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APPENDIX
Significant Individuals and Events
in the History of Psychology
Thales (ca. 625–545 b.c.) Begins to replace supernatural ex-
planations of the universe with naturalistic ones; encourages
criticism and improvement of his teachings.
Heraclitus (ca. 540–480 b.c.) Observes that everything in
the empirical world is in a constant state of flux and there-
fore can never be known with certainty.
Protagoras (ca. 485–415 b.c.) Argues that “truth” can only
be understood in terms of an individual’s perceptions and
beliefs.
Hippocrates (ca. 460–377 b.c.) Argues that both mental
and physical disorders have natural causes; a physician’s pri-
mary task is to facilitate the body’s natural healing ability.
Democritus (ca. 460–370 b.c.) Proposes a completely mate-
rialistic universe wherein everything consists of atoms.
Antisthenes (ca. 445–365 b.c.) Preaches Cynicism or a
back-to-nature philosophy whereby life is lived free from
wants, passions, and the conventions of society.
Plato (ca. 427–347 b.c.) Postulates a dualistic universe con-
sisting of abstract forms and matter. Because only the forms
are changeless they alone can be known with certainty.
Aristotle (384–322 b.c.) Argues that an understanding of
nature must begin with its direct examination. Everything in
nature has an inherent purpose that seeks to manifest itself.
Pyrrho of Elis (ca. 365–275 b.c.) Observes that because the
arguments for or against any belief are equally valid the only
reasonable position is Skepticism or the withholding of be-
lief in anything.
Epicurus of Samos (ca. 341–270 b.c.) Encourages living a
simple life of moderation and one that is free of superstition.
Such a philosophy came to be called Epicureanism.
Zeno of Citium (ca. 333–262 b.c.) Founds the philosophy
of Stoicism with his beliefs that nature is governed by a di-
vine plan and that living in accordance with that plan with
courage and dignity is the ultimate good.
Philo (ca. 25 b.c.–50 a.d.) A Neoplatonist, preaches that
God will reveal knowledge to souls properly prepared to re-
ceive it.
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Galen (ca. 130–200) Perpetuates the naturalistic medicine
of such Greeks as Hippocrates into the Roman empire, and
extends the theory of four humors into a rudimentary theory
of personality.
Constantine (ca. 280–337) Signs the Edict of Milan in 313
making Christianity a tolerated religion in the Roman
empire.
Augustine (354–430) Combines Stoicism, Neoplatonism,
and Hebrew religion into a powerful Christian teleology ac-
cording to which evil exists because people choose it, and
God can be experienced personally through introspection.
■ 400–1000 The Dark Ages. Europe is generally dominated
by mysticism and superstition.
Avicenna (980–1037) An Arabic philosopher/physician, ap-
plies Aristotelian philosophy to a wide range of topics and
attempts to make it compatible with Muslim theology.
Anselm (ca. 1033–1109) Adds reason to the ways of
knowing God with his ontological argument for the exis-
tence of God.
Peter Lombard (ca. 1095–1160) Argues that God can be
known through the Scriptures, through reason, or by study-
ing nature.
Maimonides (1135–1204) A Jewish scholar and physician,
attempts to reconcile Judaism and Aristotelian philosophy.
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) Succeeds in making Aris-
totelian philosophy the basis of Christian theology.
William of Occam (ca. 1290–1350) Argues that explana-
tions should always be as parsimonious as possible (Occam’s
razor). In the realist-nominalist debate, he sides with the
nominalists, thereby encouraging Empiricism.
Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374) Sometimes considered the
father of the Renaissance, argues for the full exploration and
manifestation of human potential.
Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) Opposes fanaticism, reli-
gious ritual, and superstition. Argues that fools are better off
than “wise” persons because fools live in accordance with
their true feelings.
APPENDIX / BOOK PAGE 584
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 Significant Individuals and Events in the History of Psychology
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) Publishes De Revolution-
ibus Orbium Coelestium (The Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres) in 1543, in which he proposes the heliocentric the-
ory of the solar system.
Cornelius Agrippa (1486–1535) The first physician to urge
that witch-hunts be stopped because those accused of be-
ing witches, or of being bewitched, are actually mentally
disturbed.
■ 1487 Heinrich Kramer and James Sprenger Publish
Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches’ Hammer).
Philippus Paracelsus (1493–1541) Among the first physi-
cians to suggest that the unusual behavior displayed by
“witches” and those bewitched had natural rather than su-
pernatural origins.
■ 1517 Martin Luther (1483–1546) Nails his Ninety-Five
Theses on the door of Wittenberg Cathedral thereby begin-
ning the Reformation.
Michel de Montaigne (1533–1592) Reintroduces radical
Skepticism into the late Renaissance.
Francis Bacon (1561–1626) Argues for an inductive science
based on the direct examination of nature and the careful
generalization of those observations. Theory must be
avoided because it biases observations. Believes science
should provide practical information.
Galileo (1564–1642) Through experimentation finds many
previously held beliefs about nature to be false. This brings
Galileo into conflict with the Church because many of these
fallacies were part of church dogma. Denies that cognitive
experience can be studied scientifically thereby inhibiting
the development of experimental psychology.
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) Views humans as matter in
motion and argues that all knowledge is derived from sen-
sory experience, and that all human motivation and emo-
tions are reducible to hedonism. Governments are formed to
protect people from each other.
Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) Like Hobbes, says humans
consist of nothing but matter, thus rejecting dualism in favor
of physical monism.
René Descartes (1596–1650) Uses the method of doubt to
confirm the validity of his subjective experiences. Con-
cludes that several important ideas are innate and that hu-
mans consist of a physical body and a nonphysical mind.
The human mind provides consciousness, free choice, and
rationality.
■ 1600 Giordano Bruno (1548–1600) is burned at the
stake for heresy.
John Locke (1632–1704) Forcefully argues against the exis-
tence of innate ideas, saying instead that all ideas are derived
from experience. Once they exist, however, ideas can be re-
arranged in countless ways by reflection. Also distinguishes
between primary and secondary qualities.
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Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677) Equates God and nature, and
claims mind and matter are inseparable. All things in na-
ture, including humans, are governed by natural law and
thus free will does not exist.
Isaac Newton (1642–1727) Describes the universe as a
complex, lawful machine governed by the law of gravitation
and precisely describable in mathematical terms. Explana-
tions of nature must be parsimonious and devoid of theolog-
ical considerations.
Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716) Argues that
experience can only actualize ideas that already exist within
us. Everything in nature consists of monads that vary in their
ability to think clearly. For an experience to be conscious,
aggregates of monads must exceed a threshold, otherwise the
experience remains unconscious.
George Berkeley (1685–1753) Denies the existence of a
material world, saying instead that only perceptions (ideas)
exist. Thus, “to be is to be perceived.”
David Hartley (1705–1757) Supplements associationism
with speculations about neurophysiology.
Julien de La Mettrie (1709–1751) Publishes L’Homme Ma-
chine (Man a Machine) in 1748, in which he embraces physi-
cal monism and argues that the differences between human
and nonhuman animals is quantitative, not qualitative.
Thomas Reid (1710–1796) Argues that we can assume
physical reality is as we perceive it because it makes common
sense to do so. Innate faculties of the mind facilitate the ac-
curate perception of the physical world.
David Hume (1711–1776) Argues that humans can never
know the physical world with certainty because all we ever
experience are the ideas created by that world (for example,
causation is a mental habit and may or may not correspond
to anything in the physical world).
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) Initiates the modern
romantic movement by claiming that human feelings are
better guides for living than rational deliberations.
Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715–1780) Demonstrates
that a statue capable of only sensation, memory, and the
feelings of pleasure and pain can display all human faculties
and abilities.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) Argues that external reality
can never be known because conscious experience always re-
sults from the interaction between sensory experience and
the innate categories of thought. Believes psychology cannot
be scientific because introspection is an unreliable method
of studying the mind.
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815) Claims to cure disorders
by redistributing animal magnetism in his patients.
Jean Lamarck (1744–1829) Publishes his Philosophie Zo-
ologique in 1809, in which he elaborates his theory of the in-
heritance of acquired characteristics.
APPENDIX / BOOK PAGE 585
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586 Significant Individuals and Events in the History of Psychology
Benjamin Rush (1745–1813) Sometimes referred to as the
first psychiatrist in the United States, argues against slavery,
capital and public punishment, and the inhumane treatment
of prisoners and the mentally ill.
Philippe Pinel (1745–1826) Is appointed director of the
Bicêtre Asylum in 1793 and begins releasing inmates from
their chains. Segregates different types of patients, encour-
ages occupational therapy, bans punishment and exorcism,
and maintains precise case histories and statistics on patient
cure rates.
Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) Claims that the extent to
which one possesses various faculties can be determined by
examining the bumps and depressions on the skull. Gall’s
colleague Johann Gasper Spurzheim (1776–1832) called
such an examination phrenology.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831) Views the
universe as an interrelated whole that he called The Ab-
solute, and argues that nothing can be understood except in
its relationship to The Absolute. Understanding of The Ab-
solute is approached via the dialectic process.
James Mill (1773–1836) Argues that any idea, no matter
how complex, can be understood in terms of the simple ideas
it comprises.
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776–1841) Argues that ideas
compete for conscious expression; successful ideas become
part of the apperceptive mass, unsuccessful ideas remain
unconscious.
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788–1860) Argues that the only
relief from the unending cycle of needs and need satisfaction
comes from the sublimation, denial, or repression of those
needs. Only a strong will to survive prevents most people
from committing suicide.
Pierre Flourens (1794–1867) Performs experiments that
demonstrate the cerebral cortex functions as an interrelated
whole and is not divided into discrete faculties as the phre-
nologists had claimed.
Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878) Observes that just no-
ticeable differences (jnds) in variable stimuli correspond to a
constant fraction of a standard stimulus (Weber’s law).
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) Promotes positivistic philoso-
phy according to which only publicly observed phenomena
can be known with certainty; metaphysical speculation is to
be actively avoided.
Johannes Müller (1801–1858) Formulates the doctrines of
specific nerve energies and adequate stimulation.
Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) By noting that for
sensations to rise arithmetically the magnitude of the physi-
cal stimulus must rise geometrically creates the field of psy-
chophysics. Also creates the field of experimental esthetics.
Dorothea Lynde Dix (1802–1887) Campaigning for over 40
years, vastly improves the plight of the mentally ill in the
U.S. and Europe.
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John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) Argues that simple ideas can
combine and form ideas different from the simple ideas that
they comprise (mental chemistry). Believes that a science of
psychology is possible, which would describe human nature
in general, and that the discipline of ethology would explain
individual differences.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) Publishes On the Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection in 1859, in which he de-
scribes how animals with adaptive features survive and re-
produce and those without such features do not.
Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) Urges a return to the per-
sonal, introspective religion described by Augustine. Truth
must be understood in terms of what is privately and emotion-
ally embraced by an individual; thus “truth is subjectivity.”
Alexander Bain (1818–1903) Seeks the biological corre-
lates of cognition and behavior. His analysis of voluntary be-
havior resembles the later analyses of Thorndike and Skin-
ner. Marks the transition between philosophical and
scientific psychology. Founds the journal Mind in 1876.
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) Erroneously generalizes Dar-
winian principles to societies, thus creating social Darwinism.
Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) Promotes positivist
medicine, measures the rate of nerve conduction, and makes
significant contributions to an understanding of color vision,
hearing, and perception in general.
Francis Galton (1822–1911) Publishes Hereditary Genius:
An Inquiry into its Laws and Consequences in 1869, in which
he argues that intelligence is largely inherited and therefore
eugenics should be practiced. Galton’s intense interest in in-
dividual differences inspired him to create a number of
methodologies that have become standard in psychology
(for example, questionnaires, word association tests, twin
studies, and the correlational technique).
Paul Broca (1824–1880) Conclusively demonstrates that an
area on the left hemisphere of the cortex is specialized for
speech (Broca’s area). Also, incorrectly concludes that brain
size and intelligence are positively correlated.
Jean-Martin Charcot (1825–1893) Speculates that in indi-
viduals predisposed to hysteria, trauma may cause certain
ideas to become dissociated from consciousness and grow
strong enough to cause the symptoms associated with hyste-
ria. Charcot’s speculations significantly influenced Freud.
Ivan M. Sechenov (1829–1905) Founds Russian objective
psychology with the publication of Reflexes of the Brain in
1863.
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832–1920) Founds volun-
tarism, psychology’s first school. This school was very much
in the rationalistic tradition with its emphasis on will and
purpose. Founds the journal Philosophische Studien (philo-
sophical studies) in 1881.
Ewald Hering (1834–1918) Offers a nativistic explanation
of space perception and color vision.
APPENDIX / BOOK PAGE 586
SECOND PROOF
 Significant Individuals and Events in the History of Psychology
Ernst Mach (1838–1916) Promotes a positivistic philosophy
according to which sensations are all that humans can be
certain of; therefore scientists must determine the relation-
ships among sensations. As with Comte’s version of posi-
tivism, metaphysical speculation is to be actively avoided.
Franz Clemens Brentano (1838–1917) Observes that men-
tal acts always refer to (intend) events outside of themselves.
With his emphases on mental acts and intentionality, cre-
ates the field of act psychology.
Hippolyte Bernheim (1840–1919) Under the influence of
Auguste Ambroise Liébeault (1823–1904) becomes the
major spokesperson of the Nancy school of hypnosis, which
claimed that all people can be hypnotized because all people
are suggestible.
William James (1842–1910) Publishes The Principles of Psy-
chology in 1890. This text is often cited as marking the be-
ginning of the school of functionalism.
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844–1900) Views life as a
struggle between the Apollonian (rational) and the
Dionysian (irrational) aspects of human nature and an in-
dividual’s personality as an artistic blending of these two
aspects.
Granville S. Hall (1844–1924) Founds the APA in 1892
and serves as its first president. Makes significant contribu-
tions to developmental psychology but opposes the coeduca-
tion of adolescents and young adults. Invites Freud and Jung
to Clark University in 1909. Founds the American Journal of
Psychology in 1887.
Christine Ladd-Franklin (1847–1930) Offers a theory of
color vision based on evolutionary theory.
George John Romanes (1848–1894) Does early work on
comparative psychology but his conclusions are supported
only by anecdotal evidence.
Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849–1936) Receives the 1904 No-
bel Prize for his research on digestion, during which he dis-
covers the conditioned reflex. Believes the conditioned reflex
provides an objective, physiological explanation for what
psychologists and philosophers had called associationism.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) Publishes On Memory:
An Investigation in Experimental Psychology in 1885, mark-
ing the first time learning and memory are studied experi-
mentally.
Hans Vaihinger (1852–1933) Argues that acting “as if” cer-
tain fallacious concepts are true is essential for societal living
(for example, the concept of free will).
Conwy Lloyd Morgan (1852–1936) Argues that in explain-
ing animal behavior one should not postulate faculties be-
yond those that are required to explain the behavior in ques-
tion (Morgan’s canon).
Emil Kraeplin (1856–1926) Publishes a list of mental disor-
ders in 1883 that was so thorough it was utilized worldwide
until recent times.
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Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) With Joseph Breuer (1842–
1925), publishes Studies on Hysteria in 1895, thereby found-
ing the school of psychoanalysis.
Alfred Binet (1857–1911) With Theodore Simon (1873–
1961), publishes the Binet-Simon scale of intelligence in
1905. The scale was revised in 1908 and again in 1911.
Vladimir M. Bechterev (1857–1927) Argues that human
behavior is reflexive and that it can be and should be studied
and explained without reference to consciousness. Antici-
pates many of the features of Watsonian behaviorism.
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) Proposes a pure phenome-
nology that describes all the mental processes available to
humans in their efforts to understand the world.
John Dewey (1859–1952) Publishes “The Reflex Arc in
Psychology” in 1896, which is often viewed as marking the
beginning of the school of functionalism.
James McKeen Cattell (1860–1944) Uses the term “mental
test” in 1890 and is a key figure in the school of functional-
ism and in the development of applied psychology.
Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916) Replaces William James as
director of the Harvard Psychology Laboratory in 1892.
Makes significant contributions to such applied areas as clin-
ical, forensic, and industrial psychology.
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) Does pioneering re-
search on memory and creates an influential version of self
psychology. In 1905 becomes the first woman president of
the APA.
Charles Spearman (1863–1945) Does pioneer work on the
statistical technique later called factor analysis. Argues that
intelligence consists of two factors: Specific abilities (s) and
general intelligence (g), and that g is mostly inherited.
Henry Herbert Goddard (1866–1957) Translates the Binet-
Simon scale into English but unlike Binet concludes that in-
telligence is largely inherited and therefore the feeble-
minded should be discouraged from reproducing.
Edward Bradford Titchener (1867–1927) Founds the
school of structuralism that seeks to describe the basic ele-
ments of thought and to explain how those elements com-
bine in accordance with the laws of associationism.
Lightner Witmer (1867–1956) Establishes the first psycho-
logical clinic in 1896. In 1907 founds the journal The Psy-
chological Clinic, and coins the term “clinical psychology” in
its first issue.
Robert Sessions Woodworth (1869–1962) A key function-
alist at Columbia University, promotes dynamic psychology
with an emphasis on motivation.
Alfred Adler (1870–1937) Following the termination of
his affiliation with Freud, goes on to develop his own theory
of personality featuring such concepts as feelings of inferior-
ity, worldviews, fictional goals, lifestyles, and the creative
self.
APPENDIX / BOOK PAGE 587
SECOND PROOF
588 Significant Individuals and Events in the History of Psychology
William Stern (1871–1938) Introduces the term mental age
(determined by performance on the Binet-Simon test) and
suggests mental age (MA) be divided by chronological age
(CA), yielding the intelligence quotient (IQ).
William McDougall (1871–1938) Defines psychology as the
science of behavior as early as 1905. Focuses on purposive
behavior that is instinctive and has perceptual and emo-
tional components.
Margaret Floy Washburn (1871–1939) In 1894 becomes
the first woman to receive a PhD in psychology. In 1908
publishes The Animal Mind. In 1921 becomes the second
woman president of the APA (Calkins was first).
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) A transitional figure
between functionalism and behaviorism. Experimentally
studies trial and error learning and attempts to explain that
learning without reference to consciousness. Along with
Woodworth tests the claims of the “mental muscle” ap-
proach to education and finds them to be incorrect.
Carl Jung (1875–1961) Following the termination of his af-
filiation with Freud in 1914, goes on to create his own the-
ory of personality featuring powerful, inherited dispositions
(archetypes) that develop throughout human evolution.
Robert Yerkes (1876–1956) Is largely responsible for creat-
ing the Army testing program during World War I and for
supporting the argument that many of the nation’s ills are
caused by people of low intelligence, thus agreeing with
Goddard and Terman.
Lewis Madison Terman (1877–1956) Significantly modifies
the Binet-Simon scale, thus creating the Stanford-Binet
scale that was used to identify gifted children for further
study. The first results of Terman’s study of gifted children
were published as Genetic Studies of Genius in 1926 and the
study continues to the present.
John Broadus Watson (1878–1958) Publishes “Psychology
as a Behaviorist Views It” in 1913, thereby founding the
school of behaviorism.
■ 1879 Wilhelm Wundt establishes the first experimental
psychology laboratory.
Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) Publishes “Experimental
Studies of the Perception of Movement” in 1912, thereby
founding the school of Gestalt psychology.
Ludwig Binswanger (1881–1966) Integrates psychoanalytic
theory and the writings of Husserl and Heidegger.
Clark Leonard Hull (1884–1952) Creates a hypothetico-
deductive theory of learning that he believes to be self-cor-
recting. Most of the intervening variables in this theory are
physiological.
Karen Horney (1885–1952) Creates a version of psycho-
analysis in which dysfunctional social relationships are seen
as the causes of mental disorders instead of the intrapsyche
conflict proposed by Freud. In 1923 begins writing a series of
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articles of special relevance to women. Publishes Self-Analy-
sis in 1942, which is considered one of psychology’s first self-
help books.
Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886–1939) Does pioneering
work in the education of exceptional children. Her Gifted
Children (1926) becomes a standard text in schools of
education.
Edward Chace Tolman (1886–1959) Publishes Purposive
Behavior in Animals and Men in 1932, in which learning is
explained primarily in terms of cognitive processes.
Edwin Ray Gunthrie (1886–1959) Creates a highly parsi-
monious theory of learning that embraces the law of conti-
guity but rejects the law of frequency.
Frederick Charles Bartlett (1886–1969) Publishes Remem-
bering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology in 1932.
■ 1894 The journal The Psychological Review was founded
by James McKeen Cattell and James Mark Baldwin.
Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) Introduces into psychology
such existential concepts as Dasein, authenticity, and
thrownness.
Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) Applies Gestalt principles to
such topics as personality, motivation, conflict, and group
dynamics.
Karl S. Lashley (1890–1958) Summarizes his research on
brain functioning in his 1929 APA presidential address.
Publishes Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence also in 1929.
Percy W. Bridgman (1892–1961) Publishes The Logic of
Modern Physics in 1927, in which he proposes that abstract
concepts be operationally defined.
Norbert Wiener (1894–1964) Publishes Cybernetics in 1948.
Anna Freud (1895–1982) Extends psychoanalytic princi-
ples to the treatment and understanding of children, makes
significant contributions to the development of ego psychol-
ogy, and becomes the official spokesperson for psychoanaly-
sis following her father’s death.
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) In 1926 begins publishing an influ-
ential series of articles and books on intellectual develop-
ment (genetic epistemology).
Carl Rogers (1902–1987) Publishes Counseling and Psycho-
therapy: Newer Concepts in Practice in 1942, creating what
many consider the first viable alternative to psychoanalysis.
Creates a theory of personality featuring such concepts as
the organismic valuing process, need for positive regard,
conditions of worth, unconditional positive regard, and in-
congruency.
Karl Popper (1902–1994) Publishes The Logic of Scientific
Discovery in 1935.
■ 1904 Edward Titchener founds “The Experimentalists.”
Donald Hebb (1904–1985) Publishes The Organization of
Behavior in 1949, which describes his speculations about cell
APPENDIX / BOOK PAGE 588
SECOND PROOF
 Significant Individuals and Events in the History of Psychology
assemblies and phase sequences and does much to promote
cognitive and physiological psychology.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990) Proposes a posi-
tivistic theory of behavior that avoids theory by concentrat-
ing on how behavior is modified by its consequences.
George Kelly (1905–1967) Creates a largely existential the-
ory of personality according to which people create con-
struct systems to facilitate the accurate anticipation of future
events; so-called mental disorders are actually perceptual
problems and therefore the therapist’s job is to help clients
perceive life differently.
Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) Is usually considered the
founder of humanistic (third-force) psychology. Creates a
theory of personality featuring a hierarchy of needs ranging
from physiological needs to self-actualization.
Rollo May (1909–1994) Introduces existential philosophy
and psychology into the U.S.
Roger Wolcott Sperry (1913–1994) In the 1950s, begins an
influential series of experiments on hemispheric functioning
using the split-brain preparation.
■ 1917 G. Stanley Hall founds the Journal of Applied
Psychology.
■ 1917 The American Association of Clinical Psycholo-
gists (AACP) is founded.
■ 1919 APA creates the Division of Clinical Psychology.
■ 1929 Edwin G. Boring (1886–1968) publishes A History
of Experimental Psychology.
■ 1941 APA removes the requirement that for full mem-
bership in the organization an applicant must have pub-
lished research beyond the PhD dissertation.
■ 1943 Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts anticipate
new connectionism by speculating about “neuro-logical
networks.”
■ 1944 APA reorganizes itself into 18 divisions.
■ 1946 APA first publishes the American Psychologist.
■ 1946 Veterans Administration (VA) funds training pro-
grams for clinical psychologists whose functions would in-
clude psychotherapy.
■ 1949 Boulder Conference on Training in Clinical Psy-
chology endorses the scientist-practitioner model.
■ 1949 Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver publish The
Mathematical Theory of Communication thereby creating in-
formation theory.
■ 1950 Edwin G. Boring publishes the second edition of
A History of Experimental Psychology.
■ 1950 Alan Turing (1912–1954) creates the field of artifi-
cial intelligence with his article “Computing Machinery and
Intelligence.”
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■ 1956 Jerome Bruner, Jacqueline Goodnow, and George
Austin publish A Study in Thinking.
■ 1956 George Miller publishes “The Magical Number
Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for
Processing Information.”
■ 1958 Allen Newell, J. C. Shaw, and Herbert Simon mark
the transition between artificial intelligence and informa-
tion-processing psychology with their article “Elements of a
Theory of Problem Solving.”
■ 1958 Frank Rosenblatt describes an early neural network.
■ 1959 The Psychonomic Society is founded.
■ 1959 Noam Chomsky publishes his review of Skinner’s
Verbal Learning (1957).
■ 1960 Donald Hebb publishes his 1959 APA presidential
address “The American Revolution” in which he argues that
the rigorous scientific methods employed by the behaviorists
be applied to the study of cognitive processes.
■ 1960 George Miller and Jerome Bruner create the Center
for Cognitive Studies at Harvard.
■ 1960 Robert I. Watson (1909–1980) publishes “The His-
tory of Psychology: A Neglected Area.”
■ 1961 Marian and Keller Breland publish “The Misbehav-
ior of Organisms.”
■ 1962 Thomas Kuhn publishes The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions.
■ 1967 Ulric Neisser publishes Cognitive Psychology.
■ 1968 University of Illinois offers the first Doctor of Psy-
chology Degree (PsyD).
■ 1969 California School of Professional Psychology
(CSPP) is founded. Offers the PsyD independently of any
college or university.
■ 1969 Journal of Cognitive Psychology is founded.
■ 1969 Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert criticize neural
networks thereby significantly reducing interest in them.
■ 1973 Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz, and Niko Tinber-
gen share the Nobel Prize in biology for their work in
ethology.
■ 1973 Vail Conference on Training in Clinical Psychology
endorses freestanding professional schools and the PsyD.
■ 1975 Edward Wilson publishes Sociobiology: The New
Synthesis thereby creating the field of sociobiology.
■ 1976 Ulric Neisser publishes Cognition and Reality.
■ 1977 Albert Bandura publishes Social Learning Theory.
■ 1980 John Searle presents his “Chinese Room” rebuttal
to proponents of strong artificial intelligence.
■ 1981 Roger Sperry shares the Nobel Prize in medicine/
physiology with David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel for his
APPENDIX / BOOK PAGE 589
SECOND PROOF
590 Significant Individuals and Events in the History of Psychology
work on hemispheric specialization using his split-brain
preparation.
■ 1984 Gregory Kimble publishes “Psychology’s Two
Cultures.”
■ 1986 David Rumelhart, James McClelland, and other
members of the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) group
publish Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Mi-
crostructure of Cognition.
■ 1986 Albert Bandura publishes Social Foundations of
Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.
Wadsworth Publishing Co.
Hergenhahn: Introduction to the History of Psychology, 4/e
å Typecast, Inc. / Job #0981 / July 2000
■ 1988 American Psychological Society (APS) is founded.
■ 1994 Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray publish
The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American
Life which rekindled many of the old scientific, moral, and
political debates concerning the nature of intelligence.
■ 2000 The number of members and affiliates of the APA
exceeds 159,000.
APPENDIX / BOOK PAGE 590
SECOND PROOF