Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Karma is Sanskrit term (also Karman, Pāli: Kamma) that literally means action or doing. It
means, any kind of intentional action whether physical (kāyakamma), Verbal (vacīkamma)
and mental (manokamma).1 It covers all that is included in the phrase, “thought, word and
deed”. Generally speaking, all good actions (kusala kammā) and bad actions (akusalakammā)
constitute karma. In the Aṅguttara Nikāya III, the Buddha says: “It is volition, Bhikkhus, is
that I call Kamma. For having willed, one acts by body, speech and mind.”2 In his
Abhidharmakośa, Vasubandhu also says that “What is action? It is volition and that which is
produced through volition.”3The doctrine has been variously formulated. But the most
important formulation of it is as follows: Any Karma or action that a man performs must give
rise to some effect, and this effect must be enjoyed by the agent; if not in this life then in the
lives to come in future. As you sow, so you shall reap.

The doctrine of Karma is peculiar to Indian tradition. It is an identifiable and constant

core of idea from the classical period of Indian history to the present. Almost all the systems
of Indian philosophy with the exception of the Cāravakas accept the doctrine. They more or
less profess faith in the concept of Karma as a basic principle. The concept of Karma thus
seems to be the India‟s unique contribution to human thought. For the sake of rational
explanation of the inequalities, suffering, rich or poor, etc. as we always see among human
beings in particular and sentient creature in general, the theory of Karma can solve these
problems. In fact, whenever man faces difficulty in life he reconciles himself with the
concrete realities by invoicing and resorting to the law of Karma. Many sociologists, both
Eastern and Western, attribute general sluggishness and the consequent poverty in India to a
strong and unshakable belief in the law of Karma by its common masses.

Indeed, there are several roles of Karma seen in its expression of various significant
features. For example, it has made a sharp distinction between good and evil, merit and sin
which is the foundation of ethics; it has connected the good with happiness and the evil with
suffering and thereby established a causal relationship between the moral worth of action and
their physical consequences; it has continued a soul which takes a new birth in the future in
order to get the fruits of actions that have been done in the present life; it is also used to
explain the existence of God who, according to some schools of philosophy, is the medium
that joins an action with its fruit in the life of the agent.

Although most of schools subscribe to believe in the significance of Karma, they

neither interpret the meaning nor explain in the same manner. According to the Āsatika
tradition (those who believe in Absolute Being), the law of Karma is always involved with
mysterious forces of God. This implies what and how a man did in the past or is doing at
present, or is going to do in the future will depend on both his own Karma and the grace of
God. The life of man thus has to be led under the very eyes of God. On the basis of this
concept, the sacrifices and rites have to be performed; prayers have to be offered to the Gods
in order to make them satisfied to return rewards. All these valuable points should be
researched.

Nāsatika tradition (those who do not believe in Absolute Being), on the other hand,
says that the law of Karma exists by its own nature depending neither on God nor on any
Supreme Beings. Whatever a man does, he will receive its result inevitably, just as the famous
quotation given “whatever a man sows, be it good or evil, so shall he reap.” This is the
cardinal, infallible truth of the law of Karma. However, amongst the Nāsatika ideas, the
explanation of Karma is stressed on different points of view. Some emphasize the Karma as
being done through body giving severe results, whereas some emphasize on the mental action
yielding the heaviest results. In this connection, what are the reasons that support their views?
We would enthusiastically attempt to discuss them in this research.

Anyway, all schools of Indian thought seem to have a unique view that Karma is
determination of the nature and circumstances of human life while wandering in Samsāra.
Karma is as a continuum, a process interpenetrating and spanning past, present and future
occasions. In other words, ignorance (Avijjā or Avidya) is believed to be a cause of Karma in
order to make beings do good or evil deeds. So long Avijjā has not been destroyed their lives
cannot come to be absolutely free. From this point of view, we find that all Indian philosophy
has traditionally looked upon the most useful aspects of all the human pursuits. That is why
they aim at the nature of ultimate truth as the summum bonum of the spiritual life. This aspect

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should also be discussed.

On the account of its gradual development, the concept of Karma has progressed
through the passage of time. In order to throw light on its origin and development, we thus
trace back the evidences as old as they were, that is, through the Vedic, Upanisadic, six
orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, Jaina, Ājivakas points of view. It is true that the
concept of Karma is not originated by the Buddha. In the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., the
theory of Karma was a popular creed during the time when Buddhism and Jainism flourished.
The Ājivakas as the priests of Jainism were extreme advocates of the concept of Karma called
Kriyāvāda. But we are really persuaded to believe that the highest development of karmic
theory has been discovered and proclaimed by the Buddha.

At the time before getting Enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, the Buddha had three
types of Insight knowledge. Because of the Insight knowledge of reminiscence of past life
(Pubbenivāsānussatiñāna) the Buddha saw sentient beings came under a process of Karma
and reincarnation. The Buddha holds that men are the owners of their Karma
(kammassakatā), the inheritors of Karma (kammadāyādā), born of their Karma (kammayoni),
supported by their karma (kammabhandhu) and they are divided into coarse and refined states
because of Karma (kammapatisaranā). Nonetheless, the Buddha is perhaps the greatest
prophet of the sanctity of Karma. The Buddha teaches the autonomy and potency of human
efforts. The Buddha‟s insistence on the nobility of Karma gains pointed significance. Since
the Buddha saw a great inside potentiality of men, to be freedom to do their work; the Buddha
knew that men can do a lot so much so that they can put an end to their suffering and attain
Nirvāṇa. Therefore, the Buddha himself is called Kammavādī, who generally believes in
Karma. The path of Nirvāṇa could be attained through one‟s own efforts on the process of
precepts (śīla), meditation (samādhi) and wisdom (paññā).

In order to distinguish his karmic theory, the Buddha declared the following three
views as being wrong views of Karma, namely:

1. The belief that all happiness and suffering arise from previous Karma
(Pubbekatahetuvāda).

2. The belief that all happiness and suffering are caused by the directives of
Supreme Beings (Issranimmanahetuvāda).

3. The belief that all happiness and suffering are random, having no cause
(Ahetu-apaccayavāda).4

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 We attempt to study the concept of Karma through the principle of Dependent
Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda; Pāli: Paṭiccasamuppāda) representing the process of the law
of karma on the psychological and moral planes, as in place of animistic superstitions and
absolute speculations put forward by the Buddha as an explanation of human life and destiny.
As a matter of fact, Karma is one of the constituents contained in the Dependent Origination
called Kammavaṭṭa. The principle of Dependent Origination can express the process of karma
and its result from the origin to the end. Therefore the Buddha says that “whoever sees
Paṭiccasamuppāda sees the Dhamma; whoever sees the Dhamma sees Paṭiccasamuppāda.”
Dealing with this problem Damien Keown concludes:

“Karma in Buddhism is not simply a form of sympathetic magic by which the universe mechanically
rewards moral action with material prizes. It is not an occult power but an aspect of Dependent
Origination; stated simply it is the principle that moral actions have consequences. Karma is a value -
free description of a class of actions which are of soteriological importance.”5

In recent years, Richard Gombrich has been throwing light upon the connection of
earliest Buddhism or the Buddha himself with Brahmanical thought. In his work he
emphasizes that Karma common to various Indian schools in those days was „by no means a
specially Buddhist development‟; and that there is „an apparent contradiction‟ between Karma
and Nirvāṇa.6 Gombrich points out that the Brahmanical concept of Karma implying ritual act
was ethicized in other streams, especially in Buddhism7. He, for an expository device,
distinguishes „typical‟ Karma which has effect on the external world from „dogmatic‟ Karma
which means any morally charged action8, but points out opposite phenomena in
contemporary Buddhism, crucial problems of Avijñapti-karma in the Sarvāstivādins‟
interpretation, and the problem of transfer of merit which exposes conspiracy between a
popular belief and the Buddhist doctrine regarding salvation. Finally he carefully examines
Buddhist soteriology. He says,

“Firstly, process substitutes for objects: instead of identifying with universal consciousness one is to
think in a certain way; salvation is a matter of how one lives; not what one is. Secondly, the process is
ethicized: to be totally benevolent is to be liberated”9.

The theories of Karma were thus already familiar to the ancient Indian society at the
time of the Buddha. Louis de la Valee Poussin who is known to have steadily dedicated his
life to the elucidation of Karma asserts the important role of Buddhism in exploration into the
secrets of morality.

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“It is in Buddhism, however, that the doctrine of Karma reaches its climax and assumes a unique
character. Elsewhere it meets with correctives; there are counteractions to human acts; but in
Buddhism it may be said that Karma explains everything, or ought to.”10

G.S.P.Misra points out three distinctive features of the Karma theory in Buddhism
from causal, moral and spiritual aspects. The universe in the causal order dominates people.
Morally good and evil actions are prescribed according to a psycho-ethical principle.
However, the transcendental level is beyond such phenomenal good and evil. He concludes:

“The doctrine of Karma thus implies a strict moral regulation of life and disciplining of psychic
forces. At the same time, the doctrine of Karma points out that the entire life of egoistic action is one
of bondage and man should seek to reach beyond the polarities of pleasure and pain, right and wrong,
to spiritual freedom expressing itself in peace and compassion.”11

1.2 Significance of the Study

Several centuries after the passing away of the Buddha, Buddhist communities divided into a
number of distinct schools. These schools attempted to explain the Buddha‟s teachings in
various manners and established their own methods to clarify the Buddha‟s teachings. Their
differing philosophical views resulted in the production of the Abhidharma. These texts are
the repository of all Buddhist teachings of that time and provide the theoretical foundation for
all Buddhist doctrine. Among those Abhidharmic schools, the Sarvāstivāda - Vaibhāṣika
School was the most influential and prolific in India. In their works, originally written in
Sanskrit, the Abhidharmakośa Śāstra, the work of Vasubandhu is a manual or a compendium
of the Abhidharma treatises and is a repository of the principal Abhidharma works of the
Sarvāstivādins. It has systematized and given a definite form to the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma
Piṭaka. There is no denying the fact that the Abhidharmakośa occupies an eminent position in
the history of Buddhist thought and literature. It is a treasury of the fundamental doctrines of
Buddhism and contains the fullest and systematic exposition of the Abhidharma doctrines of
the ancient Buddhist schools that grew within about eight hundred years after the Buddha‟s
Mahāparinirvāna. Further the Abhidharmakośa also occupies an important place in the
development of Mahāyāna thought and principles. There is very close relation between the
Abhidharmakośa system and the Vijnaptimātra philosophy, one of the two main philosophical
systems of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Therefore, very rightly observes that a thorough mastery of
the Abhidharmakośa is the only door of entrance to the philosophy of the Mahāyāna.

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 It is said that the Abhidharmakośa is a key to the knowledge of all that the ancient
Buddhism represented in the entire field of science of reality, psychology, cosmology,
discipline and the doctrine of Karma etc. In the fourth chapter of the Abhidharmakośa the
concept of Karma was first philosophically systematized and given a primary concern. The
Sanskrit term Karma/Karman, evidently derived from the verbal root kr. means „act, action,
performance, business.‟ It may represent „doing something‟ as well as “what is done (i.e., job
or profession),‟ and further in a ritual sense „holy work (i.e., ceremony)‟ or „what ought to be
done.‟12 We should note that the last meaning is particularly common to the Vedic literature.
Furthermore, The Pāli Text Society‟s Pāli-English Dictionary13 examines various meanings
of this term and classifies them in detail from the contexts of Pāli Buddhism.

First, as a crude meaning, there are three sorts of meanings:

1. occupation or profession (acting in a special sense)

2. action or deed (acting in general)

3. proceedings or ceremony („act‟ in an ecclesiastical sense)

Secondly, as an applied meaning, it can be classified into three:

1. objective action characterized by time such as deed (kata) and duty (kātabhu)

2. subjective action characterized by quality such as doing in general, habit or

one‟s character, and evil and good deed.

3. interaction of act and agent, that is, the action as having remit, the effect of the
deed on the doer.

It is well known that this concept, in a popular and important sense, entails moral
action which would lead the doer to be reborn in a certain world and induce certain retribution
in accordance with the moral quality, and thus the origin of sufferings and the diversity of
human condition are explained with the theory of Karma. Mohun Lai Mehta remarks:

“The doctrine which gives us some explanation of our individual characteristics, i.e., some
satisfactory answer to the factors of our individuality which we have at present and tells us how these
factors were produced as the result of the forces generated in the past is known as the doctrine of
Karma. In other words, the doctrine of Karma is the law that interprets out actions and reactions
found in the form introspection as well as behavior.”14

The benefits of understanding the law of Karma are obvious. In the first place, such an
understanding discourages us from performing unwholesome actions that have suffering as

6
their inevitable fruit. Similarly, knowing that wholesome actions have happiness as their fruit,
we will do our best to cultivate such wholesome actions. Reflecting on the law of Karma, of
action and reaction in the sphere of conscious activity, encourages us to abandon
unwholesome actions and to practice wholesome ones. We will look more closely at the
specific effects of Karma in future lives, and at exactly how it conditions and determines the
nature of rebirth. Here in this thesis, we have made an effort, apart from other issues, to study
the applied aspect of Buddhist concept of Karma in the society and as to how they can make
the present world more livable and better.

Vasubandhu begins his discussion of Karma in a way not unacceptable from a

Theravādin point of view. He rhetorically asks about the source of the variety of living beings
in the world. He answers that such variety arises because of human action (Karma), and not
through any divine agency. Moreover, the effects produced by a given act are the result of its
ethical force. Whereas a good life leads to happiness in the future, a bad life leads to
suffering. A being whose conduct is mixed will accordingly come to experience both
happiness and suffering. It is clear from the discussion of Karma as described in the
Abhidharmakośa all Karma are arisen from ignorance and in a profound sense all the
experience it has produced belongs to the realm of suffering. Therefore, by destroying or
resolving the defilement, thirst, volition, hatred or ill-will present in the volitional act, man
can experience a real happy life without any desire except the desire for cessation, for the end
of pain and sorrow. Thus the understanding of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda thought in turn
became normative not only for Buddhism in India but also for Buddhism in other countries.
This is attested by the fact that the Abhidharmakośa, one of the Sarvāstivādins texts, has been
studied as a basic text for Buddhist scholars and students in Tibet, China and Japan. The
theoretical foundations developed in this school, therefore provides us with a proper
understanding of the significance of Karma in the entire range of Buddhist thought. And that
is the reason why we decide to choose this topic with the title: “A study of Concept of Karma
in the Sarvāstivāda Thought with Special Reference to the Abhidharmakośa Śāstra” for our
research.

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1.3 Review of Literature and the Hypothesis

The Buddha understood Karma as human action and strongly emphasized it in his teaching.
Therefore the Buddha himself was referred to as „kammavāda‟ (the holder of the view of
Karma, or „kiriyavāda‟ (the promulgator of the consequence of Karma).15 In the doctrine of
the Buddha as found in the Sūtras ethics, the behavior required for awakening, and the rules
for the Bhikkhus and Bhikkhunis all derive from the view of Karma. The form and magnitude
of the rebounding consequences of a deed is in accordance with the intent, the nature of the
deed, and the detachment of the recipient of the deed.

There are the large numbers of works available on the subject of Karma; however, the
theoretical foundations and soteriological aims of the Buddhist concept of Karma are not yet
clearly understood. There are, of course, some exceptions like James P. McDermott‟s,
Development in the Early Buddhist Concept of Kamma/Karma (New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal, 1984).

Development in the Early Buddhist Concept of Kamma/Karma deals with the concept
of karma as it developed in Buddhist scriptures, particularly in the Vinaya and Sūtta Piṭaka.
The problem is then examined in the Abhidhamma Piṭaka, where certain abstract
developments in the definition and categorization of Karma are discovered. In order to
provide a greater chronological scope, the text then turns to an analysis of Karma in the
Milindapanha. Finally, the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu is considered. A new concern
with the mechanism of Karmic retribution becomes evident in the Abhidharmakośa.

The modifications which the concept of Karma is found to have undergone roughly
speaking are of two broad types. First, there were popular folk developments which were
accepted only reluctantly, if at all, in more scholarly circles. Then there were the more
scholastic developments in the direction of greater precision of definition and refinement of
categories. In the same vein, a growing scholarly concern for specific implications of the
more general principle of Karma is also noted.

There are also a number of specialized studies which cover that concept as understood
not only in Buddhism but also in other Indian philosophies and religions. Such as: Wendy D.
O‟Flaherty (ed), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Tradition, (Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1980); Ronald W. Neufeldt (Ed.), Karma and Rebirth-Post Classical
Developments, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1986) and so on.

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 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Tradition is edited by Wendy O‟Flaherty is the
product of several scholarly meetings known as the “Karma Conferences” which were
organized by Karl Potter of the University of Washington (Seattle). This is an excellent and
important book because it systematically addresses a central though much neglected topic of
Indian tradition and it attains a high standard in each essay. This book consists of twelve
essays and is distributed in three parts: clear presentation, a wealth of information, and an
overall theoretical coherence which allows for a comprehensive presentation of the ideas
about Karma as they appear in the Classical Indian texts. Part I, “Hinduism and its roots”,
includes papers on Karma and rebirth in the Vedas and Purāṇas, in the Mahābhārata, in the
Dharmaśāstras, in the Caraka-saṃhitā, and in Tamilnad. Part II, “Buddhism and Jainism”,
has two papers which take up the theme in early Buddhism, one on Jainism, and one on the
“Medical soteriology of Karma in the Buddhist Tantric tradition”. Part III, “Philosophical
traditions”, has three papers which discuss Karma respectively in some Indian philosophical
systems, in connection with the theory of Samara, and as “Sociology of knowledge”.16

Karma and Rebirth: Post Classical Developments explains the religious concepts most
central to Asian philosophy, religion, and society, presenting articles representative of
contemporary understanding and practice. The advantage of this book is that the material is
more relevant to our day-to-day spirituality than in the companion volume. We find reference
to the modern tendency to combine Karma with evolution, psychology and merit making and
ritual aspects of Karma as well. The contributors look not only at the understanding of Karma
and rebirth in modern India, but also in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, Tibet, China, Japan,
and the Western world. This broad treatment underscores the fact that Karma and rebirth have
become part of the religious history and cultural fabric of the Western world.

The collection is divided into three sections. Part I deals with figures and movements
of the Hindu renaissance in India in the nineteenth and twentieth century. Part II on Buddhism
deals with Indian, Chinese, Tibetan, and Japanese treatments of Karma. Part III is devoted to
the influence of Karma and rebirth in the Western world through theosophy, new religious
movements, and recent developments in psychology.17

The Manifestations of Karma comprises the eleven lectures is Steiner‟s fundamental

study of the laws of Karma as they work in disease and health, accidents, forces of nature
such as volcanoes and earthquakes, and our relation to the animal kingdom. Also included is a
discussion of free will and destiny, our experiences as men and women, and the future
evolution of humanity in relation to the Karma of higher beings. The author shows how,

9
through a comprehension of Karma, a person can begin to answer the inevitable questions
that arise when they begin seriously to seek the meaning and purpose of life.18

Karma and Rebirth: Foundation of the Buddha’s Moral philosophy mainly deals with
the foundations of the Lord Buddha‟s moral philosophy. It describes the pre-Buddhist
background and facts on survival in the Vedas and in the Upanishads. It also gives a detailed
description on the knowledge of Karma and Rebirth, human personality and its survival and
the way of Noble Life (Brahmacharya). Finally it presents the materials on Karma, Rebirth
and freedom (Nirvāṇa).19

Besides the above works, there are also few comprehensive works which attempt to
examine the theoretical foundations of Karma within the history of Indian Buddhist
philosophy. Among them, the Abhidharma texts are important here. These texts are the
repository of all Buddhist teachings and provide the theoretical foundation for all Buddhist
doctrine. Thus, this study is intended to treat the concept of Karma specifically within the
history of Sarvāstivāda thought. To this aim we shall concentrate on the Abhidharmakośa of
Vasubandhu, because this text was the first work that attempted to systematize all doctrine of
this school. Its doctrinal analysis provides us with a neat summary of previous Abhidharma
studies, and its organizational structure became a model for later Sarvāstivāda texts.

Analytical works on Abhidharma texts have been done by Western as well as

Japanese scholars.20 However, few systematic works on other important texts including the
Abhidharmakośa have been done. Moreover, there are few comprehensive works which
examine the concept of Karma within the history of the Sarvāstivāda School.

This study consists of an expository essay on an annotated translation of the fourth

chapter of the Abhidharmakośa, the Karma-nirdeśa that deals with the concept of Karma
systematically. We will treat Karma‟s four major functions in the Sarvāstivāda thought:

1. Karma and its basic aspects.

2. Karma as a description of human action from the perspective of the Buddhist
Concept of Dependent Origination (Pratītyasamutpāda), that is, the
relationship between the human action and its effect.
3. Karma as a principle of Buddhist ethics, that is, a means of controlling the
members of the Buddhist community, particularly monks.
4. Karmas essential to attain enlightenment.

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 This study attempts to make a small contribution by examining the philosophy of that
text in a specific area, the evolution of the concept of Karma. This text has a direct
commentary that is the Abhidharmakośabhāṣyam. We will also examine this work in order to
further explore the doctrinal development of the concept of Karma in this school. To solve
this problem, firstly, this work attempts to collect the information about Karma, especially, in
early Buddhism or for the Tipiṭaka and other sources as much as possible. Secondly, and
effort has been made to define what is Karma both in the fundamental and worldly sense,
finally, is also tries to explain and discuss it in a comprehensive way in order to make a
thorough study of the concept of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda school.

1.4 The Sources and Methodology of the Study

While exploring the subject of study literary sources especially texts of Theravāda Buddhism
with their translations in other languages would be utilized. Besides, the commentarial
literature which will be deemed relevant in expounding the original sources will also be
utilized, so also, the relevant views of important authors will also be referred to and discussed
in order to make the comprehensive study. The present study would be strictly confined to the
task of analyzing the subject in the light of textual sources. An effort would be made to
understand the Karma in the Sarvāstivāda School in different aspects.

The research is a study of the concept of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda thought with
special reference to the Abhidharmakośa Śāstra of Vasubandhu, to which Buddhist scholars
seem to pay very little attention. In the extent of this thesis, we will discuss Buddhist
doctrines through the thought of Karma as a central concept of Buddhism. The primary
source for this research work is the Abhidharmakośa.

Nevertheless, our research of the Abhidharmakośa is concerned particularly with the

teachings that represent the Karma thought in favour of our process of research. Although all
the Buddhist teachings in the Abhidharmakośa should be of this thought, we intend to seek a
methodology therein in the view that the early Buddhist teachings have been theorized by the
Mahāyānists as the Buddha‟s power of skill in means out of compassion for the world.

Accordingly, the early Mahāyāna texts such as Sadharmapuṇḍrīka Sūtra, Avataṃsaka

Sūtra, Astasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā, etc., are necessarily used to explain the quality of the
Karma in the Abhidharmakośa. Besides, some commentaries by the Mahāyānists on the
Buddha‟s doctrines can be used to supplement the thought. In other words, the view of Karma

11
that is referred to in this research is mainly based on the thought of Mahāyāna Buddhism. A
study of the concept of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda thought with special reference to the
Abhidharmakośa Śāstra of Vasubandhu will be done with the intention of an inclusive
understanding of Buddhism.

The technical term is developed into an essential system of thought in Mahāyāna

Buddhism. All Buddhist teachings preserved in Pāli, Sanskrit, Chinese, Tibetan and so on are
considered included in this concept. They are classified generally into two main systems of
thought: the Original (Therayāda) and the Developed (Mahāyāna). In reality, there are not
two contrary sects of thought but the two doctrinal traditions of experience which are all to
uphold genuine values of Buddhism regarding both language and thought of the Buddha
himself. Therefore, it is difficult to make a symmetric comparison between these two
traditions corresponding to the quality of Karma.

Briefly, this research is to discover in the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu the quality

of the Karma with the method and intention of the Buddha‟s approach and teaching to his
audience. The thesis seeks to bring out a broad outline of the Buddha‟s methodology of
teaching in the Sūtras. The methodology that would be utilized in the proposed study is likely
to be conceptual, analytical, logical, investigative and comparative basing observations on the
data gathered from the different sources, of course, main body from the Abhidharmakośa
Śāstra, the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya, Tipiṭaka and secondary sources like: Articles, Journal, e-
sources, etc.

1.5 Outlines of the Study

The structure of the thesis consists of seven chapters as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction

In the first chapter, we have discussed the sources to be used, the methodology to be
employed and general background, significance of the topic. In addition to these, there are
various paramount issues that we would like to raise and discuss in the following chapters.
The objective of the present work is to study the concept of Karma in Sarvāstivāda thought
with special reference to the Abhidharmakośa Śāstra. Therefore, in the first chapter, an
attempt is made to introduce the position of the Karma in Buddhist thought and it is found to
have been fundamental to all movements of the Buddhism. Scope of the research is
mentioned here. We have no intention of re-writing or fully focusing the history of Buddhist
12
thoughts in detail. We also aim at analyzing the similarities and the differences of the concept
of Karma in different systems of Buddhist philosophy through the above-mentioned texts. We
have also commented on some works that have been related to this field and the reasons for
the need to work on this topic. This chapter also includes a general survey of the concept of
Karma. The materials which will be used for our research are confined to Buddhist literature,
especially in Abhidharmakośa. Besides Tipiṭaka, we will also use some secondary sources
which are related to the topic during the process of research.

Chapter 2: The Sarvāstivāda School and the Abhidharmakośa Śāstra

The second chapter is concerned with the origin and development of the Sarvāstivāda
School and Abhidharmakośa Śāstra. The school of Sarvāstivāda was one of the so-called
Eighteen Schools of early Buddhism. The term Sarvāstivāda is also used to designate the
body of doctrine and literature associated with this community. The Sarvāstivādins received
the royal patronage of Kaniṣka (second century A.D). According to tradition, the Tripiṭaka of
this school was finally closed during his reign. But it is not clear whether this legend is due to
confusion between the writing of their Abhidharma and the compilation of the canon. It is
more likely that most of the Sarvāstivādin Tripiṭaka was redacted earlier, and that by the
second century A.D Sarvāstivādin scholars were engaged in exegetical work. This was the
time for the major systematic works, and the beginning of the work of synthesis such as
would develop into the Mahāvibhāṣā.

As a school of philosophy Sarvāstivāda was gradually absorbed by the Sautrāntika

and the Mahāyāna. But it remained a strong monastic institution, especially in the Northwest.
Sarvāstivāda survived at least into the ninth century A.D through the Mūlasarvāstivāda sub-
school. By counting Mūlasarvāstivādin texts as works of Sarvāstivādin imprint, one can form
an approximate idea of the greater part of the Tripiṭaka of this school. The combined literature
of both groups almost constitutes a complete canon, preserved mostly in Chinese and Tibetan
translation, but also in several Sanskrit fragments from central Asia. This body of literature is
an important source for the study of the so-called Hīnayāna schools, eclipsed in this respect
only by that of the Theravāda tradition.

Therefore, in order to understand Sarvāstivāda school clearly, in this chapter first we

will present about general introduction to Buddhism, the origin and development of different
Buddhist schools. Then we will try to discuss about the general history as well as the
development of texts of Sarvāstivāda school and at the same time we will also present the life

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of Vasubandhu-the author of Abhidharmakośa, and the origin, development and position of
the Abhidharmakośa. The Abhidharmakośa is a treasury of the fundamental doctrines of
Buddhism. It contains the fullest and systematic exposition of the Abhidharma doctrines of
the ancient Buddhist schools. It can be said that the Abhidharmakośa is a key to the
knowledge of all that the ancient Buddhism represented in the entire field of ontology,
psychology, cosmology, discipline, theory of salvation and the doctrine of Karma.

Chapter 3: The Concept of Karma in the Non-Buddhist Schools.

The third chapter deals with the concept of Karma in the Non-Buddhist Schools. In
this chapter, we will attempt to summarize the views on Karma of the main doctrines of
Indian philosophy as presented by various outstanding modern Indologists. To begin, we will
present terminology of Karma, the origin and early development of the concept of Karma.
Then, we will discuss about the concept of Karma in Orthodox schools of Indian philosophy
such as Nyāya, Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mimāṃsa and Vedānta School. Finally we
will discuss about the concept of Karma in Non-orthodox schools of Indian philosophy such
as Jainism and Ājivikas School. This chapter as a basic background so that the author relates
to the concept of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda School which seems to be the pinnacle of its
development, will be discussed in the next chapter. One more thing needs to be said here is
that all the documents used for this reference mainly are materials discussed or surveyed by
scholars and the author only makes use of them as sufficient evidences to take out necessary
details for demonstration more than looking for its original texts i.e., going back to the Vedas,
Upaniṣads, Jaina, Ājivakas and orthodox schools of Indian philosophy.

Chapter 4: The Concept of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda Thought

The fourth chapter is intended to trace and prove the doctrine of Karma in
Sarvāstivāda thought with special reference to the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu.
Buddhists do not believe in rewards and punishments given by a superior being, but they
believe that man reaps what one has sown, both good and evil, and what one sows one reaps
somewhere, sometime. The pain or happiness man experience is the inevitable result of one
own doings. This leads one to believe in the doctrine of Karma, the Buddhist law of moral
causation and individual responsibility. Karma, as some interpret “action- influence”, is a law
in itself which operates in its own field without the intervention of an external, independent
ruling agency. It is neither fatalism nor predestination that is imposed on us by some
mysterious unknown power, to which we must helplessly submit ourselves.

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 This law of Karma explains the problem of suffering, the mystery of fee and
predestination of some religions, the problem of infant prodigies and above all, the inequality
of mankind. This belief in Karma gives them consolation, hope, self-reliance and moral
courage. It validates their effort, kindles their enthusiasm, and makes them ever kind, tolerant,
and considerate, for they understand that no wording is entirely good or entirely bad.

In the very long text called Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu, all discussion about
Karma is the subject matter of the fourth chapter. To begin with, an investigation into the
basic aspects of approach such as Karma and its basic aspects consisting of the classifications
of Karma, nature, dimension and results of Karma will be presented. Next, we will present
Karma and the Concept of Dependent Origination consisting of the causal relationship and
various division of Karma. After that we will discuss Karma as a Buddhist Ethical Concept
consisting of wholesome, unwholesome and indeterminate; the morally potent element and
the ten courses of action. Finally, we will present about Karmas essential to attain
enlightenment consisting of Bodhisattva and Karma and the meritorious actions.

Chapter 5: Comparative Study of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda School and the Other
Buddhist Schools

The fifth chapter deals with the concept of Karma in major schools of Buddhist
philosophy. In Buddhism, Karma is the force that drives saṃsāra, the cycle of suffering and
rebirth for each being. Good, skillful deeds (kuśala) and bad, unskillful actions (akuśala)
produce “seeds” in the mind that come to fruition either in this life or in a subsequent rebirth.
The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivation of positive actions are called śīla
(ethical conduct). Karma specifically refers to those actions of body, speech or mind that
spring from mental intent (cetanā), and brings about a consequence or fruit (phala) or result
(vipāka).

In Theravāda Buddhism there can be no divine salvation or forgiveness for one‟s

Karma, since it is a purely impersonal process that is a part of the makeup of the universe. In
Mahāyāna Buddhism, the texts of certain Mahāyāna sūtras (such as the Lotus Sūtra, the
Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra and the Nirvāṇa Sūtra) claim that the recitation or merely the hearing of
their texts can expunge great swathes of negative Karma. Some forms of Buddhism (for
example, Vajrayāna) regard the recitation of mantras as a means for cutting off of previous
negative Karma. The Japanese Pure Land teacher Genshin taught that Amida Buddha has the
power to destroy the Karma that would otherwise bind one in saṃsāra.

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 Thus, there is difference among Buddhist traditions and schools about the concept of
Karma. Therefore, this chapter is intended to trace and prove the view of Karma in the
Theravāda, Yogācāra, Mahāyāna and comparative study of Karma in Sarvāstivāda school
and those schools. The chapter also looks into the basic concepts of the Buddhism, including
the rebirth, five aggregates, moral, and non-grasping. These concepts are control to every
performance of the Karma. Thus, this doctrine is representative of Buddhist thought.

Chapter 6: Significance of the Concept of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda School

The sixth chapter refers to significance of Karma in the Sarvāstivāda school and its
application in the daily life destruction of defilements, education of self-responsibility and
application of moral thought and action. We also deal with the contribution of the concept of
Karma towards society such as living harmoniously with natural world, establishment of the
culture of non-violence and contribution to the way to awaking, which are discussed in detail
relating to spiritual development. Such concern of Buddhist doctrines for society is found
quite comprehensive. Simultaneously, some incidents revealing the interdependence in
natural environment are also presented in this chapter.

Chapter 7: Conclusion

Lastly, the seventh chapter - Conclusion is a summary of the thesis. We have

concludes all arguments brought forth in the previous chapters. This chapter also includes
some more suggestions and observations relating to the applied aspects of the concept of
Karma in modern world especially what Buddhist perspective on consumerism is emphasized
to show that Buddhism is very much engaged to modern society. Thus, the contribution of
Buddhism to fields such as philosophy, ethics and education for a good society has been made
plain in this chapter.

The thesis mainly focuses on the Buddhist view of Karma in Sarvāstivāda thought
with special reference to the Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu. It is all done with a view to
reconciliation between the early teachings and the developed ones.

16
Notes and References

1
PED, p. 190.
2
AN. III. 415.
3
AK, Vol. II, p. 551.
4
AN. I. 173; MN. II. 214.
5
Damien Keown, The Nature of Buddhist Ethics, New York: St. Martin‟s Press, 1992, p. 127.
6
Richard F. Gombrich, How Buddhistism Began: The Conditioned Genesis of the Early Teachings,
London: Athlone Press, 1996, pp. 48-62.
7
Ibid., pp. 50-51.
8
Ibid., p. 52.
9
Ibid., p. 62.
10
ERE, Vol. VII, p. 674.
11
G.S.P.Misra, Development of Buddhist Ethics, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1984, pp. 52-53.
12
SED, p. 64.
13
PED, pp. 190-194.
14
Mohun Lai Mehta, Outline of Jaina Philosophy, Bangalore: Jain Mission Society, 1954, p. 134.
15
DN. I. 115.
16
See Wendy D. O‟Flaherty (Ed.), Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Tradition, Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1980.
17
See Ronald W. Neufeldt (Ed.), Karma and Rebirth-Post Classical Developments, Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1986.
18
See Rudolf Steiner, The Manifestations of Karma, London: Rudolf Steiner Press, 2000.
19
See David J. Kalupahana, Karma and Rebirth: Foundation of the Buddha’s Moral philosophy, Sri
Lanka: Buddhist Cultural Centre, 2006.
20
For example, Louis de La Vallee Poussin, L’Abhidharmakosa de Vasubandhu, 6 vols, (Brussels:
IBDHEC, 1971); Erich Frauwallner, “Abhidharma-Studien”, (WZKSO 1963, PP.20-36; 1964,
PP.59-99; 1971, PP.69-121: 1972, PP.95-152; 1973, PP.125-148); Theodore Stcherbatsky, The
Central Concept of Buddhism and Meaning of the Term Pharma, (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1970,
reprint); Kimura Taiken, Abidarumaron no kenkyu, (Tokyo: Daihorinkaku1 968 , reprint); I‟ukunara
Ryogon, ubu abidarumaron no hattatsu, (Kyoto: Nagatabunshodo, 1965); Sakurabe Hajime,
Kusharon no kenkyu, (Kyoto: Hozokan, 1968) and so on.

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