The Nature of Philosophical Inquiry

by: Prof. Henry Francis Espiritu, M.A. Philo

Prelude

This course in Philosophy may cause

you to wonder. That’s what philosophy is – wondering.
To philosophize is to wonder about life –
about what’s reality and what’s illusion,
about right and wrong,
about what’s knowledge and what’s mere gossip,
about love and loneliness, life and death,
about freedom, truth, beauty, time, eternity…
and so many thousand other things.
To philosophize is to explore life.
it means breaking free to ask questions.
It means resisting easy answers.
To philosophize is to ask oneself-
the courage to ask painful probing questions.

But if by chance you have already asked

all your questions and found all your answers –
and felt satisfied with them
if you’re pretty sure you know reality from illusion,
right from wrong, and whether God exists,
and what justice means, and why
humans love, fear, hate, and pray-
if indeed you have thought you have done all you wondering
about freedom, hope, and loneliness – and life;
and those so many thousand other things,
then this course - Philosophy - is not for you!
It will just waste your time.

Philosophy is only for those who are willing to be disturbed with a creative,
rewarding, brave, and enlightening disturbance
Philosophy is for those who still have the capacity for wonder.
Beware of Philosophy-
for it will change your taken-for- granted-life and bring you to a life of meaning and purpose.

Chapter I
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 Introduction

What is philosophy?

Philosophy is derived from the Greek words, Philo and Sophia which means “love of
wisdom”. The term was introduced by a Greek Sophist named Pythagoras. He preferred to be
called lover of wisdom than to be called wise man.
However, in the succeeding years, the sophists became unpopular to the masses since
their goal in pursuing the truth was forfeited; instead they are more interested in impressing to
the people with regards to their learning.

How did the word Philosophy come about?

Great thinkers from the past particularly the Greeks believed that philosophy had its
origin in man’s sense of wonder (how does man wonder?). Man thought it was so astonishing to
be alive that philosophical questions arose from their own accord. People who ask questions or
pondering on some certain ideas are taking part in a debate whether it may give beneficial to
them or not. Thus, each individual has to discover their own answers basing on their questions;
hence, it is essential for one to formulate his view in life (this is the essence of philosophy).

Therefore, Philosophy is defined as the science of things in their ultimate causes

and principles as known by human reason alone.

The elements in the definition of philosophy are further discussed:

As a science, philosophy is a systematic body of knowledge which is not based on sets of

opinions and theories but evidence and demonstrations. Thus, philosophy discusses about the
things that exists, be it material and non-material (Maquiling & Belcina 2007);

Philosophy considers these things in their ultimate causes and principles as differentiated
from the positive and physical sciences which study the proximate constituent principles and
explanations of their subject matter (Maquiling & Belcina 2007);

Philosophy arrives at a certain knowledge as known by natural reason alone, which is by

the aid of human intellect (alone) in the conduct of the study, and not by the aid of the “light of
revelation or faith.” (Maquiling & Belcina 2007)

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Why do we need to study Philosophy?

According to Archimedes (2008), there is a need to study Philosophy in a general

sense. And these are the following reasons:

1. Philosophy sharpens the mind of the student who is studying disciplines within the
academic community.
- Philosophy provides us with training and tools to recognize such presuppositions and
value judgments.
- “One becomes more than just a technician who knows “how”; one becomes a scholar
who asks “why” --- Ex. Earning profit in the society.
- “By so opening up the world of ideas, philosophy ca train a person to think more
thoroughly and deeply than she would ordinarily, help the student develop intellectual
muscles to survive in the heady atmosphere of higher education, and provide critical
tools to help master an academic discipline”.

2. Philosophy helps us to clarify issues, discriminate among options, and make better
decisions.
- Philosophy protects us from affirming what is false and contenting ourselves with
what is trivial. = with the use of systematic inquiry into assumptions, methods, and
criteria
- Philosophy enhances our understanding of the everyday world of human affairs and
helps us make rational decisions about significant issues in our lives.

3. The activity of philosophy enhances our personal lives.

- Even though new ideas are often unfamiliar and threatening, the courage to open
ourselves up to see a bigger universe sharpens our self-awareness and keeps alive our
sense of wonder and our quest for new questions and answers.
- It enhances our lives by strengthening the foundation on which a personally satisfying
philosophy of life can be built. It helps us to integrate thought, feeling, and action into
a meaningful synthesis that is reasonable and consistent.

4. Philosophy assists us in penetrating to the roots of our commitments by helping us to

investigate and substantiate (or replace) our personal convictions.
- Philosophy frees us from the tyranny of prejudices and habitual beliefs of a
generation or a nation and from unexamined convictions.

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 Since there are many problems that confront man everyday; thus, there are many sciences
that are assigned to cater or answer certain problems. And these sciences are called the divisions
and branches of Philosophy.

Divisions on Philosophy

1. Speculative or Descriptive Philosophy- is interested in nature, essence, or substance of

reality, e.g. metaphysics.
2. Normative Philosophy- is interested in the goodness or the badness of a human act e.g.
ethics.
3. Practical Philosophy- is interested in truth in relation to action, e.g. logic.
4. Critical Philosophy- is interested in the meaning of truth without being necessarily related
to action, e.g. epistemology.

The Branches of Philosophy

1. Epistemology – the study on the validity of human knowledge

2. Ontology or General Metaphysics – the study on beings in general, on the different reasons
and principles of reality, its essence and existence
3. Cosmology or Philosophy of Nature – the study on the material world, taking into
consideration its order in the universe.
4. Rational Psychology – the study on living things and the principles of as compound of body
and soul including the vital operation of reason and will.
5. Theodicy – the study on God and His relation to creation.
6. Ethics – the study on the human acts and there morality including the Natural law that governs
them.
7. Social Philosophy – the study on man as a social being, the nature of human society and its
principles.
8. Logic – the study on correct inferential thinking and its principles. The science of correct
thinking.

Logic

Logic comes from the Greek word “logos” which means speech or reason. It was
introduced by Zeno, the Stoic. However, he preferred to use the term “logike” which means
speech or reason.

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 Therefore, Logic is defined as a science and art of correct thinking.

➢ SCIENCE, because logic is a systematized study that deals with the laws and patterns of
correct inference in order to arrive at a valid conclusion.
➢ ART, teaches the laws and patterns methodically for the mind to get used to its system
enabling man to proceed with ease, order, clarity, and free from error in arriving at
conclusions and attainment of truth.
➢ CORRECT THINKING, is geared towards the truth that is one’s thinking that correlates
with the real order of things.

Logic refers to mental activity which enables a person to arrive at validity or corrections
in argument, and not to the mere activation of one’s mind.
- “There can be a mindless brain but there can be no brainless mind.”

Therefore, in studying logic we will be guided in arriving at a valid conclusion,

develop the habit of careful and correct reasoning.

Brief History of Logic

● Aristotle (384- 322 B.C.)

- founder of logic/ father of science
- wrote 6 treatise on logical matters, which known as “Organon”- instrument for the
acquisition of philosophical knowledge.
● Zeno the stoic (336- 264 BC)
- Introduced the word logic. He established the rules of argumentation to clarify the
nature of concepts by using the Prior and Posterior analytics of Aristotle’s logical
works.
● Porphyrius (23-304 A.D)
- A neo-platonist wrote a small introduction to the categories of Aristotle’s known as
“Isagoge” (Greek word meaning Introduction)

● Severinus Boethius (470-524 A.D)

- Translated Aristotle’s Organon and wrote commentaries on the Categories and on the
Isagoge of Porphyrius
● Arabian Philosophers Avicenna (980-1037 A.D) Averroes (1126-1198)
- Wrote commentaries on Aristotle’s Organon
● Thomas Aquinas
- Wrote extensive commentaries on the logical works of Aristotle.
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 ● Francis Bacon (1561- 1626 A.D)
- Wrote the “Novum Organon”
- Introduced the Theory of Induction
● George Boole
- Founded the New Symbolic Logic

The Material and Formal Objects of Logic

Material Logic- man’s mental acts that constitute the thinking process
Formal Logic- correctness of the thinking process
➢ Ergo, Logic therefore seeks to achieve correctness in the process of thinking (formal
object) through mental operations (material object)

Mental Operations (Material Object)

1. Simple Apprehension refers to the act of the mind as it apprehends or grasps a particular
entity or reality. This enables the mind to know the essence of a particular thing, entity, or reality
➢ The mind apprehends or grasps or knows the thing and it produces an idea constituting
the essence of that thing (because the idea of the thing represents the thing as a thing)

2. Judgment is an act of the mind through which two ideas are compared in terms of their
relation, whether they are in agreement or disagreement with each other. This mental operation is
expressed as proposition

3. Reasoning is an act of the mind through which the mind abstracts (Greek word, to draw) or
infers a specific judgment tacitly contained in other judgments. This mental operation is
expressed as inference or argument.

CHAPTER II

IDEA AND TERM

Idea is derived from the Greek word, “eidos” which means image. It is defined as the
representation of the essence of a thing in the mind (in the absence of a thing in itself) / mental
image. It represents the object which is attained by the mind through the mental act called simple
apprehension.

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How does Ideas being formed?
➢ “Nothing comes from the intellect without passing through the senses.”- Aristotle
➢ How do senses help the human mind to come up an idea?
➢ In what way does simple apprehension formed ideas? How does simple apprehension
occur?
According to Archimedes (2008) Simple Apprehension is formed through the following:
Sensation, Attention, Abstraction, Reflection, Comparison, Analysis, and Synthesis

1. Sensation- awareness that comes to mans’ external senses (sight, taste, smell, touch, hearing)
is a product of sensation. The interpretation of this information brought about by sensation is
called perception
2. Attention- the mind attends to what the senses perceive. It fixes its consideration on multiple
objects by way of partial exclusion, or focuses on a single object by way of complete exclusion
of all other objects
3. Abstraction is an act by which the mind discerns what the accidental and the essential notes,
features, or aspects of an object are. Through abstraction, the mind discerns the essential features
of a thing, leaving out the accidental ones.
4. Reflection is also called reflex mental activity. It is the turning of the mind upon itself or
upon its states or acts. Through reflection, the mind studies or considers objects or things
objectively.
5. Comparison, the mind comes to a direct awareness of the likeness and differences of the
objects of attention of which the mind has formed ideas.
6. Analysis is an act through which the mind resolves an idea by means of the essential notes or
features of a particular object. The mind investigates which make up its idea of a particular
object.
7. Synthesis, an act through which the mind puts together two or more ideas as it makes them the
essential notes of a single idea.

Because of simple apprehension, the mind acts by grasping the nature/ essence of a
thing. Furthermore, Simple apprehension is the process of abstracting the non-essential elements
of a thing (accidents) while leaving the essential part (the essence of a thing in itself). Thus, the
essential elements of the thing which is present in the mind is what we call idea/s or concept/s.
Hence, idea is the essence or whatness of a thing in itself.

However, in creating ideas, it is not only the external senses but the internal senses
(memory and imagination) as well.
➢ Memory, stores up the ideas in the mind while Imagination constructs image/s of objects
in the mind in the absence of the objects themselves. The result of imagination is called,

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 Phantasm. Phantasm is a sensible representation of the material features of a thing. It is a
sort of practical image, bearing or shape or figure.

Distinction between Idea and Phantasm

Ideas Phantasm
Found in the intellect Found in the imagination
Universal Individual
Constant Changeable
Possible of complex and immaterial things Not possible of complex and immaterial
things

Two Logical Qualities of Ideas

a. Comprehension (General Idea) - refers to the totality of the essential notes, qualities,
characteristics, or attributes which the idea implies.
b. Extension (Specific Idea) - refers to the totality of all the objects which the idea represents or
to which the idea extends its application

Rules Governing Comprehension and Extension

1. As comprehension increases, extension decreases, and vice-versa

2. The extension of an idea can be increased or diminished by retaining, or without destroying,
the idea.
3. The comprehension of an idea is always constant, whereas the extension of the idea may
change continually.

(Example) Illustration between the relationship of Comprehension and Extension:

Term Comprehension Extension
Man Corporeal, living, sentient, rational, substance Man
Animal Corporeal, living, sentient, substance Brute, Man
Organism Corporeal, living, substance Plant, brute, man
Body Corporeal, substance Mineral, plant, brute, man

CLASSIFICATION OF IDEAS

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1. Origin- ideas are classified as either intuitive or derivative. Intuitive ideas are those which are
directly conceived from what they represent. They refer to ideas of which the mind has
immediate consciousness drawn from a given reality or object E.g. Sun, stars, cold, hot.
Derivative ideas are those which stem from intuition (or intuitive ideas). It pertains to
the suprasensible realities such as love, justice, hope.

2. Relation
➢ Identical ideas are those which have the same comprehension (formally identical) or
extension (materially identical).
E.g. rational animal and man refers to all formally identical while Stevie is materially
identical
➢ Different Ideas are those which are non-identical.
Ex. Rolex and nike are both ideas but not identical
➢ Associable Ideas are different ideas that are not mutually exclusive but can be joined or
compounded in the same idea.
E.g. Sentient and living
➢ Opposed ideas are those which are not associable.
- Two kinds: contrary and contradictory
- Contrary, ideas are oppose or exclude to each other, yet leave a middle ground
(meaning, their exclusion of each other is not absolute or categorical)
Ex. Black and white
- Contradictory, ideas exclude each other and leave no common ground between
them. Ideas are those which cannot be reconciled with each other.
Ex. Living and dead, black and non-black

3. Comprehension
➢ Simple Ideas are those which have only one note in the comprehension
e.g. entity, being reality
➢ Compound ideas, are those which more than one note in their comprehension
e.g. the idea of man= their attributes like sentient, living, and rational
➢ Concrete are those which represent something as a subject together with its determinant
e.g. man= represents something with the determinant humanity
➢ Abstract idea, are those which represent a determinant separated from a subject
e.g. piety, objectivity, whiteness, and bodylines.

4. Extension
➢ Singular ideas, have only one object, or one note, in their extension
e.g. talisay city, CTU, STC
➢ Universal ideas are those which have many objects in their extension
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 e.g. city, country, president, mayor
➢ Particular ideas, are actually universal ideas which are taken indeterminately and
partially. This means that particular ideas are part of the extension of the universal idea
e.g. some cities, some presidents, certain governors, a few provinces
➢ Collective ideas are those which signify a number of individuals taken as a unit
e.g. family, committees, jury, army

Definition/ Nature of Terms

Individual as we are, we try to communicate to others either through writing or speech.

These ideas that come out from mind which expresses writing or speaking/speech is what we
called term/s.

Term is defined as a word or group of words which expresses the essence of the object
(idea). So those words in which we don’t have any idea or mental representation are cannot be
called term. Examples of those words which are not terms are conjunction, preposition, and
articles (syncategorematic). On the other hand, categorematic or significant terms bear
meaning because they pertain to a concept or an idea of a particular reality. Therefore, term/s is
an outward expression of idea/s. However, not all terms are words since it does not project ideas.

➢ Idea and term are correlative terms- one cannot exist apart from the other. In other
words, a term is a vehicle through which an idea is expressed.

Kinds of Terms

1. Exactness- terms are understood based on how they manifest or express ideas.
➢ Univocal terms, are used in precisely the same sense or meaning in any given context.
This is also known as homologous, which means same in concept.
e.g. attorney (lawyer), metals (gold, silver, copper, lead, etc.) and physician (doctor of
medicine)
➢ Equivocal terms, are those which are, in a given context, used in two or more different
senses or meanings.
e.g. pitcher (baseball player) pitcher (water container), star (heavenly bodies) or star
(stardom), bow (inclination or weapon)

➢ Analogous terms, are those which are used in different but related sense or meanings;
their uses are neither identical nor entirely different. Additionally, analogous terms are
commonly used in figures of speech.

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 e.g. hands of the clock, hands of the cross, eye of the needle, seeing by the mind, ears of
corn, and foot of the mountain.

2. Comprehension
➢ Positive terms are those which expresses an affirmation of a particular thing, e.g.
service to mankind, dedication to one’s work, love of God
➢ Negative terms, are those which express the absence (or negation) of a thing, e.g.
unmindfulness, negligence, immensity, no-self, infinity
➢ Privative terms, are actually negative terms which denote the absence of something
(or a perfection) in a being which the being ought to have, e.g. blindness (because it
is a privation in a being who ought to possess perfection of sight) ignorance
➢ Simple terms are those which consist of a single word, e.g. mother, man, courage
➢ Complex terms, are those which have more than one word, e.g. sin against the Holy
Spirit, love of one’s parents, mayor of the Talisay City
➢ Concrete terms, are those which express concrete ideas, e.g. head of the state,
metal, flower, wood
➢ Abstract terms, are those which express abstract ideas, e.g. metalness, flowerness,
woodiness, humanity

3. Extension
➢ Singular terms are those which apply to only a single individual or group (taken a
whole)
e.g. this student, my teacher, this school

➢ Universal terms are those which are used for each or for all individuals to which they
apply
e.g. every mother, all students, any teacher, each students, all boys and girls
every one everything any/anyone/anything no
no/none nobody nothing

➢ Indefinite terms are those which do not have specific words that indicate their
extension (meaning they do not have specific quantifiers)
e.g. candidates, students, teachers, squares, and fathers
➢ Particular terms are those which stand for an indefinite group or individuals
e.g. some students, most students, not all squares, few fathers

Some indicators of a particular extension:

Certain/ almost all many/ a number of some/ practically all

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 Almost all a few/ not all

➢ Collective terms, are those which may be singular, universal, particular, or indefinite
as they express the idea of groups.
e.g. crowd, this family, some nurses, armies, delegation, and all committees.

4. Opposition
➢ Contradictory terms, opposes to each other in terms of their meanings that when one
(of the terms) is accepted, the other is rejected
e.g. absent and present, and living and dead.

➢ Contrary terms, are similar to contradictory terms in that they are also opposed to each
other in terms of their meanings; however, they do not exclude each other, leaving a
middle ground.
e.g. rich and poor; heaven and hell

➢ Paraxodical terms are those which seem to be contradictory terms yet are combinable
or reconcilable.
e.g. honest liar, true lies, heartless heart, living dead

Nature of Word/ Concept

The word is used for communicating such as intellectual communication is called

convention sign while word that signifies thoughts or concepts is called formal signs.

Predicaments and Predicable

Aristotle used the Greek term Categories to describe for predicaments. For him, there are
two supreme predicaments: one is substance while the other one is accident.
➢ Substance- understood as a being whose existence is independent of other beings.
➢ Accident – is being whose existence is dependent on other beings.
Ergo, substance is being in itself while accident is a being in a being.

Categories are classified into two: 1 substance and 9 accidents.

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 1. Substance – is a being that does not need any other being or thing in order for it to exist.
It is a thing in itself. However, the best example of substance is God which it goes
beyond the accidents.

What are these 9 accidents?

1. Quantity- an accident through which a substance becomes divisible into parts, or may have an
extension or a numberical (number) modification, e.g. width, length, and size.

A ruler is a twelve inches long/ Fajardo is a six foot eleven basketball player.

2. Quality- an accident through which a substance could have a formal (pertaining to form)
modification, e.g. color, figure, shape, and health.

The red sports car is owned by a corrupt public official.

The ball is round and not flat.

3. Relation- it pertains to the reference of a substance to another. It answers the questions to

what: to whom? The relation may be virtue of its association or affiliation. e.g. maternity,
paternity, sority, fraternity, and superiority

He is my brother/ one whole is greater than 1/4

4. Action- it pertains to one substance producing an effect in another, e.g. driving (a road roller
or a car), peeling (a banana), sawing (a piece of wood), and cooking

The painter is painting the face of the holy mother in the canvas.
The child is dancing/ singing.

5. Passion- it refers to a substance being affected by another, e.g. being humiliated, being
murdered, and being kicked out from the school

The drug addict is being killed by the police officers.

6. When – it pertains to a circumstance or situation relative to time. E.g. yesterday, today,

tomorrow, morning,
Jose Rizal died on December 30, 1896
Next week is our midterm exam in Philo 1

7. Where – it refers to a circumstance or situation relative to place or a point in space. E.g. on

the classroom, in Talisay, on the top of the table.
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 When my girlfriend broke up with me, I went to Sagada, Mt. Province.
I need to go to the mall

8. Posture – it refers to a being determination relative to the disposition of its parts, e.g.
kneeling, walking, sitting, and standing

Stevie is kneeling in the altar.

Jay is standing beside me.

9. Habit – it refers to a being’s outward modification of another being relative to equipment

or clothing, e.g. clothed, hated, and armed, loved

Jackie is wearing a dark gown in the fashion show.

The students are all in uniform during the 1st day of class.

PREDICABLES
➢ Logicians define predicable as the various ways or modes of predicating universal
concepts.
Predicables are classified into the following:

1. Genus – expresses a part of the essence of a subject which the subject has in common
with other species belonging to its class.

Ex. Acacia has leaves, trunks, and branches- these predicates expresses/shares
in common with other trees.

2. Species- expresses the fullness of the essence (whole essence) of a subject.

Ex. Man is a thinking being --- this means that nay member of the humankind (or
the human species) is ontologically capable of thinking.

3. Specific Difference - (also called Differentia) expresses a part of the essence of a subject
through which the subject is distinguished from other species belonging to the same genus.

Ex. Human person and brute --- belong the same genus, animal
4. Property – expresses a characteristic or an attribute that is not part of the essence of a subject,
however must indispensably flow from its (subject) essence.

Ex. Man is talking animal, laughing being, and inventing

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 Note: these concepts are not necessarily part of the essence of man but they all
necessarily flow from the rationality (essence) of man.

5. Accident – expresses an attribute of a subject that is neither a part nor associated with the
essence of the subject but is related to the subject only in a contingent manner or mode.

Ex. This table is round, This marker is short

Definition of Definition
➢ Is derived from the Latin word definire, which means “to state the limits of” or “to
enclose within limit.”
➢ Mean the explanation of an idea (or term) based on its content or use.

Kinds of Definition

1. Nominal Definition- explains the meaning of a term by way of considering it (the term
defined) as a name.
Ex. Biology – life+ study = nominal definition of biology is a science that studies life.

2. Real Definition – explains the meaning of a term by way of recounting the content of an idea
with accuracy or completeness.
Ex. Man is rational animal and Man is a dipartite creature of body and soul.
Therefore, real definition is meant to give the meaning of the nature of the thing as
signified by the term, while nominal definition is meant to identify or indicate the thing
specified by the term.

Rules of Definition

1. A definition must be clear or exact.

2. A definition must be brief.
3. A definition must not contain the term defined either tacitly or explicity.
4. A definition must be coextensive with the term or thing defined.

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 Chapter 3

Judgment and Proposition

Term is an essential element of proposition since it expresses an idea. In the previous

chapter, we discussed about simple apprehension which is the first mental act of the mind
(mental operation) where the minds forms idea. However, the mind doesn’t only limit in forming
ideas instead it also compares it. Thus, judgment (the second mental act of the mind) and
proposition is needed and required.
Judgment is a mental operation through which the mind pronounces, enunciates, or
declares the agreement or disagreement of two ideas. In comparing ideas, the mind must
pronounces their relation whether they affirm or deny with each other. For instance, “the house is
red” is an example of affirmation while “the house is not red” is an example of negation. In this
sense, if the mind judges the said ideas are in agreement with each other, then the mind affirms
to their relation. On the other hand, if the mind judges that the ideas are in disagreement with
each other, then the mind denies their relation. Hence, judgment is an expression of truth and
falsity.
But the question would arise, how is judgment being expressed? And how is proposition
is related to judgment? As we all know, proposition is the lifeblood of judgment. Proposition is
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an outward expression of judgment and it is considered as the building blocks of judgment
likewise a proposition is an expression of truth and falsity. Without propositions, there can be no
judgments. Proposition must always be made as a declarative sentence through which a relation
of denial or affirmation between two ideas can be expressed. Hence, a proposition cannot be
expressed as an imperative, exclamatory, or interrogative sentence since it does not express
truth and falsity.

Elements of a Proposition:

There are three elements of a proposition, namely: (1) subject; (2) copula; and (3)
predicate.
(s) (p)
Some educators are stupid and hypocrite.
©

1. Subject --- main topic of the proposition either denied or affirmed.

2. Predicate --- is the attribute given to the subject
3. Copula – connection, verb to “be” (present or past tense) = linking verb in English

N.B. for a proposition to be logical, the elements must be arranged in the following: subject -
copula – predicate.
Kinds of Propositions

Propositions are generally classified into two: Categorical and Hypothetical

1. Categorical Propositions
Is a kind of proposition that expresses unconditional judgment. The predicate in the
proposition is either affirmative or negative.

Example:
Prof. Stevie is gorgeous. Some students are not creative.
Not all rebels are activists. All receptionists are hospitable.

Categorical can be viewed from the standpoint of quantity and from the standpoint of quality.
➢ Quantity- universal and particular
➢ Quality – affirmative and negative

Four types of Categorical Propositions

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1. A – Universal affirmative (A) proposition has a universal subject term and an affirmative
copula
Ex. All machines are useful/ Every car has an engine/ Hotels are expensive.

2. E – Universal Negative, proposition has a universal subject term and negative copula
Ex. No machines are useful/ No car has an engine/ All hotels are not expensive.

3. I – Particular Affirmative, proposition has a particular subject term and an affirmative

copula
Ex. Some machines are useful/ A few students are studios/ Almost all individuals are
hardworking.

4. O – Particular Negative, proposition has a particular subject term and negative copula
Ex. Not all machines are useful/ A few students are not studios/ Almost all individuals are not
hardworking.

2. Hypothetical Propositions
A hypothetical proposition is a compound or complex proposition that shows a condition,
dependency, opposition, or similarity between two or more propositions.

1. Connective or Conditional Hypothetical Proposition- a proposition in which the

consequent depends upon the antecedent to the effect that only if the antecedent is true
can the consequent also be true. ( “if” clause) and ( “then” clause)

Example: If it rains (Antecedent), then the ground is wet (Consequent).

If you study (Antecedent), then surely you will pass in this subject.
(Consequent).

2. Conjunctive Hypothetical Proposition – it is a kind of proposition that enunciates the

impossibility of two things occurring simultaneously, or two facts to be true at one and at
the same time. (cannot be true and false at that same time)

Example: A student cannot be academically excellent and a dull at the same time.
A school cannot be a market place at the same time.
You cannot be present and absent at the same time.

3. Disjunctive Hypothetical Proposition – is a kind of hypothetical proposition which

readily exhausts all possibilities such that no two of which can be true or false at the same

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 time. However, one from among these possibilities must be necessarily be true and the
rest is false. ( “either…or”)

Example: Either I will give the exam today or tomorrow.

It is either you will pass or fail in my subject.

Chapter 4

REASONING: IMMDEIATE AND MEDIATE INFERRENCE

Reasoning (the third mental operation) is a mental operation through which the
agreement or disagreement of two ideas is inferred from their known relation to a common third
idea. Furthermore, it refers to any process through which the mind proceeds from one or more
propositions to other propositions whose meaning are already implied in the former.

There are two methods of reasoning, Induction and Deduction. Induction or Inductive
reasoning proceeds from one single or particular idea to general idea while Deduction or
deductive reasoning proceeds from general / universal idea to particular idea. Moreover,
reasoning is expressed through inference.

Induction – from particular idea to general idea.

Example: Stevie is a teacher.
Stevie is hardworking.
Ergo, All teachers are hardworking.
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Deduction – from general idea to particular idea.
Example: All government employees are honest and not corrupt.
Teachers are government employees.
Therefore, teachers are honest and not corrupt.

As it is mentioned above regarding inference, it is defined as any process through which

the mind proceeds from one or more propositions to other propositions whose meanings are
already implied in the former.

Example: (1) Angles are immortal.

St. Michael is an angel.
Ergo, St. Michael is an immortal.

(2) All terrorists are suicide bombers.

Therefore, All suicide bombers are terrorists.

Kinds of Inference: Immediate and Mediate

❖ Immediate Inference – is a process of reasoning through which the mind passes

directly from one proposition to a new proposition, which is nothing but a
reformulation (partial or complete) of the very exact meaning or truth expressed
in the original proposition.

Example: Some machines are robots. (I) No men are robots. (E)
Ergo, Some robots are machines. (I) So, robots are not men. (E)

Kinds of Immediate Inference:

∗ Eduction – where a new proposition is formulated either by interchanging the subject

and predicate terms of the original proposition or by the use or removal of negatives.
1.Conversion – it refers to the formulation of a new proposition by way of
interchanging the subject and the predicate terms of an original proposition, with the
quality of the original proposition retained.

Example: No Filipinos are Hardworking. (Convertened)

All Hardworking are Filipinos. (Converse)

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Two kinds of Conversion: Simple and Partial.

a) Simple Conversion - it is a kind of conversion in which the quantity of the

convertened is retained in the converse. If the convertened is universal, then the
converse is also universal. And if it is particular, then the converse is also particular.
(Note: Only E and I can be reformulated by simple Conversion.)

Example: No technological machines can destroy mankind. (E)

No mankind can destroy technological machines. (E)

Some technicians are computer illiterate. (I)

Some illiterate (individuals) are technicians. (I)

b) Partial Converse – is a kind of conversion wherein the quantity of the convertened is

reduced from universal to particular. (Note: A to I and E to O are applicable on this
conversion)
Example: All computers are gadgets. (A) to
Some gadgets are computers. (I)

No warriors are fighters. (E) to

Some fighters are not fighters. (I)

2. Obversion – it is a kind of eduction in which a new proposition is formulated by

retaining the positions of the subject and predicate terms and the quantity of the original
proposition; however, the quality of the original of the original proposition is changed
and the predicate term is replaced by its contradictory.

Note:
a) retain the positions of the subject and predicate terms and the quantity of the original
proposition (obvertened)
b) change the quality of the original proposition.
c) change the predicate of the original proposition to its contradictory in the obverse.
- Obversion is applicable to all kinds of categorical propositions (A,E,I,and O)

Example: All men are selfish. (A) – All men are not non-selfish (E)
Some students are not lazy (O) – Some students are non-lazy. (I)
No watches are expensive (E) – All watches are non-expensive. (A)

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3. Contraposition- it is a kind of eduction which results from a formulation of a new
proposition whose subject term is the contradictory of the predicate term in the original
proposition. In principle, contraposition is a product of both conversion and obversion.

Types of Contraposition: Partial Conversion and Complete Conversion

a) Partial Contraposition – involves the formulation of a new proposition
(contraposit) as follows: a) its subject is the contradictory of the predicate term of the
original proposition (contraponed); b) the quality of the contraponed is changed in the
contrapositi; and c) the predicate term in the contraposit is the subject term in the
contraponed.

A proposition is changed to E; E proposition to I and, O to I.

Example:
1) (Contraponend): All whales are mammals. (A) to
(Contraposit): No non-mammals are whales. (E)

2) (Contraponend): No shoes are for free. (E) to

(Contraposit): Some non-free are shoes. (I)

b) Complete Contraposition – a new proposition is formulated according to the

following conditions:
a) the subject term in the contraposit is the contradictory of the predicate term in the
contraponend.
b) the quality of the contraponend is not changed in the contraposit
c) the predicate term in the contraposit is the contradictory of the subject term in the
contraponend.
- In complete contraposition, an A proposition is changed to A, then E to O, and O to
O.

Example:
Contraponend: All rockers are peace lovers. (A) to
Contraposit: All non-lovers are non-rockers. (A)

Contraponend: Not all students are computer savvy. (o) to

Contraposit: Not all non-computer savvy are non-students.(0)

4. Inversion – It is a method of eduction in which the mind, through obversion and

conversion, finally arrives at judgment (inverse) whose subject and predicate terms are

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 contradictories of the subject and predicate terms in the original proposition
(invertend).(Note: Only A is applicable for complete inversion)

Example:
Invertend: All philosophers are wise
Obverse: No philosophers are non-wise.
Converse: Simple: No non-wise are philosophers.
Obverse: All non-wise are non-philosophers.
Converse:Partial: Some non-philosophers are non-wise.
Inverse: Some non-philosophers are non-wise.

OPPOSITIONAL INFERENCE

Oppositional inference is a form of immediate inference from which the validity

of proposition is derived from the validity of the opposites. It also compares one
proposition to another proposition of any kind – quality and quantity having the same
subject and the same predicate.

Types of Opposition: Contradictory, Contrariety, Sub-altern, Subcontrariety.

The Square of Opposition

All students are pious No students are

pious
A CONTRARIES E

S C S
U O U
B N B
A T A
L R L
T A T
E D E
R I R
N C N
S T S
O
R
Y
23 | Page
I SUBCONTRARIES O
Some students are pious Some students are not pious

1.) Contradictory – is the direct opposition of a proposition which differs in quantity and
quality.

Example: Women are creative (A)  Not all women are creative (O)
No shoes are sandals (E)  Some shoes are sandals (I)

Rules in Governing Contradictories:

a) If one of the two contradictories is true, the other is false, and vice-versa.
Example: if all lions are not courageous which is true
Ergo, some lions are courageous is false.
All blood donors are thoughtful is false
Therefore, not all blood donors are thoughtful is true.
b) Contradictories cannot be simultaneously true or false.

From the foregoing rules, the following conclusions can be drawn:

a) If A is true, O is false
b) If E is true, I is false
c) If I is false, E is true
d) If O is true, A is false

2.) Contrary – is the opposition between the universal propositions which differs in quality.
Only A and E is applicable in Contrariety.
Example: Phones are machines (A) No phones are machines (E)

Rules in Governing Contraries:

a) If one contraries is true, the other is false.
Example: It is true that All heroes are coward.
Then, it is false to say that No hero is a coward.

b) If one contraries is false, the other is doubtful.

Example: It is false that no players are athletics.
So, it is doubtful to say that all players are athletics.

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 From the foregoing rules, the following conclusions can be drawn:

a) If A is true, E is false b) If E is false, A is doubtful

b) If E is true, A is false c) If A is false, E is doubtful

3.) Subcontrary – is the opposition between the particular propositions which differs in
quality.
Example: Some angels are mortal. (I)  Some angels are not mortal (O)
Not all idiots are intelligent (O)  Some idiots are intelligent (I)
Rules in Governing Subcontraries:
a) If one of the subcontrarires is true, the other is doubtful.
Example: It is true to say that not all idiots are intelligent
So it is doubtful to say that some idiots are intelligent.

b) If one of the subcontraries is false, the other is true.

Example: It is false that some men are women.
Ergo, it is true that not all men are women.

From the foregoing rules, the following conclusions can be drawn:

c) If I is false, O is true b) If I is TRUE, O is doubtful

d) If O is false, I is true c) If O is true, I is doubtful

4.) Subalternation – is the relation between the universal and particular propositions which
have the same quality of the copula but it differ in quantity.
Example: All machines are useful. (A)  Some machines are useful (I)
Not all marines are scout rangers (O)  No marines are scout rangers (E)

Rules in Governing Subalternation:

a) If the universal is true, the particular is true. This means that the truth of the universal
involves the truth of the particular.
Example: it is true that all shoes are expensive. (A)
Ergo, it is also true that some shoes are expensive. (I)

b) If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful. This means that the truth of the
particular does not involve the truth of the particular.
Example: if guardians are protector of mankind is false. (A)
Ergo, it is doubtful to say that some guardians are protector of mankind. (I)

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c) If the particular is true, the universal is doubtful. This means that the truth of the
particular does not involve the truth of the universal.
Example: not all toy makers are good in art is true. (O)
Ergo, it is doubtful to say that no toy makers are good in art. (E)

d) If the particular is false, the universal is false. This means that the falsity of the
particular involves the falsity of the universal.

Example: Some indigenous tribes are not peace lover is false.

Ergo, no indigenous tribes are peace lover is also false.

From the foregoing rules, the following conclusions can be drawn:

a) If A is true, I is true
b) If A is false, I is doubtful
c) If E is true, O is true
d) If E is false, O is doubtful
e) If I is true, A is doubtful
f) If I is false, A is false
g) If O is true, E is doubtful
h) If O is false, E is false

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 Chapter 5

Reasoning: Mediate Inference

(Categorical Syllogism)

Mediate Inference Is a process of reasoning in which from one proposition, with the aid
of another proposition (or a third term) called medium, the mind infers not only a new
proposition but also a new truth. And this mediate inference requires three propositions – and
this is called syllogism.
Syllogism is an argument (or a series of statements connected to each other in order to
establish a definite proposition) consisting of three propositions which are so related that when
the first propositions are posited true, the third proposition must also be true. The first two
propositions and the third one, is called conclusion.

Kinds of Syllogism: Simple Categorical and Hypothetical Syllogism

Simple Categorical Syllogism

Simple Categorical Syllogism discusses the separation of subject and predicate in the
conclusion through the intermediacy of a middle term. The conclusion serves as the basis of the
syllogism.

The elements of Categorical Syllogism

∗ Major Term – the predicate of the conclusion. ( P )
∗ Minor Term – the subject of the conclusion. ( S )
∗ Middle Term – must occur twice in the two premises and can be either subject or
predicate in the premises. (M)

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Rules of Categorical Syllogism

1. Every categorical syllogism must contain only three categorical propositions.

2. Every categorical syllogism must contain only three univocal terms, each of which occurs
twice, but not in the same proposition.
3. The middle term must be distributed at least once.
4. If the term is distributed in the conclusion, then such term must be distributed in a
premise.
5. There must be no two particular premises; one premise must be universal.
6. If one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular.
7. If the conclusion is negative, only one premise must be negative.
8. If the conclusion is affirmative, then both premises must be affirmative.
∗ Every categorical syllogism must contain only three categorical propositions.

Man is an animal.
Stevie is an animal. (valid for #1)
Therefore, Stevie is man.

No Z is Y.
But all Y is M. (invalid)

All animals are not robots.

Some robots are machines (invalid)
Not all machines are affordable.
Ergo, all machines are robots.

∗ Every categorical syllogism must contain only three univocal terms, each of
which occurs twice, but not in the same proposition.

A pitcher is a water container. Mu+ Pp

Stevie is a pitcher (invalid) Sp + Mp
Ergo, Stevie is a water container. Sp + Pp

Nora Aunor is a star. Sp + Mp

Star is part of the heavenly bodies. (invalid) Mu + Pp

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Therefore, Nora Aunor is part of the heavenly bodies. Sp + Pp

All vampires are blood suckers, Su + Mp

But mosquitoes are blood suckers, (invalid) Pu + Mp
Ergo, All vampires are mosquitoes. Su + Pp

∗ The middle term must be distributed at least once. (Fallacy of Undistributed

Middle)

X is Y. Pp + Mp
But some Y is P. (invalid) Mp + Sp
Ergo, Some P is not X. Sp – Pu

Some technologies are good for humans. Mp + Pp

All gadgets are technologies. (invalid) Su + Mp
Ergo, Some gadgets are good for humans. Sp + Pp

All IT students are programmers. Pu + Mp

Nick is a programmer. (invalid) Sp + Mp
Therefore, Nick is an IT student. Sp + Pp

∗ If the term is distributed in the conclusion, then such term must be

distributed in a premise.

Fallacy of Illicit Major

All IT students are programmers. Pu + Mp

Nick is a programmer. (invalid) Sp + Mp
Therefore, Nick is an IT student. Sp + Pp

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No warriors are coward. Mu - Pu
But Boots is a warrior. (invalid) Sp + Mp
Ergo, Boots is a coward. Sp + Pp illicit jump

Some students are pious. Sp + Mp

But Nuns are also pious. (invalid) Pu + Mp
Therefore, students are pious. Su + Pp

Some Y is M. Mp + Sp
All O is Y (invalid) Pu + Mp
Ergo, All M is O. Su + Pp------- universal

No sailors are womanizer. Pu - Mu

Stevie is a womanizer. (invalid) Sp + Mp
Ergo, Stevie is a sailor. Sp + Pp ------- universal

All mad scientist are great inventors Mu + Sp

But not all mad scientist are atheists. (invalid) Mp - Pu
Therefore, All great inventors are atheists. Su + Pp PARTICULAR

Fallacy of Illicit Minor

Some students are pious. Sp + Mp
But Nuns are also pious. (invalid) Pu + Mp
Therefore, students are pious. Su + Pp

Not all technicians are great thinkers Pp - Mu

But all philosophers are great thinkers (invalid) Su + Mp
Not all philosophers are technicians Sp – Pu

No Y is M. Mu + Sp
But O is Y (invalid) Pp + Mp
Ergo, No M is O Su – Pu

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 ∗ There must be no two particular premises; one premise must be universal.

Some church believers are radical against cult.

But some church believers are not deep thinkers. (invalid)
Therefore, Not all deep thinkers are radical against cult.

Mp + Pp
both Mp – Su
are Sp – Pu
particular

Not all mutants are super heroes.

Most heroes are extra ordinary men. (invalid)
Ergo, Almost all extra ordinary men are mutants.

Pp – Mu
both Mp + Su
are Sp + Pu
particular

∗ If one premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular.

All sprint runners are athletes. Pu + Mp

Some soccer players are athletes. (invalid) Sp + Mp
Therefore, All soccer players are sprint runners. Su + Pp

All Filipinos are thrifty. Pu + Mp

But A few Nagahanons are thrifty. (invalid) Sp + Mp
Therefore, All Nagahanons are Filipinos Su + Pp

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All hybrid cars are environmental friendly. Su + Mp
Not all expensive cars are environmental friendly. (invalid) Pp – Mu
Ergo, All hybrid cars are expensive cars. Su + Pp

Some box is a square. Sp + Mp

But all square is an object. (VALID) Mu + Pp
Therefore, Some box is an object Sp + Pp
Note:
Analyze the entire propositions not just the term!

∗ If the conclusion is negative, only one premise must be negative.

Fallacy of Illicit Exclusion

Some stars are not shining in the sky.

No planes are shining in the sky.
Ergo, No planes are stars.

Pp – Mu
Su – Mu both premises are negative (invalid)
Su – Pu

All idiots are too much confident of themselves.

Some students are too much confident of themselves.
Ergo, Not all students are idiots.

Pu + Mp
Sp + Mp both premises are affirmative (invalid)
Sp – Pu

No models are long legged.

But Mario is not a long legged.
Ergo, Mariano is not a model.

Pu – Mu
Sp – Mu both premises are negative (invalid)
Sp – Pu

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 ∗ If the conclusion is affirmative, then both premises must be affirmative.
Fallacy of Illicit Inclusion

All magicians use illusion to their magic.

But Stevie do not use illusion on his magic.
Ergo, Stevie is a magician.
Pu + Mp
Sp – Mu (invalid)
Sp + Pp

All painters are not imaginative.

No students are painters.
Ergo, All students are imaginative.

Mp – Pu
Su – Mu (invalid)
Su + Pp

Most extremist are dangerous in the society.

But terrorists are not extremist.
Therefore, terrorists are dangerous in the society.

Mp + Pp
Su – Mu (invalid)
Su + Pp

Note:
a) Both premises must be affirmative in order for the conclusion to be affirmative.
b) Examine the conclusion before determining the quality of the premise.

Varieties of Categorical Syllogism

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a.) Enthymeme is derived from the Greek word “en” meaning in and thymos
meaning mind. From the etymological, enthymeme is considered as an bridged
(shortened, condensed, incomplete) syllogism wherein one of the premises, either
major or minor or the conclusion is omitted or not expressed but left in the mind in a
form of presupposition.

Example:

All allies of the ISIS are enemies of the government.

_______________________________________ make sure that this
Ergo, All terrorists are enemies of the government. Syllogism is valid

Some Christians are Palestinian lovers.

Ergo, some Christians are not Israeli soldiers.

b.) Epichireme is derived from the Greek expression epicheir, which means “ on
hand”. It define as a kind of categorical syllogism in which a reason or proof is added
to the major premise, minor premise, or both of them. If a reason is added to only one
premise (either major or minor) the syllogism is called simple epichereme, On the
other hand, if the reasons are added to both the major and minor premises, the
syllogism is called compound epichereme.

Example:

Simple Epichereme:

Obese people are rich because they have money to buy food.
But insecure individuals are usually obese people.
Ergo, insecure individuals are rich.

Compound Epichereme:

No Extravagant persons are poor fellows because they are bereft of money.
But poor fellows are lazy persons because they are not hardworking.
Ergo, lazy persons are not extravagant persons.

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c.) Polysyllogism is derived from the Greek prefix poly which means “many”. It is
also called by logicians as “chain argument” or “chain of reasoning.” It is defined as
an argument consisting of two or more syllogisms that are logically connected with
each other so that the conclusion of the preceding syllogism becomes the premise of
the succeeding one.

Example:

Mammals are animals that have mammary glands.

Whales are mammals.
Ergo, whales are animals that have mammary glands.

Animals that have mammary glands are warm blooded creatures.

Dogs are animals that have mammary glands.
Therefore, dogs are warm blooded creatures.

Warm blooded creatures are mortal.

Stevie is a warm blooded creature.
Ergo, stevie is mortal.

#2 Suicide bombers are desperate persons.

Insane individuals are suicide bombers.
Ergo, insane individuals re desperate persons.

Desperate persons are dangerous fellows.

Small minded teachers are desperate persons.
Ergo, small minded teachers are dangerous fellows.

Dangerous fellows are horrible citizens.

Criminals are dangerous fellows.
Therefore, criminals are horrible citizens.

The Hypothetical Syllogism

A Hypothetical Syllogism contains a hypothetical propositions as major premise

expressing sequentially related concepts or statements. One member of which is an
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affirmation or negation in the minor premise, and the other member is consequently an
affirmation or negation in the conclusion. Furthermore, the hypothetical syllogism is
considered as another form of deductive reasoning/argument which is governed by a
set of rules (different from the categorical syllogism).
There are three kinds of Hypothetical Syllogism, namely, conditional, disjunctive,
and conjunctive.

Conditional Syllogism

It is a hypothetical syllogism whose major premise is a conditional proposition.

The minor premise is a categorical proposition which it affirms the antecedent or
negates the consequent. Moreover, there is a logical connection between the
antecedent and consequent. Thus, the truth of the antecedent requires the truth of the
consequent.

Example:
If the criminal is convicted of the crime that he/ she is committed, then he is guilty.
But the criminal is convicted of the crime that he/ she is committed.
Therefore, the criminal is guilty.

If the patient has terminal cancer, then he is seriously ill.

But the patient has terminal cancer.
Ergo, the patient is seriously ill.

The rules for a valid simple conditional syllogism are based on the conditional
proposition which asserts the sequence of the antecedent and consequent. It shows that
if the Minor premise affirms the antecedent, the Conclusion should affirm the
consequent; but if the Minor premise denies the antecedent, the Conclusion should
deny the consequent.

Rules for Conditional Syllogism

1.) If the antecedent is true and posited, then the consequent is also true and must be
posited, but it is not applied in a different way around.
2.) If the consequent is not true and is excluded, then the antecedent is also not true
and must be excluded, but it is not applied in a different way around.

Example for a valid categorical syllogism:

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If the bulb produces light, then there is electricity. If X is Z
But the bulb produces light. But X.
Ergo, there is electricity. Ergp. Z.
If the bulb produces light then there is electricity. If X is Z
But there is no electricity. But not Z
Ergo, the bulb don’t produces light. Ergo, not X

Biconditional Syllogism is being expressed when the major premise is expressed

by “if and only if.” In this sense, the antecedent is the only condition for a certain
consequent, and that the consequent occurs only when the antecedent is verified as
true.

Example: if and only if you study is this course, surely you will pass.
But you will study.
Ergo, you will pass.

If and only if love prevails will peace finally reigns.

But love will prevail.
Therefore, peace reign.

Pure conditional syllogism contains conditional propositions for both premises

and conclusion.

Example: If all activists are expressive, then they are sentimental.

If they are sentimental, then they are emotional.
Ergo, if all activists are emotional, then they are expressive.

If God is love, then He is merciful.

If He is merciful, then He is kind.
Ergo, if God is kind, then he is love.

The Disjunctive Syllogism

Is a hypothetical syllogism whose major premise is a disjunctive proposition. The

minor premise is a categorical proposition which either affirms one alternative of
disjunction as true or concludes the other as false. Furthermore, the minor presmise
excludes the other as false while positing the remaining alternative as true in the
conclusion.
Example: You are either single or married.
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 But you are single
Ergo, you are not married.
Either you are a saint or criminal.
But you are not a criminal.
Ergo, you are a saint.

The Conjunctive Syllogism

In this syllogism, the major premise expresses alternatives that cannot be true and
false at the same time. The rule for this syllogism is to affirm the minor premise and to
deny the other in the conclusion.

Example: You cannot be dead and alive at the same time.

You are alive.
Therefore, you are not dead.

You cannot read and paint in the same time.

You are painting.
Ergo, you are not reading.

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 Chapter 6

FALLACY

In the previous chapter, we discussed about the mental operations of the mind in which it
help us to search the truth as the end of argument. However, there are instances in our reasoning
where we commit an error (intentionally or unintentionally) that makes our argument invalid/
erroneous. In logic, this error in reasoning is called fallacy.
For some scholars, fallacy is committed not because the arguer committed a mistake in
his/her judgment but instead the arguer committed a mistake in reasoning. Thus, a certain
mistake in reasoning will lead the arguer to draw/ create a false judgment.
The term fallacy is derived from the Latin word, fallere, which means to “deceive” or “to
appear false or deceptive”. But for logicians, they make a distinction between sophism and
fallacy. For them, fallacy is committed unintentionally while sophism is an intentional mistake in
reasoning.

There are two kinds of Fallacies:

a) Formal Fallacy – which has a defect or error in terms of its form or structure. It applies to
invalid arguments that appear as valid.
b) Informal Fallacy – refers to a fallacy of content

Fallacies from the Standpoint of Language (Linguistic Fallacies)

Sometimes called as the fallacy of clarity or fallacies of ambiguity. These fallacies occur
in arguments formulated with words whose meaning shift and change in the course of argument.

1.) Equivocation
- This fallacy employs vague terms or those used in an equivocal manner. It makes
ambiguous since it violates the second rule of syllogism.

Example:
All atheists are separated from God. Pitcher is a water container
All sinners are separated from God. Stevie is a pitcher
Ergo, All sinners are atheists. Ergo, stevie is a water
container

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 2.) Amphiboly
- This fallacy occurs when there is a defect in grammatical construction or its faulty
syntax.

Example: While standing on his hind legs, the P.E. instructor played with his dog.
Wanted: An old woman for baby setting.
The rocking chair of an old lady with two broken legs.

3.) Accent
- This fallacy arises due to a difference in interpretation brought about by misplaced
emphasis on a phrase, word, or syllable in a proposition.

Example: You may sleep as you like.

You may sleep as you like.

4.) Division
- this fallacy occurs when an argument takes what is true of the whole to be true of its
parts, or when an argument takes the attributes of a collection of elements as the
attributes of the elements themselves.

Example:
XYZ University is vital to technologies and inventions. TCC is concerned in community outreach.
P is an instructor to XYZ University. Hernan is from TCC
Therefore, P is vital to technologies and inventions. Thus, Hernan is concerned with community
outreach

5.) Composition
- It arises when an argument proceeds to take the attributes of the parts of the whole to be
same attributes of the whole itself.

Example:
JayJay is musically inclined. Hence, all members Each student in that class has superior intelligence
of her family is musically inclined. Hence, all students in that class have superior
intelligence

Fallacies from the Standpoint of Relevance

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 It occur in the arguments whose premises are logically irrelevant so that their conclusions
cannot be established. This fallacies are also called fallacies of unwarranted assumption and
fallacies of insufficient evidence.

1.) Circular argument (begging the question)

- this fallacy is also called petitio principii, which arises when a proposition is argued as
true because it is true or the premises assume the truth of the conclusion without
providing evidence to the truth or validity of the conclusion.

Example:
Juan is insane. Ergo, Juan is crazy.
“He who knows that he knows is one who knows that he knows.”
He who does not understand his problem is who does not understand his problem.

2.) Complex question (plurium interrogationum)

- This fallacy arises when the question raised presupposes an answer to another question
which is not raised.

Example:
“Have you not given up the habit of cheating in my class?”
“Are the policemen, lawyers, prosecutors, and judges not doing well in their job
to prosecute criminal offenses?”

3.) Repeated assertion

- This is a kind of fallacy which arises when one believes that if one tells a big lie and this
lie is told often enough, people will come to believe that such a lie is the truth.

Example: the story of sigbin, urban legends (these stories do not connote evidences to
support such idea/s)

4.) Accident
- It arises where the general rules are applied to particular cases when particular cases have
circumstances which may not allow the general rules to be applicable. Therefore, it leads
to a sweeping generalization.

Example:

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 The grade in logic exam measures the kind of intelligence do the students have. Nick
failed in the logic exam. Therefore, Nick has a low of intelligence.

Note: In the above example, it is fallacious to say that nick has a low intelligence just
because he got a low score in logic exam. There might be explanation or factors why he
failed in the test. Thus, it is impossible to give a conclusion without proper justification.

5.) Converse accident

- This fallacy is a reverse to the fallacy accident in which particular cases or circumstances
are applied to general rules. Thus, it is fallacious to say that what is true of one is not
necessarily true of all.

Example:
Nick is from province of San Fernando, Cebu.
Nick is a serial killer and rapist.
Ergo, All people from San Fernando, Cebu are serial killers and rapists.

Berto is from a family of achievers.

Therefore, he must be an achiever itself.

6.) Tu quoque
- It is often called “two wrongs make a right”. This fallacy arises when one answers a
charge of wrongdoing by a similar charge to his opponent

Example:
“Smoking is good because the father is a smoker, therefore, there is nothing
wrong if the son will be a smoker himself.”
“if others do it, why cant we? or “what monkey sees, monkey does”

7.) False Cause

- It arises when one assigns as the cause those facts that merely preceded or accompanied
the effect.

Example:
Pnoy killed an innocent bird. On the following day, he got sick. Thus, the cause of
his sickness was about the killing of an innocent bird.
NogNog cut down his acacia tree near his house. The next day, he was found
dead in their living room. Therefore, the cutting of the acacia tree caused NogNog’s
death.
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8.) Non sequitur
- It is also known as “it does not necessarily follow”. This fallacy arises in an argument
where the conclusion categorically or completely lacks connection to the proposition.

Example:
“Maria Sharapova is a tennis superstar. Thus, she is also good in acting and
modeling.”
“I am a consistent honor student. Therefore, I am a super hero.”
“Stevie is a villain in their society, thus he is known for being anti-social person.”

Ingnoratio Elenchi (ignorance of what is required to refute or establish a

conclusion) is commonly called the fallacy of irrelevant proof or the fallacy of ignoring
the question. It arises when the premises used in the argument are irrelevant to the
conclusion.

9.) Argumentum ad hominem (argument against the man)

- This fallacy is committed when the real claims or issues of an argument are ignored and
the character, personality, or belief of the opponent is emphasized. Furthermore, it is the
person who presents the argument who is being attacked and not the argument presented.

Example:
“your honor, it would be very difficult for us not to believe that the accused is not
guilty since his family is being convicted already due to several cases before which gives
them a bad moral reputation in the community.”
“during political rally in which the politicians directly attack the personal lives of
his/her opponents instead of the current issues that are happening in the society.”

10.) Argumentum ad Ignorantiam ( fallacy of appeal to ignorance)

- It arises when an argument is taken as true just because it has not been proven as false
and vice-versa.

Example:
“The existence of purgatory must be true because nobody has ever successfully
defended that is just true.” / and the story of “sigbin and di ingon nato”

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11.) Argumentum ad verecundiam (fallacy of appeal to awe, modesty, respect or
authority)
- This fallacy arises when one who has difficulty in confronting or understanding
complicated questions seeks refuge to the ideas, concepts, principles, or judgments of a
person who enjoys a reputation of an expert or an authority on the matter at hand.

Example:
“According to Cardinal SM, anyone who uses condom during sexual intercourse
will surely go to hell!!!”
To those who would like to ask questions regarding the fees at school, kindly
approach the treasurer.

12.) Argumentum ad populum (fallacy of appeal to the people)

- This fallacy arises when someone concentrates or gives emphasis to the emotions and
opinions of the crowd instead of giving more emphasis in relevant facts of the argument
which could be the basis of conclusion.

Example:
During TV commercials or ads, the speaker tries to persuade to the viewers that
they should patronize or buy their product instead of other goods/products in the market.
For instance, buy this dishwashing soap since most of the prominent people in the society
are also using it.

13.) Argumentum ad misericordiam (appeal to pity)

- It arises when an appeal to evidence is replaced by an appeal to pity, mercy or sympathy.

Example:
Kindly allow me to pass in your subject since my parents are working hard in the
mountain just to send me in school.
Please forgive the accused of robbery for not sending him to the jail since he
needs to work and provide food for his children and wife.

14.) Argumentum ad baculum (appeal to might or force)

- It arises when one appeal to intimidate or use of force in order to gain acceptance of
his/her opinions.

Example:
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 Teacher to the student: If you will not listen to me nor to follow my instructions,
surely you will fail or no grade in in this subject.
Politicians to the voters: “No vote IBOT!!!” this issue threatens the voters to cast
their vote in their side instead to other parties.
Father to his children: if you will not be serious with your studies, your future will
be miserable. And you can never expect me to lift a finger for help.

====================================================================
=========

References:

1) Agapay, Ramon. 2007. Logic: The Essentials of Deductive Reasoning. Mandaluyong

City: National Book Store.
2) Andrew P. Maquiling & Paul Sherwin A Belcina. 2007 Edition. Logic Made Easy.
3) Hinacay, Marionito. 2004. Logic: A textbook-workbook for College students. Iligan
City: Vitasophia Book Center.
4) Jayme, Virginia. 2002. An Introduction to Logic. 2nd ed. Cebu City: ABC Publications.
5) Malitao, Arnel. 2003. Essential Logic. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store.
6) Archimedes C. Articulo. 2008. The Experience of Philosophy, General Inroduction to
Philosophy. Rex Book Store, Inc.

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