INDUSTRIAL VISITS REPORT - 2018

IN

TATA MOTORS
Submitted by -:
NAME – AKASH DUHOON
ROLL NO -1608091003
SEMESTER –6
BRANCH-- Electrical

Submitted To -:

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 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

INDEX

I. CHAPTER 01
• Introduction of organisation..............................................................3-5

II. CHAPTER 02
• Layout details of organisation with block diagram having
different section....................................................................................6-9

III. CHAPTER 03
• Product /service details having different section.............................10-48

IV. CHAPTER 04
• Future plan of organisation..............................................................49-51

V. CHAPTER 05
• References........................................................................................51-52

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 CHAPTER - 01

INTRODUCTION OF ORGANISATION

Tata Motors Limited (formerly TELCO, short for Tata Engineering and Locomotive

Company) is an Indian multinational automotive manufacturing company and a
member of the tata group. Its products include passenger cars, trucks, vans,
coaches, buses, sports cars, construction equipment and military vehicles. Tata

Motors has been ranked 5th in 2017 Responsible Business Rankings.

But, Tata Marcopolo (officially Tata Marcopolo Motors Ltd.) is a bus and coach
manufacturing company headquartered in dharwad, india and a joint venture between tata

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motors marcoplo south africa.

It is stated in 2008 with the contribute of tata 49% And marcopolo 51%. The primary bus
manufacturing and building unit for Tata Marcopolo (TMML) started in Lucknow, with an
output of 25 buses per day. The second unit of TMML is at Dharwad, Karnataka, whose
output is 70 buses per day. Currently it has doubled its production and become the largest
unit in the world.

Tata Marcopolo products are being used or inducted in several Indian cities as part of the
local transport fleet like Navi Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Delhi, Bangalore, Coimbatore, Mysore,
Kolkata, Chennai, Lucknow, Kanpur, Chandigarh, Pune, South kanpur, Kochi, Madurai, Nava
Raipur, Hyderabad, Thane, Trivandrum, Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada and Amritsar etc. It is a
low floor bus with both air conditioned and non air conditioned variants available.

A low-floor bus is a bus or trolleybus that has no steps between the ground and the
floor of the bus 2 one or more entrances, and low floor for part or all of the
passenger cabin. A bus with a partial low floor may also be referred to as a low-entry
bus in some locations.
"Low floor" refers to a bus deck that is accessible from the sidewalk with only a
single "step" with a small height difference, caused solely by the difference between
the bus deck and sidewalk. This is distinct from "high floor", a bus deck design that
requires climbing one or more steps (now known as step entrance) to access the
interior floor that is placed at a higher height. Being low-floor improves
the accessability of the bus for the public, particularly the elderly and people with
disabilities, including those using wheelchairs and walkers.. It was powered by a
gasoline V8 engine that was linked to a generator. The generated electricity powered
electric motors on all 8 wheels.

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Tata Motors is India’s largest automobile company, with revenues of US$ 8.8 billion
in 2007-08. Through subsidiaries and associate companies, Tata Motors has
operations in the UK, South Korea, Thailand and Spain. Among them is Jaguar Land
Rover, a business comprising the two iconic British . It also has a strategic alliance
with Fiat. With over 4 million Tata vehicles plying in India, Tata Motors is the
country’s market leader in commercial vehicles and among the top three in
passenger vehicles. It is also the world’s fourth largest truck manufacturer and the
second largest bus manufacturer. Tata cars, buses and trucks are being marketed in
several countries in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, South Asia, South East Asia and
South America. 

Tata Motors has won yet another order from the Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC)
to supply 1625 ultra low-floor buses, and their maintenance for 12 years. The
contract is valued at Rs.2200 crores, comprising about Rs.900 crores for the 1625
buses, and about Rs.1300 crores for the 12-year maintenance contract for these
buses.
This is the second consecutive occasion that the DTC has entrusted Tata Motors
with its prestigious order, aimed at revamping the city’s transportation system. The
first such order by the DTC in 2007 for 650 such buses was won by Tata Motors, and
the company fulfilled the order in batches, as per schedule, in 2008.
As has been seen in the Tata Motors buses already plying in Delhi, these ultra
low-floor buses make entry and exit extremely convenient, with passengers almost
walking into them, rather than climbing. A pneumatically deployed automatic access
ramp makes it particularly convenient for those with special challenges, who can
even come in with their wheel-chairs. Wide twin doors, at the centre and the front,
permit three individuals to simultaneously enter and exit.
The interiors are spacious. The seats are ergonomically designed, and the corridors
wide enough for easy movement. Special features include a communication system
connecting the driver to passengers and electronic destination board.
The engine, at the rear, reduces noise, heat and vibration levels, while also
increasing interior space. Full pneumatic suspension and automatic transmission
further add to a comfortable ride. Tata Motors will be responsible for the
maintenance of these buses for 12 years.
Success of Tata Motors ultra low-floor buses in Delhi is encouraging other cities to consider
similar transportation

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 CHAPTER - 02

Details of different sections

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Layout details of organisation

Workshop

A training workshop is a type of interactive training where participants carry out a

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number of training activities rather than passively listen to a lecture or presentation.
Broadly, two types of workshops exist: A general workshop is put on for a mixed
audience, and a closed workshop is tailored towards meeting the training needs of a
specific group be required for the manufacture or repair of manufactured goods.
Workshops were the only places of production until the advent of industrialization
and the development of larger factories. Home workshops typically contain a
workbench, hand tools, power tools and other hardware.

(a) Engine assembly section :- In this section all the parts of the IC engine is
retreated like clean, finishing surfaces, correct the error and lubricated by
lubrication material and after that assemble to each other. In this section piston,
gears, connecting rod and cylinder head etc are retreated and assembled.

(b) Major engine assembly section :-In this section all the small parts of the IC
engine which is assembled previously are assembled together and make a
complete IC engine. In this section all small parts of the IC engine is lubricate
with lubricant and the assemble it with nuts bolts.

(c)Electric section:- Electric section are those section in which all the electric
components are repair and assembled to the IC engine. The electric components
as alternator, spark plug, dynamo etc. These parts are disassembled and check
the defects and then repair. Different types of machine are available in this
section for repair. These repaired parts are then send to the engine assembly
section.

(d)Receive section:-In this section the components of IC engine are as clutch

plate, propeller shaft, water pump are repair and maintain and are assembled
with the IC engine. In this section these parts are disassemble and change the
defect parts and assembled and then these parts send to the engine assembly
section.

(e)Gear box assembly section:-In this section all the gears which is use in IC
engine are repair and maintain. In this shop gear box is repaired and change the
defects gears of gear box. the vehicle’s torque and its speed according to road condition
or when the driver need. This device is known as gearbox box.

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 In an automobile various gearboxes are used which allow the vehicle to obtain
different torque and speed combination.

(f) Dismantle section:- In this section an IC engine is disassembled and all the
parts of IC engine is checked and sent to those section where it repaired and
maintain. In this section all the small and as well as big parts of IC engine is
checked.In this workshop students get first hand experience of the working
principles for IC Engine Design. By dismantling a real IC Engine into components,
participants can explore the engineering involved in an automotive engine
system.

(g)Machine shop:-In this section those part of IC engine which machined after
repair are machining. Generally grinding, turning, facing, hobbing, and polishing
are carried out in this section. Large, Drilling, Grinding and other types of
machine are used in this shop. A machine shop is a room, building, or company
where machining is done. In a machine shop, machinists use machine tools and
cutting tools to make parts, usually of metal. The production can consist of
cutting, shaping, drilling, finishing, and other processes. The machine tools
typically include metal lathes, milling machines, machining centres, multitasking
machines, drill presses, or grinding machines.

(h)Tyre section:-In this section damages tyre are repaired and increase it life.
Many process carried out in this section as finishing of tyre by buffing machine,
cementing and after that heat it in an heat in chamber. In this section all type of
tyres are repaired.

This article describes the components assembled to make a tire, the various
materials used, the manufacturing processes and machinery, and the overall
business model. The tire is an assembly of numerous components that are built
up on a drum and then cured in a press under heat and pressure. Heat facilitates
a polymerization reaction that crosslinks rubber monomers to create long
elastic.

(i) Welding section:-In this section all the parts of IC engine which is able to weld
are welded here with arc as well as gas Welding. Generally cracks are repaired in
this section with welding. Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins
materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is
distinctfrom lower temperature metal-joining techniques such as brazing and

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 soldering, which do not melt the base metal. In addition to melting the base
metal, a filler material is typically added to the joint to form a pool of molten
material (the weld pool) that cools to form a joint that is usually stronger than the
base material. Pressure may also be used in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to
produce a weld. Welding also requires a form of shield to protect the filler metals
or melted metals from being contaminated or oxidized.
Although less common, there are also solid state welding processes such as
friction welding or shielded active gas welding in which metal does not melt.
Some of the best known welding methods carried out in the workshop
 Oxy-fuel welding – also known as oxyacetylene welding or oxy welding, uses
fuel gases and oxygen to weld and cut metals.

 Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) – also known as "stick welding or electric
welding", uses an electrode that has flux around it to protect the weld puddle.
The electrode holder holds the electrode as it slowly melts away. Slag
protects the weld puddle from atmospheric contamination.

(j) Connecting rod and piston repair section:- In this section connecting rod
and piston are repaired. As the bending and torsion are removed from the
connecting rod in this section. The piston and connecting rod assembly are one
unit made of two separate components.

For piston and piston ring information, refer to this section .

For connecting rod information, refer to same section .

(k)Crank shaft section:- In this section crankshafts are inspected and checked
and repair it. In this section the dimension of crankshaft is checked and after
maintenance send it to machine shop for machining purpose. When in-situ
machining is impractical due to the extent of damage on the crankshaft or a lack
of space in the engine compartment, the crankshaft will need to be removed.

Types of Reconditioning

 Full inspection (Magnaflux and Hardness)

 Hardness Removal via annealing

 Crankshaft Grinding and Polishing

 Crankshaft Straightening

(l) Engine testing section:-In this section engine which assembled in the engine

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 assembled section is checked. Here different types of equipment are use used in
checking the IC engine. Here proper working of IC engine is checked and
different types of parameters are compared with standard parameters of IC
engine.

A sophisticated engine test stand houses several sensors (or transducers), data
acquisition features and actuators to control the engine state. The sensors
would measure several physical variables of interest which typically include:

 crankshaft torque and angular velocity

 intake air and fuel consumption rates, often detected using volumetric and/or
gravimetric measurement methods

 air-fuel ratio for the intake mixture, often detected using an exhaust gas
oxygen sensor

 environment pollutant concentrations in the exhaust gas such as carbon

monoxide, different configurations of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides,
sulphur dioxide, and particulate matter

 temperatures and gas pressures at several locations on the engine body such
as engine oil temperature, spark plug temperature, exhaust gas temperature,
intake manifold pressure

 atmospheric conditions such as temperature, pressure, and humidity

 Information gathered through the sensors is often processed and logged

through data acquisition systems. Actuators allow for attaining a desired
engine state (often characterized as a unique combination of engine torque
and speed). For gasoline engines, the actuators may include an intake throttle
actuator, a loading device for the engine such as an induction motor. The
engine test stands are often custom-packaged considering requirements of
the OEM customer. They often include microcontroller-based feedback
control systems with following features:

 closed-loop desired speed operation (useful towards characterization of

steady-state or transient engine performance)
 closed-loop desired torque operation (useful towards emulation of in-vehicle,
on-road scenarios, thereby enabling an alternate way of characterization of
steady-state or transient engine performance)

(m) Waste store room:- In this room the waste material of IC engine like
defectparts and those parts are bear and tear and defected badly are stored. It is well

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 prepared room for storing waste material. This waste or defected parts are supplied to
the industry for manufacturing new parts of IC engine.

(n)Store room:- In this room the IC engines which checked in IC engine testing
section are stored and supply to those place where it is assembled with buses.

CHAPTER – 03

Internal combustion engine

An internal combustion engine (ICE) is a heat engine where combustion of a fuel

occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral part
of the working fluid flow circuit . In thermodynamics, a heat engine is a system that
converts heat or thermal energy and chemical energy to mechanical energy, which
can then be used to do mechanical work. It does this by bringing a working
substance from a higher state temperature to a lower state temperature. A heat
source generates thermal energy that brings the working substance to the high

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temperature state. The working substance generates work in the working body of
the engine while transferring heat to the colder sink until it reaches a low
temperature state.

Heat engines can be further divided into two types

(i) External combustion and

(ii) Internal combustion.

In a steam engine the combustion of fuel takes place outside the engine and the
steam thus formed is used to run the engine. Thus, it is known as external
combustion engine. In the case of internal combustion engine, the combustion of
fuel takes place inside the engine cylinder itself.

The IC engine can be further classified as:

(i) Stationary or Mobile

(ii) Horizontal or Vertical and

(iii) Low, Medium or High speed.

The two distinct types of IC engines used for either mobile or stationary operations
are: .

(i) Diesel and

(ii) Carburettor.

Spark Ignition (Carburettor Type) IC Engine- In this engine liquid fuel is atomised,
vaporized and mixed with air in correct proportion before being taken to the engine
cylinder through the intake manifolds. The ignition of the mixture is caused by an
electric spark and is known as spark ignition.

Compression Ignition (Diesel Type) IC Engine -In this only the liquid fuel is injected in
the cylinder block
Type of IC engine

(1) 4 stroke IC engine

(2) 2 stroke IC engine

4- stroke IC engine -A four-stroke (also four-cycle) engine is an internal combustion

(IC) engine in which the piston completes four separate strokes while turning the

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crankshaft. A stroke refers to the full travel of the piston along the cylinder, in either
direction. The four separate strokes are termed:

Intake: also known as induction or suction This stroke of the piston begins at top
dead center (T.D.C.) and ends at bottom dead center (B.D.C.). In this stroke the
intake valve must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture
into the cylinder by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its
downward motion.

Compression: This stroke begins at B.D.C, or just at the end of the suction stroke,
and ends at T.D.C. In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in
preparation for ignition during the power stroke (below). Both the intake and exhaust
valves are closed during this stage.

Combustion: also known as power or ignition This is the start of the second
revolution of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full
360 degree revolution. While the piston is at T.D.C. (the end of the compression
stroke) the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug (in a gasoline
engine) or by heat generated by high compression (diesel engines), forcefully
returning the piston to B.D.C. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine
to turn the crankshaft.

Exhaust: also known as outlet. During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again
returns from B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the
spent air-fuel mixture through the exhaust valve.

Valve timing diagram of 4 stroke petrol engine

Valve Timing Diagram for a Four Stroke Cycle Petrol Engine - The petrol engines are
also known as spark ignition engines. The valve timing diagram for a four stroke
cycle petrol engine is shown in Figure below:

The following particulars are important for a four stroke cycle petrol engine
regarding valve timing diagram :

(a) The inlet valve opens (IVO) at 10° — 20° before top dead center (TDC) and closes
30° — 40° after bottom dead center (BDC).

(b) The compression of charge starts at 30° — 40° after BDC and ends at 20° — 30°
before TDC.

(c) The ignition (IGN) of charge takes place at 20°— 30° before TDC.

(d) The expansion starts at 20° — 30° before TDC and ends at 30° — 50° before BDC.

(e) The exhaust valve opens (EVO) at 30° — 50° before BDC and closes at 10° —15°

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after TDC.

Valve timing diagram of 4 stroke diesel engine

Valve Timing Diagram for a Four Stroke Cycle Diesel Engine - The diesel engines are
also known as compression ignition engines. The valve timing diagram for a four
stroke cycle diesel engine is shown in Figure below:

The following particulars are important for a four stroke cycle diesel engine
regarding valve timing diagram:

(a) The inlet valve opens at 10° — 20° before TDC and closes at 25° — 40° after BDC.

(b) The fuel valve opens at 10° — 15° before TDC and closes at 15°— 20° after TDC.

(c) The compression starts at 25° — 40° after BDC and ends at 10°— 15° before TDC.

(d) The expansion starts at 10° — 15° after TDC and ends at 30° — 50° before BDC.

(e) The exhaust valve opens at 30° — 50° before BDC and closes at 10° —15° after
TDC.

Note: In diesel engines, the fuel is injected in the form of very fine spray into the
engine cylinder, which gets ignited due to high temperature of the compressed air.

2 stroke IC engine - A two-stroke (or two-cycle) engine is a type of internal

combustion engine which completes a power cycle with two strokes (up and down

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movements) of the piston during only one crankshaft revolution. This is in contrast
to a "four-stroke engine", which requires four strokes of the piston to complete a
power cycle during two crankshaft revolutions. In a two-stroke engine, the end of the
combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke happen
simultaneously, with the intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions occurring at
the same time.Two-stroke engines often have a high power-to-weight ratio, power
being available in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the "power band".
Compared to four-

stroke engines, two-stroke engines have a greatly reduced number of moving parts,
and so can be more compact and significantly lighter.

CNG Engines - Compressed natural gas (CNG) (methane stored at high pressure) is
a fuel which can be used in place of gasoline (petrol), Diesel fuel and propane/LPG.
CNG combustion produces fewer undesirable gases than the fuels mentioned
above. It is safer than other fuels in the event of a spill, because natural gas is lighter
than air and disperses quickly when released. CNG may be found above oil deposits,
or may be collected from landfills or wastewater treatment plants where it is known
as biogas.

CNG is made by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane,

CH4), to less than 1 percent of the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric
pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers at a pressure of 20–25 MPa
(2,900–3,600 psi), usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes.

CNG is used in traditional gasoline/internal combustion engine automobiles that

have been modified or in vehicles which were manufactured for CNG use, either
alone ('dedicated'), with a segregated gasoline system to extend range (dual fuel) or
in conjunction with another fuel such as diesel (bi-fuel). Natural gas vehicles are
increasingly used in Iran, especially Pakistan, the Asia-Pacific region, Indian capital
of Delhi, and other large cities like Ahmedabad, Mumbai, Pune, Kolkata—as well as
cities such as Lucknow, Kanpur, etc. Its use is also increasing in South America,
Europe and North America because of rising gasoline prices. In response to high
fuel prices and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in tuk-tuks
and pickup trucks, transit and school buses, and trains.

The cost and placement of fuel storage tanks is the major barrier to wider/quicker
adoption of CNG as a fuel. It is also why municipal government, public
transportation vehicles were the most visible early adopters of it, as they can more
quickly amortize the money invested in the new (and usually cheaper) fuel. In spite
of these circumstances, the number of vehicles in the world using CNG has grown
steadily (30 percent per year). Now, as a result of the industry's steady growth, the

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cost of such fuel storage tanks has been brought down to a much more acceptable
level. Especially for the CNG Type 1 and Type 2 tanks, many countries are able to
make reliable and cost effective tanks for conversion need.

CNG's volumetric energy density is estimated to be 42 percent that of liquefied

natural gas (because it is not liquefied), and 25 percent that of diesel fuel.

Engine assembly section

CYLINDER BLOCK

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The cylinder block is the central component of any Perkins engine. It has to be of
the highest possible quality so that it can perform its vital role in the operation of the

cylinder heads ,timing case, sump and flywheel .Perkins cylinder blocks are specially
designed to withstand a variety of temperatures and loads to maintain the stability
and lubrication of each individual engine. Each block has a number of oil galleries to
transfer oil throughout the engine, thereby maintaining the lubrication of all the
critical components. The block also contains the water galleries needed to provide
cooling to the engine to maintain its optimum operating temperature.

CYLINDER HEAD

In an internal combustion engine, the cylinder head (often informally abbreviated to

just head) sits above the cylinders on top of the cylinder block. It closes in the top of
the cylinder, forming the combustion chamber. This joint is sealed by a head gasket.
In most engines, the head also provides space for the passages that feed air and
fuel to the cylinder, and that allow the exhaust to escape. The head can also be a
place to mount the valves, spark plugs, and fuel injectors. Internally, the cylinder
head has passages called ports or tracts for the

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fuel/air mixture to travel to the inlet valves from the intake manifold, and for
exhaust gases to travel from the exhaust valves to the exhaust manifold.

PISTON

A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas

compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving

component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In

an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the
crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is
reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose

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of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder.

PISTON RINGS

A piston ring is a split ring that fits into a groove on the outer diameter

of a piston in a reciprocating engine such as an internal combustion engine or

steam engine. The three main functions of piston rings in reciprocating engines are

1.Sealing the combustion chamber so that there is minimal loss of gases to the
crank case.

2.Improving heat transfer from the piston to the cylinder wall.

3.Regulating engine oil consumption by scraping oil from the cylinder walls back to
the sump.

CONNECTING ROD

In a reciprocating piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the piston to
the crank or crankshaft. Together with the crank, they form a simple mechanism that
converts reciprocating motion into rotating motion. Connecting rods may also
convert rotating motion into reciprocating motion. Historically, before the

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development of engines, they were first used in this way.As a connecting rod is rigid,
it may transmit either a push or a pull and so the rod may rotate the crank through
both halves of a revolution, i.e. piston pushing and piston pulling. Earlier
mechanisms, such as chains, could only pull. In a few two-stroke engines the
connecting rod is only required to push.

CRANK SHAFT

A crankshaft related to crank is a mechanical part ableto perform a conversion

between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it
translates reciprocating motion of the piston

into rotational motion; whereas in a reciprocating compressor, it converts the

rotational motion into reciprocating motion. In order to do the conversion between
two motions, the crankshaft hasbcrank throws or crankpins, additional bearing
surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the big ends of the
connecting rods from each cylinder attach.

SPARK PLUG

A spark plug is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the
combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air
mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the
engine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a central
electrode by a porcelain insulator. The central electrode, which may contain a
resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition
coil or magneto.

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VALVE

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid by opening,
closing, or partially obstructing various passageways. Valves are technically fittings,
but are usually

discussed as a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from

higher pressure to lower pressure. The word is derived from the Latin valva, the
moving part of a door, in turn from volvere, to turn, roll.

INJECTOR

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Fuel injection is the introduction of fuel in an internal combustion engine, most
commonly automotive engines,

the means of an injector.All diesel engines use fuel injection by design. Petrol
engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into the
combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the
intake stroke.

CAMSHAFT

A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used especially in

transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice vevers.It is that strikes a lever
at one or more points on its circular path. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used
to deliver pulses of power to a steam hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc or
other shape that produces a smooth reciprocating (back and forth) motion in the
follower, which is a lever making contact with the cam.

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GOVERNOR

A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a
machine, such as an engine. A classic example is the centrifugal governor, also
known as the Watt or fly-ball governor on a reciprocating steam engine,

which uses the effect of centrifugal force on rotating weights driven by the machine
output shaft to regulate its speed by altering the input flow of steam.Governors can
be used to limit the top speed for vehicles, and for some classes of vehicle such
devices are a legal requirement. They can more generally be used to limit the
rotational speed of the internal combustion engine or protect the engine from
damage due to excessive rotational speed.

FLYWHEEL

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A flywheel is a rotating mechanical device that is used to store rotational energy.
Flywheels have an inertia called the moment of inertia and thus resist changes in
rotational speed. The amount of energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the
square of its rotational speed. Energy is transferred to a flywheel by the application
of a torque to it, thereby increasing its rotational speed, and hence its stored energy.
Conversely, a flywheel releases stored energy by applying torque to a mechanical
load, thereby decreasing the flywheel's rotational speed.

MATERIAL USED FOR ENGINE PARTS

S.No NAME OF THE PARTS MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION

01 Cylinder head Cast Iron and Cast Aluminium

02 Cylinder liner Cast Steel and Cast Iron

03 Cylinder block Cast Iron,Cast Aluminium, welded steel

04 Piston Cast Iron and Aluminium alloy

05 Piston pin Forged steel and case hardened steel

06 Connecting rod Forged steel and Aluminium alloy

07 Piston Ring Cast Iron and Pressed Iron alloy

08 Connecting rod bearings Bronze and White metal

09 Main bearing White Metal, steel backed Babbit base

10 Crank Shaft Forged steel and Cast Iron

11 Cam Shaft Forged steel, Cast steel and Cast Iron

12 Crank case Cast Iron and Welded steel

13 Fly wheel Cast Iron

14 Engine Valves Forged steel and steel alloy.

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15 Manifolds Cast Iron and Cast Aluminium

depends upon these stationary guide vanes. This serves as the function of both gear
box and clutch.

Main components of a gear box:

In any device two or more component works together and fulfills the required
function. In a transmission box four components are required to fulfill its function.
These components are-

1. Counter shaft:

Counter shaft is a shaft which connects with the clutch shaft directly. It contains the
gear which connects it to the clutch shaft as well as the main shaft. It may be run
runs at the engine speed or at lower than engine speed according to gear ratio.

2. Main shaft:

It is the shaft which runs at the vehicle speed. It carries power form the counter
shaft by use of gears and according to the gear ratio, it runs at different speed and
torque compares to counter shaft. One end of this shaft is connects with the
universal shaft.

3. Gears:

Gears are used to transmit the power form one shaft to another. They are most
useful component of transmission box because the variation is torque of counter
shaft and main shaft is depend on the gear ratio. The gear ratio is the ratio of the
driven gear teeth to the driving gear teeth. If gear ratio is large than one, the main
shaft revolves at lower speed than the counter shaft and the torque of the main
shaft is higher than the counter shaft. On other hand if the gear ratio is less than
one, than the main shaft revolves at higher speed than the counter shaft and the
torque of the main shaft is lower than the counter shaft. A small car gear box
contains four speed gear ratio and one reverse gear ratio.

4. Bearings:

26
Whenever the rotary motion, bearings are required to support the revolving part and
reduce the friction. In the gear box both counter and main shaft are supported by the
bearing.

Working of a principle gear box:

In a gear box, the counter shaft is mashed to the clutch with a use of a couple of
gear. So the counter shaft is always in running condition. When the counter shaft is
bring in contact with the main shaft by use of meshing gears, the main shaft start to
rotate according to the gear ratio. When want to change the gear ratio, simply press
the clutch pedal which disconnect the counter shaft with engine and change connect
the main shaft with counter shaft by another gear ratio by use of gearshift lever. In
an gear box, the gear teeth and other moving metal must not touch. They must be
continuously separated by a thin film of lubricant. This prevents excessive wear and
early failure. Therefore a gearbox runs partially filled with lubricant

Differential gear

A differential is a gear train with three shafts that has the property that the angular
velocity of one shaft is the average of the angular velocities of the others, or a fixed
multiple of that average.

In Automobiles and other wheeled vehicles, the differential allows the outer drive
wheel to rotate faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn. This is necessary
when the vehicle turns, making the wheel that is traveling around the outside of the

27
turning curve roll farther and faster than the other. The average of the rotational
speed of the two driving wheels equals the input rotational speed of the drive shaft.
An increase in the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the speed of the
other.

When used in this way, a differential couples the input shaft (or prop shaft) to the
pinion, which in turn runs on the ring gear of the differential. This also works as
reduction gearing. On rear wheel drive vehicles the differential may connect to
half-shafts inside an axle housing, or drive shafts that connect to the rear driving
wheels. Front wheel drive vehicles tend to have the pinion on the end of the
main-shaft of the gearbox and the differential is enclosed in the same housing as
the gearbox. There are individual drive-shafts to each wheel.

A differential consists of one input, the drive shaft, and two outputs which are the
two drive wheels, however the rotation of the drive wheels are coupled to each other
by their connection to the roadway. Under normal conditions, with small tire slip, the
ratio of the speeds of the two driving wheels is defined by the ratio of the radii of the
paths around which the two wheels are rolling, which in turn is determined by the
track-width of the vehicle (the distance between the driving wheels) and the radius
of the turn.

Non-automotive uses of differentials include performing analog arithmetic. Two of

the differential's three shafts are made to rotate through angles that represent (are
proportional to) two numbers, and the angle of the third shaft's rotation represents
the sum or difference of the two input numbers. The earliest known use of a
differential gear is in the Antikythera mechanism, circa 80 BCE, which used a
differential gear to control a small sphere representing the moon from the difference
between the sun and moon position pointers. The ball was painted black and white
in hemispheres, and graphically showed the phase of the moon at a particular point
in time.. In the 20th Century, large assemblies of many differentials were used as

28
analog computers, calculating, for example, the direction in which a gun should be
aimed. However, the development of electronic digital computers has made these
uses of differentials obsolete. Military uses may still exist, for example, for a
hypothetical computer designed to survive an electromagnetic pulse. Practically all
the differentials that are now made are used in automobiles and similar vehicles.

Type of differential gear

# Epicyclic differential - An epicyclic differential can use epicyclic gearing to split

and apportion torque asymmetrically between the front and rear axles. An epicyclic
differential is at the heart of the Toyota Prius automotive drive train, where it
interconnects the engine, motor-generators, and the drive wheels (which have a
second differential for splitting torque as usual). It has the advantage of being
relatively compact along the length of its axis (that is, the sun gear shaft). Epicyclic
gears are also called planetary gears because the axes of the planet gears revolve
around the common axis of the sun and ring gears that they mesh with and roll
between. In the image, the yellow shaft carries the sun gear which is almost hidden.
The blue gears are called planet gears and the pink gear is the ring gear or annulus.

# Spur-gear differential - This is another type of differential that was used in some
early au tomobiles, more recently the Oldsmobile Toronado, as well as other
non-automotive applications. A spur-gear differential has two equal-sized spur

29
gears, one for each half-shaft, with a space between them. Instead of the Bevel gear,
also known as a miter gear, assembly (the "spider") at the centre of the differential,
there is a rotating carrier on the same axis as the two shafts. Torque from a prime
mover or transmission, such as the drive shaft of a car, rotates this carrier.

Mounted in this carrier are one or more pairs of identical pinions, generally longer
than their diameters, and typically smaller than the spur gears on the individual
half-shafts. Each pinion pair rotates freely on pins supported by the carrier.
Furthermore, the pinion pairs are displaced axially, such that they mesh only for the
part of their length between the two spur gears, and rotate in opposite directions.
The remaining length of a given pinion meshes with the nearer spur gear on its axle.
Therefore, each pinion couples that spur gear to the other pinion, and in turn, the
other spur gear, so that when the drive shaft rotates the carrier, its relationship to
the gears for the individual wheel axles is the same as that in a bevel-gear
differential.

Working of differential gear

Torque is supplied from the engine, via the transmission, to a drive shaft (British

term: 'propeller shaft', commonly and informally abbreviated to 'prop-shaft'), which

runs to the final drive unit that contains the differential. A spiral bevel pinion gear
takes its drive from the end of the propeller shaft, and is encased within the housing
of the final drive unit. This meshes with the large spiral bevel ring gear, known as the
crown wheel. The crown wheel and pinion may mesh in hypoid orientation, not

30
shown. The crown wheel gear is attached to the differential carrier or cage, which
contains the 'sun' and 'planet' wheels or gears, which are a cluster of four opposed
bevel gears in perpendicular plane, so each bevel gear meshes with two neighbours,
and rotates counter to the third, that it faces and does not mesh with. The two sun
wheel gears are aligned on the same axis as the crown wheel gear, and drive the
axle half shafts connected to the vehicle's driven wheels. The other two planet gears
are aligned on a perpendicular axis which changes orientation with the ring gear's
rotation.

Input torque is applied to the ring gear , which turns the entire carrier . The carrier is
connected to both the side gears, only through the planet gear (visual appearances
in the diagram notwithstanding). Torque is transmitted to the side gears through the
planet gear. The planet gear revolves around the axis of the carrier, driving the side
gears. If the resistance at both wheels is equal, the planet gear revolves without
spinning about its own axis, and both wheels turn at the same rate.

If the left side gear encounters resistance, the planet gear spins as well as revolving,
allowing the left side gear to slow down, with an equal speeding up of the right side
gear .

MACHINE SHOP

Automatic lathe
An automatic lathe is a lathe (usually a metalworking lathe) whose actions are
controlled automatically. Although all electronically controlled (CNC) lathes are
automatic, they are usually not called by that name, as explained under "General
nomenclature". The first kinds of automatic lathes were mechanically automated
ones, from the 1870s until the advent of NC and CNC in the 1950s and 1960s. CNC
has not yet entirely displaced mechanically automated machines. The latter type of
machine tool is no longer being newly built, but many existing examples remain in
service.

Metal lathe
metal lathe or metalworking lathe is a large class of lathes designed for precisely
machining relatively hard materials. They were originally designed to machine
metals; however, with the advent of plastics and other materials, and with their
inherent versatility, they are used in a wide range of applications, and a broad range
of materials. In machining jargon, where the larger context is already understood,
they are usually simply called lathes, or else referred to by more-specific subtype

31
names (tool room lathe, turret lathe, etc.). These rigid machine tools remove
material from a rotating work piece via the (typically linear) movements of various
cutting tools, such as tool bits and drill bits.

Grinding machine
grinding machine, often shortened to grinder, is any of various power tools or
machine tools used for grinding, which is a type of machining using an abrasive
wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a small
chip from the work piece via shear deformation.

Grinding is used to finish work pieces that must show high surface quality (e.g., low
surface roughness) and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in
dimensions in grinding is of the order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends
to be a finishing operation and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to
0.50 mm depth. However, there are some roughing applications in which grinding
removes high volumes of metal quite rapidly. Thus, grinding is a diverse field.

Honing machine
Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a
metal work piece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it along a controlled path.
Honing is primarily used to improve the geometric form of a surface, but may also
improve the surface texture.

32
Typical applications are the finishing of cylinders for internal combustion engines,
air bearing spindles and gears. There are many types of hones but all consist of one
or more abrasive stones that are held under pressure against the surface they are
working on.

In terms of sharpening knives, a honing steel does not actually hone knives, but
simply realigns the metal along the edge.

Other similar processes are lapping and super finishing.

Drilling machine

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut a hole of circular cross-section
in solid materials. The drill bit is usually a rotary cutting tool, often multipoint. The
bit is pressed against the work piece and rotated at rates from hundreds to
thousands of revolutions per minute. This forces the cutting edge against the work
piece, cutting off chips (swarf) from the hole as it is drilled.

In rock drilling, the hole is usually not made through a circular cutting motion, though
the bit is usually rotated. Instead, the hole is usually made by hammering a drill bit
into the hole with quickly repeated short movements. The hammering action can be
performed from outside of the hole (top-hammer drill) or within the hole
(down-the-hole drill, DTH). Drills used for horizontal drilling are called
drifter drills.

In rare cases, specially-shaped bits are used to cut holes of non-circular

33
cross-section; a square cross-section is possible.

Boring machine
In machining, boring is the process of enlarging a hole that has already been drilled
(or cast) by means of a single-point cutting tool (or of a boring head containing
several such tools), such as in boring a gun barrel application. cylinder. Boring is
used to achieve greater accuracy of the diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut a
tapered hole. Boring can be viewed as the internal-diameter counterpart to turning,
which cuts external diameters.

There are various types of boring. The boring bar may be supported on both ends
(which only works if the existing hole is a through hole), or it may be supported at
one end (which works for both through holes and blind holes). Line boring (line
boring, line-boring) implies the former. Back boring (back boring, back-boring) is the
process of reaching through an existing hole and then boring on the "back" side of

34
the work piece (relative to the machine headstock).

Because of the limitations on tooling design imposed by the fact that the work piece
mostly surrounds the tool, boring is inherently somewhat more challenging than
turning, in terms of decreased tool holding rigidity, increased clearance angle
requirements (limiting the amount of support that can be given to the cutting edge),
and difficulty of inspection of the resulting surface (size, form, surface roughness).
These are the reasons why boring is viewed as an area of machining practice in its
own right, separate from turning, with its own tips, tricks, challenges, and body of
expertise, despite the fact that they are in some ways identical.

The first boring machine tool was invented by John Wilkinson in 1775.

Boring and turning have abrasive counterparts in internal and external cylindrical
grinding. Each process is chosen based on the requirements and parameter values
of a particular application

RETRIEVE SECTION

In retrieving section we learnt about different parts used in an automobile like

radiator, drive shaft etc.

Radiator
Radiators are heat exchangers used to transfer thermal energy from one medium to
another for the purpose of cooling and heating. The majority of radiators are

35
constructed to function in automobiles, buildings, and electronics. The radiator is
always a source of heat to its environment, although this may be for either the
purpose of heating this environment, or for cooling the fluid or coolant supplied to it,
as for engine cooling. Despite the name, most radiators transfer the bulk of their
heat via convection instead of thermal radiation. Spacecraft radiators necessarily
must use radiation only to reject heat.

The Roman hypocaust, is an early example of a type of radiator for building space
heating. The heating radiator was invented by Franz San Galli, a Prussian-born
Russian businessman living in St. Petersburg, between 1855 and 1857.

Drive Shaft
drive shaft, driveshaft, driving shaft, propeller shaft (prop shaft), or Cardan shaft is a
mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to connect
other components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because of
distance or the need to allow for relative movement between them.

As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to
the difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong
enough to bear the stress, whilst avoiding too much additional weight as that would
in turn increase their in joint.

To allow for variations in the alignment and distance between the driving and driven

36
components, drive shafts frequently incorporate one or more universal joints, jaw
couplings, or rag joints, and sometimes a splined joint or prismatic joint

convention

Drive system is less likely to become jammed or broken, a common problem with
chain-driven bicycles

The use of a gear system creates a smoother and more consistent pedaling
motionThe rider cannot become dirtied from chain grease or injured by the chain
from "Chain bite", which occurs when clothing or even a body part catches between
the chain and a sprocket

Lower maintenance than a chain system when the drive shaft is enclosed in a tube,
the common convention

Disadvantage

drive shaft system weighs more than a chain system, usually 1-2 pounds heavier At
optimum upkeep, a chain delivers greater efficiency.

Many of the advantages claimed by drive shaft's proponents can be achieved on a

chain-driven bicycle, such as covering the chain and gears with a metal or plastic
cover

Use of lightweight derailleur gears with a high number of ratios is impossible,

although hub gears can be used

Wheel removal can be complicated in some designs (as it is for some chain-driven
bicycles with hub gears).

Categories: Vehicle parts Automotive technologies

37
Air Drier
compressed air dryer is used for removing water vapor from compressed air.
Compressed air dryers are commonly found in a wide range of industrial and
commercial facilities.

The process of air compression concentrates atmospheric contaminants, including

water vapor. This raises the dew point of the compressed air relative to free
atmospheric air and leads to condensation within pipes as the compressed air cools
downstream of the compressor.

38
Excessive water in compressed air, in either the liquid or vapor phase, can cause a
variety of operational problems for users of compressed air. These include freezing
of outdoor air lines, corrosion in piping and equipment, malfunctioning of pneumatic
process control instruments, fouling of processes and products, and more.

There are various types of compressed air dryers. Their performance characteristics
are typically defined by the dew point.

Characteristics
A regenerative desiccant dryer typically delivers a dew point of between −40 °F (−40
°C) and −100 °F (−73 °C).

A refrigerated dryer delivers a dew point not lower than approximately 35 °F (2 °C)

A deliquescent dryer delivers a dew point suppression that fluctuates with air
temperature. Typically this suppression is 20 °F (11 °C) below the compressed air
temperature.

Clutch
A clutch is a mechanical device which engages and disengages power transmission
especially from driving shaft to driven shaft.

In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts
(drive shafts or line shafts). In these devices, one shaft is typically attached to an
engine or other power unit (the driving member) while the other shaft (the driven
member) provides output power for work. While typically the motions involved are
rotary, linear clutches are also possible.

In a torque-controlled drill, for instance, one shaft is driven by a motor and the other
drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts so they may be locked
together and spin at the same speed (engaged), locked together but spinning at
different speeds (slipping), or nlocked and spinning at different speeds
(disengaged).

39
Flywheel
A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to efficiently store rotational
energy. Flywheels resist changes in rotational speed by their moment of inertia. The
amount of energy stored in a flywheel is proportional to the square of its rotational
speed. The way to change a flywheel's stored energy is by increasing or decreasing
its rotational speed applying a torque aligned with its axis of symmetry,

Common uses of a flywheel include:

•Smoothing the power output of an energy source. For example, flywheels are used
in reciprocating engines because the active torque from the individual pistons is
intermittent.

•Energy storage systems Flywheel energy storage

•Delivering energy at rates beyond the ability of an energy source. This is achieved
by collecting energy in a flywheel over time and then releasing it quickly, at rates that
exceed the abilities of the energy source.

•Controlling the orientation of a mechanical system, gyroscope and reaction wheel

•Flywheels are typically made of steel and rotate on conventional bearings; these are
generally limited to a maximum revolution rate of a few thousand RPM. High energy
density flywheels can be made of carbon fibre composites and employ magnetic
bearings, enabling them to revolve at speeds up to 60,000 RPM (1 kHz).

40
Application
Flywheels are often used to provide continuous power output in systems where the
energy source is not continuous. For example, a flywheel is used to smooth fast
angular velocity fluctuations of the crankshaft in a reciprocating engine. In this case,
a crankshaft flywheel stores energy when torque is exerted on it by a firing piston,
and returns it to the piston to compress a fresh charge of air and fuel. Another
example is the friction motor which powers devices such as toy cars. In unstressed
and inexpensive cases, to save on cost, the bulk of the mass of the flywheel is
toward the rim of the wheel. Pushing the mass away from the axis of rotation
heightens rotational inertia for a given total mass.

Water Pump - A pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes
slurries, by mechanical action. Pumps can be classified into three major groups
according to the method they use to move the fluid: direct lift, displacement, and
gravity pumps.

Pumps operate by some mechanism (typically reciprocating or rotary), and consume

energy to perform mechanical work by moving the fluid. Pumps operate via many
energy sources, including manual operation, electricity, engines, or wind power,
come in many sizes, from microscopic for use in medical applications to large

41
industrial pumps.

Mechanical pumps serve in a wide range of applications such as pumping water

from wells, aquarium filtering, pond filtering and aeration, in the car industry for
water-cooling and fuel injection, in the energy industry for pumping oil and natural
gas or for operating cooling towers. In the medical industry, pumps are used for
biochemical processes in developing and manufacturing medicine, and as artificial
replacements for body parts, in particular the artificial heart and penile prosthesis.

Single stage pump – When in a casing only one impeller is revolving then it is called
single stage pump.

Double/multi-stage pump – When in a casing two or more than two impellers are
revolving then it is called double/multi-stage pump.

ELECTRIC SECTION
In this section we learnt about different electric components of an automobile like
alternator, spark plug, etc.

1) Alternator
An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most
alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, a
linear alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In
principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the

42
term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal
combustion engines. An alternator that uses a permanent magnet for its magnetic
field is called a magneto. Alternators in power stations driven by steam turbines are
called turbo-alternators. Large 50 or 60 Hz three phase alternators in power plants
generate most of the world's electric power, which is distributed by electric power
grids.

2) Starter
A starter (also self starter, self, cranking motor, or starter motor) is a device used to
rotate (crank) an internal-combustion engine so as to initiate the engine's operation
under its own power. Starters can be electric, pneumatic, or hydraulic. In the case of
very large engines, the starter can even other internal-combustion engine.

Internal-combustion engines are feedback systems, which, once started, rely on the
inertia from each cycle to initiate the next cycle. In a four-stroke engine, the third
stroke releases energy from the fuel, powering the fourth (exhaust) stroke and also
the first two (intake, compression) strokes of the next cycle, as well as powering the
engine's external load. To start the first cycle at the beginning of any particular
session, the first two strokes must be powered in some other way than from the
engine itself. The starter motor is used for this purpose and is not required once the
engine starts running and its feedback loop becomes self-sustaining.

The electric starter motor or cranking motor is the most common type used on
gasoline engines and small diesel engines. The modern starter motor is either a
permanent-magnet or a series-parallel wound direct current electric motor with a

43
starter solenoid (similar to a relay) mounted on it. When DC power from the starting
battery is applied to the solenoid, usually through a key-operated switch (the
"ignition switch"), the solenoid engages a lever that pushes out the drive pinion on
the starter driveshaft and meshes the pinion with the starter ring gear on the
flywheel of the engine.

The solenoid also closes high-current contacts for the starter motor, which begins to
turn. Once the engine starts, the key-operated switch is opened, a spring in the
solenoid assembly pulls the pinion gear away from the ring gear, and the starter
motor stops. The starter's pinion is clutched to its drive shaft through an
overrunning sprag clutch which permits the pinion to transmit drive in only one
direction. In this manner, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring
gear, but if the pinion remains engaged (as for example because the operator fails to
release the key as soon as the engine starts, or if there is a short and the solenoid
remains engaged), the pinion will spin independently of its drive shaft. This prevents
the engine driving the starter, for such backdrive would cause the starter to spin so
fast as to fly apart.

The sprag clutch arrangement would preclude the use of the starter as a generator if
employed in hybrid scheme mentioned above, unless modifications were made. The
standard starter motor is typically designed for intermittent use, which would
preclude its use as a generator. The starter's electrical components are designed
only to operate for typically under 30 seconds before overheating (by too-slow
dissipation of heat from ohmic losses), to save weight and cost. Most automobile
owner's manuals instruct the operator to pause for at least ten seconds after each
ten or fifteen seconds of cranking the engine, when trying to start an engine that
does not start immediately.

This overrunning-clutch pinion arrangement was phased into use beginning in the
early 1960s; before that time, a Bendix drive was used. The Bendix system places
the starter drive pinion on a helically cut drive shaft. When the starter motor begins
turning, the inertia of the drive pinion assembly causes it to ride forward on the helix
and thus engage with the ring gear. When the engine starts, backdrive from the ring
gear causes the drive pinion to exceed the rotative speed of the starter, at which
point the drive pinion is forced back down the helical shaft and thus out of mesh
with the ring gear.

44
Distributor

A distributor is an enclosed rotating shaft used in spark-ignition internal combustion

engines that have mechanically-timed ignition. The distributor's main function is to
route secondary, or high voltage, current from the ignition coil to the spark plugs in
the correct firing order, and for the correct amount of time. Except in magneto
systems, the distributor also houses a mechanical or inductive breaker switch to
open and close the ignition coil's primary circuit.

The first reliable battery operated ignition was developed by Dayton Engineering
Laboratories Co. (Delco) and introduced in the 1910 Cadillac. This ignition was
developed by Charles Kettering and was considered a wonder in its day. Atwater
Kent invented his Unisparker ignition system about this time in competition with the
Delco system. By the end of the 20th century mechanical ignitions were
disappearing from automotive applications in favor of inductive or capacitive

45
electronic ignitions fully controlled engine control units (ECU), rather than directly
timed to the engine's crankshaft speed

.•Description

A distributor consists of a rotating arm or rotor inside the distributor cap, on top of
the distributor shaft, but insulated from it and the body of the vehicle (ground). The
distributor shaft is driven by a gear on the camshaft on most overhead valve
engines, and attached directly to a camshaft on most overhead cam engines. (The
distributor shaft may also drive the oil pump.) The metal part of the rotor contacts
the high voltage cable from the ignition coil via a spring-loaded carbon brush on the
underside of the distributor cap. The metal part of the rotor arm passes close to (but
does not touch) the output contacts which connect via high tension leads to the
spark plug of each cylinder. As the rotor spins within the distributor, electric current
is able to jump the small gaps created between the rotor arm and the contacts due
to the high voltage created by the ignition coil.

The distributor shaft has a cam that operates the contact breaker (also called
points). Opening the points causes a high induction voltage in the system's ignition
coil.

The distributor also houses the centrifugal advance unit: a set of hinged weights
attached to the distributor shaft, that cause the breaker points mounting plate to
slightly rotate and advance the spark timing with higher engine revolutions per
minute (rpm). In addition, the distributor has a vacuum advance unit that advances
the timing even further as a function of the vacuum in the inlet manifold. Usually
there is also a capacitor attached to the distributor. The capacitor is connected
parallel to the breaker points, to suppress sparking to prevent excessive wear of the
points.

Around the 1970s[citation needed] the primary breaker points were largely replaced
with a Hall effect sensor or optical sensor. As this is a non-contacting device and
the ignition coil is controlled by solid state electronics, a great amount of
maintenance in point adjustment and replacement was eliminated. This also
eliminates any problem with breaker follower or cam wear, and by eliminating a side
load it extends distributor shaft bearing life. The remaining secondary (high voltage)
circuit stayed essentially the same, using an ignition coil and a rotary distributor.

Most distributors used on electronically fuel injected engines lack vacuum and
centrifugal advance units. On such distributors, the timing advance is controlled
electronically by the engine computer. This allows more accurate control of ignition

46
timing, as well as the ability to alter timing based on factors other than engine speed
and manifold vacuum (such as engine temperature). Additionally, eliminating
vacuum and centrifugal advance results in a simpler and more reliable distributor.

Spark Plug
spark plug (sometimes, in British English, a sparking plug, and, colloquially, a plug) is
a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the combustion
chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an
electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the engine. A spark plug
has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a central electrode by a
porcelain insulator. The central electrode, which may contain a resistor, is
connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or
magneto. The spark plug's metal shell is screwed into the engine's cylinder head and
thus electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain
insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between
the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or
structures attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the side,
earth, or ground electrode(s).

Spark plugs may also be used for other purposes; in Saab Direct Ignition when they
are not firing, spark plugs are used to measure ionization in the cylinders – this ionic
current measurement is used to replace the ordinary cam phase sensor, knock
sensor and misfire measurement function.[citation needed] Spark plugs may also be
used in other applications such as furnaces wherein a combustible fuel/air mixture
must be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as flame igniters.

47
 TYRE SECTION

A tire is a strong, flexible rubber casing attached to the rim of a wheel. ... Natural
rubber is

the main raw material used in manufacturing tires, although synthetic rubber is also
used. The materials of modern pneumatic tires are synthetic rubber, natural rubber,

48
fabric and wire, along with carbon black and other chemical compounds. They
consist of a tread and a body. The tread provides traction while the body provides
containment for a quantity of compressed air. Before rubber was developed, the first
versions of tires were simply bands of metal fitted around wooden wheels to prevent
wear and tear. Early rubber tires were solid (not pneumatic). Pneumatic tires are
used on many types of vehicles, including cars, bicycles, motorcycles, buses, trucks,
heavy equipment, and aircraft. Metal tires are still used on locomotives and railcars,
and solid rubber (or other polymer) tires are still used in various non-automotive
applications, such as some casters, carts, lawnmowers, and wheelbarrows.

S & C Section
In this section. We disassemble the part of engine such as differential crank piston
arrangement

Various steps taken to disassemble the engine

1 All fluids are first drained out.

2 Then the engine exteriors are cleaned.

3 Then the cylinder head is removed from engine.

4 All the valve are then removed.

5 Crankcase cover is moved our then

6 Then oil pump is removed

7 Camshaft and valve lifters are removed.

8 Pistons and connecting rods are removed.

9 Crankshaft is moved out.

10 Then any remaining bearing and seals are removed.

To drain the gasoline, turn the engine upside down so that fuel can run into a secure
container. Once the fluids have been drained , the engine is cleaned then cleaning an
engine prior to disassembly makes it easier to locate fasteners and also to remove
then

Then sparkplug is removed using a spark plug socket ( using a spark plug socket
instead of some alternative implement will prevent damage to plug insulator)

49
Then cylinder head in an overhead valve engine will be guarded by a head cover ,
remove this first , along with the cover gasket , now we can see the rocker arm that
activates the engine valve .Then valves are removed.

To access the components inside the crankcase , we must remove the crankcase
the crankcase cover .

The crankcase cover is located at engine. Our engine service manual may referred to
crankcase cover as a sump or sump cover.

To remove the oil pump we need to unlock the nuts which keeps oil pump attached
to cylinder block

The final step in the disassembling of engine is to remove any bearing or seals that
are in the crankcase and crankcase cover.

MPFI and CRDI system in the IC Engine

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MPFI –
Multi-point Fuel Injection engine (MPFI) refers to an engine that uses injectors for
each cylinder. Prior to the MPFI system, vehicles used carburettors with a chamber
to mix the fuel and air injected into each cylinder. MPFI System is a system which
uses a small computer to control the Car’s Engine. A Petrol car’s engine usually has
three or more cylinders or fuel burning zones. So in case of an MPFI engine, there is
one fuel –injector installed near each cylinder, that is why they call it Multi-point Fuel
Injection.

In plain words, to burn petrol in an Engine to produce power, Petrol has to be mixed
with some air, ignited in a cylinder (also called combustion chamber), which
produces energy and runs the engine

CRDI -

Common rail direct fuel injection is a direct fuel injection system for petrol and
diesel engines Solenoid or piezoelectric valves make possible fine electronic control
over the fuel injection time and quantity, and the higher pressure that the common
rail technology makes available provides better fuel atomisation. To lower engine
noise, the engine's electronic control unit can inject a small amount of diesel just
before the main injection event. piston which helps build the pressure ranging from
1000bar to 3000 bar depending on the application. Fuel rail is an accumulator which
stores the high pressure fuel and releases it to the injector nozzle based on inputs
from ECU. In common rail systems, a high-pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel
at high pressure — up to and above 2,000 bars (200 MPa; 29,000 psi).

The term common rail refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are supplied by
a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure accumulator where the
fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator supplies multiple fuel injectors with
high-pressure fuel. This simplifies the purpose of the high-pressure pump in that it
only needs to maintain a commanded pressure at a target either mechanically or
electronically controlled.

Cooling and lubrication system in IC engine

Cooling system
There are many types of cooling system
• Water cooling system
• Air cooling system

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since buses have large engine and for cooling process water cooling
system are used .
Water cooling system
In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head,
valve seats etc. The water when circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of
combustion. This hot water will

then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and partially by the flow developed
by the forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is again recirculated through
the water jackets.

Water cooling can be carried out by any of the following five methods:

(a) Direct or non-returnable system.

(b) Thermosyphon system.

(c) Impeller thermosyphon system.

(d) Full pump circulation system.

(e) Evaporative cooling system.

COMPONENTS OF WATER COOLING SYSTEM

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Radiator- It mainly consists of an upper tank and lower tank and between them is a
core. The upper tank is connected to the water outlets from the engines jackets by a

hose pipe and the lover tank is connect to the jacket inlet through water pump by
means of hose pipes.

There are two types of cores :

(a) Tubular

(b) Cellular

When the water is flowing down through the radiator core, it is cooled partially by the
fan which blows air and partially by the air flow developed by the forward motion of
the vehicle. As shown through water passages and air passages, wafer and air will
be flowing for cooling purpose. It is to be noted that radiators are generally made
out of copper and brass and their joints are made by soldering.

Thermostat valve- It is a valve which prevents flow of water from the engine to
radiator, so that engine readily reaches to its maximum efficient operating
temperature. After attaining maximum efficient operating temperature, it
automatically begins functioning. Generally, it prevents the water below 70°C.

Water pump- It is used to pump the circulating water. Impeller type pump will be
mounted at the front end. Pump consists of an impeller mounted on a shaft and
enclosed in the pump casing. The pump casing has inlet and outlet openings. The
pump is driven by means of engine output shaft only through belts. When it is driven
water will be pumped

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Fan- It is driven by the engine output shaft through same belt that drives the pump. It
is provided behind the radiator and it blows air over the radiator for cooling purpose.

Water jacket- Cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head,
valve seats and any hot parts which are to be cooled. Heat generated in the engine
cylinder, conducted through the cylinder walls to the jackets. The water flowing
through the jackets absorbs this heat and gets hot. This hot water will then be
cooled in the radiator.

Lubrication system
In large engine lubrication system are provided in large quantity so follows system
are provided

SPLASH LUBRICATION SYSTEM

Splash lubrication system is used on small, stationary four-stroke engines. In this

system, the cap of the big end bearing on the

connecting rod is provided with a scoop which strikes and dips into the oil-filled
through at every revolution of the crank shaft and oil is splashed all over the interior
of crank case into the piston and over the exposed portion of the cylinder is shown
in the figure below. A hole is drilled through the connecting rod cap through which
the oil passes to the bearing surface. Oil pockets are provided to catch the splashed
oil over all the main bearings and also the cam shaft bearings. From these pockets
oil passes to the bearings through drilled hole. The surplus oil dripping from the
cylinder flows back to the oil sump in the crank case.

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WET SUMP LUBRICATION

In the wet-sump lubrication system, the bottom of the crank case contains an oil pan
or sump that serves as oil supply, oil storage tank and oil cooler. The oil dripping
from the cylinders, bearings and other parts, fall under gravity back into the sump,
from where it is picked up by pump and recirculated through the engine lubrication
system. Pump is fitted above the sump and it circulate the lubricant at all the place
where it is required. The oil filter is fitted in engine which is filter the oil which is
return from the different part of the engine. The filter oil is collected in the oil sump
and it is recirculated from the pump to different parts

CHAPTER - 04

Future plan of organisation

There seems to some respite in sight in the near future for bus users in the capital
with the Delhi government planning to strengthen the ageing fleet of Delhi Transport
Corporation (DTC) by inducting up to 1,000 new buses from tata motors. And it cost
per bus is 55lakh .
The number of buses in the DTC fleet is 4,020, out of which about 400 are
unavailable on average every day due to breakdowns. The Delhi Integrated
Multi-Model Transit System
(DIMTS) runs 1,612 buses under the cluster bus services. The total number of buses
— which ferry more than 32 lakh passengers every day — is grossly inadequate

55
compared to the estimated need, which is about 10,000 to 11,000 buses.

"The Delhi government's transport department, along with DTC, is exploring ways on
how to procure new buses to augment the fleet," said a government official.
Although the present fleet
consists mostly of low-floor buses, the new buses that are going to be procured
would be either semi low-floor or standard-size buses as the latter are comparatively
easier to maintain.
According to sources, senior officials of the department and DTC have had multiple
meetings to iron out issues associated with the procurement of buses.

"One of the biggest issues that we need to sort out first is that of maintenance," the
official said. The government and DTC are mulling over whether they should
outsource maintenance of the new buses or do it themselves.
"Maintenance costs of buses are high and increase the cost of the contract with
vendors. That is why we are also exploring the possibility of DTC carrying out the
regular maintenance of buses. If DTC does it itself, it will help enhance the
capabilities of the corporation," the official said. "DTC doesn't have the requisite
manpower at present and might have to go for contractual workers," the f public

56
transport system of the city as it carries more passengers per day compared to
Delhi Metro. Despite the demand for more buses, which would help connect more
areas with the bus network and also increase frequency of services, there have been
no addition to DTC's fleet in the last couple of years. There have been, however,
some augmentation in the cluster bus services managed by DIMTS.
To strengthen the city’s transportation services, as the existing strength of Delhi
Transportation Corporation’s (DTC) bus fleet falls far short of the required number,
Jung said, “DTC will add 1,380 new non-AC buses to its fleet”. He said 26 ladies
special buses have also been deployed in the capital. Delhi will also get 400 more
cluster buses this year, he said.
He also said 35 per cent of the work on Delhi Metro’s Phase-III - the 103-km long
corridorhas already been completed.
if the government has plan to buy new buses in the near future, the Transport
Minister said, "There is no proposal to buy buses. But under the Cluster Scheme,
plan is being made to run new buses."
On several occasions, the government has said it has planned augmenting public
transport in the national capital.
The city administration may also introduce the third round of odd-even scheme as
per graded response notified by the Centre to deal with air pollution.
DTC is also hoping to earn some revenue by selling ad space on the walls and
facade of its depots. The walls on the front of the depot will be used like a wall wrap,
said Mukherjee. According to officials, DTC will start by offering the space to other
government departments and thereafter will offer it commercially.
DTC, which operates the largest CNG fleet in the world, has recorded a revenue loss
to the tune of Rs 3,000 crore in the last decade. The losses incurred by DTC in the
fiscal year 2002-2003 was Rs 792.02 crore, which surged to a whopping Rs 2,914
crore in 2012-2013.

Under Cluster Scheme, concessionaires provide buses to DIMTS which operates

them and they are paid as per kilometres.
Also, the government has decided to redesign 1,397 old bus queue shelters in the
capital.
"Existing bus queue shelters are so expensive due to which contractors were
incurring a heavy loss. Existing bus shelters are set up at a cost of Rs 15 lakh each.
"We are making a plan to bring down the cost of bus queue shelters. From Wazirpur
depot to Dhaula Kuan, all bus queue shelters will be resigned," Jain told the House.
Delhi Transport Corporation is going the New York way. In an effort to boost its
non-ticket revenue, the state-owned transport corporation is planning to sell

57
advertisement space on its buses in the form of full bus wrap ads.
It also plans to have these wraps put up on the walls of its depots which, DTC
claims, are already being used for advertising.
"Abroad, advertising on buses is an important activity with revenue from these ads
forming the primary chunk of the transport agency's funds. We would like to
replicate that here," said Debashree Mukherjee, chairman and managing director,
Delhi Transport Corporation (DTC).
As part of this effort, DTC is going to allow full body wrap ads around the bus. Space
inside the bus? Hand rails, behind seats and the top side? Will also be used for
advertising. "We are also planning to install 21-inch screens inside the low-floor
buses which will not only give out public announcements and other relevant
information, but will also flash messages from the advertisers," added the DTC
official,
DTC, which has been trying to cut down on its operational losses, hopes to get Rs
1.5 lakh per month from these bus wraps. The revenue from selling advertisement
space inside the bus will be additional. Incidentally, in cities like New York, London
and Paris, bus body wraps are the preferred mode of advertisement not only for
products but also for TV shows and movies.

CHAPTER -05

References
 https://www.google.co.in/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=8&ved=0ahU
KEwiQwaajlLLWAhUBP48KHYeLCbgQFghmMAc&url=https%3A%2
F%2Fen.m.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FDelhi_Transport_Corporation
&usg=AFQjCNFlkM4H1xau_SH3N1xyUtenBfch4w
 http://www.indiastudychannel.com/resources/151470-How-does-
MPFI-engine-works.aspx
 www.weldingtypes.net
 https://www.britannica.com/technology/differential-gear

58
 http://www.mech4study.com/2014/03/main-parts-of-internal-com
bustion-engine-or-automobile-engine.html?m=1
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_shop
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(mechanics)
 http://www.engineeringduniya.com/slide_folder/Mechanical/auto
mobile%20engg/Chapter%204%20-Cooling%20and%20Lubricatio
n.pdf
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clutch
 https://www.google.co.in/url?q=https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/In
ternal_combustion_engine&sa=U&ved=0ahUKEwil3b_PkrLWAhXIw
I8KHU1NB1YQFggeMAE&usg=AFQjCNH0w6Imj_1zuA2NmfjWHWr
-JsUO2w
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_(mechanical_device)
 https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-CRDi-engine
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tire_manufacturing
 https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternator

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