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Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control is used in more than 99% of the loops for
chemical, pharmaceutical, and food and beverage production. PID has proven to be
capable of the best load rejection by using the best tuning and the extensive flexibility of
functionality offered by the PID structure and options, most notably external-reset feedback.
Bohl and McAvoy enlightened us about it in a 1976 landmark paper, “Linear Feedback vs.
Time Optimal Control, II. The Regulator Problem” (Industrial & Engineering Chemistry,
Process Design and Development, Vol. 15, No. 1, 1976, p. 30-33).
The opening challenge with PID control is recognizing the effect of PID form, structure and
tuning units. Going from proportional band in percent to a dimensionless PID gain, and
from a reset in repeats per minute to seconds, are recognizable factors to address, but are
sometimes overlooked. Less understood is how to convert tuning settings to the ISA
Standard Form from the Series (Real) Form in analog control and early DCS systems, and
from the Parallel (Independent) Form in the control literature, converting integral and
derivative gains to reset and rate times.
Especially noteworthy is that in the Series Form, the derivative time (rate time) could be set
as large as the integral time (reset time). Some older tuning methods even suggested this.
Interaction between these modes in the time domain by Series Form would inherently
prevent oscillations by effectively reducing integral and proportional action thru interaction
factors. When using the ISA Standard Form, the rate time has to be set less than one-
fourth the reset time to prevent oscillations. Many users have made mistakes in system
upgrades by not paying attention to the changes in form and units by the even the same
system supplier.
The secondary time constant is the second largest time constant in the system, often in
either heat transfer surfaces or the automation system. The total loop deadtime is the sum
of all the deadtimes and the fraction of all the small time constants creating equivalent
deadtime. To better communicate, realize the implications of dynamics, and achieve the
best PID, see the Control Talk blog post, “Understanding terminology to advance yourself
and the automation profession.”
Another major point of confusion is lack of recognition that nearly all disturbances are
on the process input and not the process output, as is commonly depicted in the control
literature. Also, except for flow and liquid pressure control, the response is near-integrating
or true integrating, requiring integrating process tuning rules and an overshoot by PID
output of its final resting value that's the output after completion of the response to a load or
setpoint change. What's in the literature are self-regulating processes with a process time
constant-to-deadtime ratio for dynamics that rarely gets below 0.25 or above 4, leading to
Internal Model Control. While these dynamics are infrequent in chemical plants except for
flow loops, they're applicable to pulp and paper and mining plants due to a lack of back
mixing.
You can convert back and forth between self-regulating and integrating process
dynamics by realizing that open-loop, near integrating process gain is simply the open-loop
self-regulating process gain divided by the open-loop time constant (Figure 1).
Integrating process tuning rules are designed to provide the best disturbance rejection. This
can be tested by momentarily putting the PID in manual and making the largest step
change in PID output that the operator is comfortable with (e.g., 5-10%). Changes less than
1% typically show a much slower and possibly no response due to actuator and positioner
sensitivity limit, as well as valve backlash and stiction.
Most process equipment involving liquids can benefit from secondary flow controllers. Here,
ratio control is used to achieve and correct as needed the ratios of flows seen on a process
flow diagram (PFD). Many processes, particularly distillation columns, are started up on
ratio control. The ratio is corrected by a bias to the secondary controller setpoint for
volumes with some mixing, such as crystallizers, columns, evaporators, neutralizers and
reactors. For sheet lines and extruders, the ratio setpoint is corrected.
Figure 2 shows the only known time domain block diagram that details the ISA Standard
Form with the ability to achieve eight different structures and true external-reset feedback
with the positive feedback implementation of integral action.
Relative gain analysis is a powerful technique for accessing the type and degree
of interaction. The relative gain for a given loop is its open-loop steady state gain with
the other loops open divided by its open-loop steady state gain with the other loops
closed. The given loop is open for the tests with the other loops open and then closed, to
show response without and with interaction, respectively. A loop is considered open if
the mode is manual or remote output.
If you want a comprehensive, concise view of how to achieve the best PID control, and gain
an excellent understanding of everything else needed for a successful automation project,
look for the McGraw-Hill handbook Process/Industrial Instruments and Controls, Sixth
Edition, due out early in 2019. The handbook covers the design, installation, calibration,
commissioning and maintenance of every part of an automation system, concluding with a
list of best practices for each of its 100 sections. Meanwhile, the sidebar provides
best practices excerpted from the handbook’s PID Basics section.
About the authors
Gregory K. McMillan, Control columnist and Hall of Fame member, can be reached
at Greg.McMillan@emerson.com, and P. Hunter Vegas, engineering manager, Wunderlich-Malec
Engineering, can be reached at hunter.vegas@wmeng.com.