Hydrology Academic Paper  January 2015
EXPLOITATION OF AQUIFERS
Itzel Almache  Joseph Hernández  Carol Pacheco  Alexandra Terán
Escuela Superior Politécnica Del Litoral (ESPOL)
Facultad Ciencias De La Tierra (Science Of The Earth Faculty)
Ingeniería Civil (Civil Engineering)
Guayaquil, Ecuador
ABSTRACT
The exploitation of natural sources
such as fresh water for human
beings consumption and for
production processes, is an
important matter. Having that
purpose in mind, this research
examines the exploitation of an
aquifer at its main calculations. And
it is done by examining the basic
parameters that have to be
determined and analyzed prior an
aquifer exploitation. Those
parameters are flow (Q), Hydraulic
conductivity (K) and Transmissivity
(T). Knowing that is essential to
have the right knowledge of this
factors. This research will provide
valuable information regarding
aquifer exploitation analysis.
Key Words: Aquifer, Exploitation,
Hydraulic conductivity,
Transmissivity
INTRODUCTION
The Earth is composed by seventy
percent of salt water and just a thirty
percent of freshwater. In similar way
it is the human body; that is why
water is vital for development of life.
Real problems about current society
are human activities. Those cause
the planet experience environmental
damages as a consequence of
pollution, deforestation, co2
emissions, imbalance of ecosystems
and other factors that include the
controversial issue of global
warming. Because of population
growth, the access to water sources
become on increasing pressure.
Nowadays, it is not surprising to find
dry riverbeds on polluted streams.
One of the basics needs of mankind
is to satisfy the growing demand for
water used for human consumption
and for production processes.
Therefore the efficient usage of
hydric resources both surface
storage and groundwater, is crucial.
The feasibility of exploiting a specific
water resource is based on its
hydrological cycle expressed in
terms of inputs, outputs and
throughputs, the quality and the
quantity of the water that could be
obtained and its availability. These
conditions, have to fulfill not only
population demands protection, but
also the need to preserve the water
quality and ensure environment.
The exploitation of groundwater is a
viable choice. It has several
advantages such as the process of
filtration and consequently cleaning
of the unsaturated zone and the fair
returning of investment on the
groundwater supply engineering.
However, it has to be considered the
depth of the aquifer and the
biological and infiltration of chemical
components, such as arsenic,
fluoride nitrate and others.
In Ecuador, according to the
International Groundwater
Resources Assessment Centre
(IGRAC) the groundwater
abstraction is only the 0.09% of the
total water consumption.
Nevertheless, the extent of highly
productive intergranular aquifers and
fissure aquifers are over 20% of the
total area. These numbers confirm
that there are sufficient supply of
fresh groundwater across most of the
country, which could be exploited.
(IGRAC,2000)
This is the main objective of this
study.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Groundwater constitutes one part of
the hydrologic cycle. Saturated
formations below the surface act as
mediums for the transmission of
groundwater, and as reservoirs for
the storage of water. Water infiltrates
to these formations from the ground
surface or from bodies of surface
water and is transmitted slowly for
varying distances until it returns to
the surface by action of natural flow,
vegetation, or man (Todd 1964).
Groundwater occurs in the
subsurface in two zones: the
unsaturated zone and the saturated
zone. The unsaturated zone (vadose
zone), consists of soil pores which
are filled to a varying degree with air
and water. The zone of saturation
consists of water-filled pores that are
assumed to be at hydrostatic
pressure. For an aquifer, the zone of
saturation is overlain by an
unsaturated zone that goes from the
water table to the ground surface.
(Fetter, 2001).
The occurrence and movement of
groundwater are related to physical
forces that include gravity, pressure
from the atmosphere and overlying
water, and molecular attraction
between solids and water, acting in
the subsurface and the geologic
environment in which they occur.
(Freeze, 1979)
In the subsurface, water can occur in
the following: as water vapor which
moves from regions of higher
pressure to lower pressure, as
condensed water which is absorbed
by dry soil particles, as water which
is retained on particles under the
molecular force of adhesion, and as
water which is not subject to
attractive forces towards the surface
of solid particles and is under the
influence of gravitational forces. In
the saturated zone, groundwater
flows through interconnected voids in
response to the difference in fluid
pressure and elevation. (USACE
1999)
 An aquifer is a water bearing
geological formation that can store
and yield usable amounts of water
and are identified by characteristics
such as type, areal extent, depth
form the land surface, thickness,
yield, and direction of groundwater
movement.
FORMATION OF AQUIFERS
According to the lithological
characteristics of the rocks aquifers
are classified as consolidated or
unconsolidated rock
Consolidated rock includes
sandstone; limestone, granite or
other rock, since the material is
almost impervious groundwater
cannot move easily therefore they
are low water yielding formation.
Unconsolidated rock consists of
granular material such as sand and
gravel, more permeable materials,
hence generally yields larger amount
of water
A perched aquifer is found in
formations of glacial outwash where
clay layers form impermeable layers
above a primary aquifer.
A fractured aquifer is found in
rocks, such as granite and basalt,
which contain usable amounts of
groundwater in cracks, fissures, or
joints.
An aquiclude is a formation that
contains groundwater but cannot
transmit it at significant rate to supply
a well. (Cech, 2009 )
TYPES OF AQUIFERS
Depending upon the absence or
presence of a water table affecting
the hydrostatic pressure summited in
the water contained in the interstices
or rock fractures there are the
following types of aquifers
A confined aquifer or pressure
aquifer is the one delimited form
above and below by impermeable
formations. (Bear, 2007)
Water pressure caused by gravity will
cause confined groundwater to find
exit points anywhere in the geologic
system, occasionally, the path of
least resistance is upward to the land
surface, therefore if enough pressure
exists in the aquifer, a spring may
form. (Cech, 2009 )
A subtype of the unconfined aquifer
is the artesian aquifer, where the
water occupies the total amount of
the pores or voids of the geological
formations maintaining it saturated.
The upper confining impermeable
layer gives it a higher atmospheric
pressure resulting that a well in this
type of aquifer will flow freely without
pumping. (INAMHI, 2011)
When water table function as its
upper boundary, the aquifer is an
unconfined aquifer or phreatic
aquifer. Although there is a capillary
fringe above the phreatic surface,
which is often, neglected in
groundwater studies. (Bear, 2007)
The water table rises and falls in
undulating form depending on the
permeability of the soil and the areas
of recharge and discharge
corresponding to the changes in the
volume of the storage of water within
an aquifer. (Todd D, 2005 )
Alluvial aquifers are excellent
examples of unconfined aquifers.
Recharge can occur from the
downward seepage of surface water
trough the unsaturated zone or from
lateral movement or upward seepage
of groundwater from underlying
geologic strata. (Cech, 2009 )
Aquifers that can lose or gain water
through the upper or below bounding
formations are called leaky aquifers.
These are common feature in alluvial
valleys, plans or former lake basins
(Todd D, 2005 )
All of the types of aquifers mentioned
before are shown in Figure 1. For a
better comprehension.

Figure 1. Types of aquifers

A: Unconfined aquifer
B: Confined aquifer
C: Confined aquifer
Portions of aquifers A,B, and C, are leaky, with the direction and rate of leakage determined
by the elevations of the piezometric surface of each of these aquifers
(Bear, 2007)

which water will rise if a well pierced

PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE
The saturated thickness of an aquifer
is the total water-bearing thickness of
a geological formation, which affects
significantly it potential water yield.
The piezometric surface is the areal
variation of the hydraulic head of an
aquifer represented by the level
completely a confined aquifer (Figure
2). The shape of this imaginary plane
defines the directions of the
groundwater movements. In
unconfined aquifers the hydraulic
heads coincide with the actual
groundwater surface and therefore it
is called groundwater table (Sen,
1995)

Homogeneous aquifer
HeteErogeneous aquifer
Figure 2. Hydraulic gradient:
Piezometric Level (Sen, 1995 )
GROUNDWATER MOVEMENT
The direction and rate of movement
are determined by the lithology
stratigraphy and structure of
geological deposits, within there are
the following hydraulic properties to
determine them
Porosity (p) is defined as the
volume of the pores of a rock or soil
sample (Vv) divided by the total
volume of both pores and solid
material (Vt). (Delleur, 2006)
Obtaining the following equation:
p=Vv/Vt
For permeable soil, the effective
porosity is the rate between the
volume of the drainable by gravity of
the soil and the total volume of it.
Where the total amount of water in a
permeable soil is the volume of it
multiply by its porosity. (INAMHI,
2011)
Permeability is the ability of porous
materials to allow fluids to move
through it and it depends on various
aspects such as grain size, shape
and arrangement of the formations.
For example, groundwater may only
move a few centimeters per year in
clay, but several meters per day in
gravel.
Hydraulic conductivity also known
as permeability coefficient is the
measurement of the rate of flow of a
fluid through porous material. Is
expressed as a rate of discharge en
meters per day.
Hydraulic head (h) is the driving
force that moves groundwater. It
combines fluid pressure and
gradient, and is represented by the
height that groundwater will rise
inside a well (Cech, 2009 )
Is expressed as:
h= Z+P/ ρg
Where Z is the elevation head or the
distance of the reference point above
a datum plan (mean sea level) and P
is the fluid pressure at the point
exerted by the column of water
above the point. (Delleur, 2006)
Flow and Transmissivity.-
Transmissivity is a measure of the
volume of water they can travel
horizontally through the net width of
an aquifer saturated thickness under
a hydraulic gradient equal to 1.
(USACE 1999)
Transmissivity (T) is the rate that
water is transmitted trough a unit
width of an aquifer uneder a unit
hydraulic gradient. It represents the
ability of an aquifer to transmit
groundwater. It is expressed in
square meters per day:
T=Kb
Where K is the hydraulic conductivity
(m/day), and b is saturated thickness
of an aquifer (m). (Cech, 2009 )
Specific yield (Sy) represents the
amount of water that can be available
for supply or consumption, is the
volume of water that will drain from
soil or rock under the influence of an
unconfined aquifer, expressed by the
following ratio.
𝑽𝒈
𝑺𝒚 =
𝑽𝒕
Where, Vg is the volume if water
drained by gravity, and Vt the total
volume. (Kasenow, 2001).
The values for unconfined aquifers
usually are between 0.05 and 0.3.
(Kresic, 2007)
Darcy's Law.- Rate is laminar flow of
a constant temperature and fluid
density between two points in a
porous medium, which is
proportional the hydraulic gradient
(dh / dl) between the two points. The
equation that defines the flow rate is
known through a porous medium as
Darcy's law. (USACE 1999)
Q=-KA (dh/dl)
Where:
Q: Volumetric Flow rate
K: Hydraulic conductivity
A: Cross-sectional area of flow
The hydraulic conductivity is
defined as an average conductivity,
which is a function of the properties
of the contour and the fluid
properties. (Thomas Harter, 2008)
Homogeneity and Isotropy, a
homogeneous unity is one that has
similar global properties. Therefore
the porosity, hydraulic conductivity
and other parameters are similar in
formation geological and defined
isotropic when empty geometry is
similar in any direction.(USACE
1999)
AQUIFER STORAGE
Storage coefficient or storativity
(s) is the volume of water released
from storage with respect to water
level and surface area of the aquifer,
as shown in Figure 3.
Also is expressed for most
unconsolidated and many loosely
consolidated aquifers as the sum of
the specific yield and the specific
storage multiplied by the thickness of
the aquifer. (Kasenow, 2001)
The value of the storage coefficient is
dependent upon whether the aquifer
is unconfined or confined.
𝜕(∅𝜌) 𝜕∅ 𝜕𝜌 𝑑∅ 𝜕𝑝 𝑑𝜌 𝜕𝑝 Storage of confined aquifers
= 𝜌 𝜕𝑡 + ∅ 𝜕𝑡 = 𝜌 + ∅ 𝑑𝑝 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑝 𝜕𝑡
Water released from storage in a
1 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌 𝑑∅
𝛽= → = 𝛽𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =𝛼 confined aquifer is from compression
𝜌 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
of the aquifer and expansion of the
𝜕(∅𝜌) 𝜕𝜌 water when pumped.
= 𝜌(∝ +𝛽∅)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕ℎ During pumping, the pressure is
= 𝜌(∝ +𝛽∅) (𝜌𝑔 )
𝜕𝑡 reduced in a confined aquifer, but the
𝜕(∅𝜌) 𝜕ℎ aquifer is not dewatered.
= 𝜌2 𝑔(∝ +𝛽∅)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 The storage coefficient in confined
aquifers ranges from 1 x 10-5 to 1 x
10-3 (Fletcher G.,1995)

METHODOLOGY

One of the most important analyses

is water balance, which includes
recovering the total inputs and
outputs during a period of time.

Figure 3. Water released from storage

(Heath, Ralph C.,1983)
Storage of unconfined aquifers
The principal source of water is from
gravity drainage as the aquifer
materials are dewatered during
pumping.
The storage coefficient tends to be
equal to the percentage of pore
space in the aquifer
The storage coefficient for an
unconfined aquifer ranges from 0.01
to 0.30.
Unconfined aquifers can get more
water for a smaller change in head
than to confined aquifers (Fletcher
G.,1995)
The inputs depend on: lateral
subsurface inflow (QLS), rainfall
recharge (QRR), recharge from
nearby rivers (QRN), recharge due to
irrigation (QIR), and sewage return
(QSR).
The outputs are quantified on natural
discharges such as springs (QSQ),
lateral subsurface outflow (QLA) and
evaporation from groundwater table
(QEGT) But also on the usage
groundwater has or will be given
through wells; such as domestic and
industrial (QDI) water uses, and
irrigation water uses (QIW). (Sen,
1995)
For example, it has been determined
that the inputs and outputs of an
unconfined aquifer during one month
were (Table 1):
 Inputs Quantity Outputs Quantity 𝑸 = 𝑲. 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝑫. (𝒅𝒉/𝒅𝒓)
3 3
(x10^6 m ) (x10^6 m )
QLS 0,06 QSQ 0,003 Where:
QRR 0,7 QLA 0,15
QRN 0,1 QEGT 0,012 Q: Flow of the well
QIR 0,2 QDI 0,13 K: Hydraulic conductivity
QSR 0,07 QIW 1,1 r: Radial distance from the center of
SUM 1,13 SUM 1,395 the well
Inputs Outputs
(IT) (OT) D: Height of the aquifer
dh/dr: Hydraulic gradient
Table 1. Inputs and Outputs
Separating and integrating between
(Harter, 2008) h2 and h1

𝑸(𝒅𝒓/𝒓) = 𝟐𝝅𝑲𝑫. 𝒅𝒉
Since the total of outputs is grader
than the inputs, the aquifer is not obtaining:
sustainable during the month of
analysis, because if this additional 𝑸 = (𝟐𝝅𝑲𝑫(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏))/(𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝟐/𝒓𝟏))
support must be brought from other
sources for instance, nearby UNCONFINED AQUIFERS
aquifers, surface reservoirs, etc. The
deficit is about 0,265 x10^6 m3 For unconfined aquifers, D is
replaced with the height h, of the
water table in edge conditions.
CONFINED AQUIFERS then:
The condition of ''Dupuit- 𝑸 = 𝑲. 𝟐𝝅𝒓𝒉. (𝒅𝒉/𝒅𝒓)
Forchheimer'' provides that for some
systems the flow, can be considered
as horizontal, and distributed
Separating and integrating is
uniformly with depth. The flow in
obtained:
these systems is vertical and
horizontal, but may be simplified 𝑸 = (𝝅𝑲(𝒉𝟐𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏𝟐 ))/(𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝟐/𝒓𝟏))
when the water mostly moves in one
direction.

The flow of a well in a confined Also:

aquifer, may be analyzed with
𝑲 = 𝑸. (𝒍𝒏(𝒓𝟐/𝒓𝟏))/(𝝅(𝒉𝟐𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏𝟐 ))
Dupuit-Forchheimer hypothesis,
assuming an infinite aquifer and This equation allows calculating the
horizontal flow. The water is pumped value of hydraulic conductivity as a
through a cylinder of radius (r) at a function of height (h), distances (r)
rate Q. The cylinder area is 2πrD and the rate of extraction (Q).
then the flow rate Q can be
expressed by Darcy as: (Bouwer,
1978)
 UNSTEADY RADIAL FLOW IN A 𝝅𝒌(𝒉𝟐𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏𝟐 )
𝑸=
CONFINED AQUIFER. 𝒓𝟐
𝐥𝐧(𝒓𝟏)
The drawdown for an infinitesimal
𝟑𝟎𝒎
diameter well in a confined aquifer ((𝟓𝟎𝒎)𝟐 − (𝟒𝟎𝒎)𝟐 )
𝑸 = (𝝅. 𝒅
obtained by Theis is represented with 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝒎
the following equation: 𝐥𝐧 ( 𝟎, 𝟓𝒎 )

−∞ −𝒖
𝑸 𝒆 𝒎𝟑 𝒍
𝑺= ∫ ( ) 𝒅𝒖 𝑸 = 𝟏𝟐𝟐𝟖𝟎 = 𝟏𝟒𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝑻 𝒖 𝒖 𝒅 𝒔

Where:

S: Drawdown EXAMPLE 2
Q: constant well discharge
A 1m diameter well penetrates
𝒓𝟐 𝑺 vertically through a confined aquifer
𝒖= 30 m thick. When the well is pumped
𝟒𝑻𝒕
at 113 m3 /h, the drawdown in a well
Obtaninig: 15 m away is 1.8 m. In another well
𝑸 50 m away is 0.5 m. What is the
𝒔 = 𝟒𝝅𝑻 [−𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟏𝟔 − 𝐥𝐧 𝒖 + 𝒖 −
approximate head in the pumped
𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝟑 well for steady-state conditions and
+ 𝟑.𝟑! − ⋯ . .]
𝟐.𝟐!
what is the approximate drawdown in
𝑸𝑾(𝒖) the well? Also compute the
𝒔=
𝟒𝝅𝑻 transmissivity of the aquifer and the
radius of influence of the pumping
well. Take the initial piezometric level
EXAMPLE 1 as 40 m above the datum.

A well with a radius of 0.5 meters First determine the hydraulic

completely penetrates an unconfined conductivity using equation.
aquifer gravel with a hydraulic 𝑚3 𝑚3
conductivity K = 30 m/day and a Q=113 ℎ𝑟 = 2712 𝑑𝑎𝑦
height H = 50 meters. The well is
𝑸 𝒓𝟐
pumped until the water level inside 𝑲= 𝐥𝐧( )
the object is 40 meters from the 𝟐𝝅𝒃(𝒔𝟏 − 𝒔𝟐 ) 𝒓𝟏
background. Assume that the pump 𝑚3
does not affect the pressure head 2712 𝑑𝑎𝑦 50
greater and equal to 500 meters 𝐾= ln( )
2𝜋(30𝑚)(1.8𝑚 − 0.5𝑚) 15
radius, and the loss in the well are
𝒎
negligible. 𝑲 = 𝟏𝟑. 𝟑
𝒅𝒂𝒚
Determine which the pumping flow
rate is. The transmissivity (T) is

T=Kb
T=13.3m/day * 30 unconsolidated deposit would you
expect this to be?
𝒎𝟐
𝑻 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑 𝒅𝒂𝒚
𝑚 𝑚3
𝑄 = 0,05 = 4320
𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑦
To compute approximate head
(𝒉𝒘 ) in the pumped well 𝑟1 = 50 𝑚 , 𝑟2 = 150 𝑚
ℎ2 = ℎ0 − 𝑠2 = 40 − 0.5 = 39.5𝑚 𝑠1 =ℎ0 − ℎ1 and 𝑠2 =ℎ0 − ℎ2 , so 𝑠1 −
𝑄 𝑟2 𝑠2 =ℎ2 − ℎ1 =3-1.2=1.8 m
ℎ𝑤 = ℎ 2 − ln( )
2𝜋𝐾𝑏 𝑟𝑊 𝑸 𝒓𝟐
𝑲= 𝐥𝐧( )
2712𝑚3 𝟐𝝅𝒃(𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝒕 ) 𝒓𝟏
𝑑𝑎𝑦 50𝑚
ℎ𝑤 = 39.5𝑚 − ln ( )
𝑚
2𝜋 (13.3 𝑑𝑎𝑦) (30𝑚) 0.5𝑚 4320𝑚 3
𝑑𝑎𝑦 150𝑚
𝐾= ln ( )
𝑚 50𝑚
𝒉𝒘 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟓 𝒎 2𝜋 (25 (
) 1.8𝑚 )
𝑑𝑎𝑦

Drawdown is then: 𝒎
𝑲 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟖 𝒅𝒂𝒚 , showing it is a
𝑠𝑤 = ℎ0 − ℎ𝑤 = 40 − 34.5 medium clean sand (Figure 4).

𝒔𝒘 = 𝟓. 𝟓 𝒎 The transmissivity (T) is

The radius of influence (R) of T=Kb

pumping well can be found by
T=16.8m/day * 25 m
rearranging (solving for)
𝒎𝟐
r which is R 𝑻 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎 𝒅𝒂𝒚

𝟐𝝅𝑲𝒃(𝒉𝒐 − 𝒉𝟏 )
𝑹 = (𝒓𝒊 ). 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [ ]
𝑸

13.3𝑚
2𝜋 ( ) (30𝑚)(40𝑚 − 38.2𝑚)
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑅 = (15𝑚) exp ( )
2712𝑚 3
𝑑𝑎𝑦

𝑹 = 𝟕𝟗𝒎

EXAMPLE 3

A well fully penetrates a 25 m thick

confined aquifer. After a long period
of pumping at a constant rate of 0.05
𝑚3 /𝑠 the drawdowns at distances of
50 and 150 m the well were observed
to be 3 and 1.2 m, respectively. Figure 4. Hydraulic Conductivity
Determine the hydraulic conductivity (Heath, 1983)
and transmissivity. What hope of
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