Introduction to Electrical Drives Basics

Introduction To Electrical Drives
POWER CONVERTERS AND

DRIVES, PCVD320B • Drives are employed for systems that require
motion control.
• Motion control is required in large number of
ELEMENTS OF ELECTRIC industrial and domestic applications like
transportation systems, rolling mills, paper
DRIVE SYSTEMS machines, textile mills, machine tools, fans,
pumps, robots, washing machines etc.
ADEL ELGAMMAL • Prime movers are required in drive systems to
provide the movement or motion.
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL
THE UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO UTT THE UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO UTT
Introduction To Electrical Drives Introduction To Electrical Drives
Energy can come from various sources  Load is usually a machinery designed to
such as, diesel or petrol engines, gas or accomplish a given task, e.g. fans, pumps,
steam turbines, steam engines, hydraulic robots, washing machines, machine tools,
trains and drills.
motors and electric motors, for supplying
pp y g
 Usually load requirements can be specified in
mechanical energy for motion control. terms of speed and torque demands.
Drives that use electric motors as the  A motor having speed-torque characteristics
prime movers are known as electrical and capabilities compatible to the load
drives requirements is chosen.

Conventional Electric Drive Conventional variable speed

System electrical drive system
• A typical conventional electric drive system for • The system is obviously bulky, expensive,
variable speed application employing multi- inflexible and require regular maintenance.
machine system is shown in the following Figure. • In the past, induction and synchronous
machines were used for constant speed
applications – this was mainly because of the
unavailability of variable frequency supply.

1
Modern Electric Drive Modern Electric Drive
• With the advancement in power electronics,
microprocessors and digital electronics, typical electric • The voltage and current applied to the motor
drive systems nowadays are becoming more compact, can be changed at will by employing power
efficient, cheaper and versatile – this is shown in the electronic converters.
following Figure.
• AC motor is no longer limited to applications
where only AC source is available, however, it
can also be used when the power source
available is DC or vice versa

General Elements of Basic Components of an

Electric Drive System Electric Drive System
A modern electric drives system has six
functional basic component :
1.Mechanical load
2.Electric Motor
3.Power Source
4.Power Converter
5.Sensing Unit
6.Control Unit
Basic Components of an Multi-Disciplinary Nature of

Electric Drives System Electric Drive System
• Electric drives is multi-disciplinary field.

Various research areas can be sub-
di id d from
divided f electric
l t i drives
di as shown
h i
in
the following Figure.

2
Multi-Disciplinary Nature
of Electric Drive System
1. MECHANICAL
LOADS
NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION

OF LOAD TORQUES OF LOAD TORQUES
 The nature of load torque  Fans, compressors,
depends on particular aero-planes, centrifugal
application. pumps, ship-propellers,
 A low speed hoist is an coilers, high speed
example of a load where hoists, traction etc. are
the torque is constant and examples of the case
independent of speed. where load torque is a
function of speed.
Speed Torque Characteristic of Speed Torque Characteristic of

Mechanical Loads Mechanical Loads
• Mechanical loads exhibit wide variations of speed-torque k
characteristics, Generally can be expressed as :  n 
T  C Tr   , k   1,0 ,2
k  nr 
n
T  C Tr   Where :
 nr  C is proportionality constant
k   1,0,2 Tr is the loads torque
nr is speed of load
n is operating speed
3
Speed Torque Characteristic of Torque Independent of Speed
Mechanical Loads
• The mechanical power P of the load
torque T is given by : • Torque Independent of Speed (torque constant).The
power linear dependent of speed,
n • k=0
P  T ;   2  n 
k
60 • T=constant T  C Tr  
– Hoist  nr 
– Elevator
– Pumping against constant pressure
ADEL ELGAMMAL
ADEL ELGAMMAL
THE UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO UTT
Speed Constant Torque

The power linear dependent of speed
P~n
Speed
Torque
Power
Torque Proportional to
the Square of Speed Speed
k
 n 
T  C Tr   2
T~n
 nr 
•k=2
• Fans
• centrifugal pumps
• propellers Torque

4
Torque Inversely
Speed Proportional to Speed
k
 n 
T  C Tr  
 nr 
3
P~n
• k=-1
• Milling
Power • Drilling machines
Speed
Speed P is constant
1
T~
n
Torque Power

Electric Motors
• Motors obtain power from electrical sources.
• They convert energy from electrical to
mechanical - therefore can be considered as
2. Electric Motors gy converters.
energy
• In braking mode, the flow of power is reversed.
• Depending upon the type of power converters
used, it is also possible for the power to be fed
back to the sources (regenerative braking) rather
than dissipated as heat (dynamic braking).
5
Electric Motors Electric Motors
• There are several types of motors used in • AC motors:
electric drives – choice of the type used • Induction motors – squirrel cage, wound rotor
depends on applications, cost, environmental • Synchronous motors – wound field, permanent magnet
factors and also on the type of sources • Brushless DC motor – require power electronic
available. converters
• Broadly, they can be classified as either DC or • Stepper motors – require power electronic converters
AC motors: • Synchronous reluctance motors or switched reluctance
motor – require power electronic converters
• DC motors: (wound or permanent magnet)

Speed-Torque Characteristics of Speed-Torque Characteristics of

Electric Motors Electric Motors
Electric motors have wide variation of speed-torque characteristics
• Curve I : Synchronous or reluctance motor(Constant speed)
I (Synchronous) • Curve II : Shunt or separately excited dc motor(speed slightly
Speed
IV (Induction) reduced when the load torque increase)
II (dc Shunt/Separately excited) • Curve III : Series dc motor (speed is high at light loading
condition and low at heavyy loading)g)
• Curve IV : Induction motor (during steady state, they operation
at the linear portion of speed-torque characteristic speed is high
at light loading, the maximum developed torque is limited to
Tmax.
III (dc series excited) • In electric drive application, electric motors should be selected to
match the intended performance of loads. Ex: In constant speed
Torque application, the synchronous motor is probably the best option.
Tmax
Direct-Current Motors Shunt-Wound Motors

• This type of motor runs practically constant speed,
• DC motors are divided into three classes, regardless of the load. It is the type generally used in
designated according to the method of commercial practice and is usually recommended where
starting conditions are not usually severs.
connecting the armature and the field windings
• Speed of the shunt-wound motors may be regulated in
as shunt-series and compound wound.
wound
two ways: first, by inserting resistance in series with the
armature, thus decreasing speed: and second, by inserting
resistance in the field circuit, the speed will vary with
each change in load: in the latter, the speeds is practically
constant for any setting of the controller. This latter is the
most generally used for adjustable-speed service, as in
ADEL ELGAMMAL
the case of machine toolsADEL ELGAMMAL
6
Electric Motors Series-Wound DC Motors
I (Synchronous) • This type of motor speed varies automatically with
Speed
IV (Induction) the load, increasing as the load decreases.
II (dc Shunt/Separately excited) • Use of series motor is generally limited to case
where a heavy power demand is necessary to bring
the
h machine
hi up to speed, d as in
i theh case off certain i
elevator and hoist installations, for steel cars, etc.
• Series-wound motors should never be used where
III (dc series excited)
the motor can be started without load, since they
Torque will race to a dangerous degree
Tmax

Electric Motors Compound-Wound DC Motors
I (Synchronous) • A combination of the shunt wound and series

Speed
IV (Induction) wound types combines the characteristics of
II (dc Shunt/Separately excited) both.
• Characteristics may be varied by varying the
combination of the two windings.
• These motors are generally used where severe
III (dc series excited)
starting conditions are met and constant speed
is required at the same time
Torque
Tmax
Squirrel-Cage Induction
Motors Electric Motors
I (Synchronous)
• The most simple and reliable of all electric Speed
IV (Induction)
motors. II (dc Shunt/Separately excited)
• Essentially a constant speed machine, which is
adaptable for users under all but the most
severe starting conditions.
• Requires little attention as there are no
commutator or slip rings, yet operates with III (dc series excited)
good efficiency Torque

Tmax
7
Wound-Rotor (Slip Ring) Single Phase Induction
Induction motor Motors
• Used for constant speed-service requiring a heavier • This motor is used mostly in small sizes, where
starting torque than is obtainable with squirrel cage polyphase current is not available.
type. • Characteristics are not as good as the polyphase
• Because of its lower starting current,
current this type is motor and for size larger that 10 HP, HP the line
frequently used instead of the squirrel-cage type in
disturbance is likely to be objectionable.
larger sizes.
• These motors are also used for varying-speed-service. • These motors are commonly used for light
• Speed varies with this load, so that they should not be
starting and for running loads up to 1/3 HP
used where constant speed at each adjustment is • Capacitor and repulsion types provide greater
required, as for machine tools torque and are built in sizes up to 10 HP.
Synchronous Motors Electric Motors

• Run at constant speed fixed by frequency of the system.
• Require direct current for excitation and have low I (Synchronous)
Speed
starting torque. IV (Induction)
• For large motor-generators sets, frequency changes, air II (dc Shunt/Separately excited)
compressors
co p esso s aandd ssimilar
a appa
apparatus
atus wwhich
c pe permits
ts
starting under a light load, for which they are generally
used.
• These motors are used with considerable advantage,
particularly on large power systems, because of their III (dc series excited)
inherent ability to improve the power factor of the
system. Torque
Tmax
Electric Motor Selection Electric Motor Selection

The basic criterion in selecting an electric motor for 2. Environmental factors (determine the
a given drives application motor type)
1. Power level and performance required by the
• Ex: In food processing, chemical industries,
loads duringg steadyy state and dynamic
y operation.
p
steady-
aviation where the environment must be clean
aviation,
and free from arcs, dc motor can not be used
Ex: In application for which a high starting torque is
needed a dc series motor might be a better choice unless they are encapsulated.
than an ac induction motor.
• In Constant speed applications, synchronous motor be
more suitable than induction or dc motors
8
Electric Motor Selection Electric Motor Selection
3. The cost of the electric motors. 4. The function of converters (wave forms)
• In general, brushless dc motors are more • Ex: If the power source is an ac type and the
expensive, where as squirrel cage induction motor is a dc machine. The converter
motors are the cheaper transforms the ac waveform to dc.
dc (stability,
(stability
efficiency and performance of motor that using
this converter).

Power Sources
• Electrical sources or power supplies provide
the energy to the electrical motors.
• Power sources can be of AC or DC in nature
3 Power Sources
3. and normally y are uncontrollable, i.e. their
magnitudes or frequencies are fixed or depend
on the sources of energy such as solar or wind.

3. Power Sources 3. Power Sources

• AC source can be either three-phase or • Extensive industrial installation usually have
single-phase; 3-phase sources are more than one type of power sources at
normally for high power applications: 60 different voltages and frequencies,
Hz or 50 0 Hz, 240V/415V,
240 /41 220 /380
220V/380V, • Commercial airplanes,
airplanes for examples,
examples may have
120V/90V, 11kV/415V, etc. a 400Hz ac sources in additional a 270 volt
sources.

9
Power Converters
 Need for a converter arises when nature of the
available electrical power is different than what
is required for the motor. Power sources are
usually of the following types:
4. Power Converters (i) Fixed voltage and fixed frequency ac
(ii)Fixed voltage dc.
 For the control of dc motors one requires
variable dc voltage whereas for ac motors one
requires either fixed frequency variable voltage
ac or variable frequently variable voltage ac.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Power Converter Power Converters

Power converter performs one or more of the following II. Modulates flow of power from the source to the
four functions: motor in such a manner that motor is imparted speed-
I. convert and possibly regulate (i.e. using closed-loop torque characteristics required by the load.
control) the available sources (normally III. During transient operations, such as starting, braking
uncontrollable) to that the required (controllable) by and speed reversal, it restricts source and motor
an electric motor in order to achieve the desired currents within permissible values; excessive current
performance. drawn from source may overload it or may cause a
• Modern electric drives normally used power voltage dip.
IV. Selects the mode of operation of the motor, i.e.
electronic converters to shape the desired voltage or
motoring or braking.
current supplied to the motor.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Power Converters Type of Converters

• Power electronic converters have several advantages over 1. dc to ac converter (inverter). The output of
classical methods of power conversion, such as :
this converter is frequency, current/voltage
• More efficient – since ideally no losses occur in power
electronic converters
can be adjusted according to the application
• Flexible – voltage and current can be shaped by simply
controlling the switching functions of the power converter
• Compact – smaller, compact and higher ratings solid–state
power electronic devices are continuously being developed
– the prices are getting cheaper.

10
DC to AC Power Converters
 Inverters are employed to get a variable frequency as

supply from a fixed voltage dc supply.
 For the control of ac motor, voltage/current should also be
controlled along with frequency.
 Variation in output voltage/current can be achieved by
varying the input dc voltage.

Inverters Type of Converters

 This is achieved either by interposing a chopper in between
fixed voltage dc source and the inverter or the inverter may 2. dc to dc converter (dc chopper). The output of
be fed from an ac-dc converter. this converter is variable magnitude of voltage.
 Variable frequency and variable voltage ac is directly
obtained from fixed voltage dc when the inverter is
controlled by pulse-width modulation (PWM).
 The PWM control also reduces harmonics in the output
voltage.
 Inverters are built using semiconductor devices such as
thyristors, power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs and power
MOSFETs. They are controlled by firing pulses obtained
from a low power control unit.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Choppers or dc-dc Converters

DC to DC They are used to get variable voltage dc from a fixed
voltage dc and are designed using semiconductor devices
such as power transistors, IGBTs, GTOs, power
MOSFETs and thyristors. Output voltage can be varied
steplessly by controlling the duty ratio of the device by
low power signals from a control unit.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
11
Type of Converters
3. ac to dc converter (rectifier). The output of
this converter is variable magnitude of dc
voltage, input is single or three-phase ac
voltage.
voltage
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Type of Converters
4. ac to ac converter (ac chopper). The output of
this converter is frequency and ac variable
voltage, the input is constant frequency and ac
voltage.
voltage
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Cycloconverter
 Cycloconverter converts fixed voltage and frequency ac to
AC to AC variable voltage and variable frequency ac.
 They are built using thyristors and are controlled by firing
signals derived from a low power control unit.
 Output frequency is restricted to 40% of supply frequency in
oorder
de too keep
eep harmonics
a o cs in thee ou output
pu vovoltage
age aandd sou
source
ce
current within acceptable limits.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
ADEL ELGAMMAL
12
Control Unit
• The complexity of the control unit depends on
the desired drive performance and the type of
motors used.
5. Control Unit • A controller can be as simple as few op-amps
op amps
and/or a few digital ICs, or it can be as
complex as the combinations of several ASICs
and digital signal processors (DSPs).

Control Unit
Control Unit
• The types of the main controllers can be: • The control unit has to be electrically isolated from the power
• Analog circuit - which is noisy, inflexible. However analog converters for the following reasons:
circuit ideally has infinite bandwidth. • Malfuction in power circuit may damage control circuit if no
electrical isolation is present.
• digital circuit – immune to noise, configurable. The bandwidth is
• Safety for the operator – the high voltage and/or high current faulty
obviouslyy smaller than the analogg controller’s – depends
p on
condition in the power circuit can be conducted to the control circuit
sampling frequency normally maintained by an operator/user
• DSP/microprocessor – flexible, lower bandwidth compared to • Avoid conduction of harmonic to control circuit. Power electronic
the digital circuit. DSPs perform faster operation than converters generate harmonics that can conduct to the control circuit
microprocessors (multiplication in a single cycle). With a thus interfering with its operation.
DSP/microprocessor, complex estimations and observers can be Electrical isolation can be established using opto-coupler or pulse
easily implemented. transformers.

Sensors
• Sensors for voltage, current, speed or torque are
required for closed-loop operation and protections in
electrical drive systems.
6. Sensors • Again,
g the signals
g from these sensors have to be
isolated from the control unit for the same reasons as
explained before.
• Electrical isolation in voltage and current sensors are
obtained using, for example, hall effect sensors.

13
Sensors Selection of Electrical Drive
• There can be several factors that affect the selection of
• The terms ‘sensorless drives’ in electric drive different configuration of electrical drive system such
is referred to drive without mechanical speed as:
sensors installed. a) Torque and speed profile - determine the ratings of
• The speed in sensorless drive is estimated converters and the quadrant of operation required.
required
using motor terminal variables i.e. voltages b) Capital and running cost – Drive systems will vary in
and currents. terms of start-up cost and running cost, e.g.
maintenance.
c) Space and weight restrictions
d) Environment and location
Why Electric Drives Why Electric Drives

There are several advantages of electrical drives: d. Electric energy is easy to be transported.
a. Flexible control characteristic – This is particularly true
e. Adaptable to various operating conditions:
when power electronic converters are employed where
the dynamic and steady state characteristics of the motor explosive, submerged in liquid, various types
can be controlled by controlling the applied voltage or of mounting,
mounting etc
current. f. Can be started instantly and can be fully
b. Available in wide range of speed, torque and power loaded immediately (no need to warm-up the
c. High efficiency, lower noise, low maintenance motor)
requirements and cleaner operation

Why we need variable speed

drives
• Some industrial process need variable speed
drives (robots, machine tools, conveyors, etc.) Comparison Between
• Some industrial machines will be more
efficient if driven by a variable speed drive DC and AC Drives
(pumps, blowers, fans, etc.)
• Vehicle propulsion system.

14
Motors Control unit
• DC require maintenance, heavy, • DC drives: Simple control – decoupling torque and flux
by mechanical commutator – the controller can be
expensive, speed limited by mechanical implemented using simple analog circuit even for high
construction performance torque control. This means that cheaper cost
for the controller.
controller
• AC less maintenance, light, cheaper, • AC drives, the types of controllers to be used depend on
robust, high speed (esp. squirrel–cage the required drive performance – obviously, cost
type) increases with performance. Scalar control drives
technique does not require fast processor/DSP whereas in
Field Oriented Control (FOC) or Direct Torque Control
(DTC) drives, DSPs or fast processors are normally
ADEL ELGAMMAL employed. ADEL ELGAMMAL
Performance Performance
• In DC motors, flux and torque components are
• In AC machines, in particular the induction machines,
always perpendicular to one another thanks to
magnetic coupling between phases and between stator
the mechanical commutator and brushes. and rotor windings makes the modeling and torque
• The torque is controlled via the armature control difficult and complex.
current while maintaining the field component • Control of the steady state operating conditions is
constant. accomplished by controlling the magnitude and the
frequency of the applied voltage; which is known as
• Fast torque and decouple control between flux
the scalar control technique. This is satisfactory in
and torque components can be achieved easily. some applications.

Performance
• The transient states or the dynamics of the
machine can only be controlled by applying
the vector control technique whereby the Four-Quadrant Operation
decoupling between the torque and flux
components is achieved through frame
of A Drive System
transformations.
• Implementation of this control technique is
complex thus requires fast processors such as
DSPs.
15
Four-Quadrant Operation of Four-Quadrant Operation of A
A Drive System Drive System
• The ω–T plane with motor’s shaft cross sectional area is
shown in the following Figure.
• The positive or forward speed is arbitrarily chosen in
counterclockwise direction (it can also be chosen as
clockwise).
• The positive torque is in the direction that will produce
acceleration in forward speed, as shown in the figure.
• The plane is divided into 4 quadrants , thus 4 modes of
operation. The quadrants are marked as I, II, III and IV

Quadrant I Quadrant II
• Both torque and speed are positive – the motor rotates • The speed is in forward direction but the motor torque is in
opposite direction or negative value.
in forward direction, which is in the same direction as
• The torque produced by the motor is used to ‘brake’ the forward
the motor torque.
rotation of the motor.
• The power of the motor is the product of the speed and • The mechanical energy during the braking, is converted to
torque (P = Teω),
ω) therefore the power of the motor is electrical
l t i l energy – thus th th flow
the fl off energy isi from
f th
the
positive. mechanical system to the electrical system.
• Energy is converted from electrical form to mechanical • The product of the torque and speed is negative thus the power
form, which is used to rotate the motor. is negative, implying that the motor operates in braking mode.
• The mode of operation is known as forward braking.
• The mode of operation is known as forward motoring.

Quadrant III Quadrant IV

• The speed and the torque of the motor are in the same
direction but are both negative. • The speed is in reverse direction but the torque is
positive.
• The reverse electrical torque is used to rotate the motor
• The motor torque is used to ‘brake’ the reverse rotation of
in reverse direction.
the motor.
• The power,
power i.e.
i e the product of the torque and speed,
speed is • The mechanical energy gained during the braking is
positive implying that the motor operates in motoring converted to electrical form – thus power flow from the
mode. mechanical system to the electrical system.
• The energy is converted from electrical form to • The product of the speed and torque is negative implying
mechanical form. that the motor operates in braking mode.
• This mode of operation is known as reverse motoring. • This mode of operation is known as reverse braking.
16

Introduction to Electrical Drives Basics

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Introduction To Electrical Drives

POWER CONVERTERS AND

Introduction To Electrical Drives Introduction To Electrical Drives

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

Conventional Electric Drive Conventional variable speed

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

General Elements of Basic Components of an

Basic Components of an Multi-Disciplinary Nature of

• Electric drives is multi-disciplinary field.

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION

Speed Torque Characteristic of Speed Torque Characteristic of

Speed Constant Torque

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ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

Speed-Torque Characteristics of Speed-Torque Characteristics of

Direct-Current Motors Shunt-Wound Motors

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Electric Motors Compound-Wound DC Motors

I (Synchronous) • A combination of the shunt wound and series

good efficiency Torque

Synchronous Motors Electric Motors

Electric Motor Selection Electric Motor Selection

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3. Power Sources 3. Power Sources

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Power Converter Power Converters

Power Converters Type of Converters

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 Inverters are employed to get a variable frequency as

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Inverters Type of Converters

Choppers or dc-dc Converters

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ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

Why Electric Drives Why Electric Drives

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

Why we need variable speed

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ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

ADEL ELGAMMAL ADEL ELGAMMAL

Quadrant III Quadrant IV

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