Maria Saña Segui

Daniel Helmer
Joris Peters
Angela Von Den Driesch

Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant

In: Paléorient. 1999, Vol. 25 N°2. pp. 27-48.

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

Saña Segui Maria, Helmer Daniel, Peters Joris, Von Den Driesch Angela. Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant. In:
Paléorient. 1999, Vol. 25 N°2. pp. 27-48.

doi : 10.3406/paleo.1999.4685

http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/paleo_0153-9345_1999_num_25_2_4685
Abstract
Morphometrical as well as circumstantial evidence indicate that the domestication of sheep and
probably also of goat took place in the southern Taurus piedmont during the Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic
В period (EPPNB). Though caprine husbandry becomes more common in the Northern Levant in the
course of the Middle Pre-Pottery Neolithic В (MPPNB), it is observed that remains of sheep and goat
account for less than 30 % of the MPPNB bone samples. Thus the incorporation of sheep and goat into
the economy of these early sites is less "revolutionary " than the term "Neolithic revolution " might
suggest. In the course of the MPPNB two other species acquired domestic status, though apparently in
different regions : Bos in the Middle Euphrates Basin and Sus in south-eastern Turkey. By the end of
the PPNB, livestock husbandry formed a major component of human subsistence economies
throughout the Northern Levant. Except for Ovis, which seem to have been introduced into the Southern
Levant from the north, much about the process of diffusion of these farm animals from their centre(s) of
domestication to adjacent regions needs to be learned.
While the socio-cultural changes during the 11th and 10th millennia cal. ВС leading to more complex,
socially stratified societies in the Northern Levant conceivably provided the cultural background against
which caprine domestication could take place, we still continue to speculate on why livestock came to
be incorporated into the ace ramie Neolithic economy. According to archaeological and palaeobotanical
evidence, large scale climatic change and/or landscape deterioration now seem unlikely, reinforcing the
idea that socio-cultural factors were primarily responsible for this shift in the pattern of animal
exploitation.

Résumé
Que ce soient les arguments morphométriques ou. d'autres plus indirects, la domestication du mouton
et fort probablement celle de la chèvre prend place durant, le PPNB ancien dans les piémonts sud du
Taurus. Même si l'élevage se généralise dans le Levant Nord, au cours du PPNB moyen, les
fréquences de chèvres et de moutons ne dépassent pas 30 % des restes osseux de cette période.
Ainsi, l'introduction de ces petits ruminants dans l'économie de ces sites anciens parait moins «
révolutionnaire » que l'expression « Révolution Néolithique » ne l'implique. Au cours du PPNB moyen,
deux autres espèces acquièrent un statut domestique dans deux régions différentes : Bos dans le
bassin du moyen Euphrate et Sus dans le sud-est de la Turquie. A la fin du. PPNB l'élevage du bétail
formait une importante composante de l'économie de subsistance humaine dans tout le Levant nord. À
l'exception d''Ovis qui semble avoir été introduit dans le Levant sud à partir du Nord, les modalités du
processus de diffusion des animaux de ferme depuis leur(s) centre(s) de domestication vers les régions
adjacentes, ont encore besoin d'être étudiées.
Même si nous sommes assurés que les changements socioculturels du 11e et du 10e millénaire ВС
calibré se complexifient et que les sociétés socialement stratifiées du Levant nord bâtissent l'arrière-
plan culturel, dans lequel la domestication des caprines prend place, nous continuons encore à nous
interroger sur les causes de l'introduction du bétail dans l'économie du Néolithique précéramique. En.
nous fondant sur les évidences archéozoologiques et paléobotaniques, les changements climatiques de
grande amplitude et/ou les détériorations du milieu nous paraissent maintenant improbables dans cette
région. Ceci nous renforce dans l'idée que les facteurs socioculturels ont été à l'origine du changement
d'exploitation des animaux.
Early Animal Husbandry

in the Northern Levant

j. Peters, d. helmer, a. von den driesch and M. Sana Segui

Abstract : Morphometrical as well as circumstantial evidence indicate that the domestication of sheep and probably also of goat
took place in the southern Taurus piedmont during the Early P re- Pottery Neolithic В period (EPPNB). Though caprine husbandry
becomes more common in the Northern Levant in the course of the Middle Pre-Potterv Neolithic В (MPPNB), it is observed that
remains of sheep and goat account for less than 30 % of the MPPNB bone samples. Thus the incorporation of sheep and goat
into the economy of these early sites is less "revolutionary " than the term "Neolithic revolution " might suggest. In the course of
the MPPNB two other species acquired domestic status, though apparently in different regions : Bos in the Middle Euphrates Basin
and Sus in south-eastern Turkey. By the end of the PPNB, livestock husbandry formed a major component of human subsistence
economies throughout the Northern Levant. Except for Ovis, which seem to have been introduced into the Southern Levant from
the north, much about the process of diffusion of these farm animals from their centre(s) of domestication to adjacent regions
needs to be learned.
While the socio-cultural changes during the I Ith and 10th millennia cal. ВС leading to more complex, socially stratified societies
in the Northern Levant conceivably provided the cultural background against which caprine domestication could take place, we
still continue to speculate on why livestock came to be incorporated into the ace ramie Neolithic economy. According to arch.ae07.00-
logical and palaeobotanical evidence, large scale climatic change and/or landscape deterioration now seem unlikely, reinforcing
the idea that socio-cultural factors were primarily responsible for this shift in the pattern of animal exploitation.
Résumé : Que ce soient les arguments morphométriques ou. d'autres plus indirects, la domestication du mouton et fort probablement
celle de la chèvre prend place durant, le PPNB ancien dans les piémonts sud du Taurus. Même si V élevage se généralise dans le
Levant Nord, au cours du PPNB moyen, les fréquences de chèvres et de moutons ne dépassent pas 30 % des restes osseux de cette
période. Ainsi, l'introduction de ces petits ruminants dans l'économie de ces sites anciens parait moins « révolutionnaire » que
l'expression « Révolution Néolithique » ne l'implique. Au cours du PPNB moyen, deux autres espèces acquièrent un statut domestique
dans deux régions différentes : Bos dans le bassin du moyen Euphrate et Sus dans le sud-est de la Turquie. A la fin du. PPNB
l'élevage du bétail formait une importante composante de i économie de subsistance humaine dans tout le Levant nord. À l'exception
c/'Ovis qui semble avoir été introduit dans le Levant sud à partir du Nord, les modalités du processus de diffusion des animaux
de ferme depuis leur(s) centre(s) de domestication vers les régions adjacentes, ont encore besoin d'être étudiées.
Même si nous sommes assurés que les changements socioculturels du 1 Ie et du 10e millénaire ВС calibré se complexifient et que
les sociétés socialement stratifiées du Levant nord bâtissent i arrière-plan culturel, dans lequel la domestication des caprines prend
place, nous continuons encore d nous interroger sur les causes de l'introduction du bétail dans l'économie du Néolithique
précéramique. En. nous fondant sur les évidences archéoz.oologiques et paléobotaniques, les changements climatiques de grande
amplitude et/ou les détériorations du milieu nous paraissent maintenant improbables dans cette région. Ceci nous renforce dans
l'idée que les facteurs socioculturels ont été à l'origine du changement d'exploitation des animaux.
Key-Words : Northern. Levant, PPN. domestication, Capra. Ovis. Bos. Sus.
Mots Clefs : Levant Nord, PPN, domestication, Capra. Ovis. Bos. Sus.

Paléorient. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 С CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000 Manuscrit reçu le 12 octobre, accepté le 16 décembre 1999
28 J. Peters, D. Helmer, A. von den Driesch and M. Saňa Segui

INTRODUCTION southern Levant being doubtful, it was concluded that do

mesticated caprines must have been introduced into the region
from the north. The diffusion explanation, now widely ac
In 1959 CA. Reed summarised the state of archaeozoo-
cepted for sheep8, is still debated for goat9.
logical research in south-western Asia with respect to animal
Originally the appearance of Neolithic sedentary food-pro
domestication as follows "At present we can only say that
ducingeconomies in the northern Levant was believed to be
:
domestication of the goat probably falls between 9 000 and the result of an endemic movement from the southern Levant
8 000 BP, and that the domestication of the other three by the beginning of the PPNB. After the discovery of PPNA
primary food animals (cattle, sheep, pigs) followed some time sites such as Tell Mureybet in Syria, however, the initial area
thereafter... All archaeological work to date in the Near East
of the Neolithic formation was expanded northward to include
suggests that both agriculture and animal domestication (with
the Middle Euphrates basin. Moreover, recent archaeological
the possible exception of that of the dog) had their origins work has shown that south-eastern Turkey also must be
in the hilly, grassy, and open-forested flanks of the Zagros, considered part of this area10.
Lebanese, and Palestinian mountains" '.
Of particular interest in the context of early food-producing
Four decades later, the number of Upper Palaeolithic and
economies are the origin and spread of animal husbandry.
Neolithic archaeofaunas analysed and published has increased Archaeozoological work in the 1970' s and 1980' s already
considerably. Among the Upper Palaeolithic sites, those as suggested that the PPNB inhabitants of the Northern Levant
sociated with the Natufian culture have received much atten might have been involved in this process11. As a result of
tion, because this culture occupies a special place in the
the intensive fieldwork in the area during the last decade,
evolution of societies in the Near East. In many, though not
important findings regarding ungulate domestication and de
all, Natufian communities cereals formed a major element of velopment of livestock husbandry have been made. Therefore
the human diet, implying a (semi)sedentary way of life, which a site by site synopsis of the state of research will be presented
eventually developed into a kind of simple agriculture2. For in this paper.
their animal proteins, however, the Natufians depended ex
Figure 1 gives the locations of the sites mentioned in the
clusively on wild animals3, even though they kept domestic
text. Culturally these PPN sites exhibit close affinities to the
dogs4, which supposedly did not contribute to the diet. Levantine sites, so the different PPN phases devised for the
Since the transition from hunter-gatherer to farmer in the Levant are applicable (fig. 2)12.
Near East is most apparent in Palestine and the southern
Levant, it was assumed that the Proto-Neolithic inhabitants
of these regions were also involved in the domestication of
THE ARCHAEOFAUNAS
sheep and goat. This view had to be abandoned in the 1980's
after it was realised that in the southern Levant there was no
major change in the pattern of exploitation of animal resources The following overview of the sites with their dating and
from the early Natufian until the MPPNB5. As such, PPNA main faunal characteristics includes the results of earlier fau
and EPPNB faunal assemblages from the southern Levant fit nal work (in short) as well as recently published fauna! studies
the generalised hunting pattern with a dominance of gazelle6. and unpublished data (in more detail). For the two sub-regions
Though MPPNB sites do show an increase in caprine remains, concerned, the sites are listed according to their archaeological
the bones morphometrically still resemble the wild form(s), chronology.
while caprine remains from LPPNB contexts exhibit both
metric and morphological features characteristic of domestic NORTHERN SYRIA
animals7. The local domestication of sheep and goat in the
The number of aceramic Neolithic sites in northern Syria
which had been studied by the end of the seventies was very
1. Reed, 1959.
2. Henry, 1989.
3. E.g. Tchernov, 1991, 1994. 8. Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, 1989; Ducos, 1993; Horwitz and
4. Davis and Valla, 1978; Tchernov and Valla, 1997. Ducos, 1998.
5. Bar-Yosef and Belfer-Cohen, 1989; Tchernov, 1993. 9. Von den Driesch and Wodtke, 1997 Horwitz et al, this volume.
6. Horwitz, 1989, 1993; Horwitz and Ducos, 1998. 10. Ózdogan, 1998.
;

7. Horwitz, 1993; Von den Driesch and Wodtke, 1997; Horwitz et 11. Legge, 1975, 1996; Helmer, 1994.
ai, this volume 61-80. 12. Ózdogan, 1998.
:

Paléorient, vol. 25/2, 1999, p. 27-47 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000

Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant 29

Fig. 1 : Map of the study area with location of the sites mentioned.

DatesB.C.cal. Dates 14C

years B.P. Cultures Sites
7000
6000 Ceramic El Kowm2 PNA
Neolithic Aray 2 Sabi Abyad Ça vonii Tell Sotto
7600 and El Kowm2 PPNB [Га ula 20-34 Kul Tepe
Final PPNB limmelTlel Ab x Hurcyra Bouqras6-1 Ça yotra
1С
Qdeir Giirculepc
8000 Ras Shamra
7000 LPPNB RasVA/B Shamra Ha ula 10-19 Bouqrasll-7 Cji rciitcpc Hayaz Ça yonu Magzalia?
VC Ab j Hurcyra Tell es Sinn itil e
2B
SOOO Tell Assouad
M PPNB H ilula 1-9 Neval Çori Ça viini
8000 Mu eybetlVB IV Cafe Hôyûk
i

Ab Fl2Aureyra 11
i

EřPNU Dja'dé Gobekli Tepe Nevalí Çori Ça yonii

9600 CheMurcybel
kh HassanVA I/ I Cafe Hoyûk
1

9000 Gflbckh lepe Ça vônù

PPNA Jcrf el Ahmar Halla n Çcmi
CheMur eybet II
kh Hassan
Khiamian M rcybct I Flalla n Çcmi
10000
10300
Final M jreybet I Halla n Çcmi
Natufian
Late Abu Hureyra I
11000 Natufian

F.arlyan
Natufi
2000 12000
1

Geometric Cmm el Tlei

Kebaran

Fig. 2 : Chronology of PPN sites in Northern Syria and So ut h- Eastern Turkey.

Paléorient. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 G CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000

30
low Tell Mureybet and Tell Abu Hureyra. The following
:
decade tripled this number with four new sites (Bouqras, Tell
es Sinn, Tell Assouad, Ras Shamra). During the 1990's, eight
new sites have been published more or less exhaustively from
either long term excavations (El Kowm 2, Qdeir, Umm el
Tlel, Aray 2, Tell Sabi Abyad) or from rescue excavations
in the Euphrates valley (Jerf el Ahmar, Dja'de, Tell Halula).
To these, unpublished data from Tell Mureybet and Tell
Cheikh Hassan can be added.
Tell Mureybet is situated on the left bank of the Euphrates
near a ford. The study by Ducos l3 examined the fauna!
material from the excavations by van Loon (Phases II and
III - Khiamian and PPNA) and Cauvin (Phase IV - EPPNB
and MPPNB), with emphasis on the larger mammals, from
gazelle to aurochs and concluded that remains of domestic
animals are lacking. It was observed that over time hunting
focussed increasingly on larger species and that during the
Khiamian and the PPNA hunting of Bos concentrated on
young animals and adult bulls. The EPPNB and MPPNB
faunas, however, are characterised by a high proportion of
remains from adults, cows and bulls being present in almost
equal proportions14. Ducos called this shift in exploitation
pattern "proto-élevage" (proto-breeding), a misleading term
to refer to what is in fact a case of selective hunting.
More recent excavations at Tell Mureybet produced large
samples of animal remains from the late Natufian (Phase I)
to the MPPNB (Phase IVB), including the Khiamian (Phase
II), the PPNA (Phase III), and the EPPNB (Phase IVA). The
fauna! analysis by Helmer confirms the observations by Ducos
that domestic ungulates are absent from the Late Natufian
through the EPPNB, though dogs are present15. The dominant
taxa are Gaze lia, Equus (at least two species), and Bos. Birds,
rodents, and fishes are relatively abundant in the oldest phases
and become much rarer in the course of time. Two bones
from the MPPNB may indicate the presence of Copra a
:
humérus of small size certainly identified as goat16 and an
incomplete proximal metatarsal which may also belong to
this species. The Bos remains from this phase are on average
relatively small in size, but it is not possible to say whether
they belonged to female aurochs or to large domestic cattle.
The "proto-élevage" hunting pattern appears to be specific
for PPNB Tell Mureybet, it has not been observed either at
EPPNB Dja'de or at EPPNB Cheikh Hassan17.
13. Ducos. 1978: Ducos and Helmer, 1980.
1.4. Helmer et ai, in prep.
15. Helmer. 1991.
16. Diagnosis confirmed by J.-D. Vigne, to whom our warmest thanks.
17. Helmer. 1994.
J. Peters, D. Helmer, A. von den Dríesch and M. Sana Seglt
Tell Abu Hureyra is situated on the right bank of the
Euphrates near Meskene. It was the object of several trial
excavations, exposing zones with differing cultures Late
:
Natufian, MPPNB, LPPNB, and ceramic Neolithic. In a pre
liminary study by Legge18, changes in the management of
animal resources between the earliest and the most recent
occupation are described. The Natufian remains indicate that
economic subsistence strategies were centred on gazelles,
complemented by equids and caprines. Analogous results have
been obtained for the MPPNB. A significant change is ob
served during the LPPNB occupation, with an inversion in
the frequencies of gazelles (18.6%) and caprines (70.5 %).
A similar pattern is attested during the ceramic Neolithic
(gazelles 21.6 %, caprines 68.7 %). Throughout the sequence,
the genera Cervus, Bos, and Sus have much lower frequencies.
Interestingly, the exploitation of gazelles was seasonal, in
contrast to that of the caprines, which were slaughtered all
the year round19.
Contrary to an earlier study20, however, it is now clear
that Capra is absent during the late Natufian, its introduction
(as a domesticate) dating to the MPPNB21. This coincides
with a slight increase in caprine remains (from 6% to 12-
14 % of the large mammal bones). But it is not until the
LPPNB that remains of caprines dominate the assemblage
(65-75 %). The change in the gazelle/caprine ratio is to be
explained both by the increase in caprine husbandry and by
a reduction in gazelle hunting because the reduced vegetation
cover due to the feeding activities of livestock near the
settlement in the later phases would have rendered the site
catchment increasingly less attractive to wild ungulates.
The criteria used to illustrate the practice of caprine her
ding are 1 ) the reduced height at the withers, 2) the similar
:
size of the sheep/goat remains from Abu Hureyra and other
south-west Asian sites, and 3) the fact that the slaughter
patterns in the earlier and later PPN levels are virtually
identical.
The large Early Neolithic village of Jerf el Ahmar is
situated on the left bank of the Euphrates circa 70 km to the
north of Tell Mureybet (fig. 1). The occupation of the site
began in the PPNA, with levels which may be EPPNB at the
summit of the tell. As in other sites of the same period, there
are no domesticated animals except dogs22. Hunting essent
ially focussed on Equus, Gaz.ella, and Bos. From the fauna!
18. Legge, 1975.
19. Legge and Rowley-Conwy, 1987.
20. Legge, 1972. 1977.
21. Legge, 1996: 256 ff.
22. Helmer. 1994; Helmer et al., 1998.
Paléorient. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 О CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000
Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant
composition and the larger size of certain species it can be
deduced that the environment near Jerf el Ahmar was more
humid than at Tell Mureybet23.
Excavations at Tell Cheikh Hassan, a site located to the
north of Tell Mureybet, focussed on levels dating to the PPNA
and EPPNB. A preliminary study of the fauna24 indicates the
absence of domestic animals except for the dog. The PPNA
faunal spectrum is similar to the one at Tell Mureybet, with
high percentages of Equus, Gaze lia and Bos. The EPPNB
fauna closely resembles that of the preceding period, except
for a higher percentage of gazelles.
The EPPNB site of Dja'de lies on the left bank of the
Euphrates, 30 kilometres north of Jerf el Ahmar. Excavations
still continue and only preliminary information about its fauna
is available25. It differs only in detail from other PPNA faunas
and from the EPPNB assemblage of Tell Cheikh Hassan, both
in terms of taxa present and frequencies.
Upstream from Jerf el Ahmar on the north bank of the
Wadi Kalkal, two kilometres west of the Euphrates, lies Tell
Halula. The archaeological sequence of this large Neolithic
village indicates occupation from the MPPNB to the Halaf
period. Fauna! analysis of the bone material from the PPN
levels has indicated the moment of domestication and/or
introduction of the four main domestic species26. During the
early MPPNB, subsistence was based mainly upon the hunting
of aurochs (10.5 % to 21.8 %), gazelles (13.1 % to 26.0 %).
suids (4.2 % to 15.7 %), cervids (3.6 % to 14.4 %) and equids
(0.3 % to 3.2 %). It also included the husbandry of goats,
which contributed significantly to the diet of the site inhabi
tants(26.3 % to 39.5 %)27. The frequency of Ovis does not
exceed 0.1 % in any of the levels of this early occupation
stage. Towards the end of the MPPNB, however, the site
witnessed the introduction of domestic sheep, as well as an
increasing importance of caprine husbandry in the economy
of the site.
Once caprine husbandry was firmly established at the
beginning of the LPPNB, domestic cattle appear in the faunal
record of Tell Halula and the number of wild animals declined
drastically. Consequently, the domestication of Bos must a
lready have started during the preceding MPPNB. Considering
23. Helmer et ai. 1998.
24. Helmer. 1994: Helmer et ai. 1998.
25. I hid,
26. Sana Seguí. 1997. 1999.
27. Probably because goat herding had only barely begun. This situation
is comparable to that at Tell Abu Hureyra. in that there existed a cultural
inertia characterising the transition between an economy based exclusively
on hunting and one with a fully developed animal husbandry.
Paléoiïenl. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 ^ CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000
31
that reduction in size is one of the characteristic features of
animal domestication, we compared measurements of Bos tali
from Natufian to LPPNB levels of the Syrian Euphrates Basin.
On figure 3a diminution in size of Bos from the MPPNB
onward becomes visible While the Bos tali from the earlier
:
occupation stages (Final Natufian/Khiamian. PPNA. and
EPPNB) form two clusters (cows and bulls) in the scatter-
grams (fig. 3a-c), such a clear division is lacking in the
scattergrams of Bos tali from later deposits (fig. 3d, e) because
of the appearance of smaller individuals of both sexes in the
assemblages. Furthermore, a size comparison by means of the
LSI (or log size index) method28 between wild cattle remains
from PPNA Gobekli Tepe and EPPNB Ne vah Çori on the
one hand and the Bos remains from MPPNB Tell Halula and
LPPNB Gu'rcutepe on the other hand (fig. 7) revealed that
the MPPNB cattle from Tell Halula were significantly smaller
than those from earlier periods. If not an artefact of sampling,
this shift in size toward smaller individuals can be considered
indicative for the keeping and breeding in captivity of at least
part of the Bos population.
The scarce remains of Sus recovered at Tell Halula do not
provide enough information to understand in detail its do
mestication. However, the presence of domestic pig at the
beginning of the LPPNB implies, as for cattle, that it was
domesticated at least by the end of the MPPNB. Parallel to
the appearance of domestic cattle and pigs in the fauna!
record, sheep gradually acquired a quantitative importance
superior to that of goats29.
The site of Bouqras30 is located near the junction of the
Habur and Euphrates rivers. The archaeofaunas come from
levels dating to the LPPNB and the ceramic Neolithic and
are characterised by a prevalence of domestic caprines, with
sheep being dominant3'. Bos also played an important role
in the economy of the site, both wild and domestic cattle
being present. Some of the remains of Sus are probably
domestic. Hunting was of minor importance and essentially
focussed upon gazelles.
The LPPNB site of Tell es Sinn is situated 30 km
upstream from Bouqras on the north side of the Euphrates.
The majority of the faunal remains pertain to caprines, with
28. This technique is employed to investigate variability in animal size
through time and across space when analytical units of interest contain only
small numbers of measurable skeletal parts: for details see Meadow. 1981.
1999.
29. Sana Segi i. 1997. 1999.
30. Clason. 1979-1980: Buitenhuis. 1988.
31. According to Buitenhuis. sheep and goats are in equal proportions
in the earlier levels. The proportion shifts in favour of sheep in the latest
levels.
32 J. Peters, D. Helmer, A. von den Driesch and M. Sana Segui

65 п Bos - Talus - Syrian Euphrates P

63 -1
61 P
59 P П
57
S 55-
53 ч G \.
51
49 П 1
47 -

GLm
PPNA

6os - Talus - Syrian Euphrates 65 -, Bos - Talus - Syrian Euphrates

65 -, 63
63 61
61 D 59
59 G 57

■
57 -> S 55
S 55- □ x 53
53 \ 51 an \
51 D 49 a □D gag aD- \'
49 П 47
47 - 45 G
П
a ■*. Ol 00 О GLm
GLm EPPNB MPPNB
!

65 -, Bos - Talus - Syrian Euphrates

63
61
59
57 п
S 55
■

53 р ^С
51 ff \
49 п п D \
47
■ ■

45 aк пп
GLm
LPPNB

Fig. 3 : Bos. Measurements of tali from Natufian to LPPNB contexts from sites located in the Syrian Euphrates Basin. Tali from male and
female wild cattle are separated by a line.

Ovis outnumbering Capra. Bos ranks second, followed by
Gaze lia and Sus. Osteometrically both the wild and the do
mestic form are present for Ovis, Capra, and Bos, though the
latter is clearly dominant32.
Tell Assouad is located 20 km to the south of Tell Sabi
Abyad on the left bank of the Nahr el Turkman, a tributary
of the Balikh. During the LPPNB occupation of the site,
people kept sheep and goats in large numbers, the latter being
the dominant species. Bos is large in size and perhaps wild,
while Sus is large for certain bones, smaller for others.
32. Clason, 1979-1980.
However, the presence of domestic pig could not be ascer
tained due to the small sample size33.
Human inhabitation at Ras Shamra, a site located on the
Mediterranean coast, lasted from the beginning of the LPPNB
to the Early Bronze Age. A preliminary faunal analysis has
shown that besides caprines, domestic cattle and pigs are also
present in the LPPNB. In all the occupation periods, cattle
and pigs are characterised by high frequencies, generally even
higher than that of sheep and goats34.
33. Helmer, 1985.
34. Helmer, 1989, 1992.

Paléorient, vol. 25/2, 1999, p. 27-47 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000

Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant
Sites dating to the final PPNB (PPNC) and earliest ceramic
Neolithic are El Kowm 235. Umm el Tlel36, Qdeir37, Tell
Aray 238, and Tell Sabi Abyad39. At these sites, animal
husbandry forms the basis of the economy, but the species
composition depended on the natural environment surroun
ding the sites. For instance, at El Kowm 2, Qdeir and Umm
el Tlel, located in the Syrian steppe, pig remains are absent
except for a single Sus bone (from Umm el Tlel), which
probably belongs to a wild boar, while respectively 4 % and
27 % of the Sus bones from Tell Sabi Abyad and Tell Aray
belonged to domestic pigs.
Three Neolithic settlements located in the piedmont of
Jebel Sinjar40 in North Iraq should briefly be mentioned, i.e.
LPPNB Magzalia41 and early ceramic Neolithic Tell Sotto
and Kiil Tepe. At LPPNB Magzalia domestic sheep and goats
are already present in the earliest levels. The domestication
status of Bos is uncertain if its size corresponds to that of
:
wild cattle in the earliest levels, the remains of the later levels
indicate much smaller animals (though the sample is small).
Sus is poorly represented and of large size. At Tell Sotto and
Kiil Tepe Ovis, Capra, Bos, and Sus are domestic.
SOUTH-EASTERN AND EASTERN TURKEY
At the end of the eighties, published faunal analyses were
available for only four sites in south-eastern Turkey, namely
Cayônii Tepesi, Hayaz Hôyiik, Gritille Hôyiik, and Cafer
Hoyiik. Recent archaeozoological studies deal with the faunal
remains from Hallan Çemi Tepesi, Cayonii Tepesi, Go'bekli
Tepe and Giircutepe, while a detailed report on the fauna
from Nevah Çori will be published in the near future.
Hallan Çemi Tepesi is a small mound situated in the
eastern Taurus. It is located on the western bank of a tributary
of the Batman River and the Tigris. Site occupation is broadly
contemporary with the end of the Natufian and the beginning
of the PPNA in the Levant. During excavation three aceramic
levels with circular structures arranged around a central area
were recognised. The central area produced most of the bone
material, together with three crania of Ovis orientalis that had
been arranged purposefully. Caprines account for 45 % of the
35. Helmer. 2000.
36. Helmer and Sana. 1993.
37. Excavation in progress: Helmer. 1992.
38. Hongo. 1996b.
39. Cavallo. 1995. 1997.
40. Helmer. 1994.
41. A preliminary faunal study was carried out by Gadjief in 1989.
Paléorienl. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 ^ CNRS EDITIONS 2000
33
sample, Ovis outnumbering Capra by far (18: I)42. Other
important species are red deer (25 %) and Sus (17 %). Except
for one Bos primigenius skull, remains of wild cattle were
not found at the site43. Based on bone morphology and the
high percentage (66 %) of adults (> 42 months), the Ovis/Ca-
pra remains, which show a bias in favour of male individuals,
are considered to represent wild animals44. Conversely, tooth
size, kill-off pattern, bias toward males, body part data, and
inter-site comparison were interpreted as evidence that the
site inhabitants practised some form of pig husbandry45 (but
see below).
The extensive site of Çayônii Tepesi is situated by a small
tributary of the Tigris River in the Taurus foothills. Ongoing
excavations since 1 963 have shown that the site covers almost
the entire span of the Neolithic period and that each sub-phase
is characterised by particular types of buildings46. In two
earlier faunal reports the remains have been lumped into
material from "earlier" and "uppermost" levels47. The earlier
level is now known to correspond to the Round Building
(PPNA) to the Cobble-paved and Cell-plan Building sub-phas
es and the uppermost levels to the late Cell-plan and Large
Room Building sub-phases48. During the earlier occupation
phase people hunted a variety of ungulates, essentially wild
boar (46.8 %), aurochs (15.4 %), and red deer (17.7 %), wher
eas caprines only accounted for 20 % of the sample49. In
the later assemblage 76 % of the material comes from capri
nes50 and a shift within the caprines from predominantly
goats to a dominance of sheep is visible51. The increased
proportion of caprines in the uppermost levels, the changed
proportion of sheep and goat, and the fact that the animals
of these Late/Final PPNB levels appear to be smaller than
42. Rosenberg el al.. 1995 5 ff 1998.
43. Rosenberg el ai, 1998 28 ff.
: :
.:
44. Of the 28 caprine bones that could be reliably sexed. 19 are from
males and only 9 from females: Rosenberg el ai, 1998 33. According to
Redding, such selective hunting of males is more typical of animal husbandry
:
than of hunting. However, bone samples from wild ruminants, for example
gazelle, often show male biassed sex ratios (e.g. Cope. 1991).
45. Rosenberg et ai, 1995. 1998.
46. This building sequence is essential for our understanding of the
cultural developments during the PPN of the East Taurus Region. From
bottom to top the (sub)-phases are 1) Round Building (PPNA). 2) Grill-plan
Building (final PPNA and EPPNB). 3) Channel Building (MPPNB). 4)
:
Cobble-paved Building (MPPNB). 5) Cell-plan Building (LPPNB), 6) Large
Room Building (Final PPNB = PPNC of the Southern Levant). 7) Pottery
Neolithic: see Çambel and Braidwood. 1980: Braidwood and Braidwood.
1982: Ozdogan and Ôzdogan. 1998 584.
47. Lawrence. 1980. 1982.
:
48. Hongo and Meadow, in press.
49. Lawrence. 1982 199. Table 4: based on relative frequency counts
sensu Perkins and Daly. 1968 98 ff.
:
50. Lawrence. 1982 183.
:
51. Lawrence. 1982 199. Table 4.
: :
34 J. Peters. D. Hel.vier. A. von den Driesch and M. Sana Segui

their relatives from the earlier levels52 are indicative that they
were domestic33. Conversely, the sharp decline in numbers
of Bos (only 2.8 % in the uppermost levels) suggests that we
are still dealing with wild cattle. Based on a limited review
of dental remains from the 1964 campaign, StampflP4 noted
the presence of domestic pigs, but the timing of the appea
rance of the domestic form remained unclear55.
Recent research at Cayônu focussed on the remains of Sus,
Bos, and Cervus e lap hus (red deer) from PPN contexts ex
cavated between 1986 and 1991 56. Sus is the most commonly
encountered taxon at Cayônii throughout the Prepottery Neol
ithic. However, neither the kill-off patterns nor the size of
pigs show the unequivocal characteristics of a fully domestic
population, though some general trends in the analysed Sus
data toward features that can be considered as characteristic
of domestic populations are noted57. Interestingly, kill-off
patterns and size indices for Bos show similar trends to those
for Sus5H. Progressively earlier kill-off is observed starting
from the Channel Building sub-phase (EPPNB). Although the
samples are small, size diminution in cattle through time is
suggested both by progressively smaller mean values and the
appearance in the EPPNB and MPPNB of animals smaller
than the documented range of wild cattle59, in contrast to
cattle, no changes are observed in the size or kill-off patterns
of red deer through time60.
As to sheep and goat, it is not clear whether domestic
animals are present in the recently studied collection. While
already in the Round Building sub-phase (PPNA) there seem
to be relatively small individuals, wild sheep and goats appear
to have been actively hunted at least through the Large Room
sub-phase (Final PPNB)61. Of importance, however, is the
fact that a microscopic analysis of the silt fraction in the
PPNB sediments of Çayônii revealed the presence of caprine
dung, indicating that sheep and/or goats were living near or
even at the site during the LPPNB (Cell-plan Building sub-
phase)62.
Fig. 4 : T-formed stone pillar from Gobekli Tepe with aurochs, fox,
and crane (?). Photograph by D. Johannes (DAI-Istanbul),
reproduced with kind permission of the German Archaeological
52. Uerpmann. 1979 Fig. 5 Lawrence. 1.982 Table 1.2 Legge. 1996 Institute (DAI), Istanbul.
figs 13.2-13.6.
:
;

53. Lawrence. 1.982; Legge. 1996.

54. Cf. Lawrence. 1980 299: Stampfu. 1983: Identification confirmed
by Kusatman. 1991. In the low hills that border the Harran plain to the north
:

55. Hongo and Meadow, in press. lies the site of Gôbekli Tepe, located about 10 km to the
56. Kusatman. 1991; Hongo and Meadow, 1998. in press: ÔksOz.
1998. in press: Tlgezdi. 1999. in press. north-east of the town of Sanhurfa. The site occupation started
57. Hongo and Meadow. 1998. in press. during the PPNA, the available C14-dates63 falling within the
58. Óksuz. 1998. in press.
59. Grigson, 1989.
60. Ilgezdi. in press. 63. So far. two radiocarbon dates are available: 9 559 ± 53 BP. i.e.
61. Hongo and Meadow, in press. 9 163-8744 cal ВС (2ó) and 9452 ± 73 BP. i.e. 9 136-8986 cal ВС (26)
62. Brochier. 1993. (Kromer and Schmidt. 1999).

Paléorient. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 ^ CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000

Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant
time range of Mureybet IIIB. and continued into the
MPPNB64. Of particular interest is the presence of cult buil
dings with T-shaped stone pillars (up to 3.5 m high) decorated
with images of animals (fig. 4). Among them are snakes,
lions, foxes, wild cattle, and probably a crane. So far only
the fauna! remains from the PPNA levels have been analysed.
Persian gazelle (43 %) is the most common species, followed
by wild cattle (20%). Asiatic wild ass (Equus hemionus:
10 %) and wild boar (8 %). Caprine remains account for 1 1 %
of the sample all the caprine remains that could be identified
:
to the species level belong to Ovisb5. With the exception of
an upper jaw of a medium sized dog. morphometrical ev
idence for the presence of domesticates is lacking.
The PPNB site of Cafer Hôyiik is located in the Taurus
mountains about 40 km north-east of the town of Malatya,
on the right bank of a tributary of the Euphrates. Thirteen
levels dating to the EPPNB (XIII-IX). the MPPNB (VIII-V)
and the transition Middle/Late PPNB (IV-I) could be disti
nguished66. Capra (42.9 %) is the most abundant species,
followed by Sus (24.8 %), Ovis (13.6%). Bos (12.6%), and
Cervus (2.1 %)67. Throughout the sequence, however, the
size, the morphology and the age related kill-off patterns of
Capra and Ovis do not indicate a domestic status. The Bos
remains do not differ in size from the aurochs specimens
obtained from the PPNA levels at Mureybet, whereas the Sus
remains fall within the range of variation of wild boar.
The settlement complex of Nevalí Çori is located in the
foothills of the southern Taurus on a tributary of the Euphrat
es. Excavations revealed that the occupation of the site
probably started at the end of the PPNA and lasted throughout
most of the PPNB6S. Cult buildings with stone carvings
representing human beings and animals and some stone
pillars, showing close similarities with the ones excavated at
Gobekli Tepe, were found69. The bulk of the fauna! remains
analysed come from levels that date to the early (levels I/II)
and later (level III) EPPNB, a smaller assemblage comes from
a MPPNB context (level IV)70. From the fauna! analysis a
64. Beile-Bohn et ai. 1998: Schmidt 1998a. 1998b.
65. Von den Driesch and Peters. 1999.
66. Calvin. 1985: Calvin et ai. in press.
67. Helmer. 1988.
68. According to Schmidt (1998b: 2). it is likely that the occupation
of the site already started somewhat earlier and that some of the ar-
chaeo(zoo)logical remains might even date to the PPNA. Moreover. Nevah
Çori also was inhabited during the LPPNB period, but these occupation
levels have disappeared completely due to erosion.
69. Halttmann. 1993: Schmidt. 1998a. 1998b.
70. Von den Driesch and Peters, in prep. The number of identified
specimens (NISP) for the EPPNB and the MPPNB contexts respectively are
5 377 and 723.
Palmrient. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 L CNRS EDITIONS 2000
35
Fig 5 : Relative frequence of major mammalian taxa based on the
number of identified specimens for each of the three subphases at
Nevah Çori. I/II = older stage of the EPPNB; HI = younger stage
of the EPPNB; IV = MPPNB.
shift in the species composition in the course of time becomes
obvious (fig. 5) Persian gazelle, Cape hare, and red fox
:
progressively become less important as Ovis, Capra, Bos, and
Sus increase in number. Whereas at PPNA Gobekli Tepe
remains of male caprines outnumber those of females, the
Ovis/Capra sample from Nevah Çori shows a clear bias in
favour of female animals. Moreover, based upon the age
structure of the postcranial skeleton, immature and mature (>
3 '/2 years) caprines are present in an almost equal proportion
at PPNA Gobekli Tepe, while the Ovis/Capra assemblage
from EPPNB Nevah Çori is characterised by a high proportion
of immature animals (72 %)71.
Changes in species abundance, sex and age structure of a
population being characteristics significant of early domestic
ation72, we examined another feature associated with do
mestication, namely a diminution in bone size. A comparison
between the mean values of the bone measurements of Ga-
zella by means of the LSI-Method73 did not reveal a signi
ficant difference in size between the populations of Persian
gazelle from PPNA Gobekli Tepe, Early and Middle PPNB
Nevah Çori and Late PPNB Gurcutepe (fig. 6). Thus if
significant changes in body size in other ungulate species
7 Von den Driesch and Peters, in prep.
72. E.g. Bokonyi. 1969: Davis. 1987: Lecge. 1996.
1.
73. Ideally, a bone sample of the wild species from the same locality is
needed against which to measure such a change (e.g. Legge. 1996). Since
this was not possible, we compared the size of the Nevah Çori remains with
those obtained on bone specimens from the nearby sites of Gobekli Tepe
and Cafer Hóviik.
36 J. Peters, D. Helmer, A. von den Driesch and M. Sana Segui

GAZELLA

/////////y/ ///уУ////////у У/////,

yу/уУ^л////// у/////,У//////
ууууу/1, ШШ^у Ж W//A
0,0

376 563 48 32 50 26 107 30

Gôbekli Tepe Nevalí Çori Nevalí Çori Giircutepe Cafer Hôyuk Nevah Çori Tell Halula Giircutepe
PPNA EPPNB MPPNB LPPNB PPNB EPPNB MPPNB LPPNB
Fig. 6 : Summary of Gôbekli Tepe, Nevah Çuri, and Giirciitepe Fig. 8 : Summary of Cafer Hôyuk, Nevah Çori, Tell Halula and
Gazella log size index data. The "0"-line or "standard animal" is Giircutepe Capra log size index data. The "0"-line or "standard
a modem male Gazella subgutturosa (ÍPM 32; von den Driesch animal" is based on the mean values of a modern female (BMNH
and Peters, in prep.). 651 M) and a modern male (BMNH 651 L2) Capra aegagrus
(Uerpmann and Uerpmann, 1994 : Table 14).

51 13 42 52 N= 85 39 37 23 89
Gôbekli Tepe Nevah Çori Tell Halula Gurciitepe Gôbekli Tepe Cafer Hôyùk Nevali Çori Tell Halula Gurciitepe
PPNA EPPNB MPPNB LPPNB PPNA PPNB EPPNB MPPNB LPPNB
Fig. 7 : Summary of Gôbekli Tepe, Nevah Çori, Tell Halula and Fig. 9 : Summary of Gôbekli Tepe, Cafer Hôyiik, Nevah Çori, Tell
Gurciitepe Bos log size index data. The "0"-line or "standard Halula and Giircutepe Ovis log size index data. The "0"-line or
animal" is the early Holocene female Bos primigenius from "standard animal" is a modern female Ovis orientalis (FMC 57951 ;
Ullerslev (DEGERB0L, 1970). Uerpmann and Uerpmann, 1994 : Table 12).

occurred, they had to be related to phenomena other than
climatic and/or environmental change. Whereas in Bos, no
significant difference in size between the populations compar
ed could be noted (fig. 7), indicating that we are dealing
with wild cattle, a shift towards smaller individuals could be
observed in the populations of Capra (fig. 8), Ovis (fig. 9),
and Sus (fig. 10). As will be discussed below, it can be
postulated that the EPPNB populations of Ovis and perhaps
also Capra included domestic animals.

Paléorient, vol. 25/2, 1999, p. 27-47 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000

Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant
34 55 37 42
Gobekli Tepe Cafer Hóyiik Nevalí Çori Giircutepe
PPNA PPNB E+MPPNB LPPNB
Fig. 10 : Summary of Gobekli Tepe, Cafer Hoyiik, Nevalí Çori, and
Giirciitepe Sus log size index data. The "0"-line or "standard
animal" is a modern female Turkish wild hoar (MCZ 51621 ; HONGO
and Meadow, 1998 : Table 5).
The small tell of Hayaz Hôyiik lies on the right bank of
the Euphrates near the Kalburçu confluence. Its LPPNB oc
cupation was not a settlement but a flint workshop74. Caprines
(64 %) dominate the faunal assemblage, the ratio of Ovis to
Capra being about 1 1 75. Sus (20 %) and Bos (1 1 %) were
:
also of economic importance. Most of the caprine remains
were of domestic animals, whereas the domestication status
of Bos and Sus is uncertain76.
Gritille Hoyiik is a large mound located on the right bank
of the Euphrates. It lies in the transitional zone between the
Eastern Taurus and the lowland steppe. The faunal assemblage
from the LPPNB levels is dominated by Ovis/Capra (71 %).
Sus (16.5 %) and Bos (3.2 %) comprise the second and third
largest group. Sheep outnumbered goats by nearly 3 1 77.
:
Based upon the age structure of a combined mandible sample
for the two species, in which 65 % were killed before 36
months of age, the caprines from Gritille are considered to
74. Buitenhuis, 1996.
75. Buitenhuis. 1985, 1988.
76. Buitenhuis, 1988: 98; Grigson. 1989. A more recent bio-metrical
study, however, confirms the domestic status of cattle and pigs (Helmer.
1994).
77. Stein, 1986a. b. Though roe deer, fallow deer, gazelle, and hare are
only present in small numbers, it is argued that hunting was of economic
importance for the site inhabitants, especially during winter, since the sea
sonal movements of the animals would have brought them down from the
snow-covered uplands and into the largely snow-free Euphrates floodplain
at this time of the year. Gritille's location would have provided an ideal
location for « minimum-effort » hunting.
Paléorient. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 <ô CNRS EDITIONS 2000
37
SUS- м3
\/////У// -' ■'■//////\ ^A'A^'AA
1
АААШАа уА/уууу-ууА,
0,0
о ' УАУУуАу'уА//
33 19 15
Recent Cayônii Tepesi Giircutepe
Sus PPNB LPPNB
Fig. 11 : Summary of modern wild boar, Cayônii Tepesi and
Giircutepe Sus - Мз log size index data. The "0"-line corresponds
to the occlusal length of the Мз (= 38.5 mm) of a modern female
Turkish wild boar (MCZ 51621 ; Hongo and Meadow, 1998 : Table
4). For measurements of Мз of modern Near Eastern wild boar see
Flannery (1961, in : Stampfli, 1983 : 446), Stampfli (1983 : Table
31, 37), and Payne and Bull (1988 : 55 ff\).
be domesticated. The domestication status of Bos and Sus is
doubtful 7X.
The name Giircutepe refers to a complex of Neolithic low
mounds along the Balikh, a few kilometres to the east of the
town of §anhurfa in the northern Harran plain, at a distance
of ca. 12 km from Gobekli Tepe. At least eight sites are
present79. Of particular interest is Giircutepe II. Its upper
occupation layer can be paralleled with the Cayônii Large
Room sub-phase (Final PPNB). From the underlying LPPNB
deposits, a rich faunal assemblage has been collected. Comp
ared to PPNA Gobekli Tepe, the Giirciitepe assemblage is
characterised by a high proportion of caprines (65 %), an
increased proportion of Sus (19%) and a decrease in the
frequency of Bos (12 %)80. Among the caprine specimens
identified, Ovis dominates, the ratio Ovis to Capra being 4 :
1. Of interest is the fact that Capra enters the archaeofaunal
record of the region. Its introduction as a domesticate seems
likely, considering the proportion of goat remains in the
78. Stein. 1986a: 7.
79. Beile-Bohn et ai. 1998.
80. Whereas at Gobekli Tepe Persian gazelle. Asiatic wild ass. red fox,
Cape hare, and deer account for some 61 % of the total number of identified
specimens (NISP = 5410). only 4% of the identified faunal remains from
Gurciitepe (NISP = 6338) could be attributed to these species.
38
assemblage (с. 14 %) and the fact that the animals on average
are significantly smaller than the morphometrically wild goats
from PPNB Cafer Hôyiik and EPPNB Nevalí Çori (fig. 8).
The domestic status is not contradicted by the age structure :
based upon a combined mandible sample for Ovis/Capra, it
was noted that 60 % were killed before 24 months of age.
Among the remains of adults, the ratio female to male is 2
:
1 As well as sheep and goats, pigs and probably cattle were
.
also kept and bred in captivity at LPPNB Giircutepe.
LIVESTOCK DOMESTICATION
IN THE NORTHERN LEVANT
The intensification of archaeological fieldwork in northern
Syria and south-eastern Turkey during the 1980's has not
only confirmed the cultural affinities between the PPNB
settlements of the two regions81, but has also proved that the
eastern Taurus was part of the initial area of the Neolithic
formation. Based on the archaeological, archaeobotanical and
archaeozoological evidence, it is generally accepted that live
stock domestication was preceded by a sedentary way of life
and plant domestication82. Whereas in the Northern Levant
the earliest traces of agriculture are associated with levels
dating to the PPNA83, unequivocal evidence for the keeping
and/or exploitation of domesticated animals before the PPNB
is lacking, with the exception of the dog, known to be present
along the Syrian Euphrates from the Natufian onward, e.g.
at Tell Mureybet. With respect to the postulated late Natu-
fi an/earl y PPNA pig husbandry at Hallan Çemi, the evidence
is not convincing from an archaeozoological point of view
(see below).
Less than a decade ago, the following hypotheses about
the origins of farm animals and the development of livestock
husbandry in the study area were proposed84
:
1 ) The first ungulate species to be domesticated was Capra.
Its domestication took place in the MPPNB. Considering the
early Holocene distribution of wild goat {Capra aegagrus)^5,
domestication could have taken place in many areas of south
western Asia.
2) Somewhat later than Capra but still in the course of
the MPPNB, domestic sheep made their appearance. The
81. Calvin. 1996 17.
82. Calvin. 1978.
:
83. Cauvin et ai, 1998.
84. Helmer. 1992. 1994.
85. Uerpmann, 1987 126.
:
J. Peters. D. Helmer. A. von den Driesch and M. Sana Segui
absence of Ovis in MPPNB settings of the southern Levant86
and its introduction as a domesticate during the LPPNB,
however, point to an area of domestication to the north87.
3) The third ungulate species to be domesticated was
Bos^, its presence being noted in levels dating to the later
stage of the LPPNB.
4) The domestication of Sus occurred relatively late com
pared to Ovis, Copra and probably Bos, the presence of
domestic pigs only being ascertained in contexts dating to
the Late/Final PPNB.
For each species, the faunal data at present available makes
it necessary to modify the assumptions proposed at the be
ginning of the 1990' s.
CAPRA
Recent work at Tell Abu Hureyra and Tell Halula has
shown that remains of domestic goats are found in levels
associated with the onset of the MPPNB. In the absence of
any preceding EPPNB inhabitation at these sites, this implies
that the first settlers must have brought the animals with
them. Consequently the domestication of Capra aegagrus
must have started during the EPPNB. Since there is no
evidence for the process in the Middle Euphrates Basin, we
must look at other regions in south-west Asia to trace its
beginnings. One potential area of domestication might be the
Jordan Valley and its periphery and the slopes of the Judean
hills, where Capra aegagrus was the dominant species through
out much of the PPNB. Yet obvious changes in the mor-
phometry of Capra as a result of domestication only become
evident from the onset of the LPPNB, and this would con
tradict a southern Levantine ancestry for the MPPNB goats
of Tell Abu Hureyra and Tell Halula. However, size dif
ference between Capra aegagrus and early domestic goats
being minimal at best89, difficulties might arise to trace
incipient domestication wherever the wild population conti
nues to exist nearby, in particular while the breeding stock
may never be completely isolated from free-ranging Capra
aegagrus. Founder herds may therefore only be detected in
the faunal record if they are separated spatially from the wild
population, since this will bring about shifts in the selection
pressures'
86. Horwitz and Ducos. 1998.
87. Legge and Rowley-Conwy. 1986: Helmer. 1992 93.
88. But see Grigson. 1989.
89. Zeder. this volume: 11-25.
90. Cf. Zohary et al.. 1998.
Paléorient. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 <0 CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000
Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant 39

phenotypic changes, some of which will be reflected in ske However, a local development out of the EPPNB Mureybet
letal size and/or morphology. In sum. though the fauna] record culture seems unlikely, essentially because of differences in
of the Southern Levant does not illustrate any change in the the material culture95. Whether the MPPNB cultures of Tell
relationship between caprines and humans during the EPPNB. Halula and Tell Abu Hureyra have their roots to the north
the possibility a priori cannot be entirely ruled out91. of the Middle Euphrates Basin is not clear, though the pos
Unequivocal evidence for the domestication of Capra is sibility must be considered in view of the increasing evidence
also lacking to the north of the Middle Euphrates valley. Of for close cultural relationships between the PPNB settlements
interest might be the observation that the EPPNB Capra of northern Syria and south-eastern Turkey96.
remains from Nevalí Çori are on average smaller than the
PPNB wild goat bones from Cater Hoyiik. Some of the Nevah OVIS
Çori specimens even are similar in size to the smallest do
mestic goats from Tell Halula (fig. 8). Admittedly, the fact Based on recent archaeozoological work in south-eastern
that the goat remains from Nevah Çori on average come from Turkey the presence of domestic sheep in levels dating to the
individuals intermediate in size between the wild goats from EPPNB can be postulated. The strongest argument in favour
Cater Hoyu'k and the domestic goats from Tell Halula does of the practice of sheep husbandry at EPPNB Nevah Çori is
not necessarily imply that we are dealing with animals in the the statistically significant smaller size of Ovis from this site
process of being domesticated. Other explanations, e.g. Berg (fig. 9) relative to the specimens collected at PPNA Gobekli
man's rule92, can perhaps be invoked to explain the north- Tepe and PPNB Cafer Hoyuk. But, contrary to Capra, Berg
south diminution in size between the Capra populations from mann's rule can be excluded to explain the reduction in size,
Cafer Hoyiik and Nevah Çori93. Moreover, the Capra sample because the wild sheep from Cafer Hoyiik and Gobekli Tepe,
from Nevah Çori yielded a slightly higher percentage of two settlements located 150 km from each other along a
remains from females, and this may have resulted in a some north-south axis, exhibit no significant difference in mean
what lower mean size94. However, apart from a smaller mean size97. It is noteworthy, however, that the tallest wild sheep
body size and a female biassed sex ratio, an increase in the rams have been found at Gobekli Tepe in the southern Taurus
frequency of Capra from the Early to the Middle PPNB as piedmont, whereas, according to Bergmann's rule, one would
well as a comparably high proportion of remains from imexpect them at Cafer Hoyiik in the Central Taurus. To a
mature individuals in the caprine assemblage (> 70 %) have certain extent, the lower mean size of Ovis at Nevah Çori
been noted. These data suggest that in south-eastern Turkey compared to Gobekli Tepe may partly be related to the fact
some goats may have been kept and bred by man as early that at the latter site about 60 % of the Ovis remains are those
as the EPPNB. an assumption that has to be substantiated by of males, while at Nevah Çori females slightly outnumber
further research. males. More important from a bio-statistical point of view,
Future archaeological work in the Levant might help to however, is the presence of sheep at EPPNB and MPPNB
clarify the geographic origin of the goats introduced in the Nevalí Çori that are significantly smaller than the smallest
Middle Euphrates valley. Based on their archaeological i individuals recorded either from PPNA Gobekli Tepe or from
nventories, it has been noted that the MPPNB sites of Tell PPNB Cafer Hoyiik. Moreover, an increase in size variability,
Halula and Tell Abu Hureyra exhibit close cultural affinities. albeit not very pronounced, becomes visible when comparing
the LSI minima and maxima of the different Ovis populations
(fig. 9). The significant reduction in mean body size, the
91. See the case of LPPNB 'Ain Ghazal. von den Driesch and Wodtke.
1997. lower minimum size, and the increased variability are strongly
92. Bergmann's rule is based on the observation that the size of homo- indicative for the practice of sheep husbandry at an early
iothermic animals tends to increase along a temperature gradient from warm
to cold temperatures. The explanation is that larger animals tend to produce stage of the EPPNB (c. 8600-8 300 cal. ВС). If so. attempts
more heat (body volume) and lose less (skin area), a clear advantage in to exert cultural control over wild sheep may date back to
cooler climates. It has been noted, however, that the wild goats from Cafer the final stages of the PPNA.
Hoyiik are comparable in size to the animals from the site of Vlunhatta in
Palestine (Drros. 1968). Conceivably Bergmann's rule may be of limited
value to explain size diminution in ungulate populations of south-western
Asia.
93. Zeder. this volume 1-25 whether there is a north-south diminution 95. Calvin J.. pers. comm.
in size from the central to the southern Taurus must be verified by future 96. Calvin. 1996 17.
:I

research. 97. There is also no difference in size between the wild sheep from
:I

94. Zeder 1-25. Cater Hoviik and Tell Murevbet.

:
1

Paliioricni. 2511. 1ЧЧЧ. p. 27-47 CNRS EDITIONS 2000

40
The presence of domestic sheep in the EPPNB of south
eastern Turkey is in accordance with the archaeozoological
record in other parts of the Near East. Recent excavations at
Shillourokambos in Cyprus, for example, showed that sheep
were introduced onto the island from the mainland before the
end of the 9th millennium cal. ВС98. From the lithic industry
of the site, cultural affinities with the northern Levant are
evident. If the first settlers of Shillourokambos indeed brought
with them domestic sheep, the possibility that they acquired
these animals in the southern fringe of the Taurus must be
considered.
In the Middle Euphrates Basin, domestic sheep make their
appearance somewhat later, i.e. during the late MPPNB". An
origin to the north seems likely, considering the fact that further
to the south, e.g. in the Damascus Basin and in the Jordan valley,
the first domestic sheep are recorded from later levels, namely
those that mark the onset of the LPPNB 10°. An interesting
parallel to this hypothesis of a north-south diffusion of cultural
achievements is offered by the cereals, the earliest domestic
emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) being evidenced at EPPNB
Cayonii 101 and EPPNB Cafer Hoyiik 102, the earliest domestic
einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum) being found at EPPNB
Nevah Çori103. But it is not until the MPPNB that the
domestic forms of these cereals show up in the botanical
record of a number of sites along the Middle Euphrates104.
BOS
Considering the reduction of the size of Bos in PPN sites
along the Middle Euphrates (fig. 3), it can be postulated that
the domestication process had already started in the course
of the MPPNB, if not earlier105. Since in other parts of the
Northern Levant remains of small sized cattle from LPPNB
contexts come from sites that are located to the north (Giir-
ciitepe, Hayaz Tepe), to the south (Bouqras, Tell es Sinn),
and to the west (Ras Shamra) of the Middle Euphrates Basin,
the latter region with its vast marshlands and gallery forests
can be suggested as one centre of cattle domestication and
early exploitation.
98. Vigne and Buitenhuis, this volume 49-62. Apart from Ovis, Capra,
Sus, and Bos must also have been introduced onto the island at the end of
:
the 9th millennium ВС.
99. Sana Segui, 1997, 1999.
100. Horwitz and Ducos, 1998.
101. Van Zeist, 1988.
102. Helmer et ai, 1998.
103. Pasternak, 1995.
L04. Wtllcox and Català, 1996; Cauvin et al., 1998; Helmer et al.,
1998.
105. Vigne and Buitenhuis, this volume.
J. Peters, D. Helmer, A. von den Driesch and M. Sana Segui
Apart from a diminution in size (figs. 3, 7), it has been
observed that at sites with only wild cattle, e.g. at PPNA
Góbekli Tepe and EPPNB Nevah Çori, the Bos samples
yielded a higher proportion of remains from bulls (> 60 %),
whereas at sites with (presumably) early domestic cattle, e.g.
at Gurciitepe, the ratio males to females is about 1 5 106.
:
Whereas at PPNA Góbekli Tepe mandibles of fully mature
and senile individuals make out 20 % of the Bos material,
these age groups are not represented in the material from
Giirciitepe. The absence of such older individuals (> 6-7
years) reflects a culling strategy indicative for herd managem
ent,adult animals being slaughtered before becoming too
difficult to handle.
SUS
Recently it has been postulated that the beginnings of pig
husbandry were contemporary with the end of the Natufian
and/or beginning of the PPNA in the Levant. Tooth size,
kill-off pattern, bias toward males, body part data, and inter-
site comparison of the Hallan Çemi Tepesi Sus data are
interpreted in the report on the faunal remains as evidence
that the site inhabitants practised some form of pig husbandry.
We, however, find it difficult to accept the arguments in
favour of the domestic status of the pigs from Hallan Çemi
Tepesi for the following reasons
:
1) 22 of the 23 measurable upper and lower second and
third molars 107 fall within the size ranges of wild boar molars
from south-western Asia108. None of the third molars are
smaller than the range of overlap of wild and domestic pigs.
Only one upper second molar (Length 19.6) 109 is smaller than
the M2-lengths of modern wild boar, but variation in size
may be underestimated with only 20 comparative specimens
available110.
106. A female biassed sex ratio, however, does not necessarily imply a
domestic status whereas at Mureybet III (PPNA) and IVA (EPPNB) bulls
and cows are present in equal proportions, females clearly dominate at PPNA
:
Jerf el Ahmar and EPPNB Dja'de.
107. Rosenberg et al., 1 998, footnote 56, 57. ТЪе different molars range
in length as follows M3 35.5-39.4 mm (n = 7, X = 36.9); M2 19.6-26.3
mm (n = 10, X = 23.3); M3 38.4-41.9 mm (n = 3); M2 22.0-24.0 mm
:
:
(n = 3).
:
108. Molars of recent Near Eastern wild boar have been measured by
Flannery (1961; in: Stampfli, 1983: 446), Stampfli (1983: Table 31,
37), and Payne and Bull (1988 55 ff.).
109. Based on length measurements of modern Turkish wild boar molars,
:
published by Payne and Bull (1988 55 ff.), it becomes obvious that the
length of this specimen compares well to those recorded for wild boar upper
:
first molars (n = 18, L min. = 16,9. L max. = 21,0, X = 18,9).
10. Stampfli, 1983 468, Table 37 Payne and Bull, 1988 55 f.
1
Paléorient, vol. 25/2, 1999, p. 27-47 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000
Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant
2) Although the high proportion (43 %) of bones from
juvenile pigs (< 1 year) at Hallan Çemi might indicate an
optimising of the meat production, i.e. with very young
animals being slaughtered occasionally and few animals being
allowed to get very old1", and therefore be indicative for a
domestic population, kill-off patterns with similar or even
higher percentages of juvenile Sus are also recorded from
hunter-gatherer sites with absolutely no evidence for pig
husbandry "2.
3) The Hallan Çemi Sus sample is characterised by a clear
bias toward male individuals. (MS S to 49 9). Apart from
the fact that pig breeders generally prefer a surplus of adult
females, it should be mentioned that male biassed sex ratios
have been noted repeatedly among the remains of wild boar
from Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic sites"3. Hence this ratio
cannot be considered indicative for pig husbandry.
4) At Hallan Çemi pigs are represented by more complete
skeletal inventories than other game suggesting that pigs were
butchered more frequently at or near the site compared to
mouflon or red deer. But this need not imply an exploitation
of domestic pigs at the same time as the continued hunting
of game"4. Some essential ecological requirements of SusU5
- oak woods, gallery forest and surface water - may have
been met within the immediate surroundings of the site and
this might have resulted in a shorter distance between kill
site and the place of consumption. Furthermore carcass weight
must also be considered juvenile pigs (43 %) weigh consid
:
erably less than adult wild animals (mouflon, deer, wild boar)
and this might explain why complete carcasses of young suids
were brought more frequently to the village.
To substantiate their claim for pig husbandry in the Upper
Tigris region during Late Natufian-PPNA times, Rosenberg
et al. quote the evidence from Çayônii "It should be noted
:
that at least some domesticated pigs are apparently also
present in the round house levels (= PPNA) at Çayônii...
Moreover, the most recent pig data from that site116 are also
consistent with a mixed pig-hunting/pig-rearing exploitation
pattern". As such, this quotation is far from being correct,
111. For example at Hassek Hôyiik (Stahl, 1989 42, Table 10), Lidar
Hoyuk (Kussinger. 1988 80). Kill-off patterns derived from the teeth of
:
pigs from post-Neolithic sites, such as Kaman-Kalehôyiïk indicate an even
:
earlier slaughter schedule for the domestic population there (Hongo, 1996a).
112. E.g. Benecke, 1994: 235.
113. Benecke, 1994: 236, Table 2.
114. Rosenberg et al, 1998.
L15. E.g. Harrison and Bates. 1991 212; Hatt. 1959, for example,
noted that in the mountainous areas of Iraq wild boar spent the summer in
:
the river valley and the winter in the oak woods on the hill slopes.
116. Rosenberg et al., 1998 (footnote 60) refer to an (at that time)
unpublished study by Hongo and Meadow, which appeared in 1998.
Paléorient. vol. 25/2. 1999, p. 27-47 © CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000
41
since the view expressed by Hongo and Meadow117 is that
at PPNB Cayônii, most pigs were hunted and only some
animals brought under some form of "cultural control". Thus,
while individual animals may have been kept in the communi
ty, perhaps as early as the EPPNB "8, and certainly by the
MPPNB, man did not interfere with breeding in such a way
that the breeding stock became completely isolated from the
free-ranging wild population. From their analysis, Hongo and
Meadow conclude that pigs were not exploited in the way
that they were later and that size diminution had not progres
sed to any great extent.
At present, unequivocal morphometrical evidence for the
occurrence of domestic pigs in the study area comes from
LPPNB Hayaz Tepe, Tell Halula, and Giircutepe. At Gtir-
ciitepe, for example, pig husbandry is illustrated by the s
ignifcant smaller bone size and the lower minimum size
compared to Sus from PPNA Gôbekli Tepe and PPNB Cafer
Hoyiik and Nevah Çori (fig. 10), as well as by the presence
of third molars with lengths below the minima recorded for
modern populations of Near Eastern wild boar (fig. II)"9.
If the latter feature can be considered indicative for an ad
vanced stage of domestication, it would again imply that in
south-eastern Turkey pig domestication and husbandry may
have started well into the MPPNB, as is suggested by the
findings from Cayônii120.
Whether the domestication of Bos preceded that of Sus
cannot be established with certainty. Intra-site comparison of
the faunal assemblages from subsequent MPPNB and LPPNB
layers at Tell Halula suggests that domestic pigs appear in
the faunal record somewhat earlier than cattle in Northern
Syria.
DIFFUSION OF CAPRINE HUSBANDRY
It is generally believed that once caprines were domestic
ated,this mode of subsistence rapidly spread across parts of
the "Fertile Crescent". In view of recent archaeozoological
work, this assumption now seems far too generalised. Wherea
s the people who arrived at Cyprus at the end of the 9th
millennium cal. ВС already brought with them domesticated
117. Hongo and Meadow, 1998.
1 18. Cf. at Shillourokambos ; Vigne and Buitenhuis, this volume 49-62.
19. The reduced M3-Length is due to a shortening of the facial region
:
and has been noted in many mammalian species under domestication e.g.
1
Darwin, 1868 71 ff.. Klatt. 1948 75 ff Herre and Rohrs, 1990: 229.
;
20. Hongo and Meadow, 1 998 87.
:
: :
.;
1
42 J. Peters, D. Helmer. A. von den Drjesch and M. Sana Segui

animals including sheep121, it almost took a millennium for WHY DOMESTICATE ?

Ovis to reach the northern part of the southern Levant. Was
it cultural inertia which hampered the southward diffusion of
There have been many attempts to explain the reasons that
sheep husbandry (and not the westward diffusion) or should
underlie the beginnings of animal domestication, e.g. Hahn's
we look for other reasons why the MPPNB communities of
hypothesis of a religious origin of domestic animals, cattle
hunters, farmers and herders, already engaged in goat hus
and sheep being domesticated for use as sacrifices125, Hilz-
bandry, were so "reluctant" to include another farm animal
heimer's theory that domestication was invented to supply
in their economies ? Part of the answer may be that to the
meat and skins126, or Pumpelly's "oasis theory"', according
south, different ecozones had to be crossed by a species,
to which the emergence of agriculture and animal domesti
essentially adapted to grazing in meadows and open woodland
cationwas due to climatic deterioration l27. Common to these
in the mountains and foothills122. Sheep breeders may there
and other explanations is the presumption that in human
fore had to select animals that were more temperature and/or
societies a certain level of social organisation must be achie
drought-resistant and able to cope with different kinds and
vedbefore animal domestication becomes feasible. From the
new types of vegetation. If, in this respect, the amount of
archaeological record of the Middle and Upper Euphrates
time that elapsed between the earliest attempts of sheep
Basin, evidence indicative of social stratification has been
domestication and the arrival of the domestic form in the
recorded from sites dating to the middle stages of the
Southern Levant has a meaning, it may indicate that this
PPNA128. Over time, socio-cultural complexity increased, as
process of adaptation was not without problems.
can be deduced for example from the architecture of sites
As suggested above, Capra also might have been domest
dating to the later stage of the PPNA and to the PPNB l29.
icated in the southern Taurus piedmont during the EPPNB.
Of special interest is the fact that in many of these PPN
If this assumption is correct, it would not only be in agreement
settlements an area was reserved for cult buildings, disti
with the early date of goat husbandry at Shillourokambos in
nguishable from domestic structures by their different con
Cyprus123, but would also imply that goat husbandry spread
struction techniques and by their monumental aspect.
faster to the south than sheep husbandry. Conceivably goat
Associated with these cult buildings are particular objects,
husbandry was the more successful choice from an ecological
among them large sculptures of animals and decorated stone
point of view, considering the fact that the wild goat, Capra
pillars (fig. 4)l3(). As such, these monumental works of art
aegagrus, was still distributed throughout much of the Levant
not only illustrate the importance of animals in the spiritual
during the PPNB. whereas wild sheep (Ovis orientalis) only
world of PPN human groups, they also reflect a complex,
survived in a few ecological favourable areas, e.g. around
socially stratified society with considerable organisational abi
Basta124. In the course of the PPN, however, sheep became
lities. Against the background of these socio-cultural changes
the dominant species, even in Neolithic communities located during the 11th and 10lh millennia ВС, cultural control of
in the arid Syrian steppe. Thus, while the PPN fauna! record
(smaller) ungulate species conceivably took place, perhaps as
of the Levant indirectly illustrates a selection toward sheep
early as the later PPNA. followed by the domestication of
breeds increasingly better adapted to drier environments, it
Ovis and Capra in the course of the 9th millennium cal. ВС
does not provide yet an answer to one fundamental question
and of Bos and Sus in the following millennium.
:

What made sheep husbandry so "attractive" as to cause a

shift away from an economy based primarily on the keeping
and breeding of goats, as observed at Tell Halula. at Tell
Abu Hureyra, or at 'Ain Ghazal ? At present, the answer must
remain speculative, ecological, (more intensive plant cover
degradation, crop damage by goats), behavioural (easier han
dling/herding of sheep ?) and economic (secondary products,
e.g. hair, wool ?) considerations being possible.
1.21. Vigne and Buitenhuis. this volume 49-62.
1.22. Clltton-Brock. 1987.
Despite more than 50 years of archaeozoological research
in the Near East, the reason(s) why domesticated livestock
were incorporated into the aceramic Neolithic economy have
not yet been established with certainty. Based on earlier work
in the Southern Levant it was assumed that the process was
triggered by large scale climatic deterioration, which resulted
125. Hahn, 1.896.
126. Hilzheimer. 1931.
127. Pumpelly.Uerpmann'
1908: hypothesis proposed and popularised by Childe.
1928 42 f see 1996 229.
128. Calvin. 1978. 1996: Ózdogan. 1998.
:
.:

123. Vigne and Buitenhuis. this volume. 129. Hauptmann. 1993 Cauvin. 1996: Ôzdogan and Ózdogan. 1998.
124. Becker. 1998. 130. Hauptmann. 1993: Beile-Bohn et ai. 1.998: Schmidt. 1998a. b.
:

Paléorient. vol. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 О CNRS EDITIONS 2000

Early Animal Husbandry in the Northern Levant
in reduced availability of food plants and game species. This
widespread opinion, however, is contradicted by fauna] work
in the Northern Levant, where only one significant faunal
change has been observed and that only in the Palmyran
Basin. Here during the transition from the Geometric Kebarian
to the Natufian (i.e. between the Aller0d and the lower Dryas).
camels and large equids disappear from the faunal record and
deer enter the faunal record. Thus, according to the fauna!
evidence, the upper Dryas (late Natufian and Khiamian) in
the Northern Levant may have been slightly cooler but cer
tainly not drier than the following Preboreal period (PPNA.
EPPNB). Indeed, at Mureybet, the only site in the Euphrates
valley with levels dating to all the relevant periods, no change
in body size has been observed in the consecutive populations
of gazelle, hare, and aurochs. In sum, the faunal record
indicates only very minor climatic changes from the end of
the Pleistocene to the beginning of the Holocene. This situa
tion is clearly different from that in the Mediterranean zone
and probably resulted from the marked continental character
of the northern Levantine steppes and the proximity of the
desert to the south-east. The botanical evidence too indicates
that only a relatively moderate desiccation occurred in north
ernSyria during the upper Dryas. with a notable absence of
any significant change in the shrub vegetation cover131.
Thus changes in climate in the Northern Levant during
the period preceding the introduction of agriculture (i.e. be
tween the late Natufian and the Khiamian) were certainly less
apparent and a priori less traumatic than those in the Medi
terranean zone. But it is not until the beginning of the
Preboreal period (PPNA) that pre-domestic agriculture emer
gesand at this time the climatic conditions were favourable
for the growth of cereals. This is only a paradox if one
believes that the evolution of human societies was totally
dependent on the surrounding physical environment. Yet, as
already mentioned, it now seems unlikely that the initial
stages of plant and animal domestication in the Northern
Levant were triggered by environmental degradation and/or
scarcity of bio-resources. We therefore consider that this shift
in subsistence may have been the outcome of fundamental
economic decisions taken by a well-organised, hierarchical
society, whose strong cohesion is demonstrated in its monum
ental architecture. According to this proposal, socio-cultural
factors were responsible for changes in subsistence strategy.
and hence also for animal domestication. In this respect the
following observation may be significant within the region
:
of probable earliest domestication (Nevalí Çori) during the
131. Helmer et al.. 1998.
Palcoricnt. vnl. 25/2. 1999. p. 27-47 \ CNRS ÉDITIONS 2000
43
EPPNB and within the nearest area of diffusion (Tell Abu
Hureyra. Tell Halula) during the MPPNB. the frequencies of
domesticated animals in the faunal samples analysed are
below 30 %. Thus the incorporation of animal husbandry into
the Early and Middle PPN economies of the Northern Levant
was decidedly less revolutionary than implied by the term
"Neolithic Revolution". This again supports the idea that
socio-cultural developments rather than environmental change
initiated ungulate herd management and. in the end. led to
livestock domestication. This was certainly not the only factor
but perhaps the most decisive one in the gradual evolution
of societies based on a fully developed farming economy 132.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In 1959 Charles Reed stated that the domestication of the
food-producing animals probably occurred in village-farming
communities in the ";Hilly Flanks area" of south-western Asia.
Based on recent archaeozoological research in northern Syria
and southern and eastern Turkey, it can be postulated that
the PPN inhabitants of the southern Taurus piedmont were
involved in this process, sheep husbandry (and probably also
goat husbandry) emerging here in the EPPNB and spreading
across the Northern Levant during the MPPNB. In the course
of the latter period, two other species acquired domestic
status, though apparently in different regions Bos in the
:
Middle Euphrates Basin and Sus in south-eastern Turkey. As
such, the analysis of ungulate remains from recently excavated
PPN sites in the study area provided more insight into the
where and when of animal domestication and what species
were involved. Unfortunately, it still does not enable us to
answer the how and why of the process in a satisfactory way.
though on present evidence large scale climatic change and/or
landscape deterioration can be excluded, reinforcing the a
s umption of socio-cultural factors being primarily responsible
for this shift in the man-animal relationship.
Whereas in the immediate future archaeozoologists will
continue to depend upon the "classical" criteria to trace the
beginnings and diffusion of animal husbandry l3?. it is possible
132. Cauv\n et ai. 1998: Helmer et ai. 1998: Sana Segu and Helmer.
in press.
133. These include changes in morphology and body size, introduction
oť a species previously not recorded in the study region, shifts in species
abundance throughout the sequence of occupation, and changes in exploitat
ion patterns as evidenced by differences in age and sex structure of the
population.
44 J. Peters, D. Helmer, A. von den Driesch and M. Saňa Segui

that stable isotopes, trace elements or even DNA analysis in manuscript. Our thanks are due to H. Hauptmann (Director DAI
the long run will be another powerful tool in the field of Istanbul) for allowing us to reproduce the excellent picture of the
research on early animal domestication. While the latter decorated T-shaped stone pillar from Gôbekli Tepe, taken by pho
tographer D. Johannes (DAI Istanbul) during a nocturnal session.
methods will be of limited use for the routine identification
of bulk samples from archaeological sites, they could be Joris PETERS et Angela VON DEN DRIESCH
applied for instance to analyse chemically and/or genetically Institut fiir Palaeoanatomie und Geschichte der Tiermedizin
Tierarztliche Fakultat
faunal remains from PPNA and EPPNB agricultural commun Ludwig-Maximilians-Universitat Munchen
itiesto trace incipient domestication, i.e. to prove shifts in D-80539 Munchen
Germany
the human-animal relationship that cannot be quantified by Daniel HELMER
morphometrica] methods. In this respect, it is of utmost UPR 7537, CNRS
importance to collect, label, and store from each site bone IPO Jalès
F-07460 Berrias
samples from each stratigraphie level and of every species, France
even if their chemical or DNA analysis may only take place Maria SANA SEGUI
several decades in the future. UPR 7537, CNRS
Comparing the publications on archaeofaunas from PPN Departament d'Antropologia Social i Prehistôria
Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona
sites in the Near East in the course of this study, we have E-08193 Bellaterra (Barcelona)
noted considerable differences in methodology. Except for Spain
how to measure animal bones from archaeological sites134,
there are almost no standardised methodological procedures BIBLIOGRAPHY
that are accepted by all archaeozoologists. One would wish, Bar-Yosef O. and Belfer-Cohen A.
for example, a uniform but practical system for recording the 1989 The origins of sedentism and farming communities in the
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and the state of epiphyseal fusion of long bones135, which Becker С
could also be used when studying large amounts of animal 1998 The role of hunting in Pre-Pottery Neolithic Pastoralism and
its ecological implications The Basta example (Jordan).
bones in the field (and not in the laboratory !). Furthermore Anthropozoologica 27 67-78.

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:
a standardised method for size comparison between specimens Beile-Bohn M., Gerber С, Morsch M. und Schmidt K.
from different sites using "standard individuals" (or reference 1998 Neolithische Forschungen in Obermesopotamien. Gurciitepe
populations) that would provide a baseline against which to und Gôbekli Tepe. Istanbuler Mitteilungen 48 5-78.

compare (see LSI method) would be very welcome. Benecke N.
1994
Finally, to be able to assess the effect of climate136,
environment and latitude (cf. Bergmann's rule) on the size
of animals, a data bank comprising all bone measurements
of recent and fossil wild and domestic Ovis, Capra, Sus, and
:
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Peninsula and in southern Scandinavia in the Early and Middle
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Bôkonyi S.
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nised. 229. London Duckworth.

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A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1982 Prehistoric Village Archaeology in South-Eastern Turkey. The
We wish to thank the following colleagues for providing unpu eight millennium B.C. site at Çayônii its chipped and ground
stone industries and faunal remains. BAR Int. Ser. 138. Oxford.
:

blished faunal data (in alphabetical order) H. Hongo, G. Ilgezdi,

R.H. Meadow, and B. Ôksiiz. The authors are indebted to M. Roaf, Brochier J.E.
:

C. Becker, J.-D. Vigne, and two anonymous reviewers for their 1993 Çayônii Tepesi. Domestication, rythmes et environnement au
PPNB. Paléorient 19,2 39-49.
comments. G. Willcox and G. Alcalde kindly translated parts of the
:

BUITENHUIS H.
1985 Preliminary Report on the Faunal Remains of Hayaz Hôyiik
134. A. Von den Driesch, 1976. from the 1979-1983 Seasons. Anatolica 12: 62-74.
135. Cf. Payne and Bull, 1986 for wild boar; Zeder, (this volume: 1988 Archeoz.oologisch onderzoek langs de Midden-Eufraat. Uni
11-25) for wild goat. versity of Groningen, Ph.D. Thesis.
136. E.g. Reichstein, 1991 99, Peters, 1998 97 ff., for the northwest- 1996 Archaeozoology of the Holocene in Anatolia A review. In
southeast size cline in domestic sheep from the Roman North-Western
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Demirci §., Ozer A.M. and Summers G.D. (eds), Archaeomet

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