General Pathology (Lecture)
CELL
- Basic unit of life
- Building block of all living
things
Types of Cell
• Blood cell
• Muscle cell
• Fat cell
• Stem cell
TISSUE
- Group of cells
Main Functions of Cell
1. Metabolize and release energy
▪ Chemical reactions that occur within
cells
▪ Release of energy in the form of heat
that helps maintain body temperature
2. Synthesize molecules
▪ Cells differ from each other because
they synthesize different kinds of
molecules (Lipids, Protein, Nucleic
Acid)
3. Provide a means of communication
▪ Achieved by chemical and electrical
signaling
▪ Example:
• Chemical signaling- secretion of
neurotransmitters
• Electrical signaling- electrical
impulses from the neurons
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
▪ Mitosis (production of Somatic cells
(cells other than sex cells))
▪ Meiosis (product: Gametes or Sex cells)
PLASMA MEMBRANE
▪ Composed of Phospholipid bilayer
▪ Polar heads: hydrophilic
▪ Nonpolar tails: hydrophobic
Movement through the Cell Membrane
1. DIFFUSION
▪ Tendency for solutes (ion/molecules)
to move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration of that solute in solution
▪ Movement of molecules from higher
concentration to lower concentration
▪ Freely passing
▪ Does not require energy
▪ Example: diffusion of perfume;
diffusion of fart
2. OSMOSIS
▪ Is the diffusion of water (solvent)
across a selectively permeable
membrane, such as the cell membrane
of higher water concentration to one
of lower water concentration
▪ Movement of molecules through a
selective permeable membrane
▪ Usually, it is assisted by proteins
▪ Sometimes, it requires energy
▪ It is the process to maintain
homeostasis
▪ Principle of Osmosis is seen in
Hypertonic, Isotonic and Hypotonic
▪ Note: WHERE SODIUM GOES, WHERE
GLUCOSE GOES, WATER FOLLOWS
3. MEDIATED TRANSPORT
▪ Process by which transport protein
mediate or assist in the movement of
ions (such as glucose) and molecules
across the plasma membrane
4. VESICULAR TRANSPORT
▪ Transport of large particles and
macromolecules across plasma
membrane
▪ By means of exocytosis and
endocytosis (engulfment of molecules
and will pass through the membrane to
release molecules)
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CYTOPLASM
▪ The material between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus
▪ It is an essential and vital portion of the
cell
▪ Half Cytosol
• Consist of fluid part (site of
chemical reaction), the
cytoskeleton and cytoplasmic
inclusion
• Organelles are freely floating
▪ Half Organelles
• Cytoplasmic inclusions are
aggregates of chemicals either
produced by the cell or taken in
• Organelles: Nucleus,
mitochondria, ribosomes, SER,
RER
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES
▪ Specialized subcellular structures
specific functions
▪ Membranous
• Mitochondria, peroxisomes,
lysosomes, ER, Golgi apparatus
▪ Nonmembranous
• Centrioles and ribosomes
MITOCHONDRIA
▪ Long bodies similar to bacteria that
serves as ATP synthesis
▪ “Powerhouse” of the cell
RIBOSOMES
▪ For protein synthesis
▪ Amino acid are translated to proteins
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
▪ Series of membrane forming sacs and
tubules that extends from the outer
nuclear membrane
▪ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
• Site of Protein synthesis
▪ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
• Site of Lipid and Carbohydrate
synthesis
• Detoxification
VESICLES
▪ Small, membrane-bound sac that
transports or stores materials
PEROXISOMES
▪ Membranous sacs containing oxidases
and catalases which is important to
fight microorganisms
CYTOSKELETON
▪ Consist of CHON (proteins) that
supports the cell, hold the organelles
▪ Framework of the cells
▪ Examples
• Microtubules
• Microfilaments
• Intermediate filaments
▪ Inclusion:
• Fat granules
• Glycogen granules
• Lipofuchsin granules
NUCLEUS
▪ Located at the center of the cell
▪ Carries genetic material or genetic code
(DNA and RNA which is located in the
Chromatin)
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EPITHELIAL TISSUE - Example: Trachea
• Stereocilia- non-motile projection
▪ Cover the exterior body surfaces and
- Example: Epididymis
the internal closed cavities and
• Keratinization
covering of its contents
- Keratinized
▪ Lining of surfaces internally and
- Non- keratinized
externally
Two special Categories
Classification
1. Pseudostratified Epithelium
➢ Based on
▪ Cells appear to be stratified but in
▪ Cell layer
reality it is monolayer
• Simple – one cell layer (monolayer)
▪ Becomes stratified because the
• Stratified – more than one cell layer
different sizes of the cell that overlaps
(multilayer)
2. Transitional Epithelium (Urothelium)
- Examples: Keratinized (dry
▪ Stratified cells that appear cuboidal
surface) Stratified Squamous –
when the organ or tube is not
Skin and Non- Keratinized
stretched, and squamous when it is
(moist surface) Stratified
stretched or distended by the presence
Squamous – lining of Vagina
of fluid
and lining of mouth
▪ Example: Urinary Bladder
• Pseudostratified- one layer but
looks like a stratified because of its Epithelial Lining of Closed Cavities
differentiates
1. Endothelium
▪ Lining epithelium of the blood vessels
and lymphatic vessels
▪ Cell shape
▪ Simple squamous cells (to facilitate the
• Squamous – width of the cell is
movement of blood, gas exchange and
greater that its height (wider than
movement of nutrients)
they are taller)
2. Endocardium
- Example: Lungs (facilitate gas
▪ Epithelial lining of the ventricles and
exchange)
atria of the heart
• Cuboidal – all sides are
3. Mesothelium
approximately the same (equal ▪ Epithelial lining of the walls and
sizes)
covering of contents of the closed
- Function: Secrete glands
cavities in the body
- Example: Proximal and Distal
▪ Pleural cavity and Peritoneal cavity
Convoluted Tubules of the
Kidney and all glands CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Columnar –
▪ Responsible for providing and
- Function: absorption
maintaining form in the body
- Example: intestine, stomach
▪ They provide a matrix that connects and
▪ Apical surface
binds the cells and organs and
• Cilia- motile projection within cells ultimately gives support to the body
- Propel cells or dirt

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 ▪ To connect other tissues to other
tissues or organs to organs
▪ Examples: Blood, Bone, Adipocytes
Major components of the Extracellular Matrix
(ECM)
1. Protein fibers
A. Collagen – glue- producing fibers;
flexible but resist stretching
- Example: Tendons and
Ligaments
B. Reticular – fine, short, branch to form
the supporting network
- Example: Bone marrow (where
ELASTIC FIBERS
the immature blood cells are
attached)
C. Elastic – returns to its original shape
after distension or compression
- Example: Ears, Aorta, Blood
vessels
2. Ground Substance
▪ Is a shapeless background consisting of
non fibrous protein and other molecule
3. Fluid
COLLAGEN FIBERS
▪ Are the most abundant structural
components of the connective tissue
▪ In the light microscope, collagen fibers
typically appear as wavy structures of
variable width and intermediate
length
RETICULAR FIBERS
▪ Provide a supporting framework for the
cellular constituents of various tissues
and organs
▪ Named for their arrangement in a
meshlike pattern or network
▪ Exhibit branching pattern
▪ Cannot be identified positively in H &E
staining
▪ Have a threadlike appearance under
the light microscope using special
techniques
▪ In Loose Connective Tissue, found:
• Boundary of connective tissue and
epithelium
• Surrounding adipocytes, small blood
vessels, nerves, and muscle cells
▪ Also function as a supporting stroma in
hematopoietic and lymphatic tissues
(except in the Thymus)
▪ Tunica media of blood vessels, and
muscularis of that alimentary canal
▪ Allow tissues to respond to stretch and
distension
▪ Thinner than collagen fibers
▪ Arranged in a branching pattern to
form three dimensional network
▪ Fibers are interwoven with collagen
fibers to limit the distensibility of the
tissue and prevent tearing from
excessive stretching
▪ Found in the largest diameter arteries
(e.g., aorta, pulmonary, common
carotid, and other primary branches of
the aorta)
▪ The tunica media consists of
fenestrated layers of elastic tissue
alternating with layers containing
smooth muscle cells and collagenous
tissue
▪ All arteries and most large arterioles
have an internal elastic membrane that
supports the delicate endothelium and
its immediately subjacent connective
tissue
▪ Collagen and elastic components of the
tunica media are produced by the
smooth muscle cells of this…
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 Classification of Connective Tissue
Embryonic Connective Tissue
Mesenchyme Mucous Connective Tissue
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose Connective Dense Connective Tissue
Tissue
Regular
Irregular
Specialized Connective Tissue
Cartilage Blood
Bone Hemapoietic Tissue
Adipose Tissue Lymphatic Tissue
LOOSE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
▪ Loose Connective Tissue (Areolar)- is the
most widespread of connective tissues
and connects the epithelial tissue to the
underlying tissues
▪ Primarily located beneath the epithelia
▪ Associated with the epithelium of glands
and surrounds the smallest blood vessels,
nerves and muscles
▪ Example: Lamina Propria
▪ LCT contains more cells and sparse fibers
while in DCT, it contains more fibers than
nucleus and they are tightly packed
DENSE IRREGULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE
▪ Abundant fibers, mostly collagen
arranged in bundles, oriented in various
directions = irregular, thus can withstand
stresses on organs or structures
▪ Cells are sparse and are typically of a
single type, the fibroblast
▪ Little ground substance
▪ Fibers are oriented in different directions
Locations
▪ Skin – reticular layer or deep layer of the
dermis
▪ Hollow organs (e.g., the intestinal tract)
possess a distinct layer of dense irregular
connective tissue called the submucosa in
which the fiber bundles course in varying
planes allowing the organ to resist
excessive stretching and distension
▪ Surrounding organ capsules: liver and
kidney
DENSE REGULAR CONNETIVE TISSUE
▪ Characterized by ordered and densely
packed arrays of fibers and cells
▪ Main functional component of:
• Tendons
• Ligaments
• Aponeuroses (flat tendons)
▪ Fibers are the prominent feature, and
there is little ECM
▪ Fibers are oriented in one direction only
▪ TENDONS
• Cordlike structures that attach
muscle to bone
• Consist of parallel bundles of
collagen fibers densely packed
• Fibroblasts also called tendinocytes
are between the bundles of fibers,
appear stellate in H&E staining
o Surrounded by a specialized ECM
separating them from load-
bearing collagen fibrils
▪ LIGAMENTS
• Consist of fibers and fibroblasts in
parallel arrangement
• Fibers less regularly arranged than
those of tendons
CARTILAGE
▪ Cartilage is a form of specialized avascular
connective tissue composed of cells called
chondrocytes and a highly specialized
extracellular matrix
▪ It heals very slow because it doesn’t have
blood supply
▪ Cartilage consists of:
• Chondrocytes (Gr. chondros¸
cartilage, + kytos, cell)
• Extensive extracellular matrix
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 o Composed of fibers and ground
substance
• Chondrocytes synthesize and
secrete the extracellular matrix
o Located in matrix cavities called
lacunae (houses the
chondrocytes)
▪ Types:
1. Hyaline cartilage – most common form
• Matrix containing type II collagen
fibers, GAGs, proteoglycans, and
multi- adhesive glycoproteins
2. Elastic cartilage is characterized by
abundant elastic lamellae in addition to
the matrix material of hyaline cartilage
• More pliable and distensible
3. Fibrocartilage is characterized by
abundant dense network of coarse type I
collagen fibers as well as the matrix
material of hyaline cartilage
• Present in regions of the body
subjected to pulling forces
• Example: connection between the
intervertebral disc
▪ Perichondrium is a sheath of dense
irregular connective tissue that surrounds
cartilage in most places, forming an
interface between the cartilage and the
tissue supported by the cartilage
▪ The perichondrium harbors the vascular
supply for the avascular cartilage and also
contains nerves and lymphatic vessels
▪ Articular cartilage, which covers the
surfaces of the bones of movable joints, is
devoid of perichondrium and is sustained
by the diffusion of oxygen and nutrients
from the synovial fluid
PERICHONDRIUM
▪ When actively growing, appears divided
into:
• Inner cellular layer, which gives rise
to new cartilage cells
• Outer fibrous layer
Three Different Regions of the ECM
1. CAPSULAR (PERICELLULAR) MATRIX
• Dense staining matrix located
immediately around the chondrocyte
2. TERRITORIAL MATRIX
• Surrounds the isogenous group
(clusters of chondrocytes)
3. INTERTERRITORIAL MATRIX
• Region that surrounds the territorial
matrix and occupies the space
between groups of chondrocytes
HYALINE CARTILAGE
▪ Distinguished by a homogenous,
amorphous matrix
▪ Appears glassy in the living state
▪ Lacunae = spaces throughout the matrix
where the chondrocytes are located
Chondrocytes
▪ Distributed either singularly or in clusters
– isogenous groups
▪ Cells present have recently divided
▪ Appearance
• Active cells: cytoplasmic basophilia
(protein synthesis)- actively dividing
• Clear areas: Large Golgi apparatus
ELASTIC CARTILAGE
▪ Locations
• Auricle of the ear
• Walls of the external auditory canals
• Auditory (eustachian) tubes
• Epiglottis
• Cuneiform cartilage in the larynx
▪ Fibers and lamellae are best
demonstrated in paraffin sections with
special stains such as resorcin- fuchsin and
orcein
▪ Elastic cartilage is frequently found to be
gradually continuous with hyaline
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 cartilage. Like hyaline cartilage, elastic
cartilage possesses a perichondrium.
FIBROCARTILAGE
▪ Fibrocartilage is a tissue intermediate
between dense connective tissue and
hyaline cartilage but with no clear cut
difference
▪ Locations:
• Intervertebral disks
• In attachment of certain ligaments to
the cartilaginous surface of bones,
and in the symphysis pubis
• Fibrocartilage is frequently found in
the insertion of tendons on the
epiphyseal hyaline cartilage
• Found in areas of the body where a
great deal of pressure is applied to
joints
• Knee, jaw, between vertebrae
▪ Fibrocartilage contains chondrocytes:
• Singly
• Isogenous groups
• Usually arranged in long rows
separated by coarse collagen type I
fibers
• Because it is rich in collagen type I,
the fibrocartilage matrix is acidophilic
BONES
▪ The main constituent of the adult skeleton
▪ Function:
• Bone tissue supports fleshy
structures
• Protects vital organs such as those in
the cranial and thoracic cavities
• Harbors the bone marrow, where
blood cells are formed
• Serves as a reservoir of calcium,
phosphate, and other ions that can
be released or stored in a controlled
fashion to maintain constant
concentrations of these important
ions in body fluids
▪ Bone is a specialized connective tissue
composed:
• Intercellular calcified material, the
bone matrix
• Three cell types:
o Osteocytes (Gr. osteon, bone, +
kytos, cell), which are found in
cavities (lacunae) within the
matrix
- Bone maintaining cell
o Osteoblasts (osteon + Gr.
blastos, germ), which synthesize
the organic components of the
matrix
- Bone forming cell
o Osteoclasts (osteon + Gr.
klastos, broken) which are
multinucleated giant cells
involved in the resorption and
remodeling of bone tissue
- Bone destroying cell
Classification
1. COMPACT BONE (Dense)
▪ Compact, dense layer
▪ Forms the outside of the bone
2. SPONGY BONE (Cancellous)
▪ Spongelike meshwork consisting of
trabeculae (thin, anastomosing
spicules of bone tissue)
▪ Forms the interior of the bone
▪ Meshwork are continuous and
occupied by marrow and blood vessels
Classification according to Shape
1. Long Bones
- Example: Ulna, Radial, Femur
2. Short Bones
- Carpals, metacarpals
3. Flat Bones
- Scapula, sternum
4. Irregular Bones
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 - Pelvis, spinal column • Regulation of energy metabolism by
secreting paracrine and endocrine
Types of Bone Tissue
substances
1. Mature Bone o Considered as a major endocrine
▪ Types: organ
• Compact
Two (2) Types:
• Spongy
2. Immature or primary or woven bones or ▪ White Adipose Tissue (Unilocular)
nonlamellar bone • Predominant type in adult humans
• White Adipose tissue turns brown
Histologic structure
adipose tissue in cases of Chronic
▪ Mature compact bone Blood loss
▪ It characteristically shows collagen fibers • Retrogression - white adipose →
arranged in lamellae that are parallel to brown adipose tissue in
each other or concentrically organized homeostasis
around a vascular canal ▪ Brown Adipose Tissue (Multilocular)
▪ The whole complex of concentric • Present in humans during fetal life
lamellae of bone surrounding a canal but diminishes during the first
containing blood vessels, nerves, and decade after
loose connective tissue called a
Features White Brown Adipose Tissue
Haversian system, or Osteon (functional
Adipose
unit of bone) Tissue
Transcription PPAR-y/RXR PRDM16/PGC-1
ADIPOSE TISSUE
factors “master
▪ Specialized connective tissue switch” in
differentiation
▪ Energy homeostasis
UCP-1 genes No Yes (unique to brown
▪ Adipocytes are the primary cell type expression fat)
▪ Adipocytes (fat cells) are found (release of heat)
throughout loose connective tissue Mitochondria Few, poorly Many, well developed
▪ the Adipocytes are so full with lipids developed
that the cytoplasm is pushed to the Innervation Few High density of
sympathetic sympathetic nerve
periphery and the nucleus to one side nerve fibers fibers
appearing as signet ring Vascularization Few blood Highly vascularized
▪ Functions: vessels tissue
• Stores excess energy – lipid droplets Response to Decreased Increased lipogenesis
(made up of triglycerides) I the environmental lipogenesis
stress (cold
adipocytes
exposure) Increased Decreased lipoprotein
o Energy stored in adipocytes lipoprotein lipase activity
can be rapidly released for use lipase activity
at other sites in the body Growth and Throughout Inly during fetal
o In the event of food Differentiation entire life period
deprivation, triglycerides are from stromal-
vascular cells
an essential source of water
and energy

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 Decreases in adult life hypothalamus that causes the person to
(exception: never actually feel full. This can lead to:
individuals with
• Obesity
pheochromocytoma
and hibernoma) • Stealing, and
• Eating pet foods and items that are
spoiled
OBESITY ▪ There may be sleep disorders and
▪ Percentage of body fat exceeds the abnormalities
average percentage for the individual’s ▪ Boughts of rage,
age and sex ▪ A higher threshold for pain, compulsive
▪ Body Mass Index (BMI), expressed as behaviors such as picking at the skin, and
weight/ height is closely correlated with even psychoses
the total amount of body fat ▪ Defect on Chromosome 15
• Commonly used to classify NERVOUS TISSUE
overweight and obesity among
adults Nervous System

BMI for Filipinos (Philippine Society of ▪ The most complex system in the human
Overweight and Obesity) body, is formed by a network of more
than 100 million – more than 10 billion
➢ BMI interpretation for people 16 years old nerve cells (neurons), assisted by many
or older: more glial cells
• < 18.5 – Underweight ▪ Each neuron has, on average, at least
• 18.5 – 22.9 – Normal range 1000 interconnections with other
• 23 – 24. 9 – At risk neurons forming a very complex system
• 25 – 29.9 – Obese I for communication
• 30 > - Obese II ▪ Most complex histologically and
▪ Obesity is associated with an increase of physiologically
mortality as well as with many disease ▪ Neuron – functional unit
such as: ▪ Glial cells – supporting unit
• Hypertension
Anatomical Division of Nervous System
• Cardiovascular disease
• Diabetes ▪ Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Cancer • Brain and Spinal cord
▪ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
PRADER – WILLI SYNDROME
• Cranial, Spinal, & Peripheral Nerves
▪ Prader- Willi Syndrome = genetic & Ganglia
mutation in chromosome 15
NEURONS
• Overproduction of ghrelin (potent
appetite stimulant) leading to morbid ▪ Structural and functional unit
obesity ▪ Nondividing cell
▪ Prader- Willi Syndrome has an insatiable ▪ Three parts:
appetite caused by a defect in the • CELL BODY

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 oSurrounded by the cytoplasm
(perikaryon)
o Synthetic or trophic center
• DENDRITES
o Many elongated process
specialized to receive stimuli
• AXON
o Single elongated process
specialized in generating and
conducting nerve impulses
✓ Terminal arborization
✓ End bulbs (boutons)
Both interact to create
synapses
Five Types of Neuroglia
1. ASTROCYTES
▪ Major supporting cells in the CNS
• With foot processes surrounding a
blood capillary and participate with
the blood vessel endothelium
forming the permeability barrier
called the blood brain barrier
between blood and the CNS
2. EPENDYMAL CELLS
▪ Line the ventricles and canals within
the CNS
▪ Some produce CSF
▪ With cilia extending from the surfaces
which help move the CSF
3. MICROGLIA
▪ Immune cells (remove bacteria and cell
debris)
4. OLIGODENDROCYTES
▪ Form a myelin sheath around three
axons within the CNS
5. SCHWANN CELLS
▪ From part of the myelin sheath of an
axon in the PNS
▪ They provide insulation to axons
➢ Myelin Sheath
▪ Formed by the cell processes of
oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells
which surround the axons
Types of Axons:
A. Myelinated axons
B. Unmyelinated
MYELIN SHEATH
▪ Myelin is an excellent insulator that
prevents almost all ion movement
across the cell membrane
▪ Myelination of an axon increases the
speed and efficiency of action potential
generation along the axon
Principal Structures
▪ Cerebrum
▪ Cerebellum
▪ Spinal cord
When sectioned:
▪ White matter
• Myelinated axons and myelin-
producing oligodendrocytes
• No neuronal cell bodies, but with
microglia
▪ Gray matter
• Abundant neuronal cell bodies,
dendrites
• Prevalent at cortex of cerebrum and
cerebellum
Organization of Nervous Tissue
▪ Gray matter – consists of neuron cell bodies
and their dendrites, with very little myelin
• Surface brain – called cortex
o Clusters of gray matter located
deeper within the brain is nuclei
• In the PNS – cluster of neuron cell
bodies – called ganglion
▪ A cross section of the spinal cord
• Superficial white matter portion
• Deep gray matter portion
▪ The white matter in each half of the spinal
cord is organized into three columns, called
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 the dorsal (posterior), ventral (anterior),
and lateral columns
▪ White matter – consists of bundles of
parallel axons with their myelin sheath
which are whitish in color
• In the CNS, white matter forms
nerve tracts or conduction
pathways – propagate action
potentials from one area of the CNS
to another
• In the PNS, bundles of axons and
their connective tissue sheaths are
called nerves.
▪ Cell bodies of the motor neurons that
regulate the activities of the muscles and
glands are located in the anterior and
lateral horns
▪ Somatic motor neurons are in the anterior
horn
▪ Autonomic neurons are in the lateral horns

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