Basic Theory and Design of Hybrid Structures

－2019－

April 2019

Japan Society of Civil Engineers

 Preface to the English Version

Most of the modern civil and building structures have been constructed with steel and concrete which
have different characteristics with merits and demerits. A hybrid structure is a structure which uses
more than two different types of materials so that they compensate the weak points each other and
utilizes the strong points. Steel plates have high tensile strength but are relatively weak against
compression due to buckling. On the other hand, concrete has very low tensile strength but sufficient
compressive strength. It is, therefore, rational that steel takes tension and concrete takes compression
in a typical steel/concrete hybrid structure. In recent years new materials such as chemical fibers and
polymer have been developed. They are very light with high corrosion resistance and are used for
hybrid structures.

There exist specifications and guidelines for hybrid structures in Japan (JSCE), Europe (Eurocode),
USA (AASHTO) and so on. However, it is not easy for students and young engineers to understand
these codes and the design and construction methods of hybrid structures because they require deep
knowledge of materials, connection details, structural behaviors, design and construction methods, and
so on. The Hybrid Committee, JSCE, published “Basic theory and Design of Hybrid Structures” in
2011 and revised it in 2017 to help them understand the basic concepts, theories and design methods
of hybrid structures. This book has been used as a textbook at universities and accepted as an
introductory educational material by young engineers in Japan.

Hybrid structures are widely used all over the world. The Hybrid Committee, JSCE, decided to
translate the original version of “Basic theory and Design of Hybrid Structures” to English. This
English version would help students and young engineers in the world who need good an introductory
book to understand the basics of hybrid structures. This book presents many hybrid structures
developed in Japan, which is leading in this field with innovative hybrid structures and technologies.
This would be useful for not only students but also structural engineers in the world.

April, 2019

Editorial Board of The English Version of Basic theory and Design of Hybrid Structures
Shunichi Nakamura Osamu Ohyama Shigehiko Saito
Yasuo Kitane Hiroshi Sima Hideki Naito

Authors of The Original Japanese Version of Basic theory and Design of Hybrid Structures
Hiroshi Sima Osamu Ohyama Akira Kasai
Shigehiko Saito Kohei Yamaguchi Kosuke Furuichi
Yasuo Kitane Hiroshi Kaido Hideki Naito
 CONTENTS

Chap. 1 General
1.1 Definition of hybrid structures 1
1.2 Requirements of hybrid structures 4
1.3 Characteristics of hybrid structures 5
1.4 Types of hybrid structures
1.4.1 Bridges 6
1.4.2 Tunnel structures 9
1.4.3 Underground structures 10
1.4.4 Foundation structures 10
1.4.5 Harbor and marine structures 10
1.4.6 Other structures 10
1.5 History of hybrid structures 11
Exercises 11
References 13

Chap. 2 Design Specification

2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Standard specification of hybrid structures
2.2.1 Introduction 14
2.2.2 Required performances 15
2.2.3 Structural Planning 15
2.2.4 Basis of performance verification 16
Exercises 18
References 18

Chap. 3 Properties of Materials

3.1 Introduction 20
3.2 Steel
3.2.1 Material characteristics of steel 20
3.2.2 Stress and strain relation for design calculation 21
3.2.3 Constitutive law for repetition 24
3.2.4 Points of consideration in applying models 25
3.3 Concrete 25
3.3.1 Material characteristics of concrete 26
3.3.2 Stress and strain relation 27
 3.3.3 Creep and shrinkage 29
3.4 FRP 30
3.4.1 Types and characteristics of reinforced fiber and resin materials 31
3.4.2 Types and characteristics of FRP 33
3.4.3 Design values of FRP 34
3.4.4 Examples of civil engineering structures made of FRP 36
Exercises 41
References 41

Chap. 4 Theory of Composite Structures

4.1 Introduction 42
4.2 Composite and non-composite
4.2.1 Composite and non-composite 42
4.2.2 Basic mechanism of composite structures 42
4.2.3 Types of connection 46
4.3 Force transfer between steel and concrete
4.3.1 Headed studs 47
4.3.2 Perfobond shear connectors 53
4.4 Effects of temperature change, shrinkage and creep
4.4.1 Temperature change 58
4.4.2 Shrinkage of concrete 60
4.4.3 Creep of concrete 64
4.5 Theories of complete composite and incomplete composite
4.5.1 Theory of complete composite for composite columns 67
4.5.2 Theory of incomplete composite 70
4.6 Elastic bending theory of composite plates 70
4.6.1 Isotropic plate theory 71
4.6.2 Orthotropic plate theory 72
Exercises 73
References 74

Chap. 5 Design of Composite Members

5.1 Introduction 75
5.2 Composite girder
5.2.1 Simple composite girders and continuous composite girders 75
5.2.2 Effective width of slabs 78
5.2.3 Stress and deformation of composite girders 79
5.2.4 Temperature change, shrinkage and creep of composite girders 81
 5.2.5 Bending strength of composite girders 88
5.2.6 Shear strength of composite girders 96
5.2.7 Verification of shear connectors of composite girders 97
5.3 Composite plates
5.3.1 Steel plate concrete composite plates 99
5.3.2 Steel and concrete sandwich composite plates 103
5.4 Composite columns
5.4.1 Steel reinforced concrete (SRC) columns 105
5.4.2 Concrete-filled steel tube (CFT) columns 116
Exercises 121
References 122

Chap. 6 Design of Mixed Structures

6.1 Introduction 123
6.2 Classification of connected parts 123
6.2.1 Beam to beam 125
6.2.2 Column to beam 128
6.2.3 Column to foundation 129
6.2.4 Jointless structures at bridge abutments 131
6.3 Design of connected parts of different material members
6.3.1 Basis of design 134
6.3.2 Verification of section failure at connection 135
Exercises 140
References 140

Answers of exercises 141

Indexes 143
 1

Chap. 1 General

1.1 Definition of hybrid structures

There are various types of civil and building structures, which are usually made of steel, concrete, soils
and rocks. In recent years new materials such as chemical fiber and polymer have been used. These
materials have different characteristics and have merits and demerits depending on purposes of usage.
Here is a good example. Steel plates and steel bars have high tensile strength but are relatively weak
against compression due to buckling. On the other hand, concrete has very low tensile strength of only
1/100 of steel but sufficient compressive strength. It is, therefore, rational that steel takes tension
occurred in a structure and concrete takes compression (See the note at the end of this section). A
hybrid structure is a structure which uses more than two different types of materials so that they
compensate the weak points each other and utilizes the strong points.

RC (Reinforced concrete) combining steel reinforcement with concrete and PC (pre-stressed concrete)
combining high strength steel bars or cables with concrete are principally a hybrid structure. However,
RC and PC are independently classified as concrete structures.

Fig.1.1.1 shows a system of hybrid structures comparing with steel structures and concrete structures.
Bridges and buildings consist of beams, columns, walls, slabs and shells, which are called as structural
members. Steel structures consist of steel members, concrete structures consist of concrete members,
whereas in hybrid structures steel and concrete and other new materials are unified on the member or
structure levels.

Material Concrete
Steel New materials
Level

Connection of different
materials (shear
connector, bond, friction)

Member Concrete member

Steel members Composite member
Level

Connection of different
members (steel and RC,
steel and PC, CFT and RC

Composite structure Mixed structure

Structure
Level Steel structures Hybrid structures Concrete structures

Fig.1.1.1 Constitution and system of hybrid structures

 2

Unification on the member level means that different types of materials are combined with friction
connections, bond or mechanical shear connectors such as headed studs, forming a structural member.
This is called a composite member. The Standard Specifications of Hybrid Structures (JSCE 2014)1)
defines a composite member by “A section consists of more than two different structural materials and
behaves as one piece”. Table 1.1.1 and Fig.1.1.2 shows examples of composite members defined in
The Standard Specifications of Hybrid Structures (JSCE 2014). Steel reinforced concrete is
abbreviated as SRC and concrete filled steel tube as CFT.

Unification on the structure level means that different kinds of structural members such as steel
members or concrete members are combined, forming a structure. This is called as a mixed structural
system. A hybrid cable-stayed bridge with light steel girders in the center-span and heavy PC girders
in the side-spans, or a hybrid rigid frame bridge with concrete piers and steel girders, are one of good
examples. The connected part of a RC girder with a steel girder and that of a RC pier with a steel girder
are shown in Fig.1.1.3.

Table 1.1.1 Composite member defined by JSCE standard specification1)

Steel beams composite with concrete, such as steel beams with concrete slab, and steel beam
Composite beam
embedded in concrete.
Composite plate Plate of steel plates composite with concrete by shear connectors

Columns to resist bending moment, shear forces and axial forces by filling steel pipes with
Composite column
concrete, covering steel pipes and so on.

Steel reinforced concrete In addition to steel bars and PC bar, mold steel, steel plates and assemble steel are embedded in
member concrete.
Concrete-filled steel pipe Steel pipe (closed section) filled with concrete

Concrete-covered steel pipe Steel pipe (open section) covered with concrete

In the above definition of hybrid structures are classified into “Mixed structural system” and
“Composite structure” which includes all the hybrid structures except Mixed structural system.
However, this is not an established definition and there are other definitions made by other
organizations. In civil engineering composite members are called as composite structures2). In building
engineering both composite members and mixed structures are defined by composite structures3). In
ASCE publications4), “Mixed construction” means hybrid structures and it divided into “Composite
construction” and “Mixed steel-concrete system”. The Standard Specifications of Hybrid Structures
(JSCE 2014) defines hybrid structures by “a general term covering both composite structure and mixed
structural system”. As a structure consists of either single type of member or plural types of members,
a composite structure is defined as “a structure made of single type of composite member”. For
example, a composite girder bridge consisting of composite beam is a composite structure.
 3

Concrete upper slab

Corrugated steel web

Inner cable

Deviator
Corrugated web
Outer cable
Inner cable Concrete lower slab

(a) Composite beam with corrugated steel plate

Water
防水層
proof layer
Concrete
コンクリート Upper steel bar
上側鉄筋

Concrete upper側鋼板
slab

主桁 Girder

Cross ribs
横リブ
底鋼板
Headed studs
スタッド
Bottom
plate

(b) Composite plate for bridge slabs

(c) Cross-sections of steel reinforced (d) Cross-section of concrete-filled

concrete (SRC) steel tube (CFT)

Fig.1.1.2 Examples of composite members

 4

Steel girder

Connected
Part Steel girder

Concrete girder PC bar

Connected part Lower flange
(Friction type) connection (ex:
RC pier welded anchor)

Fig.1.1.3 Examples of connections in hybrid structures

Table 1.1.2 Hybrid structures defined by Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures1)
Composite
Structures made of one type of composite member
Hybrid structure
Structure Mixed Structures combining two types of different members to transfer bending
structure moment, shear forces and axial forces

[Note]: Combination of steel and concrete

In general, when a substance is heated, it expands. As both steel and concrete have nearly the same
thermal expansion rate (about 12 x 10-6 / oC), it is not necessary to consider stress difference due to
heat effect while temperature of a structure goes up and down.
When steel is arranged inside concrete, steel and concrete help each other. Steel is less likely to
buckle when embedded in concrete. Although steel loses strength against high heat, steel can increase
fire resistance by covered with concrete. As concrete is alkaline, it prevents steel from corrosion.
On the other hand, concrete has properties, which steel does not have, such as drying shrinkage
and creep. Therefore, extra stresses occur between steel and concrete as time passes.

1.2 Requirements of hybrid structures

The most important point of hybrid structures, from a mechanical point of view, is that different kinds
of materials and different kinds of members must be unified and become one piece. Connections are
essential to secure this objective. When a structure consists of different kinds of materials, if there is
no connection member to unify, it is not taken as a hybrid structure. When different kinds of members
are connected, if the sectional forces are not transferred with sufficient strength and each member
resists external forces independently, it is not taken as a hybrid structure.
 5

On the other hand, hybrid structures do not require complete unification which does not allow any slip
nor deformation. In general, degree of unification is flexibly chosen depending on its function and
economy. For example, there is no shear connector between steel and concrete in SRC members. The
strength of the SRC section is taken as the sum of the RC section and the steel section, if bond of the
steel section is insufficient at the end, and the design sectional force is independently shared by the RC
and the steel section. Therefore, SRC structures may not be considered as a hybrid structure from a
mechanical point of view, however, it is in fact included in hybrid structures because of extra advantage
in restricting buckling of the steel sections.

1.3 Characteristics of hybrid structures

The materials used for structures such as steel, concrete and new materials have merits and demerits.
Composite members utilizes the merits and compensate the demerits by combining different materials.
Steel members, concrete members and composite members have their own characteristics and rational
structures can be attained by combining these different members effectively5). Characteristics of hybrid
structures are described as follows.

(1) Strength, Rigidity, Deformation

Strength and rigidity (moment of inertia) can be increased by placing steel in the tensile members and
concrete in the compressive members and by transferring shear forces working between different
materials and different members. Although composite girders are based on this concept, it is reminded
that steel girders restrict strains of concrete due to drying shrinkage and temperature decrease, which
tends to cause concrete cracks and may lead to fatigue damage. When steel sections are placed in
concrete or steel pipes are filled with concrete, buckling of steel is restrained due to presence of
concrete, which increases strength and ductility (deformation capacity).

(2) Durability, Fire-resistance

When steel is placed inside concrete, durability of members is improved because steel corrosion is
restrained. Fire resistance of SRC is improved because steel with less heat-resistance is protected by
surrounded concrete. That of CFT is also improved because concrete absorbs heat.

(3) Weight reduction

Weight of a member can be reduced by replacing concrete with steel. Here is an example. PC box
girders are heavy due to the upper and lower concrete slabs with PC steel bars and also with the
concrete webs. When concrete webs are replaced by steel with relatively light weight, the weight of
PC girders is reduced and the applicable span length becomes longer. The corrugated web PC box
girder adopts corrugated steel plates for a web and a hybrid truss bridge uses steel truss members
replacing concrete webs.
 6

(4) Construction
When steel bars for reinforcement are replaced with steel plates, mold and reinforcement works are
unnecessary in CFT. In composite slabs, steel plates can be strengthened by stiffened ribs and
temporary supports can be reduced by using corrugated steel plates, which improves construction
works. Concrete compacting performance also improves in CFT without steel reinforcements.

(5) Seismic safety, Maintenance and management

When different members such as steel girders and RC piers are connected, degree of indeterminate of
a structure increases and safety against earthquakes improves. In addition, as bearings are not necessary,
the maintenance and management also improve. This type of structure is called as a hybrid rigid frame
bridge.

(6) Balance of weight

When the side-span is much shorter than the center-span due to surrounding geographical conditions,
the balance of weight of the side-span and the center-span cannot be sustained if the same material is
used for the girder. It can be rational if light steel girder is used in the center-span and heavy PC girder
is used in the side-span. This concept is applied to cable-stayed bridges with different span lengths or
continuous girder bridges.

(7) Repair, Strengthening

Deterioration and seismic strengthening of structures can be attained by hybrid technology such as:
attaching or wrapping steel plates or continuous fiber reinforcement sheets on concrete members,
attaching continuous fiber reinforcement sheets on steel members, filling concrete into steel pipes, and
so on.

1.4 Types of hybrid structures

Different materials and members are arranged considerably freely and flexibly in hybrid structures,
which provides many type of structures6), in particular, bridges. Types of hybrid bridges are shown in
Table 1.4.1 and some of them are shown in Fig.1.4.1. Types of hybrid structures except bridges are
shown Table 1.4.2.

1.4.1 Bridges

(1) Bridge super- and sub-structures of composite bridges

The steel I-section girders, the steel box girder and the steel truss girder are connected with the RC
slab with shear connector. These composite bridges is a rationalized structure of the steel girders on
which the RC slab sits. They are called composite I-girder bridge, composite box girder bridge and
 7

composite truss girder bridge, respectively. The first composite girder bridge in Japan is the Kanzaki
Bridge (1953, Osaka).

Table 1.4.1 Hybrid structures of bridges

Composite girder bridge (I or Box section)
Composite truss bridge
Corrugated steel web PC bridge
Composite Hybrid truss bridge
structure
Composite slab bridge
Composite pier
Hybrid foundation
Hybrid rigid frame bridge
Mixed Hybrid cable-stayed bridge
structure Mixed continuous girder bridge
Hybrid arch bridge

Table 1.4.2 Hybrid structures in civil engineering (except bridges)

Hybrid submerged tunnel
Tunnel
Composite segment
Underground Composite underground wall
structure
Foundation Steel structure with steel/concrete piles
structures Steel pipe pile
Composite caisson
Harbor and
Hybrid pontoon
marine structure Hybrid marine platform
Composite tank (silo, nuclear waste)
Composite dome roof
Others
Hybrid snow shed, rock shed
Composite lining plate

In the early 1980s French engineers developed a new type of hybrid bridges: the webs of PC box
girders were replaced by steel corrugated plates and steel truss members, which enabled to reduce
weight and to introduce pre-stress forces effectively. The first PC girder bridge with corrugated steel
plate webs is Pont de Cognac (1986, France) and the first one in Japan is the Shinkai Bridge (1993,
Niigata). The first PC girder bridge with steel truss webs is Pont d’ Arbois (1985, France) and the first
one in Japan is the Kinokawa Flyover Bridge (2003, Wakayama). Viaduc du Val Maupre (1987, France)
has an inverse triangular cross-section consisting of corrugated steel web plates and the lower chord
member of concrete filled tube. The first extradosed bridge with corrugated steel web plates is the
Himiyume Bridge (Fig.1.4.1(a), 2004, Nagasaki, Center-span: 180m).
 8

(a) Himi Yume Bridge (b) Akoya Bridge

(c) Ikuchi Bridge (d) Tatara Bridge

(e) Shinkawa Fureai Bridge (f) Fujigawa Bridge

Fig.1.4.1 Bridges of hybrid structures

 9

PC slabs and composite slabs are used for plate girder bridges with a wide slab-span. The steel pipe
concrete composite pier was developed for high piers: steel pipes are constructed first then concrete is
casted outside of the pipes, which does not require scaffolding.

(2) Bridges as a mixed structural system

Mixed structural system bridges include hybrid rigid frame bridges, hybrid cable-stayed bridges,
mixed-type hybrid continuous girder bridges and hybrid arch bridges. The first hybrid rigid frame
bridge in Japan is the Akoya Bridge (Fig.1.4.1(b), 1991, Miyagi), where the steel girders are connected
to RC piers.

Stavanger city bridge (1978, Norway, center-span: 185m) and Flehe bridge (1979, West Germany,
center span: 367m) are the hybrid cable-stayed bridge with steel girders in the center-span and PC
girders in the side-spans to improve balance of weight. The Ikuchi Bridge (Fig.1.4.1(c), 1990,
Hiroshima, center-span: 490m, side-span: 150m) in the Shimanami Highway is the same type of hybrid
cable-stayed bridge, followed by the Tatara Bridge (Fig.1.4.1(d), 1999, Hiroshima to Ehime, center-
span: 890m).

The Matsuyama Flyover Bridge (1996, Ehime) is a mixed-type hybrid three-span continuous girder
bridge, which consists of the steel girder in the center-span (34m) and the RC girders in the side-spans
(11.5m). The Shinkawa Fureai Bridge (Fig.1.4.1(e), 2000, Kagawa) is a five-span continuous mixed-
type hybrid girder bridge with the orthotropic steel box girder in the center-spans and the PC box
girders in the side-spans. The Kiso and Ibi Bridges (2001, Mie, center-span: 275m) is the world first
extra-dosed bridge which has the steel girders in the center-span and the PC girders near the piers.
There are two types of mixed-type hybrid arch bridges: one with different structural members including
arch members, vertical members, girders and slabs, and another one with only composite arch ribs.
Chateaubriand Bridge (1991, France, arch-span: 250m) is the first mixed-type hybrid arch bridge with
concrete arch ribs and the steel girders. The first one in Japan is the Fujigawa Bridge (Fig.1.4.1(f),
2005, Sizuoka, arch-span: 265m)

1.4.2 Tunnel structures

Tunnels are classified into mountain tunnels, open cut tunnels, shield tunnels and submerged tunnels.
Among them, composite structures have been used for tubes of submerged tunnels and segments of
shield tunnels. When hybrid members are used for the tubes of the submerged tunnel, steel plates work
as forms in casting concrete and work as reinforcements (the same function as steel bars in RC
members) after concrete becomes solid and provide water-proof property. The Osaka Harbor
Sakishima tunnel (1997, Osaka) is the first which uses steel plates in only one side of the composite
tube. The steel plates are placed on the both sides of the composite plates, which is called the sandwich
type composite plate. No steel bars are required in main and distributing bars and concrete with high
 10

fluidity is usually used because concrete compacting is difficult. This type was first developed for the
Kobe Harbor Island Tunnel (1999, Hyogo).

Various types of composite structures have been used for segments of shield tunnels. In general,
composite segments are thinner than RC segments, resulting in smaller diameter of a tunnel and
reduction of amount of excavation.

1.4.3 Underground structures

Earth retailing walls or underground walls are often used as underground structures. Rolled steel H-
sections or steel pipes are inserted in excavated diches and gutters instead of steel bars and concrete is
filled and both are unified in composite underground walls. Rolled steel H-sections are conventionally
used as a temporary supports for earth retailing walls. In the composite retailing walls, shear connectors
are attached to these rolled H-section and unified with concrete. There is a challenge to create a new
mixed-type structure by connecting the composite earth retailing walls and the RC members of the
upper and lower slabs of open-cut tunnels.

1.4.4 Foundation structures

The composite pile is an application of composite structures to foundations. In pre-fabricated concrete
piles with steel pipe (SC pile), concrete is casted inside a steel pipe and both are unified by the
centrifugal force method. In cast in situ concrete with pipes, RC is replaced with CFT at the pile top
where bending moments and shear are large. This can be taken as a sort of mixed structure connecting
RC and CFT.

1.4.5 Harbor and marine structures

Piers and jetties with RC or PC slabs supported by steel piles have been traditionally used, which is an
example of hybrid harbor structures. Caisson with composite slabs are used for breakwater or seawall
structures instead of gravity caisson. For a floating facility, composite pontoons have been developed:
a PC hybrid structure with PC outside walls and steel frames inside, and a RC hybrid structure with
composite outside walls and steel shells or steel frames inside.

As for marine structures, steel members and concrete members are combined in the hybrid marine
platform for oil-drilling works.

1.4.6 Other structures

Air-tightness and water-tightness are required for silos to store grains and water tanks. In composite
silos and water tanks, the inside surface consists of steel plates and walls are RC. In a cryogenic liquid
tank, the composite shell consisting of steel plates and RC is used as the roof. In these cases, steel
plates works as forms for concrete casting in addition to securing air-tightness and water-tightness.
 11

1.5 History of hybrid structures

Hybrid structures have been developed in various ways as times pass7), 8). Table 1.5.1 shows history of
development of hybrid structures. Reinforced concrete is a kind of hybrid structures, as mentioned
before, and it can be taken as an origin of hybrid structures.

Then, SRC where steel sections are embedded in a concrete member was developed. There were
reports on experiments with SRC columns which were carried out by Columbia University and Illinoi
University, USA, in the period of about 1910 to 19203). SRC structures were first imported from the
West to Japan as part of an architectural technology in about 1910. Its high seismic resistance was
confirmed at the Kanto Great Earthquake and, afterwards, it was further developed in Japan. The SRC
design specification was established by Architectural Institute of Japan in 1958 and SRC structures are
widely used in buildings.

MacKay carried out experiments with concrete beams where steel rolled sections are embedded in
1922-1923, which can be taken as an origin of composite beams and girder with steel I-girder
connected with concrete slab, according to Viest9). In the 1920s and 1930s composite action of steel
plates embedded in concrete with natural bond was studied in Canada, USA and UK. In the 1930s
composite action of steel with shear connectors was studied. After the 1940s, structures of steel girders
connected with concrete slab by shear connectors have been actively studied. After 1941 Meier-
Leibnitz et al. further studied design and construction of composite girders, and tentative design
specification of composite girders was enacted in Germany. In Japan, research of composite girders
was started by Civil Engineering Research Center, Ministry of Construction, and the first composite
girder bridge was constructed. In 1959, the guideline of steel/concrete composite girder bridges was
enacted by Japan Road Association and then composite girder bridges have been widely constructed
in Japan.

In recent years new materials such as FRP, in addition to steel and concrete, have been applied to
hybrid structures10). Hybrid structures have high freedom in design and are still developing and more
rational design method is expected11).

Exercise
Describe definitions of hybrid structures, composite structures and mixed structures specified by the
Standard Specification of Hybrid Structures (2014). Then, show examples of these structures and draw
their sketches.
 12

Table 1.5.1 History of development of hybrid structures

Items
Year
General SRC Composite girder
1854 A boat was made of reinforced concrete by Lambot.
1901 Concrete was filled in square steel pipes by Sewell. Rigidity was increased.
1908 Steel columns were covered with concrete by Burr. Anti-fire property was increased.
Experiments on SRC columns were carried out by Columbia University and
1910-20
Illinois University
1923 Confirmation of seismic performance of steel RC concrete buildings
1923 Experiment of SRC beam by MacKay, Canada
1939 Stud welding by T.Nelson
1941 Design of composite girder by Maier-Leibnitz
1944 Design specification of composite girder, USA
1950 Tentative design specification in West Germany
Experiments of composite girder by Research
1952
Institute of Civil Eng., Ministry of Construction
1953 Research on shear connectors by Viest, Lehigh University
The Kanzaki Bridge (Japanese first composite
1953
bridge, Osaka)
1958 SRC Specification by Architectural Institute of Japan
Design and construction guideline of steel
1959
composite bridges by Japan Road Association
1961 AISC Specification (Specification of shear connectors)
1965 BS CP117 Part1
1967 Design specification of steel pipe concrete structure by Architectural Institute of Japan
Specification of composite girder, Specification of
1970
Road bridges, Japan Road Association
1973 Guideline of arc-welding of headed studs, Ministry of Construction
Design specification of composite railway bridges
1973
by Japan National Railway
1977 Design guideline of SRC structures, JSCE
Design guideline (draft) of Large-scale SRC bridge piers, Honshu-shikoku Bridge
1979
Authority
1979 Model code (draft) of CEB･ECCS･FIP･IABSE
1979 The Flehe Bridge (Germany, Hybrid cable-stayed bridge)
1980 BS5400, Chapter 5, Composite bridges
1985 The Arbois Bridge (France, Hybrid truss bridge)
Specification of SRC (Limit states design), Standard Specification of Concrete,
1986
JSCE
1986 The Cognac Bridge (France, corrugated steel web bridge)
1987 The Maupre Bridge (France, Corrugated steel web PC bridge)
1989 Design guideline of steel/concrete, JSCE
1989 Beppu Myoban Bridge (0ita, composite arch bridge), Jyousi Bridge (Niigata, CFT arch bridge)
1990 The Iguchi Bridge (Hiroshima, Hybrid cable-stayed bridge)
1991 Chateaubriand Bridge (France, mixed arch bridge with concrete arch and steel arch)
1991 The Akoya Bridge (Miyagi, hybrid rigid frame bridge)
1993 The Shinkai Bridge ( Niigata, Japanese first corrugated steel web PC bridge)
The Kiso River Bridge, The Ibi River Bridge (Mie, World first mixed structural bridge with steel girder and extra-
2001
dosed PC girder)
2002 Guideline of performance verification of hybrid structures (draft), JSCE.
2003 The Kinokawa Flyover Bridge (Wakayama, Hybrid truss bridge)
2004 The Himi Yume Bridge (Nagasaki, World first corrugated web extradosed PC bridge)
2005 The Fuji River Bridge (Shizuoka, Hybrid arch bridge with concrete arch and steel arch)
2009 Standard Specification of Hybrid Structures, JSCE
 13

References
1) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures, 2014.
2) JSCE: Design guidelines for steel/concrete composite structures, Structural Engineering Sires 3,
1983.
3) Wakabayashi M., Minami K., Tani N. and Hirano M.: Design of composite structures, New Seires
of Architect 42, Syokokusya, 1981.
4) Structural Design of Tall Buildings, Chapter SB-9, Mixed Construction, Part1-Composite
Construction, Part 2-Mixed Steel-Concrete Systems, ASCE, 1977.
5) Ikeda S.: Hybrid structures in civil engineering, Pre-stressed concrete, Vol.37, No.2, 1995.
6) Sonoda K.: Current status and topics on composite structures in civil engineering, JSSC, No.10,
1993.
7) Maeda Y.: Development, history and trend on research of hybrid structures, Proceedings of JSCE,
No.344/I-1, 1984.
8) Ikeda S.: Current situation on composite and hybrid structures in civil engineering, Concrete
Engineering, Vol.29, No.6, 1991.
9) Ivan M. Viest ： Review of research on Composite Steel-Concrete Beams, Journal of the
Structural Division, Proc. of ASCE, St 6, 1960.
10) JSCE: Cutting-edge of hybrid structural technology – Method and application to civil engineering,
Structural Engineering Sires 03, 2007.
11) JSCE: Current status and analysis of latest hybrid structures – Towards design based on
performance verification, Structural Engineering Sires 02, 2008.
 14

Chap. 2 Design Specifications

2.1 Introduction
Specifications for Road Bridges, II: Steel Bridges1), have been used to design road bridges including
steel/concrete composite girder bridge. It adopted the allowable stress design method until 2017. It is
the method to confirm that the stress of members caused by design loads is within the allowable stress,
which is determined by the safety factors.

The specifications in Europe (Eurocode) 2) and the American road specification (AASHTO: American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials) 3) have adopted the limit states design
method: the ultimate, serviceability and fatigue limit states and various safety factors are defined, and
members and structures are verified to satisfy theses limit states. AASHTO has adopted the load and
resistance factor design (LRFD) method. A merit of LRFD is that it is based on reliability analysis and
the same safety index (β) can be guaranteed.

In Japan the limit states design method has been studied by JSCE. In 1986, the standard specifications
(design part) for concrete structures4) based on the limit states design were published by the Concrete
Committee. In 2007, the standard specifications for steel and composite structures5) were published by
the Committee on Steel Structures, targeting steel civil engineering structures. In 2009, the standard
specifications for hybrid structures6) were published by the Committee on Hybrid Structures. In the
next section, this standard specification for hybrid structures is explained in detail.

2.2 Standard specifications for hybrid structures

2.2.1 Introduction
The Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures6) were enacted by the Committee on Hybrid
Structures in 2009. Following the Guidelines for Performance-Based Design of Steel-Concrete Hybrid
Structures (Draft) 7) published in 2002, the performance verification design method based on the limit
states design method was applied. The Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures (2009) 6) consist
of three parts: Part of Common describing common design principles for hybrid structures, Part of
Composite Member describing verification methods of standard composite members and Part of
Connections of Different Members describing standard specifications of connections of various
composite members and different kinds of members. In the Standard Specifications for Hybrid
Structures (2014) 8), the design part was revised to correspond to stages of design, construction and
maintenance. In addition, two new parts were added, Construction and Maintenance Parts (each part
consists of Standard and Specification Parts). The Principle Part is also established to assure quality of
hybrid structures: conditions of performance guarantee are first specified, then principles of design,
construction and maintenance are specified and interactions of these works are clarified.
 15

2.2.2 Performance requirements

Structures must satisfy the design standard. Therefore, required performances must be properly set and
verified by proper verification methods. In the Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures (2014) 8),
required performances should be set for durability, safety, serviceability, restorability and so on. These
required performances should be basically satisfied during the design life. Durability cannot be treated
independently on the required performances, considering they should be satisfied during the design
life. Durability is taken as a time varying resistance of these required performances and should be
evaluated them as a function of time.

Required performance of structures is that of a whole structure (Standard Specifications for Hybrid
Structures, 2014) 8). Performance of a structure closely relates with performances of structural
members consisting of a structure. Therefore, the required performances of structural members should
be set to satisfy the performance of a structure, considering relations of performances of a structure
and constituting structural members.

The definition of technical terms on required performance is as follows (Standard Specifications for
Hybrid Structures, 2014) 8).

Design durable period: Design durable period while structures or members satisfy the required
performance. It is determined by considering the required design period, environmental conditions,
durability, maintenance methods, economy and so on.
Sustainability: Sustainability is performance of adaptability on natural environment, social
environment, economic environment and so on.
Safety: Safety is performance so that structures do not endanger life of users and surrounding people.
There are two kinds of safety: safety as a structural body based on its physical property, and safety of
function. Required performance should be set for these two kinds of safety.
Serviceability: Serviceability is the performance that users and surrounded people can use structures
comfortably under assumed actions and the required function for structures.
Restorability: Restorability is the performance to indicate the degree of difficulty to restore
performance when it lowers under actions. Restorability depends not only on difficulty in repairing
structure damages but also on difficulty of inspection after natural disaster, availability of materials
to repair, presence of repair technology, existence of organization or system in repair works, and
so on. Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures (2014) 8) specifies that the factors except
difficulty of repair should be clarified and their required performances should be set.

2.2.3 Structural Planning

Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures (2014) 8) have a system that, after required performance
 16

is first set to secure usage and function of structures, structure type, materials, major dimension are set
in the structural planning stage. Then, the performance possessed by a structure is verified to satisfy
the required performance. Therefore, structural planning is the stage to determine a structural type,
materials and major dimensions after the required performance is set. The following provisions are
specified on structural planning.

A structural type, materials and major dimensions should be set so that a structure satisfy the conditions
due to relevant laws.
All of the required performances, such as durability during the design period, safety, serviceability,
restorability and so on, should be considered.
Necessary inspections should be carried out, depending on construction locations, size of structures
and so on.

Table 2.2.1 Examples of required performances, limit states, verification index and actions8)
Required Performance
Limit states Index of verification Actions to be considered
Performance Items
Load bearing All actions (max value)
Failure of structures Sectional forces, Stresses
capacity Cyclic actions
Limit of stability and
failure (mechanism of Deformation All actions (max value)
Stability
displacement and Deformation of foundation Accidental action
Safety deformation)
Acceleration, Vibration, All actions (max value)
Limit of drivability
Deformation Accidental action
Safety of
Spalling of concrete
function Limit of effect to third
Depth of carbonation Environmental action
people
Chloride ion
Limit of drivability and Acceleration, Vibration,
Frequently occurring actions
walk-ability Deformation
Comfortability Damage of appearance Crack width, stress Frequently occurring actions
Limit of noise and
Noise and vibration level Frequently occurring actions
vibration
Limit of water-proof Permeability of structure Frequently occurring actions
Serviceability
Air permeability，
Limit of air-tightness Frequently occurring actions
Crack width
Function Amount of leak of
Limit of shut-down Frequently occurring actions
substance and energy
Damage (maintain
Deformation, strain, stress Variable actions
function)
Variable, accidental,
Restorability Restorability Damage Deformation, strain, stress
environmental actions

2.2.4 Basis of performance verification

Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures (2014) 8) show the principle of verification on durability,
safety, serviceability, restorability and so on. Verification of performance of structures is carried out
by confirming that structures satisfy the required performance during construction and design
 17

durability period. Although verification should be done considering change of performance with time,
if verification for environmental action is satisfied, safety, serviceability and restorability can be
verified without considering the effect of environmental change with time.

Performance verification of structures is carried out as follows. First, limit states are set for structures
or members, then it is confirmed that structures or members do not reach the limit states. To confirm,
an appropriate index is determined, and response and limit values are compared. An index is which as
close as possible directly performance item would be preferred to carry out performance verification
rationally. Required performances, limit states and verification indexes are shown in Table 2.2.1
(Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures, 2014) 8)

Verification on limit states is carried out by Eq. (2.2.1) using proper material strength, nominal values
of actions and safety factors, and calculating responses by proper method.

Sd
i   1 .0 (2.2.1)
Rd

where,
Sd : design response
Rd : design limit value
:i structure factor

A function to calculate design response is to obtain an average value using actual values of actions,
material properties, rigidity and so on. A function to calculate limit values is to obtain an average value
using actual values of material properties, rigidity and so on.

Verification of safety, serviceability and restorability is conducted by the limit states design method
with five partial safety factors shown in Table 2.2.2 and Fig.2.2.1, which are described below.

Material Factor: Considering unfavorable variation of nominal values of material strength, difference
of material properties between test specimens and actual materials in structures, effects of material
properties to limit states, time varying effects of material properties, and so on.
Action Factor: Considering unfavorable variation of nominal values of actions, uncertainty in
evaluation methods of actions, time varying effects of actions during the design durable period,
effects of actions to limit states, and so on.
Structural Analysis Factor: Considering uncertainty of structural analysis in calculating response.
Member Factor: Considering uncertainty of limit values and important degree of members.
Uncertainty of limit values includes accuracy of calculation of limit values and scatter of member sizes.
 18

As for important degree of members, when a member reaches a limit value, it should be considered
how it affects to a whole structure.
Structure Factor: Considering important degree of structures, social effect when a limit states is
attained, and so on.

Table 2.2.2 Standard values for safety factors8)

Safety factor Material factor  m
Member Structural Action Structure
analysis
Concrete Steel Structural factor factor factor factor
Required
bars steel a f
performance b i
(Limit states) c s s
Safety (Section failure) *1 1.3 1.0 1.05 1.1～1.3 1.0 1.0～1.2 1.0～1.2

Safety (Section Response 1.0 1.0 1.0 － 1.0～1.2 1.0～1.2

failure) *2, 1.0～1.2
Restorability *2 Limit 1.3 1.0 1.05 1.0,1.1～1.3 － －
Appropriately
Safety (fatigue failure) *1 1.3 1.05 1.0～1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0～1.1
determined
Serviceability *1,
1.0 1.0 1.05 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Restorability *1
Note: *1：For linear analysis, *2：Non-linear analysis
Material and member factors of FRP members are specified in Reference 8).

Material Material Response Design Action

nominal design value actions nominal
value m value f value
Structural Action factor
Material b Member a analysis
factor factor factor
Design Verification Design
limit response
value i value

Structure factor

Fig.2.2.1 Safety factors in performance verification

Exercise
Taking a two-span continuous composite girder bridges, list up and explain limit states for
performances and verification indexes shown in Table 2.2.1.

References
1) Japan Road Association: Specifications for road bridges and commentary, I: Common Part, II:
Steel Bridge Part, Maruzen, 2012.
2) European Committee for Standardization (CEN): Eurocode 4, Design of Composite Steel and
Concrete Structures, Part 2, Bridges 1, Draft, Brussels, Belgium, 1996.
 19

3) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO): LRFD bridge
design specifications - 2005 interim revisions, Washington, D.C. 2005.
4) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures, - Design -, Maruzen, 1986.10.
5) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Steel/Composite Structures, - General Part, Structural Plan Part,
Design -, Maruzen, 2007.3.
6) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures, 2009.12.
7) JSCE: Guidelines for Performance-Based Design of Steel-Concrete Hybrid Structures (Draft),
2002.10.
8) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures, 2015.5.
 20

Chap. 3 Properties of Materials

3.1 Introduction
This chapter presents material properties of steel and concrete used in hybrid structures and the stress-
strain relations used in design calculation. Fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) is one of new materials
which attract attention in recent years, and its material properties and applications to civil engineering
structures are introduced in 3.4.

3.2 Steel
Steel as a material of hybrid structures includes steel plates, steel pipes, PC steel bars and
reinforcements. In this section material properties of steel plates and steel pipes are explained.

3.2.1 Material characteristics of steel

A uni-axial tension test is the most basic test to characterize material properties of steel. A tension test
with mild steel such as SS400 produces a stress-strain relation shown in Fig.3.2.1. Until it reaches the
yield stress, the stress-strain relation is expressed by Eq.(3.2.1).
 = E (3.2.1)
After yield, it enters the yield plateau where only strain increases while stress does not change much.
Then, it progresses to the strain hardening region where stress increases again. When it further
increases, it reaches the tensile strength  u and breaks accompanying with stress decrease. High
strength steel does not have a clear yield stress and yield plateau, and the yield stress is defined by the
residual strain of 0.2% as shown in Fig.3.2.2.

 
u u
y y
 r = 0.2%

O y u  O y u 

Fig.3.2.1 Uni-axial tension test results Fig.3.2.2 Setting yield point by use of
(mild steel) residual strain

There are three phenomena when steel suffers damages: (a) buckling, (b) ductile breakage and (c)
brittle breakage. There are many characteristic parameters showing various material properties on
these phenomena. These parameters include yield stress, tensile strength, uniform elongation, yield
ratio, toughness, and reduction of area. Their test methods and damage types are classified in Table
3.2.1. Steel plates have different strengths along the rolled direction and the transverse direction. It is
 21

much different in the plate thickness direction (Z-direction). This is shown by the material property of
reduction of area, which is obtained by the tension test on the Z-direction1).

Iron and steel materials specified by Japanese Industrial Specification (JIS) are usually used in Japan.
Steel is classified into normal steel, special steel and cast and forged steel2). Normal steel is further
divided by shape or usage into steel bars, section steel, thick plates, thin plates, rods and wires. Special
steel is divided by their characters into high toughness steel, tool steel and special purpose steel.

The symbol of steel material is named by the following rule. For example, general structural steel with
a required tensile strength of 400 MPa is designated as S400, which consists of three parts:

1) The first part indicates material (①). Steel is expressed as S. S S 400

2) The next part indicates names of specification or product (②). ① ② ③
General structural steel is expressed as S.
3) The last part indicates a type (③), which uses the lowest tensile strength or letters for weather
resistance.

The last part 3) shows the lowest tensile strength or ultimate strength and also supplementarily shows
shapes and manufacture method. Table 3.2.2 shows a list of widely used steels. The yield strength of
the major steel is shown in Table 3.2.3. The Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structure (2014)3)
indicate to use steel specified by JIS, however, other steels can be used if they are tested and confirmed
appropriate.

3.2.2 Stress and strain relation for design calculation

When aforementioned material properties of steel are used as the stress-strain relation for design
calculation or numerical analysis, simplified models are used.

When elastic conditions are assumed in design calculation, linear relations of the stress-strain can be
used with the Young’s modulus and the Poisson’s ratio which considers the shear direction. Although
this assumption is appropriate for the allowable stress design method, steel behaviors after yield must
be considered for the designs to permit damages to a certain degree. In other words, when very strong
external forces and large deformation occur such as during earthquakes, plastic deformations and
plastic strains must be carefully studied. As one of models considering plastic strains, the elastic and
perfectly plastic model is shown in Fig.3.2.3. In this model, after it reaches the yield point, the plastic
strain increases with the constant yield stress.
 22

Table 3.2.1 Types of damages related with steel properties

Property Test method Types of
damage
Yield stress (a)
Tensile strength (a)
Tension test
Elongation (a), (b)
Yield ratio (a), (b)
Charpy impact test
Toughness (b), (c)
CTOD test
Reduction of area Tension test in Z-
(c)
direction

Table 3.2.2 Specification and name of structural steel

Specification and name Symbol Steel
JISG3101 Rolled steel for general structure SS400, SS490, SS540
SM400, SM490, SM490Y, Structural
JISG3106 Welding structural rolled steel
SM520, SM570 steel
Weathering hot rolled steel for welded
JISG3114 SMA400, SMA490, SMA570
structures
Carbon steel tubes for general
JISG3444 STK400, STK490
structure
JISG5201 Square steel pipe for general structure STKR400, STKR490
Steel pie
Centrifugal cast pipe welded
JISG3452 SCW490-CF
structures
JISG3550 Carbon steel pipe for piping SGP
Lightweight shape steel for general
JISG3353 SSC400
structure
Shape steel
Welding H-shape steel for general
JISG3112 SWH400, SWH400L
structure

Table 3.2.3 Tensile yield strength of steel

SS400 SM400 SM490
SM490Y
SMA400 STK400 STK490 SM570
Steel type SM520
STKR400 SSC400 STKR490 SMA570
SMA490
SWH400 SWH400L SCW490-CF
Applicable
a b c a b c a b d e a b d e
Range *
Yield stress
245 235 215 325 315 295 365 355 335 325 460 450 430 420
(N/mm2)
* Applicable range (Thickness)
a：less than 16mm，b：over 16mm and less than 40mm，c：over 40mm and less than 100mm，
d：over 40mm and less than 75mm，e：over 75mm and less than 100mm
 23

y

O y 
Fig.3.2.3 Elastic and perfectly plastic model

If the elastic and perfectly plastic model is applied to steel with strain hardening, an effect of stress
increase in the large strain region cannot be expressed. Therefore, the elastic and hardening plastic
model (Fig.3.2.4) is used to consider the strain hardening. In this model, the slope of the stress-strain
after yield should be set. This is called the second slope, which should accurately express material
properties. It depends on types of steel and strain levels and is usually set about 1% to 2% of Young’s
modulus.

 

y y

O y  O y 
Fig.3.2.4 Elastic and linear hardening Fig.3.2.5 Model considering strain
plastic model hardening zone

In recent years, it is possible to use a more complicated model of the stress-strain relation for numerical
analysis, such as multi-linear models which simulate the actual behavior shown in Fig.3.2.1. The
Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structure (2014)3) recommend the stress-strain relation shown in
Fig.3.2.5, where the strain hardening region is expressed as an exponential function.



 E (0     y：elastic)

 =  y ( y     st：yield plateau) (3.2.2)

 y 1+  1− e − ( / y − st / y )  ( st  ：strain hardening)
 
   


where, st : strain where strain hardening starts,  and : material parameters depending on steel types.
Stress decrease after the tensile strength u, as shown in Fig.3.2.1, is usually neglected and the strain
 24

in Eq.(3.2.2) is smaller than that corresponding to u.

The above stress-strain relation is applied to the tensile phenomena. In compression, steel may buckle.
When structural steel members are completely embedded into concrete, even in compression, buckling
does not occur and, therefore, it does not affect the stress-strain relation. The antisymmetric behavior
of the stress-strain relation in tension is assumed for compression. When steel members are analyzed
by FEM using shell or solid elements, the antisymmetric behavior of the stress-strain relation in tension
can also be used and no consideration is required for buckling, because geometry is already considered
in the model. When beam elements are used, sectional forces are first obtained and then verification is
conducted. If buckling possibly occurs, compressive strength which will be used in the verification
must be accurately determined by experiments and proper numerical analysis.

3.2.3 Constitutive law for cyclic loading

Static analysis with cyclic loading for static phenomena and dynamic analysis for dynamic phenomena
are carried out in design calculations and numerical studies. This needs hysteretic laws of the stress-
strain relation, which is called the constitutive law and many models have been developed depending
on material properties of steel.

The most traditional constitutive laws are the isotropic hardening rule and the kinematic hardening
rule. Connected with the elastic and plastic hardening model (Fig.3.2.4), the isotropic hardening rule
is shown in Fig.3.2.6 and the kinematic hardening rule in Fig.3.2.7. The mixed-hardening rule is also
proposed by combining these traditional constitutive laws in recent general purpose analytical software.

  
y y
y

 
− y − y O y 

Fig.3.2.6 Isotropic hardening Fig.3.2.7 Kinematic Fig.3.2.8 Hardening rule

rule hardening rule considering strain hardening region

These constitutive laws are relatively simple, included in many general purpose analytical softwares
and, therefore, widely used. However, there is some difficulty when the yield plateau, Bauschinger
effect (phenomenon that the yield stress becomes smaller when cyclic loading is applied accompanied
with plastic deformation), and complicated behaviors in the strain hardening region need to be
 25

considered. In these cases, more accurate models are required such as the multi-surface model, the
modified two-surface model, the three-surface model, the BMC model, and so on. The Standard
Specifications for Hybrid Structure (2014)3) recommend Fig.3.2.8 which considers stiffness during
unloading, using an internal parameter such as the maximum stress in the past and summation of strain
in the skelton curve.

When shell and plate structures are solved by FEM, multi-axial stress conditions must be considered
for the stress-strain relation. In this case, a model with an elastic and plastic hysteresis based on von
Mises yield criterion is usually used.

3.2.4 Points of consideration in applying models

Constitutive laws must be determined by considering a required degree of accuracy of design
calculation and numerical analysis. Each model is modeled to make numerical analysis easy to be
conducted and no model can obtain a true value. It is reminded that various results are obtained by
some assumptions. For example, the Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structure (2014)3) specifies
that the model should include the Bauschinger effect and hysteretic energy absorption after yield, when
hysteresis of stress or strain is in an alternating condition of tension and compression after yield.

3.3 Concrete
Concrete is a composite material consisting of cement, water, aggregate, and admixtures, which are
easily available. Concrete is easy to be transported and constructed, gives no limits to size and shape,
is less expensive than steel and, therefore, widely spreads as a construction material. It has a good
durability, if it is designed and constructed properly. However, its strength per unit weight is lower
than steel and its self-weight is larger than steel structures, which should be carefully considered in
design.

Material properties of structural concrete includes strength (compressive, tensile and so on),
mechanical properties (stress-strain relationship), deformation properties (Young’s modulus, creep,
shrinkage and so on), physical properties (heat property and so on), chemical property (chemical
resistance and so on) and the required material importance depends on objective and usage of structures
and the environment.

Concrete is a material accompanied with time dependent deformation such as creep and shrinkage.
Unless this time dependent deformation is properly considered, problems emerges to lower
performances of structures such occurrence of cracks or increase of deflection. Particularly in hybrid
structures, interaction between different materials such as steel and concrete restricts time dependent
deformation of concrete and causes cracks, which should be carefully noted.
 26

Fluidity is one of the properties of fresh concrete before it has hardened. Two kinds of concrete are
used in hybrid structures: concrete with normal fluidity and self-compacting concrete which is
appropriate for filled in the enclosed areas surrounded by steel shells. There are other types of concrete:
lightweight aggregate concrete which has very light unit weight, prestressed concrete into which
compression is pre-installed, precast concrete which is pre-fabricated at factory.

3.3.1 Material properties of concrete

(1) Strength
Concrete has much larger compressive strength than tensile strength, is used to sustain compressive
stresses as a structural material. Compressive strength of concrete depends on age, curing condition,
shape and size of a test specimen, loading speed, and so on. The uniaxial compressive strength, in
general, is about 10 to 100 N/mm2 and usually 20 to 50 N/mm2 for hybrid structures.

Compressive strength of concrete is obtained by uniaxial tests with a cylinder 100 x 200mm or 150 x
300mm in Japan. The obtained strength usually has a scatter. Therefore, assuming scatter of test results,
characteristic value for compressive strength is determined and used as the design strength, so that test
results do not less than this value with some probability (usually 5%). The design strength of material
is the characteristic value divided by safety factors (material factors).

The tensile strength of concrete is about 1/10 to 1/12 of the compressive strength and this rate becomes
smaller as the compressive strength increases. It is not easy to give direct tensions to a specimen at
both ends and, therefore, tensile strength is obtained by a splitting tension test letting a cylinder
specimen lay flat and give bearing forces to cause splitting failure. When the test is not conducted, the
tensile strength can be estimated by the compressive strength4).

f t = 0.23 f c' 2/3

(N/mm2) (3.3.1)

The bending crack strength is about 1/5 to 1/7 of the compressive strength. Although some equations
have been proposed to obtain the bending crack strength, it is currently difficult to estimate it because
it is affected by quality of concrete, environmental conditions, member sizes, and so on.

(2) Elastic modulus

Elastic modulus (Young’s modulus) shows stiffness of materials and is necessary to calculate stresses
and deformations due to design loads. The stress-strain relationship of concrete in compression is non-
linear and cannot be expressed by straight lines. In general, it is defined by the secant elastic modulus
corresponding to the one-third of compressive strength. The elastic modulus can be expressed by
Eq.(3.3.2) for concrete with compressive strength less than 80N/mm2.
 27

1/ 3
Ec = 8500 f c' (N/mm2) (3.3.2)

3.3.2 Stress-strain relationship

Material properties are expressed by the stress-strain relationship in evaluating stress conditions and
failure of structural members. Fig.3.3.1 shows the stress-strain relationship for concrete under uniaxial
compressive stress. It shows a linear behavior until about 20% to 30% of the maximum stress, then is
curved until the peak because of micro-cracks. After the peak, it shows a softening behavior, stresses
decrease with strains, due to occurrence of macro cracks.

Shapes of the stress-strain relationship are different depending on concrete strength, consisting
materials, stress condition, loading speed, shapes and sizes of specimens and so on. As shown in
Fig.3.3.2, inclined rates become larger with the higher compressive strength until peaks, and then
stresses drop sharply after peaks showing a brittle property.

Concrete in structures is mostly under biaxial or triaxial compression instead of uniaxial compression.
A failure criterion of concrete under multi-axial stresses is expressed by curves, such as a trigonal
pyramid depending on hydrostatic stress, and modeled by elasto-plastic theory in principal stress space
(Fig.3.3.4). When concrete in structures is confined by hoop bars, strength increases and ductility
improves due to the effect of multi-axial stresses (Fig.3.3.4). In steel/concrete composite members
such as CFT concrete is also confined due to the interactive action between different materials.

Fig.3.3.1 Stress vs. strain relation of concrete

Fig.3.3.2 Stress vs. strain relation with
in compression
different compressive strength
 28

a) Failure criterion under biaxial compression b) Failure criterion under triaxial compression
Fig.3.3.3 Failure criterion in multi-axial stress space

high confinement

Fig.3.3.4 Stress vs. strain relation of Fig.3.3.5 Stress vs. strain relation of
confined concrete concrete in tension

The stress-strain relationship for concrete in tension shows a linear behavior until the maximum tensile
strength but shows a softening behavior after the peak where stresses decrease lower as strains increase
(Fig.3.3.5). This descending curve is called as the tensile softening curve, which is modeled by poly-
linear or exponential lines. The ultimate strain is defined by the fracture energy concept.

In order to avoid the effect to the strength due to different stress-strain relations in design calculation,
a simplified model (Fig.3.3.6) is often used as the stress-strain relationship for concrete in compression.
However, the stress-strain relationship considering the softening effect after the peak must be used to
analyze deformation to the ultimate state.
 29

σ’
c = k1 f ’
σ’ k1 = 1 − 0.003 f ’
ck  0.85
c
cd

k1 f ’ 155 − f ’
cu = 0.0025  ε’
cu  0.0035
cd
ε’ ck
　　
30000

c ：Compressive stress of concrete

σ’
c  c 
ε’ ε’
σ’ = k1 f ’ 2 − 
c cd
0.002  0.002  c ：Compressive strain of concrete
ε’
cd ：Design compressive strength of concrete
f’
（N/mm2）
0 0.002 ε’
cu ε’
c

Fig.3.3.6 Elastic perfectly plastic model

Continuous stress is large

strain

restore by Creep strain

unloading

age age

Fig.3.3.7 Property of creep strain Fig.3.3.8 Effects of loading age and

loading duration

3.3.3 Creep and shrinkage

Concrete deforms with time due to creep and shrinkage. When concrete structures are used for long
period, time dependent deformation of concrete must be properly considered in design.

Creep is a phenomenon that, when concrete suffers continuous loads, strain increases under the
constant stress. An increasing rate of the creep strain decreases with time and converges on an ultimate
value (Fig.3.3.7). In this figure, ’ce is elastic strain due to loading and ’cc is creep strain. It is known
that the creep strain restores in a certain degree when unloaded. As shown in Fig.3.3.8, the creep strain
is larger with the earlier age and the longer loading duration. The creep strain is also larger with the
larger continuous stresses.

In design calculation, assuming the creep strain is proportional to the applied stress, the following
equation with the creep factor is used.

 cc =  cp (3.3.3)
Ect
′ ′
where, 𝜀𝑐𝑐 : compressive creep strain of concrete, 𝜙: creep factor, 𝜎𝑐𝑝 : applied compressive stress, and
 30

𝐸𝑐𝑡 : Young’s modulus at the loading age. The creep factor for normal concrete is generally about 1 to
3.

Creep of concrete is affected by many factors: temperature and humidity at a structure, shape and size
of cross sections of members, intensity of continuous stress, loading age and duration, property of
aggregates, cement types, compaction of concrete, condition of curing and so on. Therefore, the creep
factor must be determined by considering these effects.

Concrete shrinks in the process of hardening. There are different types of concrete shrinkage such as
drying shrinkage due to dissipation of water during the drying process, autogenous shrinkage due to
hydration reaction independent on water evaporation and temperature change, and so on. It is affected
by many factors such as temperature and humidity at a structure, shape and size of cross sections of
members, mixture of concrete, property of aggregates, cement types, compaction of concrete,
condition of curing and so on. In particular, property of aggregate depends on geographical locations
and the shrinkage is sometimes very large.

In design calculation, the concrete shrinkage is expressed by the following exponential equation4).

 cs (t , t0 ) = [1 − exp{−k1(t − t0 )k }]   sh

2
(3.3.4)

′ ′
where, 𝜀𝑐𝑠 (𝑡, 𝑡0 ): shrinkage strain of concrete age 𝑡0 to 𝑡, 𝜀𝑠ℎ : ultimate value of the shrinkage strain,
𝑘1 , 𝑘2 : coefficients showing process of shrinkage strains, and 𝑡0 , 𝑡: concrete effective age at the
start of drying and at drying state.

Creep and shrinkage of concrete are very important in considering decrease of prestress of prestressed
concrete structures. As cracks occur in steel/concrete hybrid structures due to restrain of steel, effects
of creep and shrinkage must be properly considered.

3.4 FRP
FRP is one of new materials which attract attention in recent years. Details of FRP can be found in
references 5) to 7). FRP has advantages such as high durability and light weight when compared with
steel and concrete. As FRP does not corrode even in environments where steel corrodes, it has been
used as one of main materials in mechanical and aerospace industries for the last several decades. In
civil engineering, there are many examples of concrete structures strengthened with continuous fiber
sheets. In recent years, FRP is being applied to repair of steel structures, and to structural members of
water gates, pedestrian bridges, composite slabs, inspection walkways, and so on. However, it is not
widely used compared with other areas, because it is expensive and design specifications and manuals
 31

are not established.

The Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures (2014)3) deals FRP as one of the structural materials,
and standard methods on design, verification, construction and maintenance of hybrid structures using
FRP are described based on recent research. In particular, FRP beams and steel members strengthened
by FRP are described in detail.

Material types and characteristics of FRP, the design values of material properties, and application
examples are described below.

3.4.1 Types and characteristics of fiber reinforcement and matrix resin

FRP is a composite material of resin materials reinforced with fibers such as carbon fiber, aramid fiber
and glass fiber. Major mechanical properties of carbon fiber, aramid fiber and glass fiber are shown in
Table 3.4.1. Flexible design is possible by combining various types of fibers and stacking sequence of
laminate. Therefore, JIS specifies the test methods in determining strength and elastic modulus for FRP,
while it specifies the nominal values of strength and elastic modulus for steel.

Table 3.4.1 Mechanical properties of representative FRP 8)

Tensile Elastic Elongation
Density
Types of FRP strength modulus At break
(mg/mm3)
(N/mm2) (kN/mm2) (%)
High strength carbon fiber 4900 230 2.1 1.8
Medium modulus carbon fiber 4020 436 0.9 1.82
High modulus carbon fiber 3530 590 0.6 2.1
Aramid fiber (homopolymer) 3000 112 2.4 1.44
Aramid fiber (copolymer) 3450 73 4.6 1.39
Glass fiber (E-glass) 2000 70 2.6 2.54

The stress-strain relations of major reinforcing fibers are shown in Fig.3.4.1. The relation is almost
linear from the origin to the breakage point in all fibers, and it restores perfectly in an elastic manner
below the breakage stress. Carbon fiber has larger strength and elastic modulus than that of aramid
fiber and glass fiber, and its mechanical properties are superior as a composite material. The elastic
modulus of only carbon fiber is higher than or equivalent to that of steel. See reference 8) for properties
of polyacetal fiber, PEN fiber, PET fiber and vinylon fiber. Steel shows large elongation due to plastic
deformation after yield, whereas, as reinforcing fibers are elastic, there is a trend that the breakage
strain becomes smaller for higher stiffness.
 32

6000
Medium modulus carbon fiber
中弾性型炭素繊維
5000 High strength carbon fiber
高強度型炭素繊維
Concrete upper slab
Aramid fiber (Alone polymerization system)
アラミド繊維(単独重合系)
Stress (N/mm2)

4000
Aramid fiber (Co-polymerization system)
アラミド繊維(共重合系)

3000 Glass fiber (E-glass)

ガラス繊維(Eガラス)
Polyacetal fiber
ポリアセタール繊維
2000 PEN fiber
PEN繊維
PET fiber
PET繊維
1000
Vinylon fiber
ビニロン繊維 steel
鋼材
鋼材
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Strain (%)

Fig.3.4.1 Stress-strain relation of FRP 8)

Although all the fibers are elastic materials in a short-term static loading, creep and fatigue properties
are different among different fibers. Carbon fiber has the highest fatigue and creep strength. Aramid
fiber has lower fatigue strength and is susceptible to creep and relaxation (phenomenon that tensile
stress decreases under constant strain) strength compared with carbon fiber. On the other hand, aramid
fiber has superior resistance against impact forces. When aramid fiber breaks, microfibril in a filament
(layers between micro-structures) are broken, showing very high ductile breakage mode. Using this
kind of characteristic, aramid fiber is used in a bullet proof vest.

Carbon fiber is manufactured by burning polyacrylonitrile (PAN) or petroleum pitch at the temperature
higher than 1000°C in inert gas. Carbon fiber mostly consists of carbon atoms, but strength and elastic
modulus are different due to difference of crystal structures. Carbon fiber shows different strength and
elastic modulus depending on original materials and manufacture methods, and classified into the high
strength type, the medium modulus type, the high modulus type, and so on.

Glass fiber is manufactured from silica with an addition of calcium oxide, boron, natrium, iron and
aluminum, which is extended in high temperature and then is crystalized. Several types of glass fibers
with different compositions and mechanical and chemical properties are commercially available.
Among them, E-glass fiber is most widely used for composite materials, and it is cheaper than carbon
fibers and aramid fibers.
 33

Aramid fiber is an organic fiber called aromatic polyamide fiber manufactured by chemical synthesis.
It is classified into homopolymerization (aramid-1) and copolymerization (aramid-2). Aramid fibers
have higher tensile strength and elastic modulus than natural fibers and other synthetic fibers, and are
not easily broken with high resistance against impact. It is not electrically conductive unlike carbon
fibers.

Unsaturated polyester resin, epoxy resin, vinyl ester resin and acrylic resin are used as matrix resin for
FRP and adhesive for bonding FRP on steel or concrete. These resins are thermosetting resins: liquid
raw materials (main agent and curing agent) are mixed, and then hardened at high or room temperature.

3.4.2 Types and characteristics of FRP

FRP is a composite material made of matrix resins such as epoxy or unsaturated polyester resin
reinforced with continuous fibers such as carbon and aramid fibers. Performance of FRP differs in the
fiber direction and the direction transverse to fiber, and it is an anisotropic material. There are several
manufacturing methods such as the hand lay-up method, the pultrusion method, the filament winding
method (FW), the resin transfer molding method (RTM), the sheet molding compound method (SC),
and so on.

FRP could have significantly different mechanical properties depending not only on types of fibers and
resins but also on constitutions of layers, manufacturing methods and conditions. Environmental
resistance of FRP members against water, moisture and ultraviolet ray are also different depending on
materials of FRP members, and surface protection layers such as painting. Required performance is
different at positions in a member and, therefore, mechanical properties must be evaluated by test
methods properly chosen for positions and members. In particular, when FRP is expected to be used
for a long time under conditions affected by water, moisture and ultra violet ray, the environmental
resistance must be evaluated by considering constitutent materials and surface protection layers10).

The Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures (2014)3) classify FRP for civil engineering use into
two categories: “FRP for structures” which is independently used as structural materials, and “FRP for
repair and strengthening” which is expected to be bonded on steel or concrete members and behave
together as one piece. FRP beams, one type of FRP for structures, have various cross-sections such as
H-section, box section, channel section, angle section, and so on, as shown in Fig.3.4.2, and mainly
resist bending moments. FRP for repair and strengthening has different shapes such as rods, strands,
sheets and grids, and the quality is specified by the guidelines of design and construction of concrete
structures with continuous fiber reinforcements9) and the guidelines of repair and strengthening of
concrete structures with continuous fiber sheets10), and is classified as shown in Table 3.4.2. Examples
of carbon fiber sheets, strand sheets and grids used as FRP for repair and strengthening are shown in
Fig.3.4.3.
 34

Fig.3.4.2 Examples of cross-sections of FRP beams3)

Table 3.4.2 Types and symbols of continuous fiber reinforcement 9)

Types Rod Strand Braid Grid Rectangle
Symbol R，D S B L P

Shape

Scale-up

Fig.3.4.3 Examples of carbon fiber sheets, strand sheets and grids used for repair works11)

3.4.3 Design values of FRP

Characteristic values of FRP is generally determined by material tests. Tensile tests, compression tests,
and shear tests are conducted based on JIS specifications to obtain characteristic values of material
strength of FRP for structures. When a pultruded FRP member satisfying JIS K 7015 is used, the
nominal values specified by JIS K 7015 can be used as characteristic values of strength. The
characteristic values of FRP for repair and strengthening of existing structures are measured by JSCE-
E531 “Test method of continuous fiber reinforcing material” or JSCE-E541 “Test method for tensile
properties of continuous fiber sheets”. Typical mechanical properties of different types of FRP are
shown in Table 3.4.3. In this table, CFRP, AFRP, and GFRP mean carbon fiber reinforced polymers,
aramid fiber reinforced polymers, and glass fiber reinforced polymers, respectively.

The stress-strain relation of FRP used in structural design can be assumed to be linear until breakage,
as shown in Fig.3.4.4. When FRP is used to strengthen steel or concrete members, supposing that both
 35

are perfectly bonded, it is designed as a fully composite member. However, when bond strength is
weak or anchor length is insufficient, FRP may debond from the member and could not fully take
advantage of FRP.

Table 3.4.3 Mechanical properties of several FRPs 8)

Type CFRP CFRP AFRP GFRP GFRP
High strength High elastic Aramid 1 E glass E glass
Reinforcement fiber carbon fiber carbon fiber Aramid fiber Glass fiber Glass fiber
Direction of fiber Uni-dir. Uni-dir. Uni-dir. Uni-dir. Quasi-isotropic
ensile strength in fiber N/mm2 2500 1800 1400 1060 450
direction
Tensile strength in N/mm2 52 32 12 31 450
Direction transverse to fiber
Elastic modulus in fiber kN/mm2 140 400 76 39 15
direction
Elastic modulus in kN/mm2 9.0 5.4 5.5 8.3 15
direction transverse to fiber
Density g/cm3 1.6 1.7 1.46 1.8 1.8
応力 σf

2
3
Stress

繊
維
direction

ヤング係数
Young’s modulus
Ef Ef 方
1
Fiber

向
縮
ひずみ εf
Strain

Fig.3.4.4 Stress vs. strain relation Fig.3.4.5 Unidirectional FRP laminate

As FRP is an anisotropic material, the number of independent elastic material properties are different
from that of isotropic materials such as steel. Unidirectionally reinforced laminates shown in Fig.3.4.5
are transversely isotropic in the plane perpendicular to fibers and have five independent material
properties. Let the prime axis for fiber direction as 1 and the orthogonal axes as 2 and 3, they are
expressed as follows:

・ E1
・ E 2 = E3
・ G12 = G13
・12 = 13
・ G23 or ν 23
 36

Elastic modulus and tensile strength in the fiber direction can be calculated based on rule of mixtures
by the following equations.

Elastic modulus in the fiber direction

E1 = V f･E f + (1 − V f )･Em (3.4.1)

Tensile strength in the fiber direction (in case of unidirectional laminate)

 tu = V f･ tuf + (1 − V f )･ tum

1 (3.4.2)
where,
Vf : fiber volume fraction,
Ef : elastic modulus of reinforcing fibers,
Em : elastic modulus of matrix resin,
tuf : tensile strength of reinforcing fibers,
tum : tensile strength of matrix resin.

3.4.4 Examples of FRP applications in civil engineering structures

In recent years, examples of civil engineering structures made of FRP have been gradually increasing.
Some of them are introduced in this section.

(1) Strengthening by pre-stressed CFRP plates

Fig.3.4.6 shows the strengthening method with pre-stressed CFRP plates. CFRP plates with steel
anchor blocks at the ends are set to existing structures with bolted connections, and then pre-stressed
by hydraulic jacks. The plates are bonded and jointed with existing structures to improve the bearing
capacity and fatigue strength of structure.

Fig.3.4.7 shows RC box girders strengthened by CFRP plates. As cross-roads and clearance limit
existed under the girders, this method was adopted because the girder height did not increase much.
Loading tests were conducted before and after strengthening to evaluate its effectiveness. It was
confirmed that stress of steel rebars, crack width and deflection reduced and natural frequency
increased.

Fig.3.4.8 shows the steel girder bridge strengthened by CFRP plates. Bridge was widened, resulting in
increase of dead loads, and the girder was strengthened by installing pre-stress forces into the lower
flanges with CFRP plates. Two sets of CFRP plates with a strength of 240 kN were set on the lower
flanges and installed pre-stress forces to resist increased dead loads.
 37

Fixed plate Pretension CFRP plate

Anchor device
（SM490）
Intermediate Fixed bolts
(SCM440,
Anchor
M20)

Carbon fiber plate

Fixed anchor (SCM435, M22) Fixed anchor
(SUS M22) Concrete upper
Concrete upper
slab
slab

Jack

Fig.3.4.6 Concept of pre-stress reinforcement with CFRP plates12)

Pre-tension CFRP plate

Fig.3.4.7 Application to RC box girder bridge12) Fig.3.4.8 Application to steel girder bridge12)

CFRP sheets aramid finishing

fiber layer
adjust roughness
sheets

prime painting
surface treatment

steel

Fig.3.4.9 Procedure of repair works at corroded part12)

Fig.3.4.10 Repair work with CFRP12)
 38

(2) Repair of steel members by CFRP sheets

Carbon fiber sheets are laid up on the damaged steel parts due to corrosion by being impregnated with
resins, and CFRP is formed at a construction site and unified with structures (Fig.3.4.9). This repair
method aims to restore the initial performance in design or to maintain current conditions.
Fig.3.4.10 shows an application of this method to a three-span continuous steel truss bridge. Cross
sectional area of a lower chord reduced due to corrosion and was repaired with this method. The
number of CFRP sheets were decided equal to or more than the reduced cross-sectional area of steel,
and the initial performance was restored.

(3) Strengthening of floor beams by GFRP members

RC slabs of existing steel girder bridges are strengthened by pultruded GFRP members, which are light
and have high corrosion resistance. Pultruded GFRP I-section beams are arranged in the bridge
longitudinal and transverse directions between main girders and support slabs to improve load carrying
capacity (Fig.3.4.11, Fig.3.4.12).

GFRP
G F R stringer
P縦 桁

RRC
C 床slab
版
600

Cross
対 傾構
frame
1200
106@ 4

600

G F R P横 桁
Girde
主桁
r 1726
1946
垂 直補
形 アン グ ル 補 剛板 Vertical
LL-angle 剛材
stiffener
Stiffener plate
GFRP cross beam Fig.3.4.12 Installation of GFRP beams 12)

Fig.3.4.11 Arrangement of GFRP beams 12)

This strengthening method is used for bridges which were built more than 40 years ago, accompanied
with the RC slab deterioration and over-stressed according to the current design specification. Large
erection equipment is unnecessary because the GFRP strengthening members are light. As the work
can be carried out in narrow spaces under the girders, this method is efficient for the bridges in service.
The objective of this strengthening method is to reduce the stresses of steel rebars without closing
traffic in the slab due to B-type live load to the allowable values, particularly for distributing rebars
and main rebars at the supports.

(4) FRP composite slab

FRP composite slab uses pultruded GFRP members, which are light and have high corrosion resistance,
 39

as permanent formwork and, after concrete is hardened, it resists loads as a composite member of RC
and GFRP (Fig.3.4.13).

FRP composite slabs have been used on about 20 bridges, not only newly constructed slabs but also
long-span slabs and replacement of the existing slab. In these cases, corrosion resistance against salt
damage due to sea salt and snow melting agent is improved, maintenance becomes easier for bridges
over railways and roads, and construction is improved due to light weight.

Fig.3.4.14 shows a piled jetty using FRP composite slab. RC girders are supported by steel pipe piles
with a distance of every 5.0 m, and slabs are placed between girders. FRP composite slabs were adopted
because formwork and support for concrete works are difficult and it is in a corrosive marine
environment. As RC girders are submerged at high tide, FRP members are used as permanent
formwork. Parapets work as seawalls with a height of about 2.3 m, which makes scaffolding difficult.
Therefore, permanent formwork made of FRP is used at the outer surface.

in-situ concrete

in-situ steel bar

FRP panel sand bond

Factory steel bars support metal
FRP haunch flange

Fig.3.4.13 Concept of FRP composite slab10) Fig.3.4.14 Concept of structure10)

(5) FRP footbridge

In order to reduce life-cycle cost under severe corrosion environments, FRP members can be used for
the main structural members of footbridges in place of steel or concrete. Fig.3.4.15 shows the Ikei-
Tairagawa Road Park Bridge, the first all FRP bridge in Japan, completed in 2000. All the structural
members were made of FRP. The bridge is a two-span continuous girder bridge with a bridge length
of 37.76 m and an effective width of 3.5 m. It is surrounded by the sea under severe corrosion
environments. FRP structure was adopted to reduce maintenance cost and construction cost of sub-
structure due to light FRP girders. Hand lay-up GFRP members were used for the main girders and
pultruded channel members for cross-frames and floor beams. Members were connected by a
combination of bearing-type bolted connection with stainless steel bolts and bonded connection with
adhesive. The guidelines for design and construction of FRP footbridges (draft)13) was published by
JSCE in 2011, which describes fundamentals of design and construction of superstructure of
 40

footbridges.

(6) FRP hydraulic gate

FRP has been used for the hydraulic gates since around 1965 and more than 500 FRP hydraulic gates
were constructed in Japan14). Most of the FRP hydraulic gates use GFRP, where the deflection is, in
most cases, a critical factor in design, and they are applied to medium or small size gates. Fig.3.4.16
shows examples of the FRP hydraulic gates. The guidelines for design and construction of FRP
hydraulic gates (draft) 14) was published by JSCE in 2014, which describes fundamentals to rationally
perform design, construction and maintenance of hydraulic gate leaves and other related facilities.

Tile pavement t=35–61mm

FRP slab t=60mm

(a) Overview photo (b) Cross-section of the bridge

Fig.3.4.15 The Ikei Tairagawa Road Park Bridge13)

(a) Slide gate (b) Flap gate

Fig.3.4.16 Example of hydraulic gates made of FRP 14)

 41

Exercise-1:
Explain stress-strain relations of steel and concrete used in design calculation.

Exercise-2:
Describe differences in stress-strain relations of steel and various fibers shown in Fig.3.4.1.

References
1) JSSC (Japanese Society of Steel Construction): Guideline for anti-seismic and seismic control
of steel bridges, 2006.9.
2) Japanese Industrial Standards: JIS handbook, Steel I, 2007.1.
3) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures, Maruzen, 2015.3.
4) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete, Design Part, Maruzen, 2008.3.
5) Japanese FRP Society: History of FRP for the last 60 years, 2015.10.
6) Japanese FRP Society: Introduction to FRP, 2002.9.
7) Japanese FRP Society: Use of FRP in daily life, 2015.10.
8) JSCE: Cutting-edge of hybrid structural technology – Method and application to civil
engineering, Structural Engineering Sires 03, 2007.7.
9) JSCE: Guidelines for design and construction of concrete structures using FRP (Draft), Concrete
Library 88, 1996.9.
10) JSCE: Guidelines for repair and reinforcement of concrete structures using FRP, Concrete
Library 101, 2003.3.
11) Nippon Steel and Sumikin Materials Ltd., Composite Company, http://www.nck.nsmat.co.jp/.
12) JSCE: Characteristics of new materials and evaluation of performance of new hybrid structures,
Analysis of construction methods using marketing technique, Structural Engineering Sires 03,
2008.8.
13) JSCE: Guidelines for design and construction of FRP footbridges (Draft), Structural Engineering
Sires 04, 2011.1.
14) JSCE: Guidelines for design and construction of FRP water gates (Draft), Structural Engineering
Sires 06, 2014.2.
 42

Chap. 4 Theory of Composite Structures

4.1 Introduction
Composite members or composite structures combine different materials such as steel and concrete.
They have merits that they can produce superior performances which cannot be obtained by individual
materials. Steel has excellent tensile strength and plastic ductility, whereas buckling could occur in
compression. On the other hand, concrete has high compressive strength, but is weak in tension.
However, if these two materials are combined, it is possible to create structural members which have
excellent performances both in tension and compression. Mixed structures, where different types of
members such as steel members and concrete members are utilized by connecting them, take
advantages of them such as self-weight and construction easiness.

In this chapter, focusing on behaviors of members consisting of different materials, theories of

composite and non-composite behaviors, connection methods to achieve composite action, force
transfer mechanism between different members, and time-dependent behaviors accompanied by creep
and shrinkage are explained.

4.2 Composite and non-composite

4.2.1 Composite and non-composite

Suppose there is a simple beam consisting of two beams with a square cross-section subjected to a
concentrated load P at the midspan, as shown in Fig.4.2.1. If there is no force transfer in the longitudinal
direction at the boundary of two beams, the upper and lower beams deform independently, as shown
in Fig.4.2.2 (a). A point on the bottom surface of the upper beam and a point on the top surface of the
lower beam, which are located at the same position of the beams before loading, slip longitudinally
after they deform due to loading. This type of structure with plural piled-up beams is called “the pile
beam”, which has no bond at the boundary to unify them. On the other hand, when the bottom surface
of the upper beam and the top surface of the lower beams are bonded with strong adhesive agent and
no slip occurs at the boundary, as shown in Fig.4.2.2(c), the upper and lower beams behave as one
piece. This is called “the perfect composite beam”. If two beams are bonded to a certain degree and
they do not behave as a pile beam nor a perfect composite beam, it is called an imperfect composite
beam. The degree of bond between different materials is called a degree of composite action.

4.2.2 Basic concept to secure composite action in composite structures

The RC structure is one of basic composite structures where by combining concrete and steel bars
merits of both materials are utilized. In the RC structure, steel and concrete are unified by the bond
action caused by deformations of deformed bars engaged with concrete. By adding functions to bring
bond action between steel and concrete even in ordinary composite structures, superb performances
 43

described above can be obtained.

a
a

/2 /2 a

Fig.4.2.1 Simple beam subjected to a concentrated load

Slip

(a) Pile beam Strain distribution

− /2

x /2

0
(b) Distribution of pile beam
P Bond

Strain distribution
(c) Composite beam

Fig.4.2.2 Behaviors of composite beam and pile beam

It is explained how to secure the composite action based on Fig.4.2.1. When two consisting beams are
applied by the same load, the bending strain distribution has a shape shown in Fig.4.2.2(a), where the
strain of the bottom surface of the upper beam and that of the top surface plane of the lower beam are
different. The bending moment calculated by the strain distribution is a sum of the bending moments
of the upper and lower beams. As the upper and lower beams resist applied loads, the tensile stress at
the bottom surface 1max is calculated by Eq.(4.2.1) based on the elementary beam theory.

( P 8)(a 2) 3P
 1max = = 3 (4.2.1)
(a 4 12) 4a

As the upper and lower beams have the same deflection, the deflection at the midspan can be obtained
by Eq.(4.2.2).
 44

( P 3 2) P 3
 1max = = (4.2.2)
(48E (a 4 12)) 8Ea 4

The maximum shear stress in a beam cross-section is obtained as Eq.(4.2.3).

(3 2)( P 4) 3P
 1max = = 2 (4.2.3)
a2 8a

The absolute of difference between the strain on the bottom surface of the upper beam and that of the
top surface of the lower beam at the same beam position is called the slip strain1). In Fig.4.2.2 (a), the
slip strain at the position x from the midspan is expressed by Eq.(4.2.4).

ds 3P (4.2.4)
2 x = = ( − 2x )
dx 2Ea 3
where, s is a slip between the bottom surface of the upper beam and that of the top surface of the lower
beam which are at the same position before loaded. X-coordinate is set along the member axis with
the origin at the midspan. By integrating the above equation and using the boundary condition of s=0
at x=0, the slip distribution can obtained as Eq.(4.2.5). The results are shown in Fig.4.2.2(b).

3P (4.2.5)
s= x( − x)
2Ea 3
Therefore, the maximum slip smax occurs at the beam end x=l/2 and obtained as Eq.(4.2.6).

3P 2
smax = (4.2.6)
8Ea3
On the other hand, the bending strain distribution of the perfect composite beam is the same as that of
a single beam, as shown in Fig.4.2.2(c), where there is no slip between the bottom surface of the upper
beam and the top surface of the lower beam. It conforms to the Bernoulli-Euler assumption and the
bending moment can be calculated as one member. Therefore, the tensile stress at the bottom surface
2max is as follows:

( P 4)a 3P (4.2.7)
 2max = =
(8a 4 12) 8a3

The deflection at the midspan 2max is obtained as Eq.(4.2.8).

P 3 P 3
 2 max = = (4.2.8)
(48E (8a 4 12)) 32Ea 4
 45

The maximum shear stress in a beam cross-section is obtained as Eq.(4.2.9).

3 2 ( P 2) 3P
 2max = = 2 (4.2.9)
2a 2 8a

In this example, the tensile stress at the bottom surface of the perfect composite beam is half of the
pile beam, and the deflection of the perfect composite beam is 1/4 of the pile beam, as shown in
Fig.4.2.3. This example shows composite action can be secured by unifying the upper and lower beams
and performance of members can improve. However, the maximum shear stress of the perfect
composite beam and the pile beam is the same.

3P
8a
3 Perfect composite beam
Pile beam
a

a
3
P
3P 3P 3
4 P
3 2 32 Ea 4
4a 8a 8 Ea

(a) Bending Stress (b) Shear Stress (c) Deflection

Fig.4.2.3 Stress and deflection distributions of composite beam and pile beam

Instead of connecting the upper beam with the lower beam by bond, when bearing forces between two
beams are acted by pushing each other by bolts, as shown in Fig.4.2.4, friction occurs between the
bottom surface of the upper beam and the top surface of the lower beam. Therefore, if bearing forces
are sufficiently large, resulting in large friction forces, there is no slip between the bottom surface of
the upper beam and the top surface of the lower beam, when the beam is loaded as Fig.4.2.1, and the
composite action is secured. When the upper and lower beams are connected with mechanical joints,
such as shear connectors as shown in Fig.4.2.5, there is no slip between at the boundary and the
composite action is secured.
 46

P Friction

Fig.4.2.4 Composite beam using friction

P Mechanical shear connector

機械的ずれ止め

Fig.4.2.5 Composite beam using mechanical shear connectors

4.2.3 Types of connection

As described in the previous section, when the upper and lower beams are connected with bond or
friction, composite action is secured and the two beams behave as one piece, and consequently
structural performance of members can be improved. To secure the composite action, there are a couple
of ways, as shown in Fig.4.2.6: friction action by providing normal pressure with bolts, bond action
by applying adhesive on the connection plane, and mechanical action by welding shear connectors on
the connection plane. The most popular mechanical connections are shown in Fig.4.2.7.

Material Q Q Q
Connection 
①  Material plane p
 ② p

Q Q Q
Adhesive
 (c) Mechanical
(a) Friction action (b) Bond action action

Fig.4.2.6 Concept of different shear connections

 47

Q Q

Head
頭部 Steel plate
鋼帯板
d H
Axis
軸部
コンクリート
Concrete Hole
コンクリート
Concrete
円孔
Stud weld
溶接余盛部
Fillet連続溶接
weld
余盛部
鋼材 D 鋼材
Q Steel Q Steel

(a) Headed stud (b) PBL

(c) steel plate with projection (e) Block dowel

(d) Shape steel
Fig.4.2.7 Examples of mechanical shear connectors

4.3 Force transfer between steel and concrete

There are three ways to unite steel members and concrete members, as mentioned in 4.2.3: friction
connection with bolts, adhesive agent such as epoxy resin and mechanical action with shear connectors.

Shear connectors must have functions to resist shear forces acting between steel plates and concrete
and also to prevent pealing of concrete from steel plates. There are two types of shear connectors,
flexible and stiff ones. Both must unify steel plates and concrete at serviceability condition, and the
flexible one allows slip within the limit and the stiff one does not allow slip at the ultimate condition.

Mechanical shear connectors, the most popularly used are described in this section.

4.3.1 Headed studs

Headed studs (Fig.4.3.1) are widely used as a general and practical mechanical shear connector. It has
following advantages: 1) As the cross section is circle, bearing forces are isotropic, 2) A head prevents
concrete lift, 3) They are welded to the steel plates for a short time by strong electric current using an
arch stud welding machine, and 4) low cost.

Headed studs was first developed in UK in 1918. It was confirmed by experimental results of Viest
and Fisher (USA, 1950) that the behavior of headed studs was nearly the same as that of flexible
channel shear connectors. In Japan, Yamamoto et al. carried out push-out tests with headed studs with
diameters of 16mm, 19mm and 22mm, and derived the equation to calculate the design shear forces.
 48

This equation was adopted in Specification for road bridges and commentary, II: Steel Bridge Part
(2012)2). Sizes and mechanical properties of headed studs specified by JIS B11983) are shown in Table
4.3.1 and Table 4.3.2.

Fig.4.3.1 Arrangement of headed studs

Table 4.3.1 Dimensions of headed stud (unit: mm) 3)

Shank diameter Head diameter Head height

Shape and symbols
Name Length Basic Basic Basic
Tolerance Tolerance Tolerance of dimensions
dimensions size size
50 80
10 10 19 7
100 D
T
±0.3
13 80 100 13 25 8 r

16 120 16 29 8 - 0.5
±0.3 d
L

19 80 100 19 32 10 +1.0

22 130 150 22 35 10
±0.4
120 150
25 25 41 12
170

Table 4.3.2 Mechanical properties of headed stud 3)

Yield stress or 0.2%
Tensile strength Elongation
strength
[N/mm2] [%]
[N/mm2]

235 400～550 20 以上
 49

P
PZ
PB

P PR PW

Fig.4.3.2 Resistant mechanism of a headed stud against shear4)

160

140

120

100
荷重(kN)
Load (kN)

80

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
相対ずれ量slip
Relative (mm)(mm)

Fig.4.3.3 Example of load vs. relative slip

Mechanism of resistance of headed studs against shear forces is shown in Fig.4.3.2 4). Headed studs
resist shear forces by excess weld metal (PW), deformation of stud itself (PZ), bending resistance of an
axis (PB) and friction (PR).

Fig.4.3.3 shows an example of relations between applied loads and relative slips of a headed stud with
an axis diameter of 22mm. A slip gradually increases with applied loads and then becomes very large
reaching the ultimate shear strength. Headed studs are treated as a flexible shear connector because a
slip occurs even in the initial stage. There are two types of failure: shear failure which occurs with a
high ratio of stud height to axis diameter, and splitting failure of concrete near a stud which occurs
with a low ratio of stud height to axis diameter. However, an actual failure is a mixed one of these two
types.
 50

Table 4.3.3 Equations of shear strength of headed stud

Equation of shear strength

Qu = 0.5 As f c' Ec (4.3.1)

where,
Proposed by
Qu ：Ultimate strength of a headed stud {kips}
Fisher 5)
As ：Cross-sectional area of a headed stud {in 2}
f c' ：Compressive strength of concrete {ksi}
Ec ：Young’s modulus of concrete {ksi}

Qu = 110 As (hs d s ) f ck − 2200 (4.3.2)

where,
Qu ：Ultimate strength of a headed stud (kgf)
Proposed by As ：Cross-sectional area of a headed stud (cm 2)
Hiraki 6) hs ：Total height of a headed stud (cm)
ds ：Shank diameter of a headed stud (cm)
fck ：Design compressive strength of concrete (kgf/cm 2)
When construction is well managed and design of mixed proportion is
assured, f ck can be used as f cu.

 d2
PRk = 0.8 f u (4.3.3)
4

PRk = 0.29 d 2 f c' Ecm (4.3.4)

where,
fu ：Ultimate strength of a headed stud ( f u  450 N/mm2)
(N/mm2)
8)
Eurocode f c' ：Compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2)
Ecm ：Young’s modulus of concrete (N/mm2)
d ：Shank diameter of a headed stud ( d  25 mm) (mm)
 ：Obtained by the following equations.
H 
 = 0.2 + 1 ( 3  H d  4)
d 

 =1 ( H d  4)

The shear strength of headed studs proposed so far is summarized in Table 4.3.3. Fisher et al. proposed
Eq.(4.3.1) applicable to normal and lightweight aggregate concrete by regression analysis of push-out

tests in 1971. It was suggested that shear strength was constant for f 'c Ec  130 ksi (896 N/mm2)
 51

and did not increase for over f 'c Ec by compared with the past research results. These results were

adopted in AASHTO5).

Hiraki clarified static and fatigue behaviors of headed studs based on test results with different concrete
casting direction. The shear strength of Eq.(4.3.2) was also proposed by multiple regression analysis
of test results of headed studs with a diameter of 13 to 32mm, a height of 50 to 210mm, tensile strength
of 402 to 549N/mm2, concrete compressive strength of 14 to 63 N/mm2, and a ratio of height to
diameter of over 3.0 to prevent static failure6). The Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures7)
specify a smaller value of Eq.(4.3.5), which is revised Eq.(4.3.2), and Eq.(4.3.3), which is adopted in
DIN, as the design shear strength of headed studs.

31Ass (hss d ss ) f cd' + 10000

Vssud = (4.3.5)
b
Ass f ssud
Vssud = (4.3.6)
b

where,
Vssud : design shear strength of a headed stud (N)
Ass : cross-sectional area of a headed stud (mm)
dss : shank diameter of a headed stud (mm)
hss : height of a headed stud (mm)
fssud : design tensile strength of a headed stud (N/mm2)
f cd' : design compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2)
(  c =1.0 can be used)
 b : member factors (1.0 when a structure is evaluated less safely
if the shear strength of studs is set at the low value, 1.3 in the opposite case)

Eurocode 4, the common design specification in Europe, set a smaller value of Eq.(4.3.3) and
Eq.(4.3.4) as the nominal value of the shear strength of a stud and the design value is calculated by
dividing the above value by a partial safety factor of 1.258).

Equations of relations between forces acting on a shear connector and deformations are necessary to
conduct detailed verification on shear connectors. Several researchers carried out experiments to obtain
equations on the above relation with only one stud diameter in the past. For example, Ollgaard et al.
proposed Eq.(4.3.7) for a stud diameter of 19mm with different concrete compressive strength5).
 52

(
V = Vu 1 − e − 0.71 )25
(4.3.7)

where,
V: shear force (N)
Vu: shear strength (N)
 : slip (mm)

In Japan, push-out tests were conducted with different parameters such as shank diameter and strength
of headed studs, concrete compressive strength, and ratio of height to shank diameter of studs, and a
model has been proposed for the relation of shear forces and slips, as shown in Eq.(4.3.8) and Fig.4.3.4.

Vss = Vssud 1 − e ( − ss  ss

) 2 5
(4.3.8)

where,
Vss : shear force of a headed stud (N)
Vssud : design maximum shear strength of a headed stud (N)
 ss : relative slip between steel plates and concrete at the position of a headed stud (mm)
 ss : diameter of a headed stud (mm)
 : coefficients, Eq. (4.3.9)

 = 11.5 
 f cd' 
' 
 1.1( − 1)2 + 1  (4.3.9)
 f c0 
where,
f cd' = f ck'  c
characteristic value of compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2)
f ck' :
 c : material factor of concrete
f c'0 = 30 N/mm2
 : factors on failure mode, ratio of Eq. (4.3.3) to Eq. (4.3.3)

It is reported that the final slip is about 0.3 to 0.4 of a diameter of a stud.

The fatigue strength of headed studs with a diameter of 13 32mm, height of 60 to 210mm and tensile
strength of 402 to 549 (N/mm2) and with a compressive strength of concrete of 20 to 55 (N/mm2) can
be obtained by Eq. (4.3.10) 7). A failure mode of this equation is that a stud breaks itself.
 53

Fig.4.3.4 Relation of shear and slip of headed stud

A-type B-type C-type D-type

Arrows indicate direction of concrete casting direction

Fig.4.3.5 Types of headed studs

For A, C, and D types of headed studs in Fig.4.3.5,

Vssrd Vssuo = 0.99 N −0.105 (4.3.10)

For B type of headed studs in Fig.4.3.5,

Vssrd Vssuo = 0.93 N −0.105 (4.3.11)

where,

Vssuo = 31Ass (hss d ss ) f c' + 10000

Vssrd: shear strength considering fatigue (varying range)

N : fatigue life or number of cycles of fatigue action

4.3.2 Perfobond shear connectors

Perfobond shear connector or Perfobond Leisten (PBL, in German) is steel flat plates with holes
welded on the steel members, as shown in Fig.4.3.6. They are arranged in the direction of shear forces.
 54

PBL shows stiff deformation characteristic that almost no slip occurs when shear forces act, according
to the relation of shear forces and slips. After it reaches the ultimate shear strength, when a deformed
reinforcing bar penetrates a circle hole, the slip deformation increases keeping the strength due to the
Dowell action. Whereas, when no deformed reinforcing bar penetrates a hole, strength decreases as
the slip deformation increases.

Fig.4.3.6 Arrangement of PBL (with penetrating steel bars)

The equations to calculate the strength proposed by Leonhard et al., who developed PBL, based on
three failure modes are described as follows9).

(1) Shear strength due to double shear planes of concrete

This is a general failure mode that concrete filled in the hole of steel plates fails in shear along the steel
plate plane (Fig.4.3.7).

d2
Vu = 2   u (4.3.12)
4

(2) Shear strength due to bearing failure of concrete in the circle hole
When the steel plate thickness t is smaller than the diameter of the hole d, concrete in the hole shows
bearing failure.

Vu' = 6   wn  d  t  Vu (4.3.13)
 55

Vu /2 Vu /2 Vu /2 Vu /2
t

Filled concrete
Compression
C d C C C

Direct shear plane

Vu Vu
(a) Mechanism of load resistance (b) at Failure

Fig.4.3.7 Mechanism with two direct shear planes concrete filled in the holes of steel plates

Concrete Vu

Hole diameter d
Vu

Stee
l Bearing failure

Fig.4.3.8 Bearing failure of concrete filled in circle holes

Concrete Vu

Hole diameter d
Vu

Stee
l Yield of steel strip

Fig.4.3.9 Shear failure of steel plate between two adjacent holes

(3) Shear strength due to shear failure of steel flat plates between adjacent holes.

f sy100
Vu'' = As   Vu (4.3.14)
3 40
 56

where,
d: diameter of a hole (mm)
 u : shear strength of concrete obtained by the maximum load of
double plane shear tests (N/mm2)
 wn : cube strength of concrete (N/mm2)
t: thickness of steel flat plate (mm)
As : area of steel plates between holes (mm2)
fsy : yield strength of steel flat plate (N/mm2)

The Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures7) specify the shear strength of PBL with and without
penetrated deformed reinforcing steel bars in the holes, as follows.

(1) With deformed reinforcing bars penetrated in the hole

V psud =
(1.85 A − 26.110 ) 3
(4.3.15)
b

A=
(
 d 2 −2 )f c
'
+
 2
fu (whereas, 40.1103  A  383.3 103 ) (4.3.16)
4 4

(2) Without deformed reinforcing bars penetrated in the hole

1.60d 2 f cd'
V psud = (4.3.17)
b

(whereas, 35  d  90mm, 12  t  22mm, 24  f cd   57N/mm 2 )

where,
Vpsud :design shear strength of a hole of PBL (N)
d: diameter of a hole (mm)
t: thickness of steel flat plate (mm)
 : diameter of a reinforcing bar (mm)
design compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2), It can be assumed c =1.0.
f cd' :
fud : design tensile strength of a deformed bar (N/mm2)
 d : member factor, usually 1.3, but 1.0 when a structure is evaluated less safely if the shear
strength of studs is set at the low value

As the above equation is the shear strength when PBL fails before the steel plate fails in shear between
 57

holes, it must satisfy Eq.(4.3.14).

As for the relation between shear force and slip of a PBL with a penetrated deformed reinforcing bar,
the initial stiffness is high but the slip becomes larger as shear force increases. After the peak, shear
force decreases. On the other hand, as for the relation between shear force and slip of a PBL without a
penetrated deformed reinforcing bar, it has high stiffness until the maximum shear strength but, after
then, the shear strength sharply decreases.

Based on the past research achievements the relationship between the shear force and the slip is
modeled by the design curve as shown in Fig.4.3.10.

(a) with deformed reinforcing bars (b) without deformed reinforcing bars
penetrates in the hole penetrates in the hole
Fig.4.3.10 Relation of shear vs. slip of PBL

(1) With deformed reinforcing bars penetrated in the hole

(
V ps = V psud 1 − e )
− ps  
(0   ps   ps 0 ) (4.3.18)

(
V ps = V psud 1 − e )
− ps 0  

2
+ V psud 1 −

 ps 

15   ps0 
( ps 0   ps   psu ) (4.3.19)
 

(2) Without deformed reinforcing bar penetrated in the hole

(
V ps = V psud 1 − e
− ps d 
) (0   ps   psu ) (4.3.20)

where,
Vps : shear force of a hole of PBL (N)
 58

Vpsu : shear strength of a hole of PBL (N)

 ps : relative slip (mm)
 ps 0 : slip at the shear strength (mm)
 psu : ultimate slip (mm)
 : diameter of a deformed reinforcing bar (mm)
d: diameter of a hole (mm)
 ,  : coefficients

4.4 Effects of temperature change, shrinkage and creep

In designing the steel/concrete hybrid structures, not only stresses and deformation due to concentrated
and distributed external forces is evaluated but also the effects associated with composite structures
should be considered such as temperature change, shrink and creep of concrete.

For example, the concrete slab loses its resistant stresses due to shrinkage and creep in composite
girders, and the composite effect decreases and the stresses and deflections of the steel girder become
larger with time. Temperature change in a hybrid structure also causes significant change of stresses
and deformation. These problems are accompanied by time and are, therefore, called “time-dependent”.
This does not affect to the ultimate behaviors but considerably affect the serviceability condition such
as occurrence of cracks, prediction of crack width, evaluation of deformation and so on.

4.4.1 Temperature change

When there is temperature change in a structure due to seasonal change, stresses and deformation of
indeterminate structures are affected by thermal expansion and shrink. For example, extra stresses are
caused at the pier of a rigid frame structure due to expansion and shrink of the girder. However, no
stress occurs for steel/concrete hybrid structures under uniform temperature change because thermal
expansion rates of steel and concrete are nearly the same value of 1.0 x 10-5 / oC. Whereas, when there
is temperature changes in a member section due to direct sunlight or fire, stresses and deformation
occur in members. This is not an issue particularly to composite structures but occurs on other
structures. For example, in steel girders with orthotropic decks, when only the temperature of the steel
orthotropic deck increases, compressive stresses occur on the deck and tensile stresses on the web. It
is, however, noted that temperature change is likely to occur between different materials in composite
structures consisting of materials with different thermal properties. Temperature change is large when
thermal conductivity is large and thermal capacity (specific heat multiplied by density) is small.
Thermal diffusion factor, thermal conductivity divided by thermal capacity, is 0.05m2/h for steel and
0.002 to 0.003 m2/h for concrete, and steel is more likely to cause temperature change than concrete.
In composite structures with exposed steel member, temperature change of steel is larger than concrete,
and temperature difference occurs between steel and concrete. When there are volume changes among
steel and concrete, if they can deform freely, no stress occurs. Whereas, steel and concrete is composite
 59

and unified, deformation of one material is prevented by the other (called “restraint”), stresses occur
between steel and concrete.

 Steel鋼材 (As , Es)

Non-composite
sf

非
合
Free expansion
自由膨張 成
strainひずみ  cf Concrete
コンクリート (Ac , Ec)

 Original
元の長さ length
s c
Ps

Composite
Pc Ps + Pc = N 合
成

Fig.4.4.1 Restrained condition due to uni-axial temperature change

When the member cross-section is symmetric and deforms in one axis as shown in Fig.4.4.1, stress
changes of steel and concrete can be expressed by Eq.(4.4.1) and Eq.(4.4.2) with a temperature increase
of steel Ts and that of concrete Tc.

 s = E s ( −  sf ) = E s ( −  s Ts ) (4.4.1)

 c = Ec ( −  cf ) = Ec ( −  c Tc ) (4.4.2)

where,
 s， c : stress change of steel and concrete
Es，Ec : Young’s modulus of steel and concrete

 sf ，  cf : strain when expansion or shrink of steel and concrete is not restrained

s ，c : heat expansion rate of steel and concrete

Ts，Tc : temperature change of steel and concrete (+ for increase)
 : strain of member

In case of uniaxial deformation, the following equilibrium can be obtained by equalizing the sum of
the force to extend concrete Pc and the force to shrink steel Ps with the external force N.

( ) (
Ps + Pc = E s As  −  sf + Ec Ac  −  cf = N ) (4.4.3)

where,
As，Ac : cross-sectional area of steel and concrete
N: external uniaxial restraint force
 60

Member strains can be obtained as Eq.(4.4.4) by Eq.(4.4.3).

E s As  sf + Ec Ac cf + N
= (4.4.4)
E s As + Ec Ac

Bending stresses occur in an asymmetric cross-section due to temperature change. They can be
obtained by the equilibrium condition of bending moments in addition to the equilibrium condition of
uniaxial forces described above. For example, when temperature of exposed steel increases in a
composite beam shown in Fig.4.4.2, the equilibrium condition of uniaxial forces and moments are
expressed as Eq.(4.4.5) and Eq.(4.4.6).

0  c bc dy + ys  s bs dy = N
hc h
(4.4.5)

0  c bc ( yc − y )dy + ys  s bs ( yc − y )dy + yc  c bc ( y − yc )dy + yc  s bs ( y − yc )dy = M (4.4.6)

yc yc hc h

dx

yc ys c
hc y
C
図心
dy s
h b Free
自由膨張
expand  -f  s

C: centroid f
f dx/2 f dx/2 Stress
Strain
ひずみ分布 応力分布
distribution distribution

(a) Section (b) Non-composite (c) Composite

Fig.4.4.2 Strain and stress distribution when expansion of exposed steel is restrained

4.4.2 Shrinkage of concrete

(1) Introduction
When concrete shrinks due to drying, if steel and concrete are non-composite and deform freely, no
stress occurs in steel and concrete. However, if steel and concrete are composite and unified,
deformation of concrete is restrained and stresses occur in steel and concrete. Time-dependent shrinks
of concrete is also affected by decrease of heat of hydration which is caused by hydration reaction of
cement and water.
 61

When the member cross-section is symmetric and the member deforms uniaxially with free shrink
strain of concrete as shown in Fig.4.4.3, stress changes of steel and concrete are expressed by Eq.(4.4.7)
and Eq.(4.4.8).

 s = Es  (4.4.7)

 c = Ec ( −  f ) (4.4.8)

where,
Es，Ec : Young’s modulus of steel and concrete

 f : strain when concrete shrinkage is not restrained

(free shrinkage strain, non-restraint shrinkage)

 : member strain

Original
元の長さlength

Non-composite
Free shrink
自由収縮
strain
ひずみ コンクリート (Ac , Ec)
Concrete
非
合
 成
+

Steel
f
鋼材 (As , Es)

 c
=

Composite

Pc
Ps + Pc = N
合
Ps 成

Fig.4.4.3 Restrained condition due to uni-axial shrinkage

In case of uniaxial deformation, the relation of stress vs. strain of concrete is expressed by ”c=Ec “,
and the following equilibrium can be obtained by equalizing the sum of the force to extend concrete
Pc and the force to shrink steel Ps with the external force N.

( )
Ps + Pc = E s As  + Ec Ac  −  f = N (4.4.9)

where,
As，Ac : cross-sectional area of steel and concrete
N: external uniaxial restraint force

Member strains can be obtained as Eq.(4.4.10) by Eq.(4.4.9).

 62

Ec Ac f + N
= (4.4.10)
E s As + Ec Ac

Stresses of steel and concrete can be obtained as Eq.(4.4.11) and Eq.(4.4.12) by Eq.(4.4.7), Eq.(4.4.8)
and Eq.(4.4.10).

Ec Ac f + N
 s = Es = Es (4.4.11)
E s As + Ec Ac

N − Es As f
 c = Ec ( −  f ) = Ec (4.4.12)
Es As + Ec Ac

Bending stresses occur in an asymmetric cross-section, as shown in Fig.4.4.4, due to shrinkage of

concrete. They can be obtained by the equilibrium condition of bending moments in addition to the
equilibrium condition of uniaxial forces described above. The equilibrium condition of uniaxial forces
and moments are expressed as Eq.(4.4.5) and Eq.(4.4.6). When shrinkage of concrete is considered,
the stress vs. strain relation of concrete is a function of free-shrinkage strain, as shown in Eq.(4.4.8).

f dx/2 f dx/2
f
ys
hc y
dy  f -  s c
h b
Free
自由収縮
expand

dx Strain
ひずみ分布 Stress
応力分布
distribution distribution
(a) Section (b) Non-composite (c) Composite
Fig.4.4.4 Strain and stress distribution when shrinkage of concrete is restrained

(2) Temperature change and concrete shrinkage

In actual structures, concrete shrinkage progresses accompanied by temperature. In this case,
Eq.(4.4.13) and Eq.(4.4.14) are used as the relation of stress and strain of steel and concrete.

Steel :  s = Es ( −  s Ts ) (4.4.13)

Concrete :  c = Ec ( −  f −  c Tc ) (4.4.14)

(3) Relation of stress and strain

 63

Letting the shrinkage strain from time t=t1 to t=t express by Eq.(3.3.4), change of stress during this
period is described as below.

 t −t1 =  t1 +  t −t1 (4.4.15)

Suppose a stress t1 works at time t1 and then increases, as shown in Fig.4.4.5. Change of strain of
concrete from time t = t1 to t=t is obtained as follows.

 t1
 s ,t −t1 =
Ec
( s,t − s,t ) + Et −t
1
1

1 t d   −t1
+ 
Ec t1 d
(
 s ,t − s ,t1 d ) (4.4.16)

 s ,t −  s ,t1
+  s ,
 s ,

Fig.4.4.5 Change of stress due to drying shrinkage

Simplifying the integral part, the third term of the right side, of the above equation, and also
considering the initial age t1=0 for shrinkage, the above equation becomes Eq.(4.4.17).

 t 1 t d 
 s,t −t1 = +   s, d +  s, s,t (4.4.17)
Ec Ec 0
d  s,

where,
  : stress change at time 
 64

 s , : creep factor accompanied with shrinkage at time 

Taking the stress change due to shrinkage is analogous to progress of creep coefficient accompanied
by shrinkage, it is assumed as below.

 s,
  =  t (4.4.18)
 s,

Then, the change of strain due to restrained concrete is expressed by Eq.(4.4.19), which is the relation
of stress vs. strain of concrete for analysis on shrinkage.

 t  1   s,t
 s,t = 1 +  s,t  +  s, (4.4.19)
Ec  2   s,

4.4.3 Creep of concrete

(1) Introduction
Stresses of steel and concrete of a composite structure are functions of Young’s modulus of the two
materials when the relation is expressed by =E. Young’s of steel is constant with time but the stress
vs. strain relation of concrete is affected by elapsed time. When a steel/concrete composite structure is
affected by shrinkage of concrete, the stress-strain relation of concrete subjected to tensile stress
gradually from early age is affected by time dependent strength and creep as shown in Fig.4.4.6.

No creep
クリープ
nor relaxation なし
Tensile引張応力

リラクセーション
stress

t = t3 Real
実際

t = t2

t = t1

０ ひずみ ( --f ))
材齢 t2 におけるみ
Young’s modulus Strain ( f
atかけのヤング係数
age t2

Fig.4.4.6 Stress vs. strain relation at early age

The effect of time elapse on stress-strain relation can be represented by a model shown in Fig.4.4.7.
 65

Total strain consists of strain which changes instantaneously and strain which depends on time elapse
as given in Eq.(4.4.20). The effect of strength development can be expressed by making physical
properties of spring and dashpot change with time.


 =  e +  v =  e + (t ) e =
Ee(t )
(1 + (t ) ) (4.4.20)

where,
 e : elastic strain of concrete at each age
Ee(t ) : Young’s modulus of concrete at each age
(t ) : creep coefficient against elastic strain of concrete at each age

e
 v 
Ee

Fig.4.4.7 Model to consider the effect of time elapse

By rewriting Eq.(4.4.20), stresses can be expressed by Eq.(4.4.21) using Young’s modulus considering
elapsed time or creep coefficient.

Ee(t )
=  = Ec(t ) (4.4.21)
1 + (t )

Ec (t ) : modified Young’s modulus of concrete at each age

Young’s modulus, creep coefficient and modified Young’s modulus depend on age and stress hysteresis
of concrete and are complicated.

(2) Formulation of creep coefficient

Fig.4.4.8 shows time varying strain of concrete accompanied with loading. In this figure, e: elastic
strain, c,t: creep strain at time t. Progress of creep is expressed by Eq,(4.4.21) with creep factor.

 c ,t
 c ,t = (4.4.22)
e

Then, the ultimate value of creep factor is as follows.

 66

 c ,
 c , = (4.4.23)
e

The Japan Road Specification, II. Steel bridges2), specifies the ultimate value of creep factor as 2.0 in
designing composite girders. In other words, the creep strain is assumed twice of the elastic strain.

Fig.4.4.8 Time elapse of creep strain of concrete

On the other hand, it is generally thought that creep strain consists of two components, restorable creep
strain (delay elastic creep strain) and non-restorable creep (flow creep strain), instead of one
component shown in Fig.4.4.811). This is described in the Japan Road Specification, I. Common part2).
However, the creep factor is defined only by flow creep strain which include restorable creep in the
Japan Road Specification, II. Steel bridges2), which is evaluated in the safer side.

(3) Relation of stress and strain

By using the same idea as shrinkage phenomenon, change of strain during this from loading time t1=0
to time t is described as below.

0  t  1 
 c,t = c,t + 1 +  c,t  (4.4.24)
Ec Ec  2 

where,
 c ,t : change of strain due to creep from time t1=0 to t
 0 : stress of concrete due to continuous loading (initial stress) at t1=0
 c ,t : creep coefficient from time t1=0 to t

Eq.(4.4.24) is the same as Eq.(4.4.19) which the stress vs. strain relation for shrinkage.
 67

4.5 Theories of complete composite and incomplete composite

When more than two different materials are used, it must be considered the bond on the boundary
surfaces. Taking a beam as an example in 4.2, conditions of composite and non-composite are studied
and perfect composite and incomplete composite conditions are summarized. In this section, perfect
composite condition is studied from numerical analysis. Incomplete composite condition, which is
between perfect composite and perfect non-composite, is also clarified analytically.

4.5.1 Outline of theory of perfect composite for composite columns

Suppose there is a column consisting of two materials (left side material-1, right side material-2). They
are connected as perfect bond. A column generally take compression and bending. Compressive and
lateral forces act on the column (Fig.4.5.1), it deforms as shown in Fig.4.5.2. Then, the strain
distribution in a section at a certain height can be the one shown in Fig.4.5.3. For a perfect composite
theory, Bernoulli-Euler assumption can be used, which can be called as compatibility condition of
strain.

Compression
圧縮力
Lateral Force
水平力

Fig.4.5.1 Image of a column with two different materials

Compression
Lateral Force 圧縮力
水平力

Fig.4.5.2 Deformation of a column

 68

 Bending +
何も作用させて
No load 圧縮のみ
Compression Compression
曲げ＋圧縮が
いない状態 作用した状態 作用した状態

c c

Fig.4.5.3 Strain distribution

Each material has its own material property. An important factor governing the relation of stress vs.
strain is Young’s modulus. Two materials are used in this example, and let them E1 and E2. Fig.4.5.4(a)
is the rewritten strain distribution of Fig.4.5.3. As Young’s modulus is different in the right-side and
left-side materials, the calculated stress distribution becomes the shape shown in Fig.4.5.4(b).

0
 = c + b 1
 1 = E1 2
c
 2 = E 2

(a) Strain distribution (b) Stress distribution

Fig.4.5.4 Relation of strain and stress distribution

Axial forces and bending moments can be obtained by summing up total stress distribution. This means
that, if strain inclination is obtained in any section of a member, axial forces and bending moments can
be obtained. On the other hand, axial forces and bending moments at any height of a member can also
be obtained by external vertical and lateral loads. The deformation can be obtained by the descriptions
above. This flow is shown as follows.

1) Obtain axial forces and bending moments at each position in the height direction, by external vertical
and lateral loads.
2) At each position, letting a neutral axis position and a strain inclination as unknowns, which can be
solved by the equivalent equations using the axial force and bending moments obtained by 1).
3) The strain distribution at each position can be obtained by the results of 2).
4) Deformation of a structure can be obtained by integrating the strain distribution at each position in
the height direction.
 69

Fig.4.5.5 shows a cross-section divided into blocks. If strain is constant in a block, strain distribution
can be expressed as Fig.4.5.6. The axial forces and bending moments can be calculated by summing
up areas of a block. In addition, as each slice can be calculated using independent stress vs. strain
relation, it is easy and useful to consider the material non-linearity. As it looks fibers pass through a
member cross-section, each block is called a fiber and a model consisting of fibers is called fiber
elements.

2D analysis
2次元解析のとき
Strain Strain
distribution
ひずみ分布 divided
ひずみを区画化

0
 …
3D analysis c
3次元解析のとき

Fig.4.5.5 Division in a cross-section Fig.4.4.6 Division of strain distribution

(in case of 2D)

0
1 2 1 2

Fig.4.4.7 Stress distribution of elastic vs. elastic – plastic conditions

In general, when member conditions are calculated at an earthquake, it is necessary to assume that
materials reach the non-linear properties and part of a member section becomes plastic, as shown in
Fig.4.5.7. In this case, stress conditions calculated by strain distributions do not satisfy equilibrium
conditions and repetitive calculations is required. When elastic and plastic conditions are considered,
the calculation procedure is as follows.

1) Assume a strain inclination.

2) Obtain stress condition by the relation of stress vs. strain.
3) Obtain sectional forces.
4) Check the equilibrium condition. If it does not satisfy the equilibrium condition, revise the strain
inclination of 1).
5) Repeat convergent calculations until the equilibrium condition is satisfied.
 70

It is possible to calculate considering material non-linearity by the above procedure. This non-linear
calculation becomes easier using computer analysis with fiber elements.

In general, it is possible to obtain the load vs. displacement relation considering material non-linearity
by gradually increasing deformation step by step. If various types of strain-hardening laws are applied
to stress vs. strain relations, it can be applied to static cyclic analysis and dynamic seismic response
analysis.

4.5.2 Theory of incomplete composite

The above methods explained so far can be applied to the perfect composite condition using Bernoulli-
Euler assumption. No slip between different materials is assumed in a perfect composite condition, in
other words, shear connectors rigidly resist shear forces, which is impractical. Therefore, it is necessary
to get deformation of shear connectors calculated by shear forces, in other words, to calculate
considering slip. This is called incomplete composite theory and Newmark derived the basic
differential equation12).

Shear force per unit length can be expressed as a function of slip.

q = f ( s )

When this is a linear elastic relation, its proportional coefficient is called slip rigidity. In general, as
the slip function is complicated depending on the mechanism of shear connectors, it is not easy to
analytically solve incomplete composite theory.

4.6 Elastic bending theory of composite plates

Elastic bending theory of composite plates are clarified by Timoshenko et al.

Stress and deformation characteristics of thin steel plates without ribs or stiffened with widely arranged
ribs, which is used for molds of concrete pouring works, can be accurately evaluated by the isotropic
plate theory. However, the deflection must be small enough to be within the assumed range, or it must
be stiffened by some method. When ribs are arranged in one direction or in two diagonal directions,
orthotropic plate theory can be applied.

Elastic stress and deformation behaviors of multi-layer composite slabs such as the Robinson type
composite slab with the lower steel plate and the sandwich type slab with upper and lower steel plates
can be mostly found by the isotropic plate theory. However, orthotropic theory is used for the
composite slab where steel I-sections are embedded in the concrete.
 71

4.6.1 Isotropic plate theory

Deflection w at an arbitrary point (x,y) of an isotropic plate is governed by Eq.(4.6.1).

 4w 4w 4w 

D 4 + 2 2 2 + 4  = q(x, y ) (4.6.1)
 x x y y 

where,
q ( x, y ) : distributed load intensity
(
D = Ec I 1 −  c2 ) : rigidity of plate
E c : Young’s modulus of concrete
I : moment of inertia replaced by concrete
 c : Poisson ration of concrete

On the steel plate and concrete composite slab, assuming that concrete in compression and steel plates
are perfectly composite neglecting concrete in tension, the equivalent moment of inertia can be
obtained by the same method as conventional RC sections.

As for D in Eq.(4.6.1), all the sectional area is assumed effective to calculate indeterminate forces and
the area with concrete in tension is neglected to calculate stresses in a section after bending cracks
occur. Rate of Young’s modulus of steel to that of concrete n is, based on the design of RC, n=7 for
evaluation of rigidity and n=15 for calculating stresses in a section.

Once w is obtained by Eq.(4.6.1), sectional forces can be determined by Eq.(4.6.2).

 2w 2w  
M x = − D 2 + νc 2  
 x y  
 w 
2
2w  
M y = − D 2 + νc 2   (4.6.2)
 y x  
2w 
M x y = D(1 − νc ) 
xy 

There are two methods to solve Eq.(4.6.1): the exact method to conduct direct integral using series
expansion and the approximate method such as energy method, finite difference method and finite
element method. The exact method is not generally used because combinations of boundary conditions
and loading conditions are limited in getting right answers. FEM is a versatile tool together with
computers and can be applied to complicated boundary conditions and loading conditions and,
therefore, can obtain solutions with sufficient accuracy.
 72

Table 4.6.1 shows a comparison of design bending moments of three types of slabs: RC slab, steel
plate and concrete composite slab, and steel I-section slab. For example, the design bending moments
of the steel plate and concrete composite slab is obtained by FEM analysis with an isotropic plate
simply supported at two sides, applied a pair of wheel loads in a longitudinal direction and unlimited
number of wheel loads in the transverse direction.

Table 4.6.1 Comparison of design bending moment of concrete slab

Applicable
Bending moment in Bending moment in
Type of slab span length Specification
transverse direction longitudinal direction
(m)
Specification for Road
RC slab 0 ＜ L≦4 (0.12L + 0.07) P (0.10L + 0.04) P
Bridges 2)
Steel plate and
PART B14)
concrete composite 0 ＜ L≦8 (0.114L + 0.144) P (0.095L + 0.098) P
Chap. 3, Sec.7
slab
PART B14)
I-shape steel slab 0 ＜ L≦8 1.2 (0.12L + 0.07) P 0.9 (0.10L + 0.04) P
Chap. 3, Sec.7

If number of shear studs are few and the composite condition is incomplete, or if the shear force
working on a shear connector is sought, the analysis based on incomplete composite theory considering
the effect of the relative slip of concrete and steel must be carried out. Design guideline of steel
structures, PART-B Composite structures (JSCE) 14), introduces coefficients to reduce acting shear
forces.

4.6.2 Orthotropic plate theory

As bending stiffness is significantly different in diagonal two directions in the concrete-filled steel I-
section slab, orthotropic plate theory must be applied. The Huber equations proposed to calculate plate
rigidity of RC slab can be applied12). Deflection w of an orthotropic plate at an arbitrary point (x,y) is
governed by Eq.(4.6.3).

4w 4w  4w
Dx + 2H + Dy = q ( x, y) (4.6.3)
x 4 x 2 y 2  y4
where,

Ec Ec
Dx = ( I cx + nI sx ) , D y = ( I cy + nI sy )
1 − c 2
1 − c 2

1 − c
H = D1 + 2 Dxy = Dx Dy , D1 =  c Dx D y , Dxy = Dx D y
2

where,
I cx : moment of inertia of concrete around the neutral axis of the vertical section of x-axis
 73

I sx : moment of inertia of steel around the neutral axis of the vertical section of x-axis
I cy : moment of inertia of concrete around the neutral axis of the vertical section of y-axis
I sy : moment of inertia of steel around the neutral axis of the vertical section of y-axis

If w is obtained by Eq.(4.6.3), sectional forces can be determined by Eq.(4.6.4).

 2w 2w  
M x = −  Dx 2 + D 1 2  
 x y  
 2w 
2w  
M y = − Dy 2 + D1 2   (4.6.4)
 y x  
2w 
M x y = 2 Dxy 
xy 

In the composite slab with steel I-sections, steel I-sections and steel bars are used. As they are not wide,
their stresses can be calculated by the approximate equation Eq.(4.6.5), neglecting the Poisson ratio.

2w 
M x = − Dx 
x 2 
2w 
M y = − Dy 2  (4.6.5)
y 
2w 
M xy = 2 Dxy 
xy 

The design bending moments of the I-shape steel slab (Table 4.6.1) is obtained by FEM analysis with
an orthotropic plate simply supported at two sides, assuming the orthotropic degree of 0.4, applied a
pair of wheel loads in a longitudinal direction and unlimited number of wheel loads in the transverse
direction.

Exercise-1
There is a simple beam (span length l) with two types of cross-
a

sections. One cross-section consists of four-square sections and

a

each section has height of a and width of a, which is shown in the

4a

left side of the figure. Another section has a rectangular section with
a

height of 4a and width of a. Compare the deflections at the center

a

of a simple beam between two cross-sections. Note that four square

cross-sections in the pile beam moves freely. In addition, shear a a
deformation can be neglected.
Pile beam Composite beam
 74

Exercise-2
Suppose a headed stud has diameter of dss = 22mm, cross sectional area of Ass = 380.1 mm2, height
of hss = 200mm, design tensile strength of fssud = 400N/mm2，and concrete compressive strength of f’cd
= 40N/mm2, obtain design shear strength using Eq.(4.3.5) and Eq.(4.3.6). Member factor  b is assumed
1.0.

References
1) Johnson, R. P.：Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete, Vol.1, Granada Publishing Ltd., 1984.
2) Japan Road Association: Specification for road bridges and commentary, I: Common Part, II: Steel
Bridge Part, Maruzen, 2012.
3) Japanese Industrial Standards: JIS B 1198, Headed stud, 2011.2.
4) H. Bode：Euro-Verbundbau, konstruktion und Berechnung, 2.Auflage, Werner Verlag, 1998.
5) Ollgaard, J.G., Slutter, R.G. and Fisher, J.W.：Shear strength of stud connectors in lightweight and
normal-weight concrete, AISC Engineering Journal, pp.55～64, April, 1971.
6) Hiraki K, Masui S. and Fukumoto Y.: Induction of evaluation equation of strength of headed studs,
Evaluation of static strength, Proceedings of Structural Engineering, Vol.35A, pp.1221～1232,
1989.3.
7) JSCE: Standard Specification for Hybrid Structures, 2015.5.
8) European Committee for Standardization (CEN): Eurocode 4, Design of Composite Steel and
Concrete Structures, Part 2, Bridges 1, Draft, Brussels, Belgium, 1996.
9) Leonhardt, L., Andrä, W., Andrä, H.P. and Harra, W. : neues, vorteilhaftes verbundmittel für
Stahlverbund-Tragwerke mit hoher Dauerfestigkeit, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, pp.325～331, 12
/ 1987.
10) Hosaka T., Mitsuki K., Hiraki K., Ushijima Y., Tachibana Y. and Watanabe A.: Experimental study
on shear strength of PBL, Proc. Structural Engineering, Vol.46A, pp.1593～1604, 2000.3.
11) Kurita A.: Study on time dependent behavior of steel/concrete composite bridge considering
restoring creep, PhD thesis, Osaka City University, 1992.
12) Newmark,M.N. et.al : Test an Analysis of Composite Beam with Incomplete Interaction, Proc. of
Society of Experimental Analysis, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1951.
13) Timoshenko, S. and S. Woinowsky-Krieger : THEORY OF PLATES AND SHELLS, Second
Edition, MacGraw-Hill, 1965.
14) JSCE: Guideline for design specification, PART-B Composite structures,1997.9.
 75

Chap. 5 Design of Composite Members

5.1 Introduction
The design specification, properties of steel, concrete and FRP, and theory of composite structures are
explained in the previous chapters. Chapters 5 and 6 describe basics and important points on design of
composite members (composite girders, composite plates and composite columns) and mixed
structures.

5.2 Composite girder

5.2.1 Simple composite girders and continuous composite girders
Composite girder is one of the bridge structures where the steel girder and the concrete slab are
connected by using headed studs and so on. Composite girder uses concrete with high resistance
against compression at the compressive side of the section and uses steel with high resistance against
tension at the tensile side, rationally utilizing the material properties of both concrete and steel. It was
developed in Europe and USA in the 1940s, stud welding was then developed and design was thought
rational, it prevailed in the world in the 1950s. As concrete slab works as part of the girder in the
composite girder, it is said that steel amount can be reduced by 20% of the plate-girder bridge1). The
girder height can be also lowered.

Composite girders are classified into the composite girder for live load and the composite girder for
dead and live loads, depending on erection methods. Fig.5.2.1 shows the stress conditions of two types
of composite girders due to dead loads, live loads and the total loads.

The composite girder for live load is that the concrete slab is installed on the steel girder supported on
the bearings at both ends. Dead loads due to steel girders and concrete slab are resisted by the steel
girder and post-dead loads and live loads are resisted by the composite girder. Most of the composite
girder bridges are this type.

On the other hand, the composite girder for dead and live loads is that the concrete slab is installed
while the steel girder is supported by temporary supports. After concrete is hardened, the temporary
supports are removed. Therefore, both dead and live loads are resisted by the composite girder.
However, when the ground is weak, temporary supports may sink and perfect composite action cannot
be expected. Therefore, recently, this type of composite girder bridge is rarely applied. The simply
supported composite girder of the above two types have positive bending moment on all the span. The
concrete slab is, therefore, in compression and no consideration about tensile stress of concrete in
longitudinal direction is necessary without the effects of creep, shrink and sink of supports.
 76

Stress due to Stress due to Composite stress

dead load live load n c

⊖ ⊖ ⊖
V
+ =
S
⊕ ⊕ ⊕
s1  s2  s =  s1 +  s 2

(a) Live load composite girder

Stress due to Stress due to Composite stress

dead load live load n c

⊖ ⊖ ⊖
V
+ =
⊕ ⊕ ⊕
 s1  s2  s =  s1 +  s 2

(b) Dead and live load composite girder

Fig.5.2.1 Stress distribution of live load composite girder and dead-live load composite girder

The continuous composite girder has negative bending moments at intermediate supports, which
requires counter-measures to control cracks caused by tension in concrete slab. Specification for Road
Bridges, II. Steel Bridge Part2), specifies the design methods to deal with negative bending moment at
the intermediate supports, as shown in Table 5.2.1. When concrete slab is expected to resist tension,
pre-stress forces must be introduced, which is complicated in design and construction. When concrete
slab is not considered, stresses are calculated by assuming that only the steel girder and the
reinforcement resist the negative bending moment. Specification for Road Bridges, II. Steel Bridge
Part2), specifies that minimum amount of the reinforcement in the longitudinal direction should be 2%
of the area of concrete and the ratio of total circumference length of the reinforcement to the cross-
sectional area of concrete should be 0.0045mm/mm2.
 77

Table 5.2.1 Treatment of composite actions

Type of bending
Treatment of composite action Illustration
moment

Slab concrete is included in the

Positive
girder section

When concrete
Slab concrete is
in tension is
included in girder
assumed
section.
effective,
Negative

When concrete Steel bars can be

in tension is included in the
neglected, girder section.

剛 なshear
Rigid ず れconnector
止め

(a)完
(a) Perfect
全 合 composite
成 は り beam

柔なず
Flexible れ止
shear め
connector

( (b)
b)弾 Elastic
性 合 composite
成 は り beam
（ 不 完 全 合 成 は り ） beam)
(Imperfect composite
Non-composite
非合成 合成
Composite

((c)
c)断 Discontinuous
続 合 成 は りcomposite
beam

( (d)
d)床 版コンク
Difference of axial force
of リ
slabーconcrete
ト軸力
の相違
(a ) (b（c
) )
( a) 完 composite
(a) Perfect 全 合 成 はbeam
り
(b) Elastic
( b) 弾composite
性 合 成 はbeam
り （(Imperfect
不 完 全 合composite
成はり） beam)
(c) Discontinuous beam
( c) 断 続 合 成 は り
Fig.5.2.2 Comparison of axial force distribution of slab concrete for equally distributed load

There are two methods to reduce tensile axial force acting on the concrete slab on the negative bending
moment area at intermediate supports, as shown in Fig.5.2.2: the elastic composite girder and the
 78

discontinuous composite girder. On the elastic composite, more flexible shear connectors compared
with perfect composite girder is used in the whole span. On the discontinuous composite girder, the
intermediate support part is non-composite and other part is composite. Both types aim to disperse the
negative moments and to reduce stresses. There are some problems to be tackled in both types such as
evaluation of composite degree with arrangement of shear connectors and length of non-composite
part and so on.

5.2.2 Effective width of slabs σ(s)

The concrete slab is composite with the steel girder on the
Ｃ
Ｌ
conventional composite girder. When the composite
girder is subjected to positive bending moment, the
 (s) σmax
concrete slab works as part of compressive flange of the
steel girder. Then, the compressive bending stress varies Effective width
0
in the width-wise direction due to shear lag, as shown in be beb
Fig.5.2.3. This distribution depends on the width of the
 max
ratio b/ of the slab width b to span length  loading
b

condition, support condition of the girder and so on. As it

is difficult to reflect this on design, the effective width be
is introduced to equalize it with maximum stress  max. The
effective width is used to calculate stress, deformation and
ultimate strength of composite girders by elementary
beam theory. Fig.5.2.3 Effective width of slab

  (s ) ds
1 b
be = (5.2.1)
 max 0

The effective width specified in design guidelines or specifications must be used for an actual design.
In Japan, the following method is used to set the effective width of the compressive flange of the
composite girder (Fig.5.2.4).

= 1 + 2 　
be 　 without hauch 

 (5.2.2)
be = 1 + 2 + 2bs + b0 
with hauch 

where,
 79

b  
1 or 2 = b   0.05  
  


  b   b  
1 or 2 = 1.1-2    b  0.05   0.30   (5.2.3)
      


 b 
1 or 2 = 0.15  0.30   
  

where,
bs : horizontal width of haunch (If the angle is smaller than 45 degrees, it is set at 45 degrees.)
b0 : width in the vicinity of haunch
1 : effective width of one inner side of beam
 2 : effective width of one side of cantilever part
b : half of the distance between webs or length of cantilever part
 : span length of girder

When the slab is subjected to negative bending moments, the effective width can be obtained by the
same method described above.

λ1 λ1 λ1 λ1 λ2

2b 2b b
ⅰ) 中 央 床 版 部 ⅱ) 片 持 版 部

(a) ハ ン チ の な い 場 合 1) Center flange part

(b) ハ ン チ の 2)
あるCantilever
場合 part
(a) With haunch (b) Without haunch

Fig.5.2.4 Calculation for effective width

5.2.3 Stress and deformation of composite girders

In order to conduct the allowable stress method or to verify serviceability of the limit states design,
elastic stresses and deformations of the composite section are calculated under the following conditions.

(1) It conforms to the Bernoulli-Euler assumption in the composite section.

(2) Tensile resistance of concrete is neglected.

When the steel section is large, the neutral axis is located generally in the steel section due to positive
 80

bending moment. The distance from the centroid of the composite girder to that of the steel girder and
the concrete slab, moment of inertia of equivalent total section, stresses at the lower and upper flanges
and upper edge of concrete slab, are obtained as follows (see Fig.5.2.5).

Ac
ds = d0 (5.2.4)
nAs + Ac

nAs
dc = d0 (5.2.5)
nAs + Ac

Ic 1
Iv = Is + + As d s2 + Ac d c2 (5.2.6)
n n

M1 M
Stress at upper edge of steel girder:  su = ysu + 2 yvu (5.2.7)
Is Iv

M1 M
Stress at lower edge of steel girder: s = ys + 2 yv (5.2.8)
Is Iv
M2
Stress at upper edge of RC slab: c = yvc (5.2.9)
nI v

where,
n : ratio of Young’s modulus of steel to concrete (normally n=7)
Ac : cross-sectional area of concrete slab
As : cross-sectional area of steel girder
Ic : moment of inertia of concrete slab around centroid axis
Is : moment of inertia of steel girder around centroid axis
ysu : distance from centroid axis of steel girder to upper edge of steel girder
ys : distance from centroid axis of steel girder to lower edge of steel girder
yvu : distance from centroid axis of composite girder to upper edge of steel girder
yv : distance from centroid axis of composite girder to lower edge of steel girder
yvc : distance from centroid axis of composite girder to concrete slab
do : distance from centroid of steel girder to centroid of concrete slab
M1: bending moment due to the first phase dead load which is resisted with steel girder only
M2: bending moment due to the second phase dead load which is supported with the composite
cross section

When it suffers negative bending moment, as the concrete section is in tension, stresses are calculated
by neglecting concrete and only considering reinforcement as shown in Fig.5.2.6. In this case, it is
assumed that no slip occurs between the steel girder and the concrete slab, conforming to the Bernoulli-
 81

Euler assumption.
 su
be c
C
⊖ ⊖

yvc
dc ⊖

yvu
V
do

+ =

ysu
ds

S
M1 M2 M1+M

yv
⊕ ⊕
ys
⊕ 2

s

a) Stress due to M1 b) Stress due to M2 c) Total stress

Fig.5.2.5 Elastic stress of live load composite girder subjected to positive bending moment

⊕ ⊕
V
M2

⊖ ⊖
(a) Strain distribution (b) Stress distribution

Fig.5.2.6 Stress distribution of composite girder subjected to negative bending moment

5.2.4 Temperature change, shrinkage and creep of composite girders

(1) Derivation of analytical equations for temperature distribution specified by Specification for Road
Bridges

Specification for Road Bridges, II: Steel

Bridge Part2), specifies that temperature
change of 10oC between the girder and the
concrete slab as shown in Fig.5.2.7 for the
design of composite girder.

Fig.5.2.7 Temperature change used for design of

composite girder
 82

Free Connect

(a) Composite section (b) Free displacement (c) Pre-stress and combine (d) Temperature
(eccentric axial force) distribution

(e) Axial force (f) Bending moment

Fig.5.2.8 Method to obtain sectional forces due to temperature change

Fig.5.2.8 shows the method to obtain sectional forces of composite bridges caused by temperature
difference specified by Specification for Road Bridges. Assuming that temperature of steel girder t2 is
higher than that of concrete slab t1, the temperature change is expressed by t = t2 - t1. In other words,
if the steel temperature is set at the basis, concrete temperature drops by t. As shown in Fig.5.2.8(b),
let the composite action free on the girder with length of dx, the concrete slab moves freely due to the
temperature change. Then, concrete shrinks by dx. However, in reality, the steel girder and the
concrete slab composite by shear connectors. Therefore, it is necessary to let the tensile force Pt act on
the centroid of the concrete slab C to pull back to the original length dx. Pt can be obtained by Hooke’s
Law.

Pt =  t Ec Ac =   t Ec Ac (5.2.10)

where, Ec, Ac: Young’s modulus and cross-sectional area of concrete, α: linear expansion coefficient.

After the concrete slab pulled back to the initial length, the steel girder and the concrete slab composite
and Pt is released, leading to the condition as shown in Fig.5.2.8(c). The compressive axial force Pt
works with an eccentric distance of dt. Therefore, the stress and deformation of composite girder can
be obtained by superposing Fig.5.2.8 (b) and (c). Fig.5.2.8(c) can be separated into (e) and (f). In
conclusion, stresses due to temperature change can be calculated by summing up (b), (e) and (f).
 83

P M 
コンクリート床版上縁 Pt ： Mcu = t +  t zcu −  t Ec 

t ,t
Stress at upper edgeコンクリート床版上縁
of RC slab ： cu, t = + zcu −nAv t Ec nI v
n Av n I v 
 
Pt 

M t

zc −  t Ec 
of RC slab コンクリート床版下縁
Stress at lower edgeコンクリート床版下縁 P ：M 
： c, t = t + ct, zt c −n
n Av n I v
= +

Avt EcnI v 




  (5.2.11)


P M
Stress at upper edge鋼桁上縁
of steel ： 鋼桁上縁
girder Pt ： Mt su , t = t + t z su
 
 su , t = + z su A Iv 


Av Iv v
 
 
Stress at lower edge of steel girder
鋼桁下縁： s鋼桁下縁 , t =
Pt
− ：t sz, t =
M
s
P t
−
M t
z s 

 

Av Iv Av Iv
 

where, Av, Iv: cross-sectional area and moment of inertia of composite girder, n = Es / Ec : ratio of
Young’s of modulus of steel and concrete. The bending moment acting on the centroid of the composite
girder can be calculated.

M t = Pt  dt =  t Ec Ac dt (5.2.12)

Characteristic of the analysis considering temperature change is that stress is a function of not only
strain but also temperature change in the relationship between stress and strain as shown in Eq.(4.4.1)
and Eq.(4.4.2).

(2) Stress and deformation of composite girder due to shrinkage

A method to calculate stress and deformation of composite girder due to shrinkage is basically same
as that due to temperature change. However, as shrinkage is accompanied by time dependent behavior,
Ec,s shown in Eq.(5.2.14) should be used to calculate sectional properties for shrinkage analysis instead
of Ec for temperature change analysis. The symbols in Fig.5.2.8 should be replaced as follows.

V → Vs， dt → ds，  t dx →  s,t dx

Then, Ps and Ms can be calculated as follows (Eq. (5.2.10) and Eq. (5.2.12)).

Ps = Ec,s  s , Ac 

 (5.2.13)
M s = Ps d s 


where,
 84

Ec
Ec ,s = (5.2.14)
1
1 +  s ,
2

Ratio of Young’s modulus of steel to that of concrete is obtained as below.

 1 
ns = n  1 +  s ,   (5.2.15)
 2 

This ns should be used to calculate the centroid of the composite section and section properties
(Fig.5.2.9).

Fig.5.2.9 Symbols of centroid and distances in calculating stresses due to shrinkage

The change of stress at the upper edge of the concrete slab and at the lower edge of the steel girder due
to shrinkage can be calculated using the following equations.

1  Ps M 1  P M   
Upper コンクリート床版上縁 コンクリート床版上縁
edge of RC slab ： cu, s = ： cu+, s =s zcu, s  −s E+c, s  s ,s zcu, s  − Ec, s  s ,  
ns  Av, s I v, s ns  Av, s I v, s   
 
 (5.2.16)
Ps Ms Ps Ms  
Lower鋼桁下縁： 
edge of steel s , s =
girder
鋼桁下縁： − s, sz s=, s − z s, s  
Av, s I v, s Av, s I v, s  
 

The Specification for Road Bridges, II. Steel Bridge Part2), gives the following design values to
evaluate stresses and deformations of the composite girder due to shrinkage.

εs, = 20 10−5 and φs ,  = 4.0

This ultimate shrinkage is not the amount of concrete shrinkage itself but the value including the
 85

restrained effect due to reinforcement with 2% in the concrete slab.

(a) Two-span continuous

composite girder

(b) Axial force

(c) Bending moment of static

basic structure

(d) Bending moment of

indeterminate force

(e) Final bending moment

Fig.5.2.10 Sectional forces of two-span continuous composite girder due to shrinkage

(3) Sectional forces of two-continuous-span composite girder due to shrinkage

Taking a two-continuous-span composite girder (Fig.5.2.10) as an example, let us find sectional forces
caused by shrinkage. As for axial forces, constant compressive forces Ps work along the full girder
length, as shown in Fig. 5.2.10(b). Next, let the intermediate support free and consider the simply
supported composite girder with span length of 2 . Then, constant bending moments Ms due to
shrinkage work along the full girder length, as shown in Fig. 5.2.10(c). An indeterminate force due to
Ms, in other words, the reaction at an intermediate support can be obtained as follows.

3M s
RB, S = (5.2.17)


Then, RB,S are derived as below.

3M s
RA, S = RC , S = − (5.2.18)
2

Then, the bending moment at the intermediate support caused by indeterminate force is obtained as
 86

below.

3M s
M B' , S = − (5.2.19)
2

Its bending moment diagram is shown in Fig. 5.2.10(d). The final bending moment diagram becomes
Fig. 5.2.10(e) by adding (c) and (d). There is the negative bending moment at the intermediate support,
which is half of the positive bending moment. This negative bending moment may cause cracks in the
concrete slab.

(a) Composite section (b) Strain distribution (c) Creep displacement (d) Pre-stress
and connect

(e) Axial action (f) Bending moment action

Fig.5.2.11 Method to obtain sectional forces due to creep

(4) Stress of the composite girder due to creep

The analysis for creep is basically same as that for shrinkage. Fig.5.2.11 shows the method to obtain
sectional forces of the composite girder due to creep. The basic axis for creep is expressed by Vc, which
is obtained by nc instead of n.

 1 
nc = n 1 + c,  (5.2.20)
 2 

Fig.5.2.11(b) shows the strain distribution when the composite girder takes constant bending moments.

The elastic strain at the upper edge of the concrete slab is expressed as  e . When the composite action
 87

is released between the steel girder and the concrete slab released, the strain  c,t occurs due to creep.

Fig. 5.2.11(c) shows its deformation. The required force P to pull back is obtained as follows.

P = Ec, c 
Ac
 c,  dA = Ec, c Ac  cC,  (5.2.21)

where,
Ec, c = Ec (1 +  c,  2)

 cC, : Final value of free creep strain at centroid C of the RC slab

After getting the slab back to the original position by applying the tensile force P, make the concrete
slab and the steel girder composite and release P, eccentric axial compression P works, as shown in (d).
Therefore, stress change due to creep can be obtained by superposing (c) and (d). It is understood more
easily if (d) is dealt with (e) and (f) separately.

 cC, in Eq. (5.2.21) is obtained by the following equation with constant bending moment working on
the composite section.

 c,0 Nc' (5.2.22)

 cC,  = c ,  = c , 
Ec Ec Ac
where,

Md
N c' = ac Ac (5.2.23)
nI v

Then P is obtained as follows.

N c' 2c,
P = Ec,c Ac c, = N c' (5.2.24)
Ec Ac 2 + c,

The acting position of P is expressed by the Eq. (5.2.25) referring Fig.5.2.11(b).

 r2 
P ,e  e = Ec,c A  cz, dA  z = P  d c + c  (5.2.25)
 ac 

c
 88

2
The position is higher by rc ac from the center line of the concrete slab. Therefore, M  becomes

as below.

 r2 
M  = P  e = P  d c + c  (5.2.26)
 ac 


where,
rc： Radius of section modulus of concrete (rc2 = Ic / Ac)

The change of stress due to creep can be calculated by the following equations.

1  P M  1  P M2c,   2c,  

コンクリート床版上縁
Upper edge ： cu, c =  ：
of RC slabコンクリート床版上縁 + cu, c =zcu, c  −  c+,0 zcu, c −  c,0 
 
nc  Av, c I v, c nc  Av, c I2v,+c c,   2 + c,  
    (5.2.27)
 
P M  
P M 
Lower edge
鋼桁下縁： girder
of steel , c =
s鋼桁下縁： −  szs,c,= − z s, c 
Av, c
c
I v, c Av, c I v, c  
 

where, Av,c and Iv,c : cross-sectional area and moment of inertia using nc.

5.2.5 Bending strength of composite girders

(1) Introduction
The bending strength of composite girders can be obtained depending on the required performances
such as that local buckling does not occur, local buckling occurs, or elastic buckling occurs, in other
words, on types of failure of the section. Overseas design specifications (AASHTO, Eurocode) defines
the section class to satisfy the above required performances.

a) AASHTO LRFD (see Fig.5.2.12(a)) 3)

Compact section: Maximum bending moment of a section reaches the plastic moment.
Non-compact section: Part of the steel section is yield, maximum bending moment of a section cannot
reach the plastic moment due to local buckling.
Slender section: Maximum bending moment of a section cannot reach the yield moment.

The plastic moment is the moment when all steel members reach the yield stress and concrete reaches
85% of the compressive stress as shown in Fig.5.2.13. The yield moment is the moment when either
upper or lower edge reaches the yield stress, assuming an elastic condition.
 89

Bending Moment Bending Moment

Compact Section

Non-compact section

Slender section

Curvature Curvature

(a) AASHTO (b) Eurocode

Fig.5.2.12 Relation of bending moment vs. rotation angle of section classes

f yd
0.85 f cd

⊖ Dcp =   hw
Mp
tw hw
⊕

f yd

Fig.5.2.13 Stress distribution of compact section at full plastic bending moment

b) Eurocode (see Fig.5.2.12(b)) 4)

Class 1: A composite section with a good rotational capability which re-distribute the moment after the
formation of a plastic hinge in a statically indeterminate structure
Class 2: A composite section, which can reach the full plastic moment state, with a limited rotational
capability due to local buckling of steel and/or concrete compression failure
Class 3: A composite section in which the compression flange reaches yield point but moment cannot
reach to the level of full plastic moment because of local buckling
Class 4: A composite section which is slender and reaches failure due to local buckling without yielding
of compression flange
In plastic design, after a plastic hinge is formed, it is assumed that bending moment is re-distributed in
a structure. Class 1 requires that the strength must not be less than the plastic moment until a rotation

angle rot so that redistribution can occur. There is no requirement about plastic rotation performance

for the compact section AASHTO LRFD. Therefore, the compact section of AASHTO LRFD
 90

corresponds to Class 2 of Eurocode, non-compact section to Class 3 and slender section to Class 4,
respectively.

Table 5.2.2 Section class in Standard Specification of Hybrid Structures

Positive bending moment Negative bending moment

Web
hw Es
 3.8K1
tw f yd

Compact section
hw 2.0
tw

α
Es
f yd
(where, α  0.4 ) (K =1 − 0.63 N
1
'
d N 'pd )
Compressive flange
bf Es
 0.37 　
2t f f yd

hw 1.7 Es Web
 (  −1.0)
　　　
t w 0.67 + 0.33 f yd

hw Es
 2.5(1 − ) − (  −1.0)
　　　
Non-compact tw f yd

section : factor of influence of initial moment Ratio of width to thickness of

compressive flange
 M   
2
  + 2.31 M d1d   M d1d 
 =1 − 0.1 d1d  　　  0.4  bf Es
 M ysd   M ysd   M ysd   0.45 　

     
   2t f f yd

Slender section Others except above Others except above

where,
hw ：web height of steel member
tw ：web thickness of steel member
bf ：width of compressive flange
tf ：thickness of compressive flange
α ：ratio of distance from plastic neutral axis to top of compressive web over web height
ψ ：parameter showing inclined rate of stress in web
Es ：Young’s modulus of steel
fyd ：design yield strength of steel
N'd ：design compressive force
N'pd ：design full yield axial yield compression ( N 'pd = As f yd  b )
Mysd ：design yield bending moment of steel girder
Md1d ：design bending moment of pre-composite dead load
As ：cross-sectional area of steel member
γb ：member factor
 91

(2) Section groups

Table 5.2.2 shows the section groups defined by Standard specification for hybrid structures (2014) 5).
In Eurocode and AASHTO, the limit values of section groups of the composite bridge subjected to
positive bending moment is assumed to be the same as that of the steel girder. Standard Specification
for Hybrid Structures decides section groups based on the elastic and plastic FE analysis by Gupta.
When the composite girder is subjected to positive bending moment, local buckling does not occur in
the upper flange which is fixed to the concrete slab due to shear connectors. Therefore, as local
buckling may occur only in the web, section group is determined by the ratio of width to thickness of
webs and compressive area.

be
Nc
○
－

x
hc

d
Za

S (Centroid of girder) Ns
○
＋

Mud
As

fyd
(a) Cross-section (b) Stress distribution

Fig.5.2.14 Stress distribution at full plastic bending moment subjected to positive bending moment

(3) Compact section

a) Positive bending moment

The plastic neutral axis of the composite girder subjected to positive bending moment is located in the
concrete slab in most cases. Let us calculate the position of plastic neutral axis and design bending
moment by referring the stress distribution as shown in Fig.5.2.14. If the plastic neutral axis is located
in the steel girder, the position of plastic neutral axis and design bending moment can be found by the
equilibrium condition of compressive forces of concrete and steel and tensile force of steel.

As f yd
x=  hc (5.2.28)
0.85 f 'cd be
 92

1
Za = d − x (5.2.29)
2

As f yd Z a
M ud = (5.2.30)
γb

where,
x : distance between upper edge of concrete and plastic neutral axis
hc : thickness of concrete slab
As : cross-sectional area of steel girder
fyd : design yield strength of steel
f 'cd : design compressive strength of concrete
be : effective width of concrete section in compression
Za : arm length
d : distance between upper edge of concrete and centroid of steel member
Mud : design bending moment
 b : structural member factor

b) Negative bending moment

The plastic neutral axis of the composite girder subjected to negative bending moment is located in the
steel girder in most cases as shown in Fig.5.2.15. The position of plastic neutral axis and design
bending moment are calculated by the plastic stress condition of the steel section and only the
longitudinal reinforcement in the concrete slab neglecting concrete section. The position of plastic
neutral axis and design bending moment is given by Eq. (5.2.31) and Eq.(5.2.32).

f yd As − 2 f yd A fu − f ryd Ar
x' = hc + t f + (5.2.31)
2 f yd t w

M ud =
f yd As ( d − d ' ) − f yd Afu ( 2hc − 2d ' + t f ) − f yd tw ( x ' − hc − t f )( x '

+ hc + t f − 2d ' )
(5.2.32)
b

where,
x' : distance between upper edge of concrete and plastic neutral axis
hc : thickness of concrete slab
tf : thickness of compressive flange
fyd : design yield strength of steel
As : cross-sectional area of steel member
fryd : design yield strength of longitudinal reinforcement
Afu : cross-sectional area of upper flange
 93

Ar : cross-sectional area of longitudinal reinforcement

tw : thickness of web
Mud : design bending moment
d : distance between upper edge of concrete and centroid of steel girder
d' : distance between upper edge of concrete and reinforcement
 b : structural member factor

be
fryd
Nr
tf hc

x’
Nsu
○
＋ Nsw2
fyd
d

S Mud
Nsw1
tw As ○
－

Nsℓ
fyd

Fig.5.2.15 Stress distribution at full plastic bending moment

subjected to negative bending moment

0.85 f cd'

－
Dp

Mpℓ
Dt

fyd fyd

Fig.5.2.16 Stress distribution and plastic neutral axis at full plastic bending moment

c) Considering the effect of bending failure of concrete slab subjected to positive bending moment
The bending strength is obtained from Eq. (5.2.30) under the condition that no local buckling occurs
and compressive failure of concrete is neglected. In this section, the same approach is used to calculate
the bending strength, although the effect compressive failure of concrete is included.

When no local buckling occurs and compressive failure of concrete is neglected, the bending strength
can reach the plastic moment Mpl. In the plastic moment, concrete above the plastic neutral axis
 94

conforms to 85% of the compressive strength of concrete block and steel conform to the design strength
(Fig.5.2.16).

When compressive failure of concrete is considered, the design bending moment can be calculated by
Eq. (5.2.33)

M pl  Dp 
 
γb  D  0.15 
Mud =  t  (5.2.33)
 D p  M pl  Dp 
1.05 − 0.33 D  γ  0.15 
  0.4 
 t  b
 Dt 

Mud : design plastic bending moment

M pl : plastic moment
D p : distance between upper edge of concrete and the plastic neutral axis
Dt : total depth of the composite section (Fig.5.2.16)
b : structural member factor

In Eq. (5.2.33), the bending strength is reduced due to the effect of compressive failure of concrete for
0.15 < Dp / Dt.

(4) Non-compact section

For non-compact section, part of steel member is yield but it fails due to elastic buckling. The effect
of pre-composite action is considered as the initial stress condition for the post-composite behaviors,
and then it is verified that the tensile and compressive edges do not reach the limits of tensile and
compressive strength.

a) Composite girder for live load

The verification equation for composite girder for dead and live loads is shown in Eq. (5.2.34). The
effect of creep of concrete caused by the post-composite dead loads such as pavements should be
considered, however, change of stress due to this effect is small and neglected in this equation.

M M + M ld M shnd 
 i  d1d + d 2d +   1.0 (5.2.34)
 M sud M M vuds 
 vud 

where,
Md1d : design bending moment due to the first phase dead load which is resisted with steel
girder only
 95

Msud : design bending moment of steel section

Md2d : design bending moment due to the second phase dead load which is supported with
the composite cross section
Mld : design bending moment due to live load
Mvud : design bending strength of composite section
Mshnd : design bending moment considering axial forces due to shrinkage of concrete
This moment expressed by Eq. (5.2.35).
N shd (5.2.35)
M shnd = M shd + Wvs
Av 2
Mshd, Nshd : design moment and axial force due to shrinkage of concrete
Wvs：section modulus of composite section applying for the ratio of Young’s modulus
considering shrinkage of concrete obtained from Eq.(5.2.36)
ns , = n (1 +  s , 2) (5.2.36)
n : ratio of Young’s modulus
 s , : creep coefficient accompanied by shrinkage of concrete (=usually 4.0),

depending on concrete mixture and environmental conditions

Av2 : cross sectional area of equivalent composite section with concrete section replaced by
steel applying for the ratio of Young’s modulus considering shrinkage of concrete
obtained from Eq.(5.2.36)
Mvuds : design bending strength of equivalent composite section with concrete section replaced
by steel applying for the ratio of Young’s modulus considering shrinkage of concrete
obtained from Eq.(5.2.36)
 i : structural factor

Bending strength is obtained by conforming to the Bernoulli-Euler assumption and the linear
relationship between stress and strain of steel and concrete and by considering effective width of the
concrete slab and the steel section, respectively. The limit of material strength is as follows.

1) The limit value of concrete in compression is design compressive strength f’cd. Concrete in tension
is generally neglected.
2) The limit value of structural steel in tension or compression is design yield strength fyd or f’yd.
3) The limit value of reinforcement in tension or compression is design yield strength fsyd or f’syd.
However, the reinforcement inside concrete slab in compression is generally neglected.

b) Composite girder for dead and live loads

In composite girder for dead and live loads, the composite section resists both dead and live loads.
Neglecting the first term of Eq. (5.2.34) and adding the first phase dead load to the second term, the
verification equation is conducted by Eq.(5.2.37).
 96

 M dd + M ld M shnd 
i  +   1.0 (5.2.37)
 M vud M vuds 
 

where,
Mdd : design bending moment due to dead loads

5.2.6 Shear strength of composite girders

The design shear strength of the steel web Vwd is calculated by the following Basler equation.

Vwd 1  f vcr 3 1 − f vcr f vy 

= + (5.2.38)
Vsy γb  f vy 2 1 + α 2 

Vsy = f vy hwt w (5.2.39)

where,
V wd : design shear strength of steel web
Vsy : shear yield strength
fvcr: shear buckling strength of web
fvy: shear yield strength
α: aspect ratio
hw : web height of steel member
tw : thickness of web of steel member
 b : structural member factor

The shear buckling strength of a web is calculated by the following equations.

f ( f e  0.8 f vy )
 e
f vcr = (5.2.40)

0.8 f e f vy ( f e  0.8 f vy )


2
 2 Es  t w 
fe = ks   (5.2.41)
12(1 −  2 )  hw 
 97

where ks is calculated by the following equation.

5.34 + 4.00 α 2 (α  1.0)


ks =  (5.2.42)
4.00 + 5.34 α 2 (α  1.0)


where,
fvcr : shear buckling strength
fvy : shear yield strength
f e : elastic shear buckling strength

Es : Young’s modulus of steel

 : Poisson ratio

tw : web thickness of steel member

hw : web height of steel member
ks :buckling factor for shear stress
α : ratio of height from plastic neutral axis of web to compression area to web height

The first term of the right-hand side of Eq. (5.2.38) is shear buckling strength and the second term is
the post-buckling strength due to diagonal tension field. At the end of girder, the diagonal tension field
may not be expected and, therefore, rigid vertical stiffeners are needed.

When the horizontal stiffeners are provided to the web, the shear strength can be obtained by applying
Eq. (5.2.38) to the upper and lower panels and adding them.

Eq. (5.2.38) is the equation targeting only the steel member. The composite girder can be expected for
higher shear strength, but it’s not fully clarified. Therefore, Eq. (5.2.38) is used for composite members.

5.2.7 Verification of shear connectors of composite girders

Shear connectors are set at the connecting part between upper flange of steel members and concrete,
and must satisfy Eq. (5.2.43) against the longitudinal shear force working at the connection part. As
re-distribution of longitudinal shear forces is expected due to plastic deformation of shear connectors,
shear connectors should have sufficient deformation performance.

qsd V
γi  α and  i sd  1.0 (5.2.43)
qrd Vrd

where,
 : coefficient to consider effect of non-elasticity of shear connector
 98

qsd : horizontal design shear force per unit length

qrd : horizontal design shear strength per unit length
Vsd : total horizontal design shear force over a longitudinal length where the size, type
and arrangement of shear connectors are kept same
Vrd : total horizontal design shear strength of the same length
 i : structure factor

Na Nb

xa xb qsd

Na Nb
qsd
qrd
10% Msa Msb

Vrd
Lab
xa xb

Fig.5.2.17 Relation of design lateral shear force and design strength

Non-elastic deformation of shear connectors is allowed at the ultimate state. Therefore, the first
equation of Eq. (5.2.43) allows that acting lateral shear force qsd exceeds design strength qrd by 10%
as shown in Fig.5.2.17. Although, the slip deformation is locally allowed in this case, it is known that
the strength as a composite girder is secured, if the total shear force in the length (for example, Lab)
with the same type and arrangement of shear connectors is less than the total shear strength of shear
connectors.

The relationship of total design shear forces, axial forces of the slab and acting lateral shear forces is
expressed as follows.

xb
Vsd = N b − N a = 
xa
qsd dx (5.2.44)

where,
Vsd : total horizontal design shear force over a longitudinal length where the size, type and
arrangement of shear connectors are kept same
N : axial forces
qsd : horizontal design shear force per unit length

On the other hand, total design strength can be obtained by the number of shear connectors n in the
 99

area Lab with the same type and arrangement of shear connectors and design strength Vsud of a shear
connector, as follows.

Vrd = nab Vsud (5.2.45)

where,
Vrd : total horizontal design shear strength of the same length
nab : number of shear connectors
Vsud : design strength of a shear connector

When  is over 1.0 in the safety verification of Eq. (5.2.43), the plastic deformation of a shear
connector is permitted at the ultimate state. Therefore, shear connectors should have sufficient ductility
to guarantee the strength as a composite girder. Eurocode 4 specifies that a ductile shear connector
must hold strength when the slip displacement of 6mm occurs. In general, the headed studs are
classified as ductile connector. When ductile shear connectors are used,  = 1.1.

5.3 Composite slab

5.3.1 Composite slab with steel plate

(1) Definition
In the composite slab with steel plate, the steel plate works as a formwork and a structural member and
is composited with concrete by shear connectors. When it is fabricated in the vertical plane, a
temporary formwork is placed on the opposite side of the steel plate. This steel plate has functions as
a formwork and a structural member. When it is used as a bottom formwork, it is called bottom plate.
Stiffeners are steel plates which stiffen steel plates before composited with concrete and work as shear
connectors and structural member after completion and in service. Fig.5.3.1 shows two examples of
composite slab with steel plate: the slab for road bridges and the wall structure of hybrid caisson.

(2) Characteristics
The composite slab with steel plate combining steel plates and concrete have been widely used as
bridge slabs, submerged tunnels, caissons, harbor structures such as floating jetty, rock sheds and so
on. The steel plates or rolled steel sections or their combination can be a main member of this
composite plate. In composite slab with steel plate, the shear connectors are attached to the steel plates
which work as a formwork and a structural member, filled concrete and they are finally composited
with concrete. When a structure consists of plural composite plates such as a submerged tunnel, another
system can be used such that the composite slab with steel plate are used at the upper side and the steel
concrete sandwich slab at the side and bottom, respectively.
 100

Concrete
Upper steel
上側鉄筋
bars コンクリート
側鋼板 Water proof
Side steel plate 防水層
舗装

水抜き兼
Drainage &
モニタリング孔
monitoring ずれ止め
Headed
（頭付きスタッド）
Studs
補強材（横リブ）
Rib Bottom
底鋼板 plate
主桁
Slab span Water proof
(a) Road bridge

Steel plate
鋼板
Steel plate
Concrete
鉄筋 upper slab
Side
Diaphram ｺﾝｸﾘｰﾄ
wall Rib Water proof
水平補剛リブ
Steel bar
Side ｽﾀｯﾄﾞ
wall Stud

Steel bar

Steel plate
Stud (b) Hybrid caisson
側壁断面図

Fig.5.3.1 Example of steel plate concrete composite plate

There are many types of shear connectors used for the composite slab with steel plate such as headed
studs, ribs, steel truss type and so on for road bridge slabs

(3) Structural analysis

In design of the composite slab with steel plate, the same actions as plate of steel structures or concrete
structures are generally considered. Both actions working only on the steel section at any stage under
construction and working on the composite section after steel and concrete are composited must be
evaluated. Therefore, the resistance of each structural element such as bottom plate, rolled steel section,
reinforcement and concrete must be appropriately evaluated depending on under construction and in
service period.

As for structural analysis to obtain responses of the composite slab with steel plate, thin-plate theory
 101

or beam theory is used depending on actions or characteristics of structures. The effect of nonlinear
structural analysis is in principle considered, however, it can be treated as linear if its effect to design
response is negligible.

(4) Strength
Strength of the composite slab with steel plate must be obtained both before steel and concrete are
unified and after unified. Before steel and concrete are unified, only the steel plate is considered. After
steel and concrete are unified, the composite plate is considered. As failure types of composite slab
with steel plate, there are bending failure, shear failure, local push-out shear failure and so on. Shear
failure after composite is described below.

When a composite plate subjected to out-of-plane shear forces can be assumed as a beam to resist shear
forces as a one-way slab, it is verified against shear forces as a bar element. The design shear strength
is expressed by Eq. (5.3.1).

Shear failure of the composite slab with steel plate due to out-of-plane shear forces is almost the same
as the usual reinforced concrete members. However, as the shear strength may significantly reduce
depending on types of shear connectors and arrangements, design shear strength of reinforced concrete
cannot be applied. Therefore, the reduction factor  is introduced to the ratio of tensile steel against
the shear strength shared by concrete. In this method, the shear strength of concrete is taken as the
design shear strength neglecting the reinforcing effect of shear connectors to evaluate it in a safety side.
The same reduction factor provides the design strength in a safety side for composite plates with
headed studs, PBLs and other shear connectors. However, when a space of shear connectors is longer
than the usual one or block shear connectors are applied, the shear strength must be confirmed by
experiments or other methods.

 d   p  f vcd  b  d
Vcd = (5.3.1)
b
where,
( )
f vcd = 0.20 f cd' 13
(N/mm2)
d = (1000 / d )1/ 4 , whereas 1.5 for  d ＞1.5
 p = (1001  p )1 / 3 , whereas 1.5 for  p ＞1.5
b : unit width or width of the verified section (mm)
d : effective depth (mm)
1 : reduction factor due to types and arrangements of shear connectors
p : ratio of steel in tension
f cd' : design compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2)
b : member factor (generally 1.3)
 102

Next, at around the concentrated load or near the supports, out-of-plane shear forces are assumed to be
resisted by a two-direction plate with a shape of cone or pyramid. The design strength is shown in Eq.
(5.3.2) and assumed push-out shear failure type is shown in Fig.5.3.2.

θ θ θ
=45°

Fig.5.3.2 Assumed push-out shear failure type

Comparing the composite slab with steel plate with reinforced concrete members, although the tensile
reinforcement is thin steel plates and the method of bond between steel and concrete is different, its
push-out shear failure property due to out-of-plane shear forces is similar to that of reinforced concrete
member. However, when the strength of shear connectors is insufficient, the local bond shear slip
occurs and the design strength of the steel plate concrete composite plates is lower than that calculated
for reinforced concrete members. Then, reduction factor 2 is introduced to ratio of tensile steel.

 d   p   r  f pcd  u p  d
V pcd = (5.3.2)
b

where,
( )
f pcd = 0.20 f cd' 13
(N/mm2) , whereas f pcd ≤ 1.2 N/mm2
d = (1000 / d )1/ 4 , whereas 1.5 for  d ＞1.5
 p = (100 2  p ) 1/ 3
, whereas 1.5 for  p ＞1.5
 r = 1 + 1 / (1 + 0.25u / d )
f cd' : design compressive strength of concrete (N/mm2)
u : circumference of loading plane

up : circumference at verifying position, d/2 away from the loaded plane

d : effective depth (mm)

 103

 2 : reduction factor due to types and arrangement of shear connectors

p : ratio of steel in tension
 b : member factor (generally 1.3)

5.3.2 Steel and concrete sandwich composite plates

(1) Definition
The steel and concrete sandwich composite plate is a composite structure consisting of two steel plates
and concrete filled between two plates and they behave as a one piece. Concrete is poured between
two steel plates, which position at the left and right or at the upper and bottom of a member. The
stiffeners are steel plates which stiffen steel plates before unified with concrete, and work as shear
connectors and structural member after composition. The shear reinforcing steel plates reinforce the
steel and concrete sandwich composite plates and are arranged in the member direction and the
orthogonal direction. The diaphragm is a minimum space for filled concrete enclosed by the steel plates
and the shear reinforcing steel plates.

(2) Characteristics
In recent years, steel plate concrete composite plates combining steel plates and concrete have been
widely used as bridge slabs, submerged tunnels, caissons, harbor structures such as floating jetty, rock
sheds and so on. The steel and concrete sandwich composite plates is a composite structure that two
steel plates and concrete filled between two plates behave as a one piece. Fig.5.3.3 shows the structure
after composition and in service and Fig.5.3.4 shows the structure before concrete is filled. This type
of composite plates has been applied to submerged tunnels.

Steel plate Steel plate

Shear reinforcement plate

Steel plate

Stiffener
Hole
Hole
Steel plate Stiffener Diaphram Hole Stiffener Hole Steel plate

Fig.5.3.3 Example of sandwich composite plate Fig.5.3.4 Example of steel shell structure

(3) Structural analysis

In design of the steel and concrete sandwich composite plates, the same actions as plates of steel
structures or concrete structures are generally considered. In this structure, both the construction action
with the steel structure before concrete is filled and the in service action after concrete is filled must
be considered. Therefore, the construction action and the in service action must be appropriately
 104

resisted by structural elements such as bottom plate, rolled steel section, reinforcement and concrete,
considering construction stages.

As for structural analysis to obtain responses of the steel and concrete sandwich composite plates, thin-
plate theory or beam theory is used depending on actions or characteristics of structures. The effect of
nonlinear structural analysis is in principle considered, however, it can be treated as linear if its effect
to design response is negligible.

(4) Strength
In the steel and concrete sandwich composite plates, types and amount of actions and resistance
mechanism are different at the construction stage with only the steel structure before concrete is filled
and the in service stage with composite structure after concrete is filled. Therefore, the strength at both
stages must be obtained. As failure types of the steel and concrete sandwich composite plates, there
are bending failure, shear failure, local push-out shear failure, and so on. Shear failure after
composition is described below.

Although the shapes and arrangement of tensile reinforcing steel plates and shear reinforcing steel
plates are different form reinforced concrete members, shear failure of the steel and concrete sandwich
composite plates due to out-of-plane shear forces is almost the same as the usual reinforced concrete
members. The design shear strength of the steel and concrete sandwich composite plates is classified
into following four structural characteristics.

① Design shear strength without shear reinforcing steel plates

② Design shear strength with shear reinforcing steel plates arranged only in the member direction
(Fig.5.3.5)
③ Design shear strength with shear reinforcing steel plates arranged only in the vertical member
direction (Fig.5.3.6)
④ Design shear strength mixed with shear reinforcing steel plates arranged in the member direction
and those in the vertical member direction (Fig.5.3.7)

In the steel and concrete sandwich composite plates, the shear reinforcing steel plates are arranged in
the member direction and also in the vertical member direction, respectively. The shear resistant
mechanism of these two cases are much different. As there is no research on shear strength mixed with
shear reinforcing steel plates arranged in the member direction and those in the vertical member
direction, the method is adopted to determine the shear strength in the safety side.
 105

Concrete Steel plate Concrete Steel plate

Shear reinforcement plate

Shear reinforcement plate

Fig.5.3.5 Shear reinforcement steel plate

Fig.5.3.6 Shear reinforcement steel
set in the member direction
plate set in the transverse direction

Steel plate

Concrete Shear reinforcement plate

Fig.5.3.7 Shear reinforcement steel plate set both in the member

and transverse direction

5.4 Composite columns

A composite structure, which has steel plates, steel pipes, and assembling steel members within
concrete section, is known as a Steel Reinforced Concrete (SRC) member. For example, SRC members
have been used for seismic columns and fire-resistant members; therefore, they have been further
developed in Japan. In addition, concrete filled steel tube (CFT) has been paid attention because of its
short construction period and performance (capacity and ductility).

In general, steel ratio (sectional ratio to concrete section) of RC sections is less than 2-3%; whereas,
those of SRC and CFT sections are 3-10% and 10-30%, respectively. With SRC and CFT sections,
their performances and capacity mechanisms become different from those of RC sections. This implies
that design codes for RC members are not available for these composite columns.

5.4.1 Steel reinforced concrete (SRC) columns

(1) Definition of member

An SRC column has steel plates, steel pipes and assembling steel members within concrete section. In
SRC columns, steel members work for not only structural members but also scaffoldings. Both in-
service and construction conditions must be considered in the design. Also, shrinkage and creep of
concrete must be properly considered, depending on construction procedures.
 106

Table 5.4.1 shows the types of cross-sections of SRC columns. Some of them are illustrated in Fig.5.4.1.
When the steel ratio is relatively small, the centroid of each steel section is far from that of the
composite SRC section; therefore, the Design Specification of Concrete (JSCE) 5) is applied to design
for such SRC members. On the other hand, the Standard Specification of Hybrid Structure (JSCE)
shows the verification methods for SRC columns, in which steel members and tubes are embedded
within a RC section.

Table 5.4.1 SRC members (Standard Specification for Hybrid Structures)

Encased steel section structure Steel section with full web or rolled steel section and RC structure

Encased steel tube (concrete is

Only the outside of steel tube is covered with RC.
not filled inside of tube)

Encased steel tube (concrete is The inside of the steel tube is filled with concrete and the outside is
filled inside of tube) covered with RC.

Section steel and RC mixed

Both steel and RC sections are used within the composite member.
structure

Steel member is used for erection purpose and only steel members
Erection structure
are considered.

(a) Section steel and RC mixed structure (b) Encased steel section structure (c) Encased steel tube

Fig.5.4.1 Types of SRC members

(2) Mechanical behaviors of members

Fig.5.4.2 shows a damage process of SRC members, where each damage conditions are appeared
before the collapse. Typically, the lateral force-displacement relation indicates the non-linear behavior
because of the concrete cracking, compressive failure and spalling of concrete cover, yield and
buckling of steel members. In addition, a bond between steel and concrete significantly affects the
damage process shown in Fig.5.4.2.
 107

A relation of bending moment and bending deformation (rotation angle or curvature) can be estimated
using a design method for RC members, where steel and concrete are assumed to be perfectly bonded.
The section conforms to the Bernoulli-Euler’s assumption as shown in Fig.5.4.3. The flexural rigidity
of member is decreased at the point of concrete cracking, yielding of steel, ultimate compressive strain
of concrete (generally 0.0035), buckling of longitudinal bars, spalling of concrete cover, and buckling
of steel flange. Then, the moment-deformation relation can be expressed by a tetra-linear model, as
shown in Fig.5.4.4. In the sectional analysis, the steel web should be divided into about 30 fiber
elements in sectional height. This is based on the assumption that steel members are sufficiently
anchored into concrete. When the steel members are slipped from concrete, it should be verified using
other methods.

Plastic behavior of SRC members subjected to a bending moment can be calculated using the average
curvature in the plastic hinge region. Where, the plastic hinge length is given as the buckling length of
longitudinal bars, which is close to the spalling region of cover concrete. The deformation (lateral
displacement) is given from integrating the curvature distribution along column axis.

Although shear behavior with concrete cracks has not been clarified, a design method for RC members
is applied to evaluating shear rigidly of SRC columns. Before cracks occur, shear rigidity is evaluated
from assuming that the total cross-section is effective. For fatigue verification, stresses of steel
members and steel bars (or the shear force ratio of steel members to steel bars) are given as same as
bending rigidity, when the composite section conforms the Bernoulli-Euler’s assumption.

1 Concrete cracking
○
Displacement  P 2 Yield of steel
Load P
③ ④⑤ ⑥
○
⑦ 3 Concrete reach its
○
⑧ compressive strength
② 4
○ Buckling of longitudinal bars
5 Spalling of concrete cover
○
6 Fracture of longitudinal bars
○
① 7 Local buckling of steel flange
○
O  8 Concrete collapse
○

Fig.5.4.2 Relation of lateral load and displacement of cantilever SRC column

 108

(a) SRC section (b) Strain (c) Stress of concrete (d) Stress of concrete (e) Stress of steel
(approximation)

Fig.5.4.3 Strain and stress distribution by RC method

M
M Mc: bending moment at concrete cracking
Mm My: bending moment at yield of steel
My Y N Mm: The maximum bending moment
c: member rotation angle when crack occurs
y: member rotation angle at yield of steel
Mc
C m: member rotation angle at concrete spalling
(corresponding to the maximum strength)
n: member rotation angle at steel flange buckling
O c y m n 

Fig.5.4.4 Relation of bending moment and member rotation angle of SRC member

(3) Modeling of member

In many structural analyses, SRC members are modeled to beam elements. In addition, FE models
such as plate, shell, solid elements can be used for detailed verification. The load-displacement relation
has non-linear behaviors, as shown in Fig.5.4.2. Therefore, material plasticity should be considered in
structural analyses. In particular, for evaluating the post-peak behavior (see in Fig.5.4.2), it is important
to use established numerical models or experimental trials.

In the beam element model, it is necessary to find appropriate material properties, sectional layouts,
member shapes, and load conditions. There are two methods: i) relationship between bending moment
and rotation angle; ii) relationship between bending moment and curvature.

a) Analysis using the relationship between bending moment and rotation angle

a-1. Bending stiffness

The tetra-linear model shown in Fig.5.4.4 is assumed in many cases. The damage process is shown: i)
a bending crack occurs at point C; ii) steel bars or steel members yield at point Y; iii) buckling of
longitudinal bars and spalling of concrete cover occur at point M (the maximum bending moment);
and iv) steel flange buckles at point N. At each point, the bending moment and rotation angle are given
 109

below.

Point C
A bending crack occurs at point C. Therefore, the moment Mc is obtained from elastic cross-sectional
calculation assuming that whole cross-section is effective. In the calculation, tensile strength of
concrete considers the size effect.

Point Y
Steel bars or steel members yield at point Y. The moment My is obtained from non-linear cross-
sectional calculation considering tensile behavior of concrete. In the calculation, the Bernoulli-Euler’s
assumption can be applied when the steel members are sufficiently anchored to concrete. Rotation  y
is obtained with considering the effects of pull-out of steel from the connection, as follows.

 y0
y = +  y1 (5.4.1)
La

where,
 y0 : displacement due to deformation of column at point Y
La : shear span
 y1 : rotation due to pull-out of steel member at point Y

 y1 is calculated from Eq.5.4.2.

Sdy
 y1 = (5.4.2)
d − xy

where,
Sdy : pull-out displacement of longitudinal bars at point Y (mm)
d : effective sectional depth (mm)
xy : distance from compressive edge of concrete section to neutral axis at point Y (mm)

Pull-out displacement Sdy is calculated from Eq.5.4.3.

Sdy =
(
7.4   y 6 + 3500 y  ) (5.4.3)
2/3
f 'cd
where,
 : factor considering distance between steel bars and steel members
cs1 : spacing between center of tensile bars (mm)
 110

cs2 : distance from center of tensile bars to edge of steel flange (mm)
y : yield strain of steel bars
 : diameter of tensile steel bars
f 'cd : design compressive strength of concrete (material factor c = 1.0)

Point M
Buckling of longitudinal bars and spalling of concrete cover occur at point M. The bending moment
Mm is obtained from cross-sectional calculation, when the compressive strain at the edge of concrete
section is given as 0.0035. In the calculation, the Bernoulli-Euler’s assumption can be applied when
the steel members are sufficiently anchored to concrete. Assuming that buckling of longitudinal bars
and concrete spalling occur closely, rotation m is obtained with considering the rotation due to pull-
out of steel from connection, as follows.

 m0
m = +  m1 (5.4.4)
La

where,
m0 : displacement due to deformation of column at point M
La : shear span
m1 : rotation due to pull-out of steel member at point M

Displacement m0 can be obtained from curvature distribution as follows.

 Lp 
 m0 =  y 0 + (m −  y ) Lp  La −  (5.4.5)
 2 

where,
 y0 : displacement due to deformation of column at point Y
m : average curvature in buckling region of longitudinal bars; in general, the buckling region
equals to the equivalent plastic range Lp
y : curvature at point Y

The average curvature is obtained from Eq.5.4.6.

1  f ryk  
2
 2SN B  (5.4.6)
m = − ln  − b B   −   + B
ad '  Es
    

d'
where,
a = 180
 111

b = 1/100
 = 0.045
d' : distance between tensile and compressive steel bars
fryk : yield strength of longitudinal bars
Es : Young’s modulus of longitudinal bars
S : spacing between ties
NB : number of ties in the buckling region
 : diameter of longitudinal bars
B : additional strain considering effects of ties and cover concrete

The plastic hinge length Lp is obtained from Eq.5.4.7, when a diameter of longitudinal bars is 10-35mm,
sectional ratio of steel members to steel bars is less than 10, and shear span ratio is 1.3-5.6.

 
L p = L p 0 (1 + 0.04tek ) m − 0.25 + 12( − 12)
M (5.4.7)
 My 
where,
Lp0 = 0.5d + 0.05La
d : effective sectional height; in general, distance from center of tensile bars to compressive edge
of concrete section
tek : sectional ratio of steel members to steel bars

Rotation angle m1 can be obtained from Eq.5.4.8.

 2.0 N ' 
m1 =  3.0 −  y1 (5.4.8)
 N 'b 

where,
N' : axial load
Nb ' : balanced axial force
 y1 : rotation due to pull-out of steel member at point Y

Point N
Local buckling of steel flange occurs at point N. The bending moment Mn is obtained from Eq.5.4.9
considering the buckling strain of steel plate.

M buc La
Mn = (5.4.9)
L
La − buc
2

where,
 112

Mbuc : bending moment at center of buckling length of steel flange

La : shear span
Lbuc : buckling length of steel flange

Bending moment Mbuc is expressed by Eq.(5.4.10).

 d '  buc 
M buc = A f d '  f syk + Et  + f syk x0tw (d '− x0 ) (5.4.10)
 2 x0 

where,
Af : sectional area of one-side steel flange
d' : distance between compressive and tensile steel flange
fsyk : yield strength of steel flange
Et : tangential plastic stiffness after yield of steel (Es/100)
 buc : buckling strain of steel flange
x0 : distance from compressive edge of concrete section to neutral axis
tw : web thickness of steel member

Rotation angle can be calculated from Eq.5.4.11 as well as point M.

 n0
n = +  n1 (5.4.11)
La

where,
n0 : deformation of column at point N
La : shear span
n1 : rotation due to pull-out of steel member at point N (equals to m1)

Considering yield of compressive and tensile steel flanges, the deformation can be obtained from
integrating a curvature distribution, as shown in Fig.5.4.5.
 113

領域Ⅰ：圧縮および引張フランジがとも
に塑性化する区間
Region I: Both compressive and tensile flanges
領域Ⅱ：圧縮フランジのみが塑性化する
become plastic
区間 Region II: Only compressive flanges become
領域Ⅲ：圧縮および引張フランジがとも
plastic
に弾性である区間
Region III: Both compressive flanges are elastic

Lp1: Length of Region I, calculated as below.

L p1 ：領域Ⅰの長さで、次式により算定
Lp1 = La (1-Ma / Mn)
する。
LpL1 p2=: La (1 − M
Length / M n ) II, calculated as below.
ofa Region
Lp2 = (Ma -Msy ) h / Mn
L p 2 ：領域Ⅱの長さで、次式により算定
Mn

する。
[曲げモーメント分布] [曲率分布] Lp 2 = (M a − M sy )h / M n
Distribution of Distribution of
bending moment curvature

Fig.5.4.5 Assumption of curvature distribution at point N

Applicable conditions
The above equations and methods are based on the cyclic loading tests of SRC columns with the
conditions: i) shear span ratio is less than 7; ii) sectional ratio of steel member to concrete section is
2.5-5.0%; iii) sectional ratio of steel members to longitudinal bars is 2-10; iv) sectional ratio of ties is
less than 0.15%; and v) ratio of axial load is 0-0.5. When a parameter is out of these conditions, detailed
method should be used.

a-2. Shear rigidity

Since shear behaviors with bending and shear cracks have been not investigated enough, shear rigidity
is determined from the equivalent method for RC members.

Before bending and shear cracks occur, shear rigidity is obtained with assuming that the whole section
is effective. After bending cracks occur and before shear cracks occur, shear rigidity is obtained with
considering reduction of rigidity due to bending cracks. After shear cracks occur, the truss mechanism
is assumed to form the compressive diagonal strut (concrete and steel members) and the tensile
diagonal strut (steel members and shear reinforcing steel bars). Deformation of the truss mechanism
can be taken as a shear deformation of a SRC member.

b) Structural analysis using relation between bending moment and curvature

The bending moment and shear rigidity are mentioned as a). The curvatures are described below.
 114

Curvature at point C
Subjected to the bending moment Mc, the curvature is calculated with assuming the whole cross-section
is effective.

Curvature at Point Y
The yield curvature is obtained from Eq.5.4.12.

 ry
y = (5.4.12)
d − xy

where,
 ry : yield strain
d : effective sectional height; in general, distance from compressive edge of concrete section to center
of tensile steel bars
xy : distance from compressive edge of concrete section to neutral axis

Curvature at point M
The average curvature, in the plastic hinge length, is obtained from Eq.5.4.6.

Curvature at point N
The average curvature, in the plastic hinge length, is obtained from Eq.5.4.13.
 n0 −  y 0
n = + y (5.4.13)
 L 
 La − p  L p
 2 
where,
 n0 : deformation of SRC at point N
 y0 : deformation of SRC at point Y
La : shear span
Lp : equivalent plastic hinge length (Eq.5.4.7)

(4) Structural Analysis

For structural design of SRC members, material plasticity should be appropriately modeled. Generally,
the beam theory considering material plasticity is used. However, when the strains are small enough
for plastic behaviors, the materials can be treated using elastic models.

(5) Accumulation of strength

When an SRC column is subjected to axial load and bending moment, its strengths can be evaluated
from a design method for RC members; which is based on the Bernoulli-Euler’s assumption, if the end
of the column is sufficiently anchored.
 115

On the other hand, if the steel members are not sufficiently anchored within concrete section; in general,
the strengths of SRC can be evaluated safely as the summation of the strengths of RC section and that
of steel section independently (Fig.5.4.6). For each of the RC and steel section, correlation curve
between axial and bending strengths is obtained. This is called the simple accumulation strength
method.

src rc s
Mu Mu Mu

Nu
src
=
Nu
rc + Nu
s

SRC section Steel section

SRC断面 RCRC断面
section S(鋼)断面

Fig.5.4.6 Calculation of correlation strength by the simple cumulative method

Standard Specification for Hybrid Structure (2014) 5) allows that the simple accumulation strength
method can be used for SRC columns instead of generalized accumulation strength method which
requires additional calculations.

In the simple accumulation strength method, RC members and steel members can be independently
treated, therefore, the previous knowledge of these structures can be effectively utilized. This is a merit
of this method. On the other hand, the centroids of RC section and steel section should not be much
different, in addition, the strengths of both members should not be much different for applying the
simple accumulation strength method. When the steel ratio becomes high, bending compressive failure
of concrete would occur. In this case, the accumulated strength may not give a safe evaluation.
Additionally, when bond between concrete and steel significantly affect rigidity of SRC members, the
simple accumulation method may be not proper.

Shear strength can be also evaluated from summation of shear strength of RC member and that of steel
member. Shear strength of RC member is evaluated as Vrc+Vw, where Vrc is shear strength of RC
member without ties, and Vw is shear strength of ties. When steel member is truss type or has full web,
the steel member can resist shear forces by itself. Whereas, when steel tubes are covered with concrete,
it is reasonable and safe that the shear strength of the steel tubes is not considered in design, since the
steel tubes cannot resist shear forces enough before RC section fails.
 116

(6) Verification of safety

Before steel members and concrete are unified (pre-composite section), the steel members only are
considered in strength evaluation. On the other hand, after steel members and concrete are unified
(post-composite section), the strengths are evaluated considering steel-concrete composite section.
Safety verification in both conditions must be satisfied. Limit values must be defined for axial force,
bending moments, shear forces, and torsion. These design sectional forces should be within the limit
values. Pre-composite section is verified by Steel/Composite Standard Specification [Design Part] 6).
On the other hand, post-composite section is verified using the following limit values.

a) Bending moment
The bending strength Mud can be obtained from sectional calculation considering the Bernoulli-Euler’s
assumption as same as a design method for RC members. Then, the structural response is compared
with the bending strength. Where, the influences of shear forces and torsion to the bending strength is
not considered, since this capacity mechanism has not been clarified enough.

b) Axial forces
When ties are used, the design axial compressive strength N'oud is obtained from Eq.5.4.14.

0.85 f 'cd Ac + f ' yd As + f 'ryd Ar (5.4.14)

N 'oud =
b

where,
f 'cd : design compressive strength of concrete
f 'yd : design yield strength of steel members
f 'ryd : design yield strength of longitudinal bars
Ac : sectional area of concrete
As : sectional area of steel members
Ar : sectional area of longitudinal bars
 b : member factor (generally,  b = 1.3)

The response is compared with the strength N 'oud.

5.4.2 Concrete-filled steel tube (CFT) columns

(1) Characteristics of CFT
CFT columns have been used for columns of lower floors of medium and high-rise buildings. Also,
CFT is used for end-part of arch ribs of hybrid arch bridges, since CFT has high seismic performance
and energy absorption capacity. In addition, CFT is used for lower part of steel piers because of the
high impact resistance. CFTs have various types of cross-sections, as shown in Fig.5.4.7. When tubes
and concrete are unified, CFTs behave as composite members. Concrete is confined with a steel tube
 117

when concrete is casted fully and tightly. For unifying steel tube and concrete, for example, headed
studs are attached inside of the steel tube, or stiff diaphragms are welded at the column edge. Instead,
in some cases, steel bars are welded inside of steel tubes.

Fig.5.4.7 Examples of concrete filled tube structural members

It is thought that CFT columns have high structural performances as well as SRC columns. Advantages
of CFT shows as below.

1) There is no loss of section due to failure, and the strength decrease is slight.
2) Shear failure is unlikely to occur compared with RC and SRC members.
3) Shrinkage is slight in CFT. When sectional ratio of steel is relatively high, the effect of creep is
small for strength and rigidity.
4) Fire resistance is improved comparing with steel structures because of the filled concrete.
5) Buckling resistance of tube is improved since the filled concrete restrains local buckling toward
tube inside. This saves welding diaphragms.

CFT has advantages during construction since mold and steel bars are not needed. These advantages
can save labors comparing with RC or SRC structures. However, for concrete casting into steel tubes,
high flowability and workability (but less breathing) are required. Quality control of casting concrete
is essential for high performance of CFT.

Considering sectional constitution for both steel tube and concrete is necessary, because these resist
axial forces. For example, share resistance ratio of steel tube should be 0.2 to 0.9. As the ratio increases,
the behavior of CFT closes to that of steel member. As the ratio decreases, properties of concrete
become dominant.

(2) Mechanical behaviors of CFT members

In the damage process to failure of CFT columns, the effects of material plasticity due to yield of steel
tube, local buckling of tube, and compressive failure of concrete should be considered. In a design for
RC members, the Bernoulli-Euler’s assumption is applied, assuming perfect bond between steel bars
and concrete. This is also applied to performance evaluation of CFT members. The structural
characteristics of CFT are classified into three points: i) the point when steel tube yield (the response
 118

strain reaches the yield strain at 45 degrees from the outer edge of tube); ii) the point when steel tube
buckles locally or filled concrete fails; and iii) the point when resistance capacity decreases to 90% of
the maximum strength (widening of local buckling). Therefore, the relation between bending moment
and deformation (member rotation angle or curvature) is modeled to a tri-linear curve.

Subjected to a bending moment, member deformation can be obtained from integrating curvature
distribution. Simply, an average curvature in buckling length of steel tube (equivalent plastic hinge
length) is assumed in the calculation of member deformation.

P
荷重 P 変位δ 
Displacement ③ 1 yield of tensile or compressive
○
Load P ② ④
① side of steel tube
2 filled-concrete reaches
○
compressive strength
3 Local buckling of steel tube
○
4 Spreading of buckling of tube
○

O 

Fig.5.4.8 Relation of lateral load and displacement of cantilever CFT column

M
M
Mm My: bending moment at yield
My
Y N Mm: maximum bending moment
Mn: 90% of maximum bending moment
y: member rotation angle at yield
m: member rotation angle at local buckling of tube
(corresponding to the maximum moment)
n: member rotation angle at spreading local buckling of tube
O y m n


Fig.5.4.9 Relation of bending moment and member rotation angle of CFT member

(3) Characteristics of strength property

Compressive strength and ultimate strain of the filled concrete were improved from confined effects
with the steel tube, as shown in Fig.5.4.10. The ultimate strain of 0.006 (generally, 0.0035 is given for
RC sections) can be given, unless rectangular tubes of high strength steel were used.

On the other hand, a CFT doesn’t collapse as soon as the steel tube buckles, since the filled concrete
also resists loads. Therefore, in design, the compressive strength of steel tube is given considering the
influence of filled concrete.
 119

Both steel tube and filled concrete resist shear forces. However, usually only the steel tube is
considered in evaluating shear strength, since the shear behavior of CFT has not been clarified. Also
in evaluating torsional strength, only the steel tube is considered.

Side restrain
側方拘束力 force

Tensile stresses occur in the

circumference direction as failure
Gap
肌離れ
progresses (volume expansion).
鋼管
充填コンクリートの破壊進行(体積膨張)
拘束力は小さ
にともなう円周方向引張応力の発生
鋼管
Steel
い
一様に 拘束力が大きい
圧縮

充填コンクリート
Filled concrete 充填コンクリート
Uniformly
compressed Yield surface of Von Mises
Von Misesの降伏曲面

Side pressure
Axial stress

 10x20cm specimen

Axial strain

Fig.5.4.10 Example of strength and limit strain of confined concrete6)

(4) Structural analysis

In a design of CFT, material plasticity should be appropriately modeled. Generally, the beam theory is
utilizable. Of course, when the response is smaller than yield of steel tube, elastic model is used for
steel model in a design of CFT.

(5) Verification of safety

Safety verification of CFT is conducted as below. First, steel section only is verified before steel tube
 120

and concrete are unified. After the unification, the composite section of CFT is considered in safety
verification. Safety verifications in both conditions must be satisfied. Limit values must be defined for
axial force, bending moments, shear forces, and torsion. Then, the responses (sectional forces) should
be within these limit values.

Failure verification of pre-composite section is conducted using Steel/Composite Standard

Specification [Design Part]. On the other hand, for post-composite section, bending strength Mud and
axial strength N'ud are obtained as shown below. Then, the responses (sectional forces) are compared
with these strengths.

The bending strength Mud is obtained from sectional calculation considering the Bernoulli-Euler's
assumption. Where, the influence of local buckling of steel tube is considered in the calculation.

The axial compressive strength N'oud is obtained from Eq.5.4.15. Where, the influences of both global
and local buckling of steel tube are considered in the equation.

0.85 f 'cd Ac + f 'sud As

N 'oud =  (5.4.15)
b

where,
 : reduction factor of global buckling from Eq.5.4.16.

1.0 (  0.2)

 = 1 (5.4.16)
 −  − ( ) 2 (  0.2)
2

where,

= 
(
1 1 +    − 0.2
+ 1



)
2
2
  

 : slenderness ratio
 : factor for initial imperfection
f'cd : design compressive strength of concrete
f'sud : design compressive strength of steel tube
Ac : sectional area of concrete
As : sectional area of steel tube
 b : member factor (generally,  b = 1.3 )
 121

The response (sectional force) is compared to the strength N'oud.

Exercise-1
When you design continuous composite girders, explain how to deal with the composite behavior for
negative bending moments.

Exercise-2
Answer the following questions about the figure below. Note that design compressive strength of
concrete f'ck is 30.0 N/mm2, steel grade is SM400 (tensile strength fuk is 400 N/mm2), and steel yield
strength fyk is 235 N/mm2. Partial safety factors and action loads are shown in the Table below.
(1) Find the distance x from the upper edge of RC slab to the plastic neutral axis. Moreover, obtain
design bending strength Mud.
(2) Verify the safety (section failure) of this section.

Table: Partial safety factors

Material factor Action factors Structural Structure Member
Concrete Steel Dead Load Live Load analysis factor factor factor
c s  fd  f a i b
1.3 1.05 1.1 1.2 1.0 1.1 1.05

Table: Acting bending moment

Pre-composite and post-
Live load
composite dead loads
2038 kN･m 2345 kN･m

2600
240

280×13

1600×9

460×22
 122

References
1) Nakai H. and Kitada T.: New version, Bridge Engineering, Kyoritsu Shuppan, 2003.12.
2) Japan Road Association: Specification for road bridges and commentary, I: Common Part, II: Steel
Bridge Part, Maruzen, 2012.
3) American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO): LRFD bridge
design specifications -2005 interim revisions, Washington, D.C. 2005.
4) European Committee for Standardization (CEN): Eurocode 4, Design of Composite Steel and
Concrete Structures, Part 2, Bridges 1, Draft, Brussels, Belgium, 1996.
5) JSCE: Standard Specification for Steel/Composite Structures, - General Part, Structural Plan Part,
Design -, Maruzen, 2007.3.
6) Sakino K.: Current status of research of confined concrete, Concrete Engineering, Vol.30, No.12，
pp.5-12, 1992.12.
 123

Chap. 6 Design of Mixed Structures

6.1 Introduction
A mixed structure is a structure where more than two different types of members such as steel
members, concrete members and various composite members are connected. In mixed structures,
constituting members can be chosen depending on usage conditions and objectives, and
consequently the strength, stiffness and ductility of different types of members are effectively
utilized. Therefore, mixed structures have attracted attentions and actively been applied. Mixed
structures also give design engineers large freedom of structural planning and design. The
performance of mixed structures depends on that of connections which should be designed as an
independent member in a structure.

Suppose that the connection of the RC member and the steel member is subjected to bending
moment and shear force as shown in Fig.6.1.1. When the connection is subjected to shear force, as
it resists the force to slip in the vertical direction, bond action is required at the connection. This
bond action can be thought to be the same as that between concrete slab and steel girder in the
composite beam. In Fig.6.1.1, the headed studs attached on the end of the steel member resist this
shear force. When the connection part is subjected to a positive bending moment, bearing forces act
on the upper side of members where the concrete member and the steel member push each other,
whereas on the tension side they move away so as to produce a gap between them. Therefore, on
the compressive side of a boundary plane, countermeasures such as use of thicker steel plates to
widen the bearing area is necessary so that the end of concrete member will not crush nor stress
concentration does not occur at the steel plate. On the other hand, on the tensile side of the
boundary plane, bond action should be added, for example by introducing pre-stress forces with PC
bars, to resist tensile forces.

Bearing
支圧
RC member Steel member
鉄筋コンクリート部材 鋼部材

M M
M PC bar
PC鋼棒 M

Q Q
Q Q
ずれ止め 口開き
q Shear connector Gap opening q

Fig.6.1.1 Connection of steel member and RC member

6.2 Classification of connections

Connections indicate the whole area which is necessary to transfer sectional forces between two
members. The connections of members of different types can be between members such as girders
and columns, columns and piles, corner part of box-type structures, girder and girder, pier and
 124

footing, and so on (Fig. 6.2.1). Some of the connected structures are introduced below.

(1) Classification by materials of connected members

・Connection between steel members and RC members
・Connection between SRC members and RC members
・Connection between steel pipe with concrete members and RC members
・Connection between PC members and RC members

(2) Classification by direction of connection

・Series type: Two different types of members are connected in series.
・Perpendicular type: Connection of two different types of members whose member axis are
crossed at right angles, such as horizontal member and vertical member, or lateral member and
vertical member

(3) Classification by force transfer property of connection (rotational rigidity of connection)

・Rigid connection: Bending moment and shear forces are transferred. The effect of rotation of the
member on the distribution of sectional forces is negligible.
・Pin connection: Only shear forces are transferred. It possesses sufficient rotational capacity.
・Intermediate connection: Bending moment and shear forces are transferred. The effect of rotation
of the member on the distribution of sectional forces is not negligible.

steel steel steel

steel concrete steel

concrete concrete Girder and girder

concrete concrete

Girder and pier Corner of rigid frame

steel
concrete

concrete steel

Pier and footing Pier/Abutment and girder

and pier

Fig.6.2.1 Application of connections of different types of members

 125

6.2.1 Beam to beam

Suppose that the RC beam is connected with the steel beam in the longitudinal direction, as shown
in Fig. 6.2.2. When the members are subjected to axial forces, shear forces and bending moments,
these forces must be smoothly transferred at the connection. The basic design method in the case
shown in Fig. 6.2.2 is described in this section.

RC beam
鉄筋コンクリートはり Steel
鋼はりbeam
0.85fcd

yc C
M N dp x
N
PC
PC bar
鋼棒 M
Tp
Q Q
ひずみ分布 応力分布 ひずみ分布
ずれ止め Strain stress strain
終局限界状態
Ultimate 使用限界状態
Serviceability
limit state limit state
Fig.6.2.2 Connection of steel beam with concrete beam

In this kind of structure, the axial strength is not usually critical. Therefore, let us first evaluate the
bending strength under the compressive axial forces including pre-stress forces. On the
compression side, the end of the steel member and concrete are pressed each other in the connected
plane, by which stresses are transferred. Therefore, using the same evaluation method for RC
member and assuming the strain and stress distribution due to compressive axial force and bending
moment as in Fig. 6.2.2, the bending strength Mu is obtained as follows.

( ) 
M u = T p d p − yc + C yc −
0.8 
x (6.2.1)
 2 

where, Tp : additional axial forces in pre-stressing bars caused by bending moments, C : total forces
due to compressive stresses in concrete, and yc : a position of centroid of cross-section. The position
of the neutral axis x is obtained by the following equilibrium relation.

N = C − Tp (6.2.2)

As for the serviceability condition, assuming that no gap occurs on the tensile side, the limit value
of bending moment is obtained based on the stress distribution where all the section is in
compression (Fig.6.2.2).

On the other hand, when bending moment acts at the connection between the steel beam and RC
beam, the connection may be designed, where bending moment can be resisted by a couple of
 126

forces, as shown in Fig. 6.2.3. In this case, shear connectors must be attached to transfer forces, and
the bending strength Mu can be obtained by the shear force T working at the shear connector part.

M u = T  h = n  Qa  h (6.2.3)

where, Qa : shear strength of a shear connector, and n : number of shear connectors.

RC beam Steel beam

鉄筋コンクリートはり 鋼はり
T

M h M

T
ずれ止め
Shear connector

Fig.6.2.3 Transfer of bending moment at connection of steel beam with concrete beam

When shear forces act at the connection of the steel beam and the RC beam, shear connectors are
attached on the contact plane of both members to resist the external shear forces. The shear strength
Qu in this case is obtained as below.

Qu = n  Qa (6.2.4)

Next, the connection of the steel girder and the pre-stressed concrete girder (referred to as PC
girder hereafter) is explained with Fig. 6.2.4, where these girders are connected in series in the axial
direction by using concrete-filled steel cells with shear connectors and PC bars. The steel girder has
multi-cells at the connection which work as the anchor structure. The PC bars are anchored at the
back plate of the steel cells. Shear connectors are attached to the steel cells which are filled with
concrete.

Another type of connection is shown in Fig. 6.2.5, where the steel girder and the PC girder are
connected with the bearing connection. In this connection type, shear forces are transferred by the
friction forces caused by bearing forces at the connection. Therefore, no shear connector is used at
the connection plane or inside steel cells. The connection between the steel girder and the PC girder
consists of the in-situ concrete part and the bearing part of steel structure filled with concrete. The
connection is unified by introducing pre-stress forces by PC bars, and shear forces are transferred
by friction forces between the front plate of the bearing part and the in-situ concrete.
 127

There are three types of failure of shear keys: ① bending failure, due to main steel in tension
yields at the connection section, buckling of main steel in compression, or compressive failure of
concrete, ② shear slip at the connection section or shear failure of shear keys, and ③ bearing
failure of concrete contacting steel plates.

railing

pavement

PC bar

steel cell back bearing plate

filled concrete Steel girder part

(a) Overview of Connection
Connection part
PC girder part

PC girder Connection Steel girder Connection length

PC bar Shear connectors Steel cell PC bar Filled concrete Steel

PBL Back bearing plate

Back bearing plate

End of concrete Filled concrete (c) Detail of steel cell
(High fluid concrete)
(b) Sideview of Connection

Fig.6.2.4 Example of connection of steel girder with PC member

Filled concrete
Back bearing plate Reinforcing
Front bearing plate plate
PC bar U-rib

In-situ Bearing Longitudinal rib

PC girder concrete Part Steel girder Steel girder
reinforcing
Connection part
Fig.6.2.5 Example of bearing connection of steel girder with PC member
 128

6.2.2 Column to beam

When the steel girder and the RC column are rigidly connected and subjected to shear force and
bending moment, as shown in Fig. 6.2.6, the rigid connection must resist these sectional forces.

Steel girder D Shear connector

Shear connector
RC column

Qh

Fig.6.2.6 Example of connection of steel girder with RC column

The bending moment between the RC column and the steel girder is resisted by the shear
connectors attached on the web of the cross beams. The bending strength of the rigid connection is
expressed by the following equation.

M u = n  Qa  D (6.2.5)

where, D : distance between cross beams, Qa : shear strength of a shear connector, and n : number
of shear connectors. In a structure shown in Fig. 6.2.6, the force transferred by shear connectors on
the web is transferred to steel bars in concrete inserted in the steel girder, then finally transferred to
the RC pier.

On the other hand, the shear force is transferred from the steel girder to the RC pier by shear
connectors attached on the lower flanges of the steel girder. Therefore, the shear strength Qu can be
calculated by the same equation as Eq. (6.2.4).

Fig.6.2.7 shows an example of this type of connection. The steel girder is connected to the vertical
RC pier. The top part of the RC column is enclosed by the steel girder and the cross beams.
Diaphragms are also set between cross beams to increase the confinement degree of filled concrete.
 129

Cross beam
Diaphram with holes
Headed stud
Stiffener with holes
Main rebar
Steel girder
Connection part

Rebar on flange

RC pier

Ａ Ａ
Ｃ－Ｃ

Ｃ
25

Ｂ Ｂ

下フランジ付き鉄筋
Rebar on flange
Ｃ

Ａ－Ａ Ｂ－Ｂ

Diaphram
ダイアフラム

Stiffener
垂直補剛材

Fig.6.2.7 Example of connection of steel girder with RC pier

6.2.3 Column to foundation

When steel columns are fixed to concrete footing, as shown in Fig.6.2.8 and Fig.6.2.9, the
connection is subjected to axial force, shear force and bending moment. The type of Fig.6.2.8 is
called “RC type”, and that of Fig.6.2.9 “pile type”. The compressive and tensile forces are resisted
by concrete under the base plate and anchor bolts, respectively, in the RC type. Both compressive
and tensile forces are resisted by anchor bolts in the pile type1).
 130

Steel Steel
column column

N Anchor bolt N Anchor bolt

Q M Q M

Concrete footing Anchor beam Concrete footing Anchor beam

Fig.6.2.8 Anchor frame type (RC type) Fig.6.2.9 Anchor frame type (Pile type)

Longitudinal
Anchor bolt stiffener
Base plate
CFT column

Anchor frame

Base plate

Fig.6.2.10 Example of connection of CFT Fig.6.2.11 Example of connection of CFT

member by anchor frame type member by embedded type

Strengths of section, necessary for designing these two types of connections, are explained here.
When the anchor section of the RC type of Fig. 6.2.8 is subjected to axial force N and bending
moment M, the RC method is applied with the concrete in compression and the anchor bolts
considered as steel bars. Therefore, the bending strength can be obtained by the same idea as Eq.
(6.2.1), where Tp is replaced by the axial force of anchor bolts. For the pile type of Fig. 6.2.9,
neglecting the compressive resistance of concrete, only anchor bolts resist axial forces and bending
moments. Therefore, the bending strength of a rectangular section is obtained as follows:

M u = n  Nu  D (6.2.6)

where, Nu : yield force of an anchor bolt on the compression side, n : number of anchor bolts on the
compression side, and D : a distance between centroids of anchor bolts in compression and tension.
 131

Shear forces are resisted by only anchor bolts in both types. Shear strength of anchor part Qu can be
obtained by Eq.(6.2.7), where Qa : shear strength of an anchor bolt, and n : number of anchor bolts.

Qu = n  Qa (6.2.7)

Fig. 6.2.10 shows the anchor frame type used for the connection of concrete-filled steel columns to
footing, Fig. 6.2.11 is the embedded type with the concrete-filled steel pipe column directly
embedded into the RC footing, and Fig. 6.2.12 is the socket type with the concrete-filled steel
column inserted into the steel pipe pile or the sockets of steel pipe filled with concrete.

CFT column CFT column

Filled concrete Filled concrete

Socket
Socket pipe
pipe CFT pile

In-situ column

Fig.6.2.12 Connection of steel member with RC member

6.2.4 Jointless structures at bridge abutments

(1) Introduction
As the number of bridges with an age over 50 years is increasing, and a large amount of budget is
needed for repair and reinforcement, it is required to reduce the cost of maintenance. In addition,
considering the life cycle cost, not only the maintenance cost but also the initial cost should be
reduced. At present, many bearings and expansion joints are adopted in Japanese bridges. As
bridges are getting older, damages and degradation are found at those bearings and expansion joints,
creating a serious problem. This leads to jointless structures at bridge abutments which requires no
bearing nor expansion joint.

A jointless structure at bridge abutments is a structure that the girder and the abutment are rigidly
connected at the girder ends eliminating bearings and expansion joints, which can reduce the initial
cost and also the maintenance cost. On the other hand, deformation of the girder is absorbed by
 132

bearings and expansion joints in the conventional girder bridges. Therefore, there are some
problems to be solved, such as alternative functions to absorb girder deformation, clarification of
force transfer mechanism at the rigid connection, and long-term behavior of the jointless structure
at a bridge abutment.

In this section, classification and characteristics of jointless structures at bridge abutments are
described.

(2) Classification of jointless structures at bridge abutments

a) Rigid frame structure

In this structure, deformation of the girder is restrained by the rigid substructures or foundations.
The superstructure and substructure are rigidly connected at the abutment, as shown in Fig. 6.2.13,
where bearings and expansion joints are eliminated, but the foundation has the same structure as the
conventional abutment. This type is applied to bridges with a span length of 50 m or less and an
abutment height of 15 m or less2).

b) Integral abutment structure

In this structure, deformation of the girder is absorbed by flexibility of the abutment foundation.
The superstructure and substructure are rigidly connected at the abutment, as shown in Fig.6.2.14,
but the piles are arranged in one row so that the abutment can deform flexibly. This type is applied
to bridges with a span length of 40 m or less and an abutment height of 10 m or less2), 3).

Superstructure

Abutment

Rigid foundation

Fig.6.2.13 Rigid frame structure

 133

Superstructure

Abutment

Flexible foundation

Fig.6.2.14 Integral abutment structure

(3) Advantages of jointless structures at bridge abutments

Many of bearings and expansion joints are adopted in Japanese bridges. However, they have some
problems at the girder end such as malfunction of a drainage system and corrosion of bearings.
Advantages of jointless structures at bridge abutments are as follows.

a) Economy
Bearings, expansion joints and unseating prevention devices are unnecessary, which reduces the
initial cost. Maintenance works for the equipment are also unnecessary, which reduces maintenance
cost.

b) Drivability
Drivability is improved because superstructure and substructure are rigidly connected.

c) Seismic resistance
Risk of bridge fall at earthquake is reduced by integral pier caps between superstructures and
substructures. Deflection is smaller than the conventional bridge structure.

(4) Corner structure

Design specification on jointless structures at bridge abutments was first issued by the
Specifications of highway bridges, IV, Sub-structure1), in 2012. However, structural details are not
clearly specified at practical levels such as the length of embedded length or the force transfer
mechanism. Therefore, research and experiments on the corner section have been conducted in
Japan and various structures have been proposed and constructed. Some of them are introduced in
this section (Fig. 6.2.15) 4).
 134

(a) Rigid connection with (b) Rigid connection with PBL (c) Rigid connection with
headed studs holes in the web

Fig.6.2.15 Structures at corner4)

a) Rigid connection with headed studs

The steel girder is embedded into the concrete of the bridge abutment. Headed studs are welded on
the upper and lower flanges and the web of the steel girder at the corner.

b) Rigid connection with PBL

The steel girder is embedded into the concrete of the bridge abutment. PBLs are welded on the
upper and lower flanges and the web of the steel girder at the corner.

c) Rigid connection with holes on the web

Holes are made in the web of the steel girder embedded into the concrete, which work as shear
connectors. This method eliminates PBLs and improves economy and constructability.

6.3 Design of connections of different types of members

6.3.1 Basis of design

Performance of mixed structures consisting of different types of members is greatly affected by
performance of the connection of different types of members. The connection is taken as a
structural part and should be independently designed and verified. Mixed structures have
connections with more than two different types of members such as steel members, concrete
members and various composite members. The common verification method of the connection in a
mixed structure is not easily established because different types of members and structures have
many freedoms.

As the connection of different types of members affects safety of the whole structure, the
connection should have sufficient performance so that the whole structure can show the required
performance. Force transfer properties (rotational rigidity) at the connection is classified to the rigid
 135

connection or the pin connection, which transfers sectional forces such as axial forces, bending
moments and shear forces. To connect two different types of members at a section, a structure to
transfer sectional forces to each other is necessary, and it also requires the stress transfer area
including anchors and shear connectors. As there may be a sharp stress change in the member or
stress concentration for a certain connection type, the stress distribution area may be necessary to
decrease its effect. The stress transfer area and the stress distribution area are defined as the
connection of different types of members. The equipment to transfer sectional forces and transfer
mechanism is called as transfer elements, including mechanical force transfer with shear connectors,
force transfer by bond, and force transfer by bearing and friction5).

In a structural system with the connection of different types of members, it is necessary to

determine the order for the connection and the general part to reach limit state conditions in order
to satisfy the required performance.

As for serviceability, stress in the materials of the connection should be within an elastic range and
transfer forces working on the transfer elements such as shear connectors and bearing should also
be within an elastic range.

As for safety, the connection should not fail before the other parts in the connected members. This
is because, in the connection, there are many unknowns about nonlinear behaviors and deformation
performance, a failure mode of the connection is brittle in many cases, and it is difficult to repair
and strengthen when it is damaged. Whereas, in the general part, which is the other part than the
connection in the connected members, the plastic behaviors are clarified. Therefore, the general
part preferably fails before the connection. On the other hand, it is possible to design the connection
by considering its nonlinearity from an economical point of view, or to let the connection fail
before the general parts to secure safety of the whole structure. In these cases, connected section
dominates performance of the whole structure, and the behaviors of the connection and the whole
structure must be carefully studied after the connection is damaged. An improvement of verification
technology such as numerical analysis considering nonlinearity of the connection can lead to a
more rational and economical design of mixed structures than the current design.

6.3.2 Verification of section failure at connection

Safety of the connection must be verified according to the flow of forces, by assuming the force
transfer mechanism to let sectional forces be surely transferred.

Major failure types of the connection in mixed structures are as follows.

・Bending failure: yield of main steel members in tension, or buckling of main steel members in
compression or crush of concrete, at the connected section of a series connection type
 136

・Shear failure: shear failure of core concrete at the connection

・Shear transfer failure: shear slip failure at the connected section of a series connection type
・Bond and anchor failure: bond and anchor failure of column in core concrete of the connection or
main steel members of beams
・Bearing failure: bearing failure of concrete contacting steel members

The above failure types are dominated by concrete, except bending failure, and a failure mode is
brittle with small ductility and energy absorption. As there are various force transfer mechanisms in
each structure, no common method to accurately estimate the failure strength has been established.
Therefore, as for transferring sectional forces of axial forces, shear forces and bending moments at
the connection of different types of members, steel members and concrete members are allowed to
partly exceed the elastic limits in the connection, but it is designed to prevent compressive concrete
crush. The maximum of the transferred force of transfer mechanism (transfer elements) should not
reach the ultimate strength.

When multiple transfer elements resist sectional forces, a ratio of share among transfer elements
should be properly evaluated and the limit value should be set to satisfy compatibility conditions
between transfer elements. For example, when sectional forces are transferred by multiple transfer
elements such as shear connectors, bearing and friction, sharing ratios of transfer elements are
decided by proper analytical models, and then they are superposed to get the section strength. In
this case as shown in Fig. 6.3.1, as the maximum transferred forces of transfer elements A and B do
not always occur at the same displacement, this effect must be considered when a limit value is set
for each transfer element. When the sharing ratio is uncertain, a verification should be done by
considering only one major transfer element.

In verifying the connection, a distribution profile of transferred forces of transfer elements should
be obtained based on the assumed force transfer mechanism. For example, when shear connectors
are widely arranged, all the shear connectors do not equally work at the same time, and the
distribution of transfer forces due to arrangement of shear connectors must be obtained by proper
methods, as shown in Fig. 6.3.2.

In mixed structures, various connection methods of the different types of members are used, as
described in 6.2. For example, Fig. 6.3.3 shows the bearing connection of a steel member and a PC
member which are connected in the axial direction (series type). Fig. 6.3.4 shows the connection of
a steel girder and a RC column with a right angle between member axes (perpendicular type). There
are many transfer elements such as, shear connectors, bearing, friction, pre-stress, reinforced steel
bars, and so on. The connection is verified for axial forces, shear forces and bending moment acting
on the connection1).
 137

Transfer Transfer
force force
Transfer element A
Design section strength
RAmax
RB max
Design section forces
Transfer
element B

Displacement Position

Fig.6.3.1 Superpose of strength of transfer Fig.6.3.2 Distribution of transfer forces of

elements transfer elements

PC member Steel member

PC bar Shear connector

Fig.6.3.3 Bearing connection of steel member and PC member

Steel girder Shear connector

Cross beam

Steel bar
RC column

Fig.6.3.4 Connection of steel girder and RC pier

(1) Transfer of the axial forces

Nd
i   1.0 (6.3.1)
N ud

Nud = a1 N sud + a2 Nbud + a3 Noud (6.3.2)

 138

where,
Nd : design axial force
Nud : axial strength (resistance by shear connectors, resistance by bearing force
of steel and concrete)
Nsud : share of strength by shear connectors
a1 : share ratio of strength by shear connectors
Nbud : share of strength by bearing of steel and concrete
a2 : share ratio of strength by bearing of steel and concrete
Noud : share of strength by other transfer mechanism
a3 : share ratio of strength by other transfer mechanism
 i : structure factor
n
N sud = Vdi (6.3.3)
i =1

Provided that: Vdi  Vsud

where,
Vdi : transfer force due to shear force of a shear connector
Vsud : shear strength of a shear connector
n : number of shear connectors resisting axial force

Transfer force of each shear connector is obtained based on a distribution profile of transfer force
for the assumed transfer mechanism. Therefore, the total sum of transfer force of individual shear
connectors is the strength of the group of shear connectors, where the maximum transfer force in a
shear connector among the group of shear connectors is smaller than the shear strength of a shear
connector.

(2) Transfer of shear forces

Vd
i   1 .0 (6.3.4)
Vud
n
Vud = b1 Vdi + b2Voud (6.3.5)
i =1

Provided that: Vdi  Vsud

where,
Vd: design shear force
Vud : shear strength (resistance by shear connectors, resistance by friction)
 139

b1 : share ratio of shear strength by shear connectors

Voud : share of shear strength by other transfer mechanism
b2 : share ratio of shear strength by other transfer mechanism
Vdi : transfer force due to shear of a shear connector
Vsud : shear strength of a shear connector
n : number of shear connectors resisting shear force
 i : structure factor

Transfer force of each shear connector is obtained based on a distribution profile of transfer force
for the assumed transfer mechanism.

(3) Transfer of bending moment

Md
i   1.0 (6.3.6)
M ud

M ud = c1M sud + c2 M bud + c3M oud (6.3.7)

where,
Md : design bending moment
Mud : bending strength (resistance by shear connectors, resistance by bearing
of steel and concrete)
Msud : share of bending moment by shear connectors
c1 : share ratio of bending moment by shear connectors
Mbud : share of bending moment by bearing of steel and concrete
c2 : share ratio of bending moment by bearing of steel and concrete
Moud : share of bending moment by other transfer mechanism
c3 : share ratio of bending moment by other transfer mechanism
 i : structure factor

When bending moment is resisted by a couple of forces, the verification method becomes the same
as that of axial forces.

For the safety of the connection of members of different types and the general part of members,
Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures 20145) specify that Eq. (6.3.8) should be satisfied.
When the connection is designed so that it will not fail before the general part adjacent to the
connection does, the part (d1) that fails first is defined as the general part. On the other hand, when
the connection is designed so that it can fail before the general part adjacent to the connection does,
 140

the part (d1) that fails first is defined as the connection.

Sd 2 Sd1
m  (6.3.8)
Rd 2 Rd 1

where,
Sd1, Rd1 : design sectional force at the first failure position, its design sectional strength
Sd2, Rd2 : design sectional force at a general position which does not fail first, its design
sectional strength
αm : factor to control limit states of safety of the connection and general parts, 1.2 in general

Exercises
Explain merits and demerits of the jointless structure at abutment.

References
1) Kato, H., Ikeda, H., Hadano H., and Kawaoka, Y.: Automatic design program of the base part of
steel piers, Technical report of Nihon Kyoryo, pp.24-27, 1985.
2) Japan Road Association: Specifications for highway bridges and commentary, I: Common Part,
IV: Sub-structure, Maruzen, 2012.
3) Research Institute of Civil Engineering, Osaka Industrial University, Japan Bridge Construction
Association: Report on joint research on design and construction method of connection part of
the jointless structure at abutment, No.463, 2015.3.
4) Tenma, S., Iwasaki, N., Shinhira, N., Tsuda, Y., Morita, A., and Kurita, A.: Proposal and design
of new corner part on the portal Rahmen bridge using steel composite girder, Bridge and
Foundation, Vol.43, No.10, pp.25-30，2009.10.
5) JSCE: Standard Specifications for Hybrid Structures, 2015.5.
 141

Answers of exercises

Chapter 1 to 3
Omitted

Chapter 4
[Exercise-1]
aa a3 4

Moment of inertia of pile-beam: I =

n
4 =
12 3
a  ( 4a ) 16a
3
4

Moment of inertia of composite beam: I =

c
=
12 3
When a simple beam (span length l) is subjected to equally distributed load (q),
4
5q
the deflection at the mid-span is: v =
384EI

Putting the moment of inertia of the pile-beam and the composite beam into the this
equation, the answer is obtained as 16 times.

[Exercise-2]
Putting the specified values into Eq.(4.3.5) and Eq.(4.3.6), the design shear capacity are
obtained as follows.

31Ass (hss d ss ) f cd' + 10000 31 380.1 (200 22) 40 + 10000

Vssud = = = 2.347  105 N = 234.7 kN
b 1.0

Ass f ssud 380.1 400

Vssud = = = 1.520  105 N = 152.0 kN
b 1.0

The, the design shear capacity becomes 152.0 kN.

Chapter 5
[Exercise-1]
See Table5.2.1.
 142

[Exercise-2]
(1) The distance between the upper edge of concrete and the plastic neutral axis is obtained
by Eq.(5.2.28):
235
As f yd 28160 
x= = 1.05 = 123.6 mm  hc = 240 mm
0.85 f 'cd be 30.0
0.85   2600
1.3
The plastic neutral axis is found to be in the concrete section. Next, the distance d
between the upper edge of concrete and the centroid of the steel member is calculated.

A (cm 2 ) z (cm) Az (cm 3 )

1-Flg. pl. 280×13 36.4 -80.7 -2935.66

1-Web. pl. 1600×9 144.0 － －
1-Flg. pl. 460×22 101.2 81.1 8207.32

A s = 281.6 cm 2 G s = 5271.66 cm 3

Gs 5271.66
As the eccentricity distance is es = = = 18.72 c, d is found as follows.
As 281.6
d = 187.2 + 800 + 13 + 240 = 1240.2 mm
Then, the design bending strength M ud is found by Eq.(5.2.30).

235  123.6 
28160   1240.2 − 
As f yd Z a 1.05  2 
M ud = = = 7072 10 6 N･mm = 7072 kN･m
b 1.05

(2) Conducting safety verification, this cross section is found safe.

Sd 1.1 2038 + 1.2  2345

i = 1.1 = 0.79  1.0
Rd 7072

Chapter 6
[Exercise]
See 6.2.4 (3).

INDEXES
[A]
acrylic resin----------------------------------33
allowable stress design method-----14,21,79
anisotropic material-------------------------33
aramid fiber----------------------------------31
aromatic polyamide fiber-------------------33
[B]
Bauschinger effect-----------------------24,25
bearing connection-------------------126,136
bearing failure--------------------------56,127
bearing force---------------26,45,47,123,126
bearing part---------------------------------126
Bernoulli-Euler assumption
-------------44,79,107,115,117
boundary surface (plane)----------35,67,123
[C]
caisson with composite slab---------------10
carbon fiber----------------------------------31
CFRP (Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer)
---------------------------------34
CFT (Concrete-filled Steel Tubes)
----------------2,10,27,105,116
compact section--------------------------88,91
composite behaviors------------------------42
composite girder-----------------------------11
composite girder for dead and live loads
--------------------------------75
composite girder for live load----------75,94
composite member---------------2,27,75,123
composite pontoon--------------------------10
composite slab---------------------9,30,38,70
confined effect-----------------------------118
connected part-------------------------------97
connecting part--------------------------------2
143
connection at different types of member
-------------------------105,123
contact plane-------------------------------126
continuous fiber-----------------------------33
continuous fiber sheet-------------------30,33
continuous fiber reinforcement----------6,33
creep-------------4,25,29,42,58,64,81,86,105
[D]
different types of member-------4,9,105,123
drying shrinkage
-----4,5,30,42,58,62,75,81,85,95,117
[E]
effective width------------------------------78
embedded type-----------------------------131
epoxy resin-------------------------------33,47
extradosed bridge--------------------------7,9
[F]
FEM---------------------------------------24,71
fiber reinforcement--------------------------31
friction force----------------------------46,126
FRP (Fiber Reinforced Polymer)---11,20,30
FRP composite slab-------------------------38
[G]
GFRP-----------------------------------------38
glass fiber------------------------------------31
[H]
headed stud------------------2,47,75,100,134
hybrid arch bridge--------------------------72
hybrid cable-stayed bridge------------------2
hybrid rigid frame bridge---------------2,6,9

hybrid truss bridge---------------------------5
[I]
incomplete composite conditions----------67
incomplete composite theory--------------72
isotropic plate theory--------------------70,71
[J]
jointless structures at bridge abutments
-------------------------------131
[L]
limit states design method--------------14,79
[M]
mixed structural system--2,9,42,75,123,134
mixed-type continuous girder bridge-------9
multi-cells----------------------------------126
[N]
non-composite behaviors-------------------42
non-compact section---------------------88,94
[O]
orthotropic plate theory-----------------70,72
[P]
PC girder bridge with corrugated steel
plate web------------------------------7
PC girder bridge with steel truss web------7
PEN fiber-------------------------------------31
perfect composite conditions---------------67
144
perfobond shear connector-------53,101,127
perpendicular type-------------------------136
PET fiber-------------------------------------31
pile beam-------------------------------------42
polyacetal fiber------------------------------31
[R]
Robinson type composite slab-------------70
[S]
sandwich type composite plate-9,70,99,103
series type----------------------------------136
shear connector------2,6,10,11,46,70,82,91,
97,103,126,128,135
shear failure--------------------------------127
shear transfer failure----------------------136
shrinkage---------------------25,29,60,62,105
simple accumulation strength method --115
slender section-------------------------------88
slip rigidity-----------------------------------70
socket type----------------------------------131
SRC (steel reinforced concrete)
-----------------2,5,11,105,117
stacking sequence of laminates------------31
steel/concrete composite members--------27
[T]
temperature change----------------------30,58
thermosetting resin--------------------------33
[V]
vinylon fiber---------------------------------31