level inside the boiler. It shows the instantaneous level of water
that is present inside the steam boiler
which is necessary for its proper working.
2. Pressure gauge
 It is also present in front of the boiler.
 It is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the
boiler.
 The pressure gauges generally used are of Bourden type
3. Safety Valves
 Safety valves are attached to the steam boiler chest.
 It is used to prevent explosion due to excessive internal
pressure. When the internal pressure inside the boiler exceeds its working
pressures than the safety valves blow off the steam and maintains the internal
pressure.
 Generally two safety valves are present on a boiler.
Also Read: Difference Between Fire Tube Boiler and Water Tube Boiler
4. Stop Valve (steam stop valve)
 It is usually fitted on the highest part of the boiler with
the help of a flange.
 The main function of the stop valve is
1. To control the flow of steam from the boiler to the main
steam pipe.
2. To completely shut off the steam supply when required.
5. Blow Off Cock
 It is fitted at the bottom of the boiler drum.
 The functions of blow off cock is
1. To empty the boiler whenever required.
2. To discharge the scale, mud and sediments which gets
collected at the bottom of the boiler.
6. Feed Check Valve
 It is non-return valve and fitted to a screwed spindle to
regulate the lift.
 It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal water
level of the boiler. A boiler must have its spindle lifted before the pump is
started.
 It regulates the supply of water which is pumped into the
boiler by feed pump.
7. Fusible Plug
 It is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace or firebox.
 Its function is to extinguish fire in the furnace when the
water level in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit. This avoids the explosion
that may takes place because of the overheating of the furnace plate.
Also Read: Lancashire Boiler Construction, Working with Diagram
 Boiler accessories: the boiler accessories are the integral
parts of the boiler. They are used in the boiler to improve its efficiency.
1. Air preheater
 It is used to recover heat from the exhaust gases.
 It is installed between the economiser and the chimney.
2. Super heater
 It is placed in the path of hot flue gases from the furnace.
 A super heater is an important accessory used in the boiler.
Its main function is to increase the temperature of saturated steam without
raising its pressure.
3. Economiser
 It is used to heat the feed water by the utilization of heat
from the hot fuel gases before it leaves the chimney.
 A economiser improves the economy of the steam boilers.
4. Feed pump
 It is used to deliver water to the boiler.
This is the brief introduction of important boiler mountings
and accessories. If you find anything missing or incorrect than let me know about it
through your comments.
Safety valves
An important boiler fitting is the safety valve. Its function is to protect the boiler shell from over
pressure and subsequent explosion. In the UK:

In Europe, matters relating to the suitability of safety valves for steam boilers are governed by
the European standard EN 12953. In the US and some other parts of the world, such matters are
covered by ASME standards.

Many different types of safety valves are fitted to steam boiler plant, but generally they must all
meet the following criteria:

 The total discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be at least equal to the ‘from and at
100°C’ capacity of the boiler. If the ‘from and at’ evaporation is used to size the safety valve,
the safety valve capacity will always be higher than the actual maximum evaporative boiler
capacity.
 The full rated discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be achieved within 110% of the
boiler design pressure.
 The minimum inlet bore of a safety valve connected to a boiler shall be 20 mm.
 The maximum set pressure of the safety valve shall be the design (or maximum permissible
working pressure) of the boiler.
 There must be an adequate margin between the normal operating pressure of the boiler and
the set pressure of the safety valve.
 Safety valve regulations (UK)

A boiler shall be fitted with at least one safety valve sized for the rated output of the boiler -
Refer to EN 12953 for details.

The discharge pipework from the safety valve must be unobstructed and drained at the base to
prevent the accumulation of condensate. It is good practice to ensure that the discharge pipework
is kept as short as possible with the minimum number of bends, so that the allowable
backpressure indicated by the valve manufacturer is not exceeded.

It will be quite normal for the internal diameter of the discharge pipework to be more than the
internal diameter of the safety valve outlet connection, but under no circumstances should it
be less.
 Boiler stop valves

A steam boiler must be fitted with a stop valve (also known as a crown valve) which isolates the
steam boiler and its pressure from the process or plant. It is generally an angle pattern globe
valve of the screw-down variety. Figure 3.7.3 shows a typical stop valve of this type.

In the past, these valves have often been manufactured from cast iron, with steel and bronze
being used for higher pressure applications. In the UK, BS 2790 (eventually to be replaced with
EN 12953) states that cast iron valves are no longer permitted for this application on steam
boilers. Nodular or spheroidal graphite (SG) iron should not be confused with grey cast iron as it
has mechanical properties approaching those of steel. For this reason many boilermakers use SG
iron valves as standard.

The stop valve is not designed as a throttling valve, and should be fully open or closed. It should
always be opened slowly to prevent any sudden rise in downstream pressure and associated
waterhammer, and to help restrict the fall in boiler pressure and any possible associated priming.

To comply with UK regulations, the valve should be of the ‘rising handwheel’ type. This allows
the boiler operator to easily see the valve position, even from floor level. The valve shown is
fitted with an indicator that makes this even easier for the operator.
 On multi-boiler applications an additional isolating valve should be fitted, in series with the
crown valve. At least one of these valves should be lockable in the closed position. The
additional valve is generally a globe valve of the screw-down, non-return type which prevents
one boiler pressurising another. Alternatively, it is possible to use a screw-down valve, with a
disc check valve sandwiched between the flanges of the crown valve and itself.
Feedwater check valves

The feedwater check valve (as shown in Figures 3.7.4 and 3.7.5) is installed in the boiler
feedwater line between the feedpump and boiler. A boiler feed stop valve is fitted at the
boiler shell.

The check valve includes a spring equivalent to the head of water in the elevated feedtank when
there is no pressure in the boiler. This prevents the boiler being flooded by the static head from
the boiler feedtank.

Under normal steaming conditions the check valve operates in a conventional manner to stop
return flow from the boiler entering the feedline when the feedpump is not running. When the
feedpump is running, its pressure overcomes the spring to feed the boiler as normal.

Because a good seal is required, and the temperatures involved are relatively low (usually less
than 100°C) a check valve with a EPDM (Ethylene Propylene) soft seat is generally the
best option.
 Boiler water quality control

The maintenance of water quality is essential to the safe and efficient operation of a steam boiler.
The measurement and control of the various parameters is a complex topic, which is also covered
by a number of regulations. It is therefore covered in detail later in this Block. The objective of
the next few Sections is simply to identify the fittings to be seen on a boiler.
TDS control

This controls the amount of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the boiler water, and is sometimes
also referred to as ‘continuous blowdown’. The boiler connection is typically DN15 or DN20.
The system may be manual or automatic. Whatever system is used, the TDS in a sample of boiler
water is compared with a set point; if the TDS level is too high, a quantity of boiler water is
released to be replaced by feedwater with a much lower TDS level. This has the effect of diluting
the water in the boiler, and reducing the TDS level.

On a manually controlled TDS system, the boiler water would be sampled every shift.

A typical automatic TDS control system is shown in Figure 3.7.6

 Bottom blowdown

This ejects the sludge or sediment from the bottom of the boiler. The control is a large (usually
DN25 to DN50) key operated valve. This valve might normally be opened for a period of about 5
seconds, once per shift.

Figure 3.7.7 illustrates a key operated manual bottom blowdown valve whereas Figure 3.7.8
illustrates an automated bottom blowdown valve and its typical position in a blowdown system.
 Pressure gauge

All boilers must be fitted with at least one pressure indicator.

The usual type is a simple pressure gauge constructed to EN 12953.

The dial should be at least 150 mm in diameter and of the Bourdon tube type, it should be
marked to indicate the normal working pressure and the maximum permissible working pressure
/ design pressure.

Pressure gauges are connected to the steam space of the boiler and usually have a ring type
siphon tube which fills with condensed steam and protects the dial mechanism from high
temperatures.

Pressure gauges may be fitted to other pressure containers such as blowdown vessels, and will
usually have smaller dials as shown in Figure 3.7.9.
 Gauge glasses and fittings

All steam boilers are fitted with at least one water level indicator, but those with a rating of 100
kW or more should be fitted with two indicators. The indicators are usually referred to as gauge
glasses complying with EN 12953.
A gauge glass shows the current level of water in the boiler, regardless of the boiler’s operating
conditions. Gauge glasses should be installed so that their lowest reading will show the water
level at 50 mm above the point where overheating will occur. They should also be fitted with a
protector around them, but this should not hinder visibility of the water level. Figure 3.7.10
shows a typical gauge glass.

Gauge glasses are prone to damage from a number of sources, such as corrosion from the
chemicals in boiler water, and erosion during blowdown, particularly at the steam end. Any sign
of corrosion or erosion indicates that a new glass is required.

When testing the gauge glass steam connection, the water cock should be closed. When testing
the gauge glass water connections, the steam cock pipe should be closed.

To test a gauge glass, the following procedure should be followed:

1. Close the water cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.

2. Close the drain cock and open the water cock

Water should return to its normal working level relatively quickly. If this does not happen, then a
blockage in the water cock could be the reason, and remedial action should be taken as soon
as possible.

3. Close the steam cock and open the drain cock for approximately 5 seconds.
 4. Close the drain cock and open the steam cock.

If the water does not return to its normal working level relatively quickly, a blockage may exist
in the steam cock. Remedial action should be taken as soon as possible.

The authorised attendant should systematically test the water gauges at least once each day and
should be provided with suitable protection for the face and hands, as a safeguard against
scalding in the event of glass breakage.

Note: that all handles for the gauge glass cocks should point downwards when in the
running condition.
Gauge glass guards

The gauge glass guard should be kept clean. When the guard is being cleaned in place, or
removed for cleaning, the gauge should be temporarily shut-off.

Make sure there is a satisfactory water level before shutting off the gauge and take care not to
touch or knock the gauge glass. After cleaning, and when the guard has been replaced, the gauge
should be tested and the cocks set in the correct position.
Maintenance

The gauge glass should be thoroughly overhauled at each annual survey. Lack of maintenance
can result in hardening of packing and seizure of cocks. If a cock handle becomes bent or
distorted special care is necessary to ensure that the cock is set full open. A damaged fitting
should be renewed or repaired immediately. Gauge glasses often become discoloured due to
water conditions; they also become thin and worn due to erosion. Glasses, therefore, should be
renewed at regular intervals.

A stock of spare glasses and cone packing should always be available in the boiler
house. Remember:

 If steam passes are choked a false high water level may be given in the gauge glass. After the
gauge has been tested a false high water level may still be indicated.
 If the water passages are choked an artificially high water level may be observed due to steam
condensing in the glass. After testing, the glass will tend to remain empty unless the water
level in the boiler is higher than the top connection, in which case water might flow into the
glass from this connection.
 Gauge glass levels must be treated with the utmost respect, as they are the only visual
indicator of water level conditions inside the boiler. Any water level perceived as abnormal
must be investigated as soon as it is observed, with immediate action taken to shut down the
boiler burner if necessary.
Water level controls

The maintenance of the correct water level in a steam boiler is essential to its safe and efficient
operation. The methods of sensing the water level, and the subsequent control of water level is a
 complex topic that is covered by a number of regulations. The following few Sections will
provide a brief overview, and the topic will be discussed in much greater detail later.
External level control chambers

Level control chambers are fitted externally to boilers for the installation of level controls or
alarms, as shown in Figure 3.7.11.

The function of the level controls or alarms is checked daily using the sequencing purge valves.
With the handwheel turned fully anticlockwise the valve is in the ‘normal working’ position and
a back seating shuts off the drain connection. The handwheel dial may look similar to that shown
in Figure 3.7.12. Some handwheels have no dial, but rely on a mechanism for correct operation.
 The following is a typical procedure that may be used to test the controls when the boiler is
under pressure, and the burner is firing:

 Slowly turn the handwheel clockwise until the indicating pointer is at the first ‘pause’
position. The float chamber connection is baffled, the drain connection is opened, and the
water connection is blown through.
 Pause for 5 to 8 seconds.
 Slowly move the handwheel further clockwise to full travel. The water connection is shut-off,
the drain valve remains open, and the float chamber and steam connections are blown
through. The boiler controls should operate as for lowered water level in boiler i.e. pump
running and / or audible alarm sounding and burner cut-out. Alternatively if the level control
chamber is fitted with a second or extra low water alarm, the boiler should lock-out.
 Pause for 5 to 8 seconds.
 Slowly turn the handwheel fully anticlockwise to shut-off against the back seating in the
‘normal working’ position.
 Sequencing purge valves are provided by a number of different manufacturers. Each may
differ in operating procedure. It is essential that the manufacturer’s instructions be followed
regarding this operation.
 Internally mounted level controls

Level control systems with sensors (or probes) which fit inside the boiler shell (or steam drum)
are also available. These provide a higher degree of safety than those fitted externally. The level
alarm systems may also provide a self-checking function on system integrity.

Because they are mounted internally, they are not subject to the procedures required to blow
down external chambers. System operation is tested by an evaporation test to ‘1st low’ position,
followed by blowing down to ‘2nd low’ position.

Protection tubes are fitted to discourage the movement of water around the sensor.

Air vents and vacuum breakers

When a boiler is started from cold, the steam space is full of air. This air has no heat value, and
will adversely affect steam plant performance due to its effect of blanketing heat exchange
surfaces. The air can also give rise to corrosion in the condensate system, if not removed
adequately.
 The air may be purged from the steam space using a simple cock; normally this would be left
open until a pressure of about 0.5 bar is showing on the pressure gauge. An alternative to the
cock is a balanced pressure air vent which not only relieves the boiler operator of the task of
manually purging air (and hence ensures that it is actually done), it is also much more accurate
and will vent gases which may accumulate in the boiler. Typical air vents are shown in
Figure 3.7.14.

When a boiler is taken off-line, the steam in the steam space condenses and leaves a vacuum.
This vacuum causes pressure to be exerted on the boiler from the outside, and can result in boiler
inspection doors leaking, damage to the boiler flat plates and the danger of overfilling a
shutdown boiler. To avoid this, a vacuum breaker (see Figure 3.7.14) is required on the
boiler shell.