CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes the background, aims and goals of the present research.

1.1 Background
Machining is a process wherein raw material is cut into an required shape and size by a
controlled material cutting process. Machining is the most versatile and exact of all
assembling procedures in its capacity to give a fair variety of part geometries and
geometric features. casting may produce variety of shapes, yet it doesn't have the
exactness and accuracy of machining [1].

1.1.1 Basic machine tool operation

A machine tool is a machine for machining metal or other inflexible materials, for the
most part by cutting, boring, grinding, penetrating or different types of distortion.
Machines utilize any type of tool that plays out the cutting task [2]. Machine instruments
have played a basic role in every single mechanical development.

The essential machine used for turning and related operations is a lathe machine. It is a
versatile machine , physically worked, and extensively used in low and medium
operations. More established machines were called engine lathe machines. The word
engine is derived from the time when these machines were driven by steam engines.
Practically all machines have been developed from the lathe machine. This machine
apparatus performs most significant machining activities. It works on principle of work
being turned against the edge of a cutting tool, Figure 1.1. Various operations boring,
threading, milling, grinding, and crushing can in like manner be performed on this
machine.

1.2. Later developments in lathes

Apart from lathe machine, other turning machines have been created to fulfill specific
purposes or to automate the turning procedure. Among these machines are:
 (1) Tool room lathe
(2) Precision lathe
(3) Universal lathe
(4) Turret lathe

1.2.1. Tool room lathe

A metal lathe or metalworking lathe is an enormous class of lathes organized for
precisely machining comparatively hard materials. They were initially intended to
machine metals; in any case, with the appearance of plastics and different materials, and
with their flexibility, they are utilized in a wide scope of uses, and an expansive scope of
materials. In machining terms, where the bigger part is already understood, they are
usually called lathes, or also refferd to by subtype names (tool room). These machine
tools move out material from a rotating workpiece by means of the (typically linear)
movement of different cutting instruments, such as tool bits and drill bits.[3]

Figure 1.1: Tool room lathe

1.2.2 Precision lathe

Precision lathe machine is a little machine typically mounted on a bench. It has for
all intents and purposes every one of the part of a lathe machine and it performs
practically every one of the activities including turning, boring, reaming, and knurling. It
is utilized for little and precise work. Precision machine has a broad scope of spindle
speeds starting from an exceptionally low to a very high up to 2500 rpm. It is typically
used for precision work on instruments, dies, gauges and in machining work where
accuracy is required[4].

Figure 1.2: Precision lathe

1.2.3 Universal lathe

Universal lathe machine is usually used to hold round, square, hexagonal, and
irregular shaped work pieces. It is different from the other machines on the basis of its
capability of holding work pieces. The chuck of universal lathe machine is basically a
four jaw chuck. Each
can be adjusted

Figure 1.3: Universal lathe

independently by chuck wrench [5].

1.2.4 Turret lathe
Turret lathe machines are being utilized in production work. These lathe machines are the
improvement of the engine lathe machine. The distinctive part of the turret lathe machine
is that the tailstock of a engine machine is eliminated which is replaced by a hexagonal
turret, upon which various devices might be fitted and fed into the work in proper series.
Because of this arrangement, a few unique kinds of tasks should be possible on a
workpiece without re-arranging the work or cutting tool, and various identical parts can
be created in the base time [1].

Figure 1.4: Turret lathe

1.3 Important terms in machining
1.3.1 Cutting Speed
Cutting speed can be described as speed upon which the work moves with respect to the
cutting tool. It is generally estimated in feet every minute.

1.3.2 Feed Rate

Feed rate is the term connected to distance the tool moves along the workpiece for each
revolution of the spindle of the lathe machine . Feed is estimated in inches or millimeters
per revolution, depending upon the machine utilization and the user's arrangement of
estimation.

1.3.3 Depth of Cut

Depth of cut is the separation that the cutting tool moves into the work. typically
estimated in thousandths of an inch or in millimeters.

1.3.4 Nose radius

Nose radius is the radius at the tip of the cutting device, estimated on reference plane.The
nose radius of a cutting tool determines the strength of the tool point and along with feed
rate determines the part finish. A larger nose radius is stronger than a tool with a smaller
radius. The larger radius tool will be better able to resist mechanical failure (chipping or
breaking) [6].

1.4 Introduction to vibrations

Mechanical vibrations basically are the oscillations that are repeated within a time
period. Swinging pendulum and plucked strings are the basic examples of vibration. The
study of mechanical vibration is concerned with systems in oscillatory motion and
systems subjected to fluctuating forces. The fluctuating forces may vary in both
magnitude and direction. Such forces and motions are always present wherever there are
rotating or moving parts in a machinery [7].
 Figure 1.5: Pendulum oscillations

Despite the fact that the key guideline of working for some, human faculties is vibration
yet the primary formal acquaintance of vibration with the mankind is occurred with the
innovation of first melodic instrument. After this innovation, vibration has been treated
based on science and a important segment of research has been devoted to explore the
impacts of vibration in various applications. The significance of vibrations in every day
life is uncovered through a few precedents like working of various human exercises
(breathing, hearing, talking, strolling and so forth.), utilization of vibration phenomena in
the improvement of various equipment for example Clothes washer, drill machine,
electrical massager and so on.

Regardless of the way that vibrations are attractive in numerous applications for the best
possible working of the frameworks, vibrations have likewise damaging impacts with
regards to machines and machine apparatuses. Failure of various instrument like shaft
and rotor in the mechanical frameworks for example motors, pumps, turbines, prime
movers and so on are the couple of examples describing the staggering impacts of
vibrations.
 Figure 1.6: Types of vibration in machines

Vibration in machines result in quick wear of machine parts, for example, gears and
bearings, loosening of fasteners such as nuts and bolts, minimizing the dimensional
accuracy and surface finish of a workpiece during metal cutting [7]. Vibrations in
production machines, produce noise troubles and transfer to other operations through
supports structures, so restricting their performance as well. The transmission of vibration
results in uneasiness and loss of productivity. Motions of power transmission lines and
correspondence links (for example phone lines) can deliver issues, service interruptions,
and in some cases major auxiliary harm. Along these lines the significant reason for
vibration ponder in building is to decrease vibration through legitimate all around
adjusted plan of machines and their mountings. proper plan and control are required in
keeping up performance high and producing effectiveness and expanding the useful life
of apparatus, structures and mechanical procedures.

1.4.1 Causes of vibration

The primary causes of vibration are listed below as:
i. Unbalanced force:
The unbalanced force might be because of mass unbalance, for example, in an
erratically mounted rotor, or it might be because of variable inertial forces in machines,
which does not move consistently for example crank and connecting rod motion, cam
follower systems.
ii. Friction between mating surfaces:
When two parts rub against each other, they are responsible for producing self-excited
vibrations.
 Figure 1.7: Friction b/w two
surfaces
iii. Misalignment:
When two shafts are connected through coupling or a shaft is supported in a bearing,
misalignment may result. The misalignment between the shaft axes give rise to vibration.

Figure 1.8: Misalignment

iv. Looseness:
Vibration that may go unnoticed can end up apparent and dangerous if the workpart is
vibrating has free orientation or is loosely attached to its base. Looseness can permit any
vibration present to cause harm, for example, further bearing wear, wear and fatigue in
gear mounts and different parts.
v. External excitation:
Those excitation result due to some external fluctuating force acting on the system.
Vibration due to external excitation may be periodic, random or of the nature of impact
load. Vibration caused by rough road to a person driving an automobile is an example
of external excitation.
Vi. Wear:
As parts, for example, ball or roller bearing, drive belts or gears gets worn, they may
produce vibrations. At the point when a roller bearing winds up set, for example, the
bearing rollers will produce vibrations whenever they move over the affected zone. A
gear tooth that is vigorously chipped or worn, or a drive belt that is separating, can
likewise deliver vibration.

The main reason that can lead to the above mentioned causes is the reality that once a
machine is put into operation it will not continue to perform forever. Therefore, the parts
in contact will deteriorate due to friction and loading profiles. This deterioration results in
wear out that can ultimately lead to a part failure.

1.4.2 Effects of vibration:

The vibrations present in the machine mainly effect the;
i) surface roughness of the work piece
ii) Use full life of the tool
iii) Aligning accuracy of slides
iv) Life of machine tool parts, especially transmission parts
There are many machine tool factors that can be analyzed to find out the actual reason of
increase in vibration level. These may include the following;

 Vibrations in the machine

 Wear particle analysis of the oil

1.5 Characteristics of Vibration

The characteristics needed to identify the vibration are;
 Vibration Frequency
 Vibration Amplitude
1.5.1 Vibration Frequency
Vibration frequency is a measure of total revolutions that occurs in a specific time
either calculated as revolution per second (RPS) or cycles per second (CPS). Frequency is
inverse to the time period of vibration and can be measured by the following equation;
Frequency = 1/Period (1.1)
When a vibration problem occurs, it is necessary to perform a thorough analysis of
the cause of this vibration problem to recognize the exact source of this problem. This is
where the recording of the vibration frequency is of great importance. The frequency of
vibration is not only a diagnosis, but also an analysis tool.

1.5.2 Vibration Amplitude

The frequency of the vibrations, as indicated above, is a characteristic tool
necessary to consider exact functional or mechanical faults [8]. So, the need to execute or
not execute vibration analysis depends upon sudden rotation of the rotating machine. If
the machine works well and without problems, there is no need to register the frequencies
or vibration frequency present. The level of vibration or the fluidity or vibration of the
machine declared by its amplitude of vibration. The vibration amplitude of a rotary
machine can be declared and calculated in many ways as follows:
 Displacement
 Velocity
 Acceleration

1.6 Instruments for Vibration Detection and Analysis

1.6.1. The Vibration Transducer
Independent of the vibration instrument utilized, the most significant piece of each
instrument is the vibration transducer [9]. This is the device that is held or associated with
the machine to change the mechanical vibration of the machine into an electrical sign that
the associated instrument can continue into quantifiable attributes of adequacy,
recurrence and the period of vibration. Throughout the years different assortments of
vibration transducers have been utilized. In any case, with a couple of rejection, the
transducer provided as standard with practically all vibration meters, analyzers and
existent information gatherers is the vibration accelerometer. An accelerometer is a
self-delivering apparatus that creates a voltage yield relative to the increasing speed of
the vibration (G's). Accelerometers were an appreciated alternative for observing and
estimating the vibration of the machine. The purposes behind its being so prominent
incorporate its conservative, powerful and lightweight plan just as a wide recurrence
reaction go. They have been generally utilized in checking various kinds of machines
vibration applications. The transducer is generally joined to the external surface of the
machine. When all is said in done, all rotating machines have parts that produces high
recurrence signals, for example, gear sets or bolster components. The commencement and
execution of an accelerometer must be completed with consideration so as to have a
trustworthy and precise information of the vibrations.

Accelerometer
Accelerometers are by a wide margin the most well-known and flexible sorts of
transducers being used. The seismic piezoelectric accelerometer produces a yield charge
when kept against a vibrating surface or body because of the qualities of the piezoelectric
circles that are in the transducer. These transducers encase no moving parts and all things
considered are very tough.

Figure 1.9: Typical accelerometer [9]

Charge that was delivered by the development and pressure of piezoelectric circles have
direct relation to the amount of vibration speeding up as showed in the Fig. 1.11.
Accelerometer is a inertial estimation tool that changes over a mechanical variation in
displacement into electrical signal. By piezoelectric hypothesis, the changed over
electrical sign is directly corresponding to the measure of vibration increasing speed. The
unit of inertial estimation decides the development near to mass. Since as per Newton's
third law of movement, a body applying a power on other body will result in an
equivalent power applying on the main body. The accelerometer comprises of a mass
regularly contained in a protecting instance of metal and a piezoelectric precious crystal.
The crystal delivers a charge or sign having a direct relation to its increasing speed when
the protected mass puts a power on the crystal. The yield sign is commonly determined in
units of Pico coulombs per G (pc/G). A few sensors have an inward charge intensifier,
while others have an outer charge speaker. The capacity of charge intensifier is to change
the sign yield of crystal to an equivalent voltage yield. Regularly, following three
strategies for mounting of accelerometer for vibration detecting applications are utilized
in rotating machines;
  Stud Mounting
 Adhesive Mounting
 Magnetic Mounting
Out of three, mounting sort of accelerometer has been utilized in research for account the
vibration information in machining activities [10-12].

Velocity Transducer

The two main types of speed transducers, one moving coil transducer and the other
piezoelectric type transducer. The coil speed transducer as shown in Fig. 1.12. The coil
speed transducer is a self-producing sensor that does not require outer equipment to bring
forth a vibration signal. This form of sensor is generally consist of three elements: one is
coil, second is permanent magnet and last one is spring supports for the wire coil. The
speed transducer is occupied with an oil to dampen the action of the spring. When the
wire coil moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is applied through the end wires of
the coil. The applied voltage is due to the transfer of energy from the magnet flow field to
the wire coil. When the coil is forced through the magnetic field by vibratory motion, the
voltage signal is generated.

Fig. 1.10: Velocity transducer [9]

Displacement Transducer

For the most part known as proximity probes, these transducers are restricted in
application yet where appropriate they are very valuable and significant. They are
commonly utilized where a smooth running of rotor is required. They are by and large
installed permanently.
 Fig. 1.11: Displacement transducer [9]

For example, turbines in power plants will have permanent mounting proximity probes
for observing turbine movement and perhaps phase. Rapid blower rotors are another case
of a machine that will quite often be observed with proximity probes. A typical sort of
displacement transducer is shown in Fig. 1.11.

While examining the impacts of vibrations during machining tasks, the vast majority of
the examination uncovers the detrimental impacts of chatter on various machining
qualities like surface roughness, dimensional precision, surface integrity and instrument
life.

1.7 Aims and Objectives of the Present Work

The primary aim of the research is to study the effects of spindle vibrations on workpiece
surface finish of the machined workpiece during the turning operation of AISI 1040 carbon
steel using cemented carbide tip DCMT 11T308.The main objectives of research are listed
below:
 Collection and comparison of vibration data for both the dry run and during cutting or
machining vibrations on different types of lathe machines in IME department.
 Study of effect of these vibrations on surface roughness of work piece.