Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Teaching Strategies
Acknowledgements
Lead writers
Stella Emberson
Camilla Karaivanoff
Additional writers
Gloria Capolongo
Wendy Paddick
Reference group
Rosie Antenucci
Velma Beaglehole
Marie Davis
Stuart Kenny
Erika Von Aspern
Bev White
Project leader
Ross Hamilton
The Department for Education and Child Development requests attribution as: South Australian
Department for Education and Child Development.
Introduction
The explicit teaching strategies described within are primarily a guide for teachers of EALD students. The
strategies were designed with the Language and Literacy Levels (Levels) professional learning modules in
mind. These modules, available at https://myintranet.learnlink.sa.edu.au/teaching/english-as-an-
additional-language-or-dialect-eald/teaching-and-learning-support/language-and-literacy-levels-
professional-learning, introduce the Levels, build teacher grammar capacity and support teachers to
assign accurate Levels, use Levels data and identify language learning goals and targets for students
within their ability to learn with support from a teacher or capable peer (Zone of Proximal Development).
The final module, Setting Goals and Targets, enables teachers to answer the Learning Design question
“What do we want them to learn?” Teachers can then use the teaching strategies contained in this
resource to intentionally teach students’ identified language needs thereby answering the Learning
Design question “What will we do to get there?”
Separate teaching strategies to develop strong foundations in groupings of Language and Literacy Levels
(e.g. Levels 1-4) have been written for:
• Thematic progression and foregrounding
• Sentences: simple, compound, complex and lexically dense
• Verbs and verb groups
• Circumstances – using adverbs, adverbial phrases and prepositional phrases
• Nouns and noun groups
• Evaluative language
• Vocabulary
• Spelling
The strategies could also be used by other teachers to meet the needs of other students and without
having first completed the professional learning modules, but teachers should be aware that some of the
strategies have been designed for older students who are operating at a Language and Literacy level that
is relatively low. Teachers will have to modify these strategies so they can be used with native English
speakers who are operating at or near the language and Literacy level for their year level. The following
table shows the alignment between year levels and Language and Literacy Levels.
Year Level R 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10-12
Language & 1-4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Literacy
Level
It is strongly recommended that the teaching strategies are not taught in isolation but as part of a
teaching and learning pedagogy that includes a gradual release of teacher responsibility. It is anticipated
that:
• Highly Accomplished EALD teachers may only need to refer to the strategies to have their current
good practice confirmed and model this for colleagues
• Proficient EALD teachers may be able to initially borrow from the strategies before developing
their own to suit their own context
• Graduate EALD teachers will be more reliant upon the strategies while they begin to modify
them for their own contexts.
Regardless of their level of expertise, all teachers should consider the learning strategies that accompany
each teaching strategy. This assists them to answer the Learning Design question “How will we know they
got it?” They should expect to observe and hear their engaged students doing certain things such as:
• Talking a lot about the text
• Comparing texts
• Exploring particular patterns generated in texts
• Asking and answering higher order questions
• Using the language in authentic dialogues about the topic.
If teachers do not see the learning strategies they anticipated, then they should revise the teaching
strategy or use their own.
Foregrounding - Developing thematic progression through cohesive and coherent texts
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around cohesion and coherence for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning
document.
Good text organisation depends on
• Organisational structures. These are words used to structure the text. 1. Rhetorical language features are used to begin paragraphs. Common
examples are Firstly, A further point to make, In addition. These are common in exposition texts at each stages that function to organise the text where
an author is setting out their arguments and viewpoints. These have been accepted in the cultural and social context of both written and spoken texts.
2. Cohesive conjunctions are used to link paragraphs and sentences in logical relationships eg In fact; Yet; Therefore;
• Foregrounding. The introductory paragraph, the topic sentence in paragraphs and the beginnings of sentences in the paragraphs and the connection
between these three elements at whole text level, at paragraph level and at sentence level (including clause level) are what makes the text flow and
gives the thematic progression or coherence to a text.
• Reference. The use of reference items and synonyms are the language items that make the text hang together and give cohesion to the text.
The following resource suggests strategies and activities to move the learners towards higher language Level achievement in both their spoken and written
texts. Examples are taken from Language and Literacy levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Text Knowledge (Organisational features;
foregrounding; reference)
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Most often the first texts Engage Reception students and year 1 students in paired or
that learners see are group work activities that require them to put pictures of a The repetition of the main characters is typical at this
Across the story/picture books and at familiar story into sequence. If possible have a student level eg ‘Billy Goats Gruff’. Available at
stages of the earliest stages of report back on how they arrived at their final consensus of http://www.kizclub.com/storytime/billygoat/goat13.html
schooling learning about texts children the sequence.
equivalent to are recognising the Reference items and cohesive conjunction.
the end of Model the beginning words on each ‘page’ or segment of
sequence of pictures to tell The three billy goats gruff were very hungry.
Reception the story. Point out repetition which at this stage is a
a story. They will expect the They wanted to eat the green grass across the river. But
cohesive language device.
main character to be an ugly monster lived under the bridge. So they were
repeated in each picture. Show the learners the words representing the main afraid to cross the bridge.
Often the main character character and then point out the reference items (pronouns
NB ‘So’ is acting as a cohesive conjunction. ‘So’ can also
appears in every picture and to start with). If possible, use the text with a smart board,
be used as a linking conjunction eg.
this is the simplest form of circle the reference item and link it to the participant.
It was hot so we went swimming.
foregrounding.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Use stories (Narratives) Using familiar written stories or fables on-line or in books focus on
Cont’d that have circumstances of circumstances of place and time and ask students consider if the
time or place in foreground circumstance relates to the picture eg But an ugly monster lived under
Across the position. the bridge. “Is there a bridge in the picture? Is there an ugly monster
stages of under it?”
schooling If no circumstances are foregrounded take sentences like the example
equivalent to just given and rewrite: Under the bridge lived an ugly monster.
the end of
Reception Model and Teach how sentences of a familiar topic can begin with
• repetitive sentence openers Bees are insects. Bees make honey.
• a pronoun or other reference item Bees are insects. They live in hives.
• a circumstance Last weekend I saw bees in the garden.
Introduce simple Recounts
• a cohesive conjunction Also, I saw bees at school.
and Information Reports
• a time conjunction Then I saw bees at school.
next. Another example:
and call these the starting points of the sentence.
The Wolf is like a dog. The Wolf lives in Canada.
Engage students in group activities and games that require them to Last weekend I saw a wolf in the zoo.
put cards with sentence parts together to make full sentences. The Wolf is like a dog. It lives in Canada.
Focussing on the changes made by foregrounding different language Also I saw a Canadian wolf at the Adelaide zoo.
elements, discuss with students which completed sentences they like
the best. Have students copy out the sentences.
Introduce demonstrative pronouns – This, These, (for close proximity)
That, Those (for distance) and have students make up sentences using In answer to questions such as “Which toy(s) do
demonstrative pronouns in spoken and written contexts. When they you like best?” Have students answer:
understand the meaning of the proximity /distance and I like this/that one.
plurality/singularity of these words in spoken language model for I like these/those.
students how to use them in foreground position in spoken and Then model foregrounding of reference item
written texts. This/That is the one I like.
Model and Teach simple sub-headings for information reports: These/Those are the ones I like.
Appearance/Description (what it looks like); Habitat (where they
live); Diet (Food); Reproduction (How they have babies).
Use the nominalisations as headings particularly with older students,
otherwise use the words in brackets. Also, for older students use similar proforma for
Use familiar information about an animal and have students copy note taking and explain to students that this
appropriate sentences into a proforma/table or under headings. will help them ORGANISE their texts.
Description/Appearance; Habitat; Food; Reproduction.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7
Model and Teach simple procedures foregrounding the
Continue use of Information Reports.
processes:-
It is crucial that students work with
• Directions – How to get to somewhere (simple Use simple maps and have pairs of students
texts other than Narratives.
directions can be done in the playground with a tell each other how to go from point A to
Across the Procedures including protocols eg
stages of blindfolded student walking a number of steps point B.
how to behave at Sports Day, are
schooling forward, sideways, reverse, while being supported
appropriate text types to develop at Have students explain to each other how to
equivalent to by another student, in order to reach a chalk mark
this stage. play a game from their culture.
the end of Year on a netball rectangle)
3. • How to make a – paper kite; pancakes; cup of tea
• How to use a – pencil sharpener; ruler
Foregrounded Elements (theme) in
procedural type texts eg • How to behave in school assembly.
Process
Place the mixture in the oven after five Model and Teach other theme elements of procedural eg. Have a student operate a simple
minutes. texts eg time; human and non-human participants. machine/tool and orally explain what they are
Time Introduce and model passive voice in learning area doing. Write the sentences on a smart board.
After five minutes, place the mixture in procedures. Read them through in order to recall then
the oven. hide the sentences and ask the class :
Human (in a procedural recount) Model and Teach foregrounding of cohesive conjunctions “After …… what did XXXX do?”
We placed the mixture in the oven eg ‘Next’, ‘Then’. Also Teach and model foregrounding of “So after (action) what is the next
after five minutes. Manner circumstances in procedures eg ‘Carefully’; instruction?” “How did we do it?”
Non-human using passive voice ‘Quickly’; ‘Immediately’.
The mixture was placed in the oven Encourage students to take a position on an issue such as I think some children call other children
after five minutes. bullying (or name calling) and encourage them to respond names to be funny but I believe it hurts them.
orally foregrounding a sensing verb eg I believe…; I think…; I would like the students to tell each other
Students need to begin to develop I would like…; when they say something wrong. I would like
language to express their own voice Introduce the structure of a formal argument Exposition the students to listen to each other and to do
and opinions. Introduce simple by modelling an introductory paragraph with three main the right thing.
Expositions. points or reasons. Model how these three points become
the topic sentences of the three following paragraphs.
Teach the metalanguage of ‘Introductory paragraph’ and
Appendix 1 shows introductory paragraph
‘Topic sentence’ and ‘theme’ and show how they create
(consisting of one sentence) and topic
thematic connection, highlighting and drawing arrows as
sentences re smoking.
appropriate.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7 Foregrounding Introduce a simple science investigation:
Cont’d Suggest a metaphor to students that a eg Use a toy vehicle and a one metre plank of wood with
text is like a journey on which the sides to prevent the toy from falling. Put one end of the
Across the writer must take reader. plank of wood on the ground and the other end raised to
stages of The Introductory paragraph sets out different heights, 10 centimetres, 20 centimetres, 30
schooling the journey like the big signpost at centimetres etc . Record the speed of the toy at different
equivalent to the beginning of a journey from one heights. Repeat with different surfaces and different ty
the end of year
capital city to another. cars. Model and show sequential Explanations
3.
The topic sentences at the beginning Teach students how to write an explanation paragraph: such as milk production; chocolate
of the paragraphs are like the First Model for students how to write up the science production, digestion, respiration etc.
signposts that indicate main junction investigation as a Procedure and to record results in a
table. Highlight the language that is foregrounded in the Demonstrate the connection between the last
points in the journey.
Investigation purpose parts of sentences and the beginning parts of
The beginnings of sentences are like the following sentences (rheme and theme
eg We wanted to know…; We thought that……; A toy
signposts between the smaller See Appendix 2 for example. The theme is like
vehicle was used…..; a plank was put…..; Then we rolled
towns on the journey. a signpost orienting the reader to the topic.
the car…etc
Sequential Explanations are Then write up the results as an Explanation and again The rheme is new information about the
introduced. Natural phenomena, highlight foregrounding elements eg A slope of one metre theme)
production processes can be and 50cms elevation causes the toy car to go faster. When Explain how this gives coherence (flow) to the
explained with sequential the elevation is reduced …….. etc. text.
Explanations. Bring attention to the grammatical shift in language. Pronouns, substitutions, rhetorical and
cohesive conjunctions are language elements
Introduce Creative Responses and Reviews and focus on creating cohesion of a text.
foregrounding when modelling texts.
Model - Creative Response in the form of a letter to a
character in a familiar story.
Model and jointly construct - Book Review; Performance
Review.
Deconstruct texts by circling demonstratives and The woodchips are mixed with water to make pulp. This
Referencing in texts moves connecting to the relevant pieces of text. pulp is …..; In the middle of 1852 gold mining licences
beyond pronouns, and Repeat activity (mentioned in Levels 5 – 7) topic were introduced. These licences were….;
demonstratives refer to complex sentences on cards, at a higher language level.
participants or large segments of Particularly use Argument texts. Have students work Canteens also have a traffic lights method: green light
texts in pairs to put topic sentences with matching are…, orange light foods are…., and red light foods ……
paragraphs (also on cards). Have the student pairs
then place the paragraphs in order. This method of food identification is…….
See Appendix 3 as an example.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 8 – 10
A paragraph has a topic sentence Introduce/Revise with students how to develop a paragraph idea by
Cont’d
usually at the beginning. A expanding (saying the same thing in more detail); extending (give
paragraph contains one idea that further detail that relates to main idea); exemplifying (give examples
Across the Students in this range of Language
stages of
relates to the main topic and is of the main idea).
Levels confidently use circumstances of
schooling supported by the information and
Show how topic sentences can be elaborated upon: eg time and place in foreground position.
equivalent to evidence in that paragraph. Explain /Define
the end of At Level 10 they can also use
The following sentences should The Industrial Revolution was the period from about 1760 to Dependent clauses in foreground
year 6
elaborate (expand, extend or give sometime between 1820 and 1840. (Topic sentence) position. This requires a comma at the
examples), of the main idea in the The term refers to the transition from earlier technology to new end of the Dependent clause.
topic sentence. manufacturing processes.
Dependent clauses at Level 10 can be
expand the main idea by giving Expand/Explain non-finite clauses, again requiring a
more information about it. Another advantage of early technology in farming was that very little comma at the end of the clause.
pollution was produced. (Topic sentence)
extend the main idea by giving The following sentence expands or elaborates the idea NB. At level 8 students tend to use
points that are relevant and There were no fuel-powered machines to pollute the atmosphere spoken-like non-finite clauses but do
closely related to the main idea. because the power came from human hard work. not foreground them in theme position.
give examples in a paragraph to Extend
support the main idea. However a disadvantage of this stage of farming development may
Appendix 3. Text Deconstruction
have meant that not everyone was employed. (Topic sentence)
How to write a good Research Report.
The following two sentences extend the idea because they introduce
This appendix highlights the topic
other possible issues caused by the point made in the topic sentence
sentences in the first three paragraphs.
Some people may not have been able to feed and clothe themselves
The second paragraph shows how the
properly. This may have led to more crime and more social problems.
topic sentence is expanded with
Exemplify/Give examples/evidence questions. The last sentence extends
The view that Aboriginal people came from Asia is widely accepted. the topic sentence giving the reason for
(Topic sentence) ‘understanding’. More deconstruction
There is considerable evidence for this. (These words introduce the example) can be done on this text but the main
There are, for example, groups of people in Asia today who have point is to organise the paragraphs by
physical resemblances to some Aborigines and who may be part of the working in pairs and using the headings.
same original racial group.
See Level 11 -12 for further development.
Language Language Level Activities Expansion and examples from Levels
Level
Level 11 – Statistics and quotes also exemplify topic or earlier sentences. Refer
Create more paired activities around
12 back to Levels 8 to 10 re Exemplify/Give examples/Evidence
matching topic sentences with appropriate
Teach paragraph elaboration with more complex sentences eg: paragraphs.
Across the The current status of the health of Aboriginal people is a direct result
stages of
of colonisation. Europeans introduced life-threatening diseases into
schooling
Australia such as whooping cough, colds, flu, measles and sexually
equivalent
to the end transmitted disease. As the indigenous people had no immunity to
of Year 8 such diseases, many died. (Topic sentence and elaborating sentences)
The underlined words then introduce the example At this stage teacher consciously models and
A prime example of this was the small pox epidemic of 1790’s that jointly constructs a range of sentence
killed a high percentage of Aboriginal people living along the River starting points that orientate the reader and
Murray (McCorquodale 1997). organise the flow of information
Simple Investigation: o time:- During a scene that is focused on
At these levels students can Model and jointly construct more complex introduction and topic a good character….; After changing the
independently compose sentences appropriately to clearly predict the content of the whole two fractions into twelfths and then
mathematical and scientific text and the paragraph respectively twenty-fourths….; When adding heat
investigations, based on Show, model and jointly construct paragraphs using text connective energy to a chemical reaction ….
provided headings for each phrases to structure and stage a text eg One reason; The first event; o place: In a physical change, materials
stage, eg introduction, aim, The next instance; The last event may change colour
hypothesis, method, results, o means: By using eco-tourism and
Show, model and jointly construct use of text connectives to make raising awareness about the reef’s
analysis of results and
logical connections between paragraphs and sentences: eg In protection…..;
conclusion.
addition; Overall; Indeed o comparison: In contrast to the lengthy
Model the use of rhetorical questions to structure and stage an ship and mast ……;
exposition (persuasive argument), particularly oral debates. eg But is a o cause: Due to mining..; Because we had
total ban on mobile phones necessary? some difficulties….; Because of this….
o contingency: (concession) Even though
Model use of abstract noun groups and nominalisations in factual
this is true….; If I was a peasant;
genres: The loss of habitats……; The safety of workers……
o angle:- As a modern day person reading
Also model passive voice to foreground issues and abstractions:- The about Viking raiders ….;
damage to these habitats needs to be investigated rather than The
Conservation Foundation needs to investigate …… Refer to Appendix 4 section on citing
sources
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 13 – 14
Explanation: confidently constructs longer, Model and jointly construct texts which use a full range of
more detailed causal, factorial and alternative sentence starters to organise the thematic links
consequential explanations with effective use within the text
Across the
stages of
of paragraphing; begins to compose eg The primary argument for an increase is …; One of the
schooling theoretical explanations using models and features of …; The most significant feature of …; The first
equivalent to diagrams. step to determining …
the end of year Response/Review/Source Analysis: Also refer to the Circumstances Teaching Strategies
10
synthesises information from multiple sources
Model and jointly construct a wider range of more complex
to create own interpretation and insight;
foregrounded phrases and clauses:-
makes reference to and draws comparisons
o time: As your awareness widens; During the
with other relevant texts; analyses accuracy of
experimental process
interpretations, identifies bias and prejudice
o place: Against this background
and offers alternative readings to a text
o means: By following The Law of Conservation of
Energy;
It is important at this level to encourage
o cause: Because of the law of conservation of energy
writers to reflect on the organisation of their
o contingency: Without the inspiring leaders of the
text and the thematic flow of ideas. At this
World Cup campaign, such as …; Despite the fact that
level delicate choices are needed that reflect
there is a lot of information……..
audience and purpose. Either of two
statements (clauses): Children must be Model and jointly construct a wider range of foregrounded
protected; We don’t want a nanny state, could abstractions:- The evidence shown in both these examples… Teacher can create her own model
be the independent clause when using a Foreground abstractions in reference to people: Cathy texts to highlight structure and
conjunction of concession – Although. The Freeman’s aspirations…. organisation; thematic progression
conceding dependent clause is foregrounded Model and jointly construct a range of reference items (coherence); and cohesion through
so that the independent clause concludes the strategically to compact and carry forward previously reference and substitution.
statement with impact. To an audience of mentioned ideas: The language used in this chapter …; A
parents the sentence would be Although we particularly apt example …; Such word usage …;
don’t want a nanny state, children must be We followed this procedure with every piece ….. where ‘this
protected. To an audience of civil libertarians procedure’ refers back to 7 steps outlined in the previous
the sentence would be Although children must sentences; These differences….. referring back to the
be protected, we don’t want a nanny state. previous paragraphs.
Appendix 1 Argument: Linking EVIDENCE to REASONS (thematic patterns)
Suggestion: Teachers print the ‘Argument’ template below in A3 size for students to use with the following page of text which has been cut into boxes.
1.1
1.3
2.3
3.1
3. Smoking creates a huge cost to the
Australian government and to all
Australian people.
3.2
3.3
Teachers - Print the ‘Argument’ outline above in A3 size. Students cut each of the following pieces of evidence and sort them according to which ‘reasons’
they support. They copy them onto the grid OR stick them onto the grid. This activity builds an understanding of the structure of ‘Argument’ and the notion
of including evidence and/or elaboration in each paragraph to make each reason more persuasive. Sentence are:-
In a year, children of parents who smoke are likely to inhale Employees who smoke are costing Australian companies &
about the same amount of nicotine as if they were actively businesses millions of dollars per year, as smoke breaks and
smoking 60 to 150 cigarettes in that year. days absent due to illness lead to decreased worker
productivity.
The more time people spend in close company with smokers, the Even before it is born, a developing baby can be affected by
more they are exposed to environmental tobacco smoke. In 1998, environmental tobacco smoke if the mother smokes. Many
128 people died of passive smoking and another 1,968 were harmful substances can reach an unborn baby through its
hospitalised. Frequent exposure to environmental tobacco mother’s bloodstream Exposure of unborn children to
smoke in homes and other enclosed public places, hotels, tobacco smoke can increase the risk of miscarriage, low birth
sporting fields and in
some working environments is really weight and sudden infant mortality.
dangerous.
The major tobacco-related diseases common in smokers are In one year, $7million of federal government money was spent
cancer, heart disease and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. on ‘Quit’ smoking campaigns and even more money was added
by each state government.
The annual cost of smoking to the government health system in The amount of life expectancy lost for each pack of cigarettes
Australia is about $1.84billion a year, to treat smoking-related smoked is 28 minutes, and the years of life expectancy a
illness. typical smoker loses is 25 years over a lifetime.
In the improved text the theme patterns are more complex and more passive voice verb form and metaphorical relational verbs are used.
Appendix 3 This resource is relevant to examining text structure for secondary students. It is in big enough font to
allow cutting up for use. Only the first three paragraphs have highlighted topic sentences. This allows the teacher to
elicit answers from the students about the topic sentences in the other paragraphs. The labels are to help the
students in pairs to think about the organisation of the text and thus its thematic progression.
Research and Investigation are part of senior studies in any school. Sometimes
students are given questions to investigate; sometimes they devise their own
question, statement or hypothesis. They then need to collect information, analyse,
evaluate and select relevant and appropriate information to write their report
indicating clearly the sources of their information.
To begin with the student needs to understand the given question. Is it asking for a
discussion of current ideas around the given topic? Is it asking for an explanation
of a phenomena or situation? Is it asking for a report of the issues or problems,
and strategies to address the problems? Understanding the demands of the
question is essential to collecting the right information and framing the written
report.
The ‘outline’ view should be printed because it gives a good basis for the
investigation outline. Teachers usually expect an outline of students’ investigations
and will ask to see one before a student begins a research/investigation report
especially if the report is expected to be over 800 words.
The ideas that are presented in the body of the report text have to be those
sourced from the ‘experts’ or relevant people interviewed. This is where in text
referencing is important. Rather than quoting word for word what they ‘experts’
have said students can paraphrase the information prefacing it with words such as
‘According to Smith….’, Smith concludes that…..,’ ‘Smith predicts that …’, and
‘Smith argues that…’. Yet another way of referencing the writing is to use the
Harvard in text referencing in brackets like this (Jones 2004 p65). It is also
important to remember that any imported graphic, graphs or illustration also be
properly referenced.
Finally ‘Research Reports’ can sometimes be written as essays but more often than
not they are structured with subheadings. Subheadings need to be in smaller print
than the report heading but in bigger print than the body of the text. They should
be left justified and can be underlined or in a different font. A contents page at
the beginning of the report is helpful and a bibliography (list of books and
resources) must be included at the end of the report text. A research report of
2000 plus words may require an abstract of 100 to 200 words to be written on a
front page. An evaluation of the research process and the student’s opinions may
also be required and these are included at the end of the report.
Oratory
rhetoric Another point to make about cohesion and coherence is the use of oratory rhetoric which leads an audience on a journey. A memorable
recent speech is Obama’s victory speech where he used the tri-parallelism of ‘yes we can’ to such effect that the audience, so engaged,
began to reiterate his potent phrase. Kevin Rudd also grounded his exposition – ‘Sorry’ speech in narrative and parallelism.
Primary and
Secondary Citing Primary and Secondary Sources
Sources Besides grammatical reference there is another aspect of reference which is referencing to primary and secondary source materials. In
the levels this is covered in Expressing opinion directly and indirectly. Students express their own opinions directly up to Language level
9. In language Level 10 students are expected to reference to others eg Research shows that…; Some parents think that….
Although not a grammatical feature of texts, correct referencing supports thematic development. Students need to be taught how to
quote from experts and to reference indirectly and directly with the Harvard System of in-text referencing. However when texts clearly
carry the opinions and views of others relevant questions help students to understand whose views are being represented by the author.
Here are some suggestions for supporting students to interrogate ownership of views and beliefs in a text.
Line X: who is concerned?
Line XX: what has been suggested?
Line XXX: who said?
Line XXXX: according to whom?
Line XXXXX: who has asked?
Line XXXXXX : who claims? etc
Interrupting clauses:
The performing dogs, who had been rescued from the Here the commas indicate a pause in the voice when
Punctuation pound, gave a magnificent performance. the sentence is read.
At this level consolidate the use of Here the interrupting clause gives some extra
a comma for an interrupting information but is not needed to identify the dogs. Here the clause is embedded as a post qualifier of
clause. the noun group and identifies the particular dogs.
The extraordinary performance of the dogs who’d been There is no pause in the voice as indicated by the
rescued from the pound, outshone the other animals. contraction.
Appendix 1
Texts showing the shift in theme and foregrounding using passive voice and nominalisation. Text deconstruction
Verbs
are related; paint; is; to paint; to finish; act; paint; regenerate; cooperate;
In a traditional community a number of people who are related paint together. It is more
produce; can see; holds.
important for the people to paint together than for them to finish the painting. When they
Nouns
act together or paint together they regenerate the natural world. People cooperate and a traditional community; a number of people; it; the people; them; the
produce a painting that all can see and this holds the society together. (Active Voice) painting; they; they; the natural world; people; a painting; all (people); this.
NB. The subject nouns are underlined. The text is in active voice. The active
subjects are ‘People’. They do all the actions.
There are lots of verbs, and thus clauses so we can say this text is
grammatically complex. Most of the verbs are action verbs.
Verbs
is painted; are related; is; to be done; to be finished; is regenerated; is
In a traditional community an art work is painted by a number of people who are related. It produced; is held; ‘Acting together’ is a non-finite clause
is more important for the painting to be done than for the painting to be finished. Acting Nouns
together the natural world is regenerated and a painting is produced. The society is held an art work; a number of people; it; the painting; the painting; the natural
world; a painting; the society; this community activity
together by this community activity. (Passive Voice)
NB. the objects in the previous text have become the subjects
NB. Traditional community is part of circumstance clause – same in each text.
Passive voice is used - The subjects are having ‘actions’ done to them. The
subjects are:- ‘An art work’; ‘The painting’; ‘The natural world’; ‘A painting’;
‘The society’
Verbs
is; are related; is; is; is; creates; (‘needed’ part of the noun group and ‘to
produce’ non-finite clause)
In a traditional community a painting is the work of a number of people who are related in Nouns
a specific kinship way. The act of painting is more important than the final product since it a painting; the work of a number of people; a specific kinship way; the act of
painting; the final product; the act; regeneration of the natural world; the
is through the act that there is regeneration of the natural world. The essential cooperation
essential cooperation needed between kin; a subtle cohesion within society
needed between kin to produce visual art creates a subtle cohesion within the society. The verbs in this text are simple/every-day and the first and third sentences
(Nominalised) are simple sentences so we can say that the text is grammatically simple.
Nominalisation:- However the nouns are much more complex and some of
them are formed from the verbs in the first text eg regeneration;
cooperation. This text is lexically complex and lexically dense.
Appendix 2:
RELATIVE PRONOUNS:- Sentences that can be paired are written on cards. Students then join the sentences using the correct relative pronoun. This creates complex
sentences with dependent relative clauses. Refer to both ‘Sentence Structure’ resource and Foregrounding (cohesion and coherence) resource in this document.
Students identify the
NB ‘whom’ is used when the relative clause has a subject eg Could the person whom I spoke to yesterday please come forward. Although this is correct
English, it is very formal and the more common linking word used is ‘that’. Although ‘that’ is a demonstrative it can be used like a pronoun.
Sentence Sentence
Relative pronoun acting as
conjunction
At the wood mill, the wood is ground into a pulp. The pulp is then treated with steam and chemicals.
WHICH
The MTV Award was presented to Taylor Swift. Her response was humorous.
WHOSE
My sister sold her car to her friend. She lives across the road.
WHO
The solution was removed from the fridge. WHERE It had been there for 90 minutes.
Discussion – creating lexically dense texts by nominalising What does this mean? Understanding the scientific Nominalisation
science concepts. concepts of inquiry
Science teachers create and engage in a scientific world view What questions can we ask? (this is Meticulous Sustained Inquiry
through the language of concepts and ideas. To apprentice
students into this world, questions that give them access to the How can we test that? (this is Experimental Observation
actions of science must be asked.
Once these actions are experienced and understood the What do these results mean? Can we graph them? Detailed Analysis and Evaluation
teacher can hang the language of scientific concepts and ideas (this is what we do
(nominalisations) onto students’ current understanding.
This gives the students the language to discuss ideas and so
What does this mean for other similar situations? Can we Rigorous, Informed and strategic debate
partake in the powerful rhetoric of social and scientific decision make any predictions? How should we act/ continue?
making.
(this is what we do when we ask these questions
Verbal groups with multi-word verbal Teach conditional: would; wouldn’t in response to “If”
groups, using mental verbs in other questions
tense forms: I want to go; I wanted eg What would happen if:
to go to the circus. we put the seed upside down?
And using verbs in multi-word verbal all the insects in the world died?
groups to indicate time/sequence: It Harry Potter lost his glasses?
starts to bubble; It started to bubble. In Maths discuss mathematical problems using multi-word
verbal groups eg want to do; want to find.
NB. Language learners in this Level
attempt to use a basic non-finite “What were we doing in Maths today?” “What did we
clause eg I went to the shop // to buy want to do in maths today?”
some lunch. Refer to resource on “We were trying to find the area of a triangle”. “We In all activities check for subject verb
sentence building. wanted to find the area of a triangle.” See extension in agreement.
Levels 8 – 10.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7
Cont’d
In Science focus on technical verbs that explain scientific
processes eg evaporate; heat; measure; pour;
Across the stages
of schooling Begin to introduce more technical and precise verbs
equivalent to
eg
year 1 to 3 of
schooling ‘to allow’ instead of ‘to let’
May use modality of Obligation: eg ‘to prevent’ instead of ‘to stop’ A Phrasal verb consists of a verb plus a
“must” eg “We must see the ‘consists of’ instead of ‘is made up of…’ preposition. The addition of a preposition
penguins.” “We mustn’t forget to pick shifts the meaning of the verb
up Sam.” eg to back up means to support;
[Phrasal verb (to pick up) in a multi- to follow through means to complete (or take
word verbal group (to forget to …) Use multi-word verbal groups that support sequencing to the next stage).
with negative and modality (mustn’t)] eg
starts to bubble…..; Highlight Phrasal verbs as appropriate.
May use PASSIVE voice when begins to turn….;
modelled. “He got hit” Teacher continue to add….;
models “He was hit”. continues to glow…..;
check to see that……;
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 8 – 10 Elaborated tenses
Future conditional - following Provide a text which contains both simple past and past
Across the stages dependent clauses with binding perfect verbs. Work through the verbs with students,
of schooling conjunctions eg if we do not have questioning why there are single word verbs and why
equivalent to
year 4 to 6 of fresh water, we would not survive. some have two words. Explore with students the time
schooling Past perfect: They had settled in the relationship of events.
outback NB Draw students’ attention to the need to
Repeat with other texts that include a variety of
Present perfect continuous: They change auxiliary verb depending on singular or
elaborated tenses including future tense.
have been going to school for five plural (was/were).
years. To teach past perfect, provide students with sentences
Past perfected continuous: They had from a recount or other past tense texts such as
been going to school. One student was crying.
Future continuous: They will be Ask “Why was he crying?”
going to school. Model the answer “Because he had fallen over”
The science seedlings were dead. We had forgotten to
NB Future conditional tense: This water them. (past perfect multi word verb)
tense uses modal auxiliary “would” Instruction for a task such as Appendix 2
and two clauses one beginning with Read the following procedure about making
“If” and one beginning with Create and model with students a Learning Area compost. Re-write this text as a personal
“then”.eg “If we move, then he procedural text eg making a kite; solving a maths problem. recount: that is, write a recount of yourself
would go to a new school”. Another Then highlight the command verbs and work with students making this compost. Remember to change all
conditional verb form is “if we were to change verbs to past tense enabling the writing of a the command verbs to past tense.
to move, then he would go to personal recount. See first and second column of Appendix 2
another school” Discuss with students the different audience
and purpose for procedures and recounts.
Level 13 – 14
Continue to achieve the more academic At this Level students demonstrate control of
language through nominalisation and use subject-verb agreement and errors are only in
Across the stages
of schooling of passive voice. In addition nouns/ more complex agreements: when there is
equivalent to nominalisations representing concepts, confusion as to which noun should be agreed
year 9 to 10 of values, ideas and beliefs are juxtaposed with eg
schooling using relational verbs. The number of assaults have increased over
time.
Since academic language levels require
The above agrees with ‘assaults’ when it
nominalisation and simple but lexically
should agree with ‘number’ and read: The
dense sentences use a variety of relational
number of assaults has increased over time.
verbs as in Appendix 3.
Appendix 1 - adapted from Success for Boys. Catholic Education.
There are many substitutes for the verb ‘to say’. Verbs in narratives help to create a picture for the audience. Here are some substitutes for ‘said’; some are metaphors like ‘barked’;
some verbs are shifting from ‘saying’ processes to mental processes eg assumed, some are shifting to behavioural-like processes eg grinned, jeered, moaned and whimpered. You can
add your own examples.
accused cackled elaborated lamented quarreled
acknowledged challenged emphasized laughed questioned
added chattered exaggerated lied quibbled
admitted cheered exclaimed
advised chuckled explained marveled raged
agreed claimed exploded mentioned recalled
announced comforted moaned recommended
answered commanded faltered mumbled refused
apologized commented fumed murmured replied
approved complained mused reported
argued concluded greeted muttered retorted
asked confessed grinned responded
assumed confided groaned nagged
continued growled screamed
objected
babbled contradicted grumbled screeched
observed
barked cried grunted shouted
offered
began croaked guessed shrieked
ordered
begged
bellowed decided hesitated panted teased
blurted declared hinted persisted thanked
boasted defended hissed persuaded
boomed demanded uttered
pestered
bragged denied informed pleaded
described inquired ventured
praised
determined insisted predicted
directed instructed whimpered
proclaimed whined
discussed insulted promised whispered
proposed
jeered
protested
Appendix 2 –This shows the change in verb form from Imperative in a procedure to past tense in a personal recount text and to passive voice in a procedural recount.
How to make Compost (How to do) How I made Compost (How I did) How Compost is made (How it was done)
Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to Making compost and using it in the garden is a great way to
improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and improve the soil. Good compost helps the plants and
vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture vegetables to grow better and also helps to keep moisture
in the soil for longer. in the soil for longer. in the soil for longer.
To make compost I collected some animal manure such as chicken manure or Some animal manure such as chicken manure or horse
• Collect some animal manure such as chicken manure horse manure from the local stables and then I cleared a manure was collected from the local stables and then a
or horse manure from local stables patch of ground in our/my garden away from the house. I patch of ground in the garden away from the house was
• Clear a patch of ground in your garden away from the built bricks to make three walls of a bay in which I placed cleared. Bricks were built to make three walls of a bay into
house kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings. which kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings were placed.
• Build bricks to make three walls of a bay in which to
place kitchen scraps and lawn cuttings I put down a first layer of newspaper as this helps to stop An initial layer of newspaper was put down to help stop
• Put down a first layer of newspaper as this will help to weeds coming up through the compost and then I made a weeds coming up through the compost and then a second
stop weeds coming up through the compost second layer of animal manure. After that I added the layer of animal manure was added. After kitchen scraps
• Make a second layer of animal manure kitchen scraps. Next I added the lawn cuttings. I repeated and lawn cuttings were added. The layers were repeated
• Add the kitchen scraps the layers using shredded paper in place of the newspaper. using shredded paper in place of the newspaper.
• Next add the lawn cuttings
• Repeat the layers using shredded paper in place of the When all the available materials had been used I added a When all the available materials had been used, a little bit
newspaper. little bit of soil to the top of the compost heap so that fruit of soil was put onto the top of the compost heap so that
• When all the available materials have been used add a rats were not attracted to the vegetables. I watered the top fruit rats were not attracted to the vegetables. The top of
little bit of soil to the top of the compost heap so that of the heap gently for 15 minutes. the heap was gently watered for 15 minutes.
fruit rats are not attracted to the vegetables
• Water the top of the heap gently for 15 minutes The heap reduced in size quite rapidly over the next week, The heap reduced in size quite rapidly over the next week,
• The heap will reduce in size quite rapidly over the next then I continued to add layers of mulched weeds, lawn then layers of mulched weeds, lawn cuttings and vegetable
week, then you can continue to add layers of mulched cuttings and vegetable scraps from the kitchen. After a few scraps from the kitchen were continually added. After a few
weeds, lawn cuttings and vegetable scraps from the weeks I dug over the compost heap with a garden fork so weeks the compost heap was dug over with a garden fork
kitchen that air could get / gets into the rotting material. so that air could get into the rotting material.
• After a few weeks dig over the compost heap with a This was a good time for me to clear a second patch of This was a good time to clear a second patch of ground next
garden fork so that air can get into the rotting ground next to the first bay and to build a second bay for to the first bay and to build a second bay for the turned
material. the turned compost. compost
• This is a good time to clear a second patch of ground
next to the first bay and to build a second bay for the After three months I sifted the oldest compost and I put it After three months the oldest compost was sifted and was
turned compost on the garden. put on the garden.
• After three months sift the oldest compost and put it
on the garden.
Appendix 3
Common Relational verbs are ‘to be’ (is, are, was, were) and ‘to have’ (has, have, had). There are many substitutes for ‘to be’. These substitutes and metaphors are
grouped under relevant headings and are listed from low language level to higher language level.
form is changed composition naming context is changed interpretation cause and effect other metaphors
becomes is made up of is called causes means causes gave a wonderful
makes is composed of is known as results in signifies results in performance
grows into contains is referred to leads to reflects shows
captivated the
develops consists of brings about represents reveals
audience
develops into includes produces mirrors indicates
forms possesses allows symbolises shows up as an
produces comprises creates anomaly in our data
results in gives rise to
shapes sparks
contributes to fosters
increases initiates
decreases inaugurates
resembles generates
ensues from engenders
Questions are a great way to interrogate a young person’s thinking around the context of an action, a thought/ idea, or a process (often as a gerund or nominalisation eg
shopping, entertaining, filtration, productivity, analysis, activism). Circumstances of time, place, accompaniment and some of manner are generally well understood.
Students can be challenged to use circumstances of cause, matter, role, angle and contingency according to the developing examples in the Language and Literacy
levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD Students – Grammar Knowledge (Word groups)
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 This is generally the oral stage of Place: Sample questions and answers
language development and a learner’s Ask questions: Where is your bag? Where is the cat in the Place
Across the stages understanding of context/ picture? Where did it happen? Where is your bag? - under the chair; on the
of schooling circumstance is developed with table; outside the room.
equivalent to the Teach the prepositional phrases of Place that begin with:
questions. Where did you go on the weekend? - I went to
end of on (the couch); in (the basket); under (the chair); inside
Reception. Prepositional phrases are used for the Circus.
(the cupboard); above (the door); outside (the room);
Place - Where did it happen?
beside/next to (the TV); below (the picture), using the Where was the circus? - in the Park.
and
following activity
Time - When did it happen?
Whole class or individual activity: Have a large picture (of In the picture, where is the woman with the
A prepositional phrase beginning with
a room, a farmyard scene, or a shopping precinct) that dog?
‘on’ is used with a named day or the
shows the position of numerous objects. Have cards with “outside the chemist”; “inside the barn”; “on
weekend; a prepositional phrase
circumstance of Place (as above) written and ask the the tractor”
beginning with ‘in’ will give
learners to come and place an appropriate card on the Reinforce this with “Who is on the tractor?”
information about
picture in response to the questions of place. and model the written response “The woman
• the period of the day (eg in the with the dog is on the tractor.”
morning/afternoon) Whole class or individual activity: Ask one student to go
• the week or month (in the first outside of the room and place a toy in a specific position. Give some students cards which show an
week; in May) Model the circumstance of Place with the remaining object in a position (eg a cat on a chair, a shoe
• the period identified (eg in the students eg The truck is on the shelf. Invite the student under a table, etc) Create a game where other
holidays; in the first weeks of school) back into the classroom and ask them to find the toy and students have to ask questions about the
• NB ‘at’ is used for other periods such give the correct information. Correct answer leads to ‘place’ of an object using “Where is…” or
as: at night; at daybreak; at dawn; student hiding the object for the next student. Prompting “Where are ….”.
at sunset; and also for times of the may be needed to get the correct answer.
clock).
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Time
Time: Teacher uses the daily school routine to create questions,
Ask questions: When do we go to library? Use timetable plan to When did you go to the circus?
Across the stages
of schooling this is elicit answer. When did you go to your grandma’s?
equivalent to the Teach the prepositional phrases of Time that begin with: on When will you go on holiday?
end of Reception. (Saturday); in (the morning, the next week; the holidays, August); at Give some students cards which show
(night) etc. time. Create a game where other students
Accompaniment : ask questions about time eg What time is
Accompaniment - Who did Ask questions: Who did you go to the circus with? it? What time do you have? What does
you go with? (Don’t worry Model the answers: “I went with my sister” your clock/watch say?
about ‘dangling’ prepositions. Accompaniment
With whom did you go? might Model how to write the sentences using prepositional phrases. Ask
students to copy sentences in their books and then to underline the Model the other form of questioning to
be grammatically correct but elicit the information eg Who went with
no one speaks like this now prepositional phrases.
you?
days). Use simple cloze procedure texts requiring students to fill in missing
Then model the full answers.
words of circumstance of Place, Time and Accompaniment.
I went …with my sister; …with my dog, …on
Alternatively have this on an interactive board. Ask students come
my own.
to the board and ‘drag’ a preposition/prepositional phrase to the
space.
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of place Engage students in asking and answering
using place prepositions and list common examples eg questions about time, place and
on the table; under the desk; in the cupboard; beside the chair; at accompaniment.
my friend’s house; etc
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of
accompaniment using the preposition with and list common
examples eg
with mummy and daddy; with my dog; with class 3G; with the Investigate free APPs that provide this
Principal; with all the children under eight years old; etc activity.
Develop with the students a poster headed Circumstances of time
using at; on; (during is a higher Language Level) and list common
examples eg
at 3 ‘o’ clock; on the weekend; on Sunday; (during the holidays); etc
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7 Time
It is important to teach
Teach and model - Time circumstances with defined periods (see What are we doing today?
circumstances in context of
Across the stages words in discussion column). Today we are going to the circus.
of schooling this the focus genre and topic
Today we will go to lunch together. What did we do yesterday?
is equivalent to matter.
the end of Year 3 (Time) (Accompaniment) Yesterday we went to the beach.
Tomorrow you will go to lunch on your own.
Time circumstances can be Every two years we go on a school camp.
(Time) (Accompaniment)
indicted without prepositions
when using defined periods What did you do in the holidays?
Teach - Time circumstances using a Clock and the preposition ‘at’.
(eg today, yesterday, In the holidays, I went to see my
What time will we go to lunch?
tomorrow; next week; next grandmother (The holidays are
We will go to lunch at 12.30pm.
month; last holidays; every foregrounded).
two years) Show how the circumstance can move according to what is the focus I went to see my grandmother in the
or theme – ie at the beginning as theme, or at the end of the holidays (The subject ‘I’ is foregrounded).
sentence.
At 12.30pm we will go to lunch. Quality
How does your car go?
Demonstrate how circumstances of Quality can be used to describe My car goes really fast. NB ‘really’ is an
At this Language Level
attributes that each class member has eg intensifier like ‘very’.
learners can talk about the
Sophie dances gracefully; How does Sally sing?
quality of how something
Mohammed paints beautifully; She sings beautifully.
happens or can describe the
Jason cleverly works out his sums. I can fix that toy easily
means by which something
Notice how we can foreground the adverb when we want it to reflect
happens.’ Means’ and
more on the subject than the action. This shifts the meaning slightly. Means
‘Quality’ are subsets of
How did you come to school?
circumstance of Manner. Introduce and model sentences with circumstance of means by asking
I came by bus; by bike.
Adverbs are used for questions such as “How does the nurse get your temperature?” With
describing the quality of how a thermometer; How does the cricket make that sound? With its Continue to engage students in question
something is done. wings. and answer around circumstances.
Introduce, model sentences with circumstance of cause.
eg for Diwali; for assembly Repeat this activity in Levels 8 to 10 by
using the circumstance as marked theme
Activity: students match sentence parts to full sentences eg ie as a sentence starter.
We learned a new song \ for assembly. eg For assembly \we learnt a new song.
We had a big party \ for Diwali For breakfast \ I ate eggs.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 8 – 10 It is important to teach Teach - Time circumstances using higher level prepositions: during; What did you do during the holidays?
circumstances in context of the after (NB. ‘after’ is also used as a binding conjunction and in prepositional During the holidays I went to see my
focus genre and topic matter. phrases) grandmother.
Across the stages Teach the prepositional phrases of Time that begin with: during the
of schooling this is At this Language Level students I went to see my grandmother during the
equivalent to the use a greater range of holidays/ the following term/Easter; after the holidays/ term holidays.
end of year 6 circumstances of Time and 3/Easter;
Manner and place them Again show the shift in thematic foregrounding in sentences Quality
variously in sentences for effect relevant to the topic or subject learning area. Foreground other examples relevant to
and thematic progression. Model procedures where it is imperative to foreground the subject area and topic.
circumstance of Manner eg Carefully remove the crucible; Slowly sift
in the flour;
Teach and model causal relationships using both dependent clauses
and Cause circumstances. Here are some examples:-
Additional circumstances that in History when modelling how to record the information about
students should use in their causal relationships write a sentence using
writing at this Level are: a) a causal process (verb)
“The famine caused migration to the cities” (‘Famine’ is the or
Cause(reason) – because of; as idea/issue but what was the cause?) “Migration to the cities was the result of
a result of; for a reason or b) a dependent (causal) clause foregrounded famine.”
purpose “Because the people were starving//they moved to the cities” “As a result of famine, people migrated to
c) with the dependent clause changed to a circumstance phrase the cities”
“Because of the famine, people migrated to the cities.” (note use of nominalisation: famine;
migration)
Cause (reason)continued In History / Literature
“The wealthy colonial nabobs moved to the cooler hill stations for
the monsoon.”
“The bungalow was refurbished for the new Governor and his family” Means
Continue modelling circumstances of Means. How are you going to fix that broken toy?
In Science highlight circumstances such as - with a thermometer….; I am going to fix it with some glue.
with the tongs…; with a prepared solution…;
In History highlight circumstances such as - through these
discoveries, new lands were…;
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 8 – 10 Manner is articulated as
Teach – ‘Organisational’ Manner Horizontally; diagonally - Clearly these are manner
continued Quality, Means and
The bee moves diagonally across the surface. but to separate these words from quality, means
Comparison by Halliday.
Across the stages Terms that describe (NB across the surface is a circumstance of place) or comparison we can say they are circumstances
of schooling this is You must come up with a solution in your teams. that give a spatial relationship to the physical
direction or relationship to
equivalent to the environment or to other people.
end of year 6 space do not fit into these
three categories of manner. He danced in circles. The manner of his dancing is
Teach by modelling relational to the space in which the dancer
Comparison - in Social Studies eg performed. It does NOT mean He danced within a
Children like these are more likely to …; circle (circumstance of Place)
The men behaved like overgrown babies. However
‘He danced in a circle’ could be about place or
Circumstances of about spatial relationship. The sentence has to be
Comparison comes in at examined in context of the paragraph.
Level 9 We worked in teams.(could be means or manner)
Matter - in Literature eg
We discussed the project in relevant groups. (could
This part of the narrative about the impact on her life of the be means or manner)
events in her early teens, …
The bees ran diagonally across the hive surface in a
Matter and Role are at Level wiggly manner. Here there are three
10 Role – in History eg circumstances:- the first is organisation (spatial
relationship to the environment), the last is quality
As a young woman in early 20th century Russia, she was …….
with the middle circumstance being of place.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 11 – 12
Teach - Means that are of a higher level and relevant to the Further examples:
It is important to teach
topic or Learning Area eg
Across the stages circumstances in context of Means The dog communicates through barks and
of schooling this is the focus genre and topic By careful interrogation the school counsellor was able to yelps;
equivalent to the
matter. establish the order of events;
end of Year 8
Her attention to detail is shown through both her appearance
and her personality;
The ancient statue was surrounded by walls made of stone. Comparison: in contrast to the tall ship and mast, .
Greater extension of Role, Teach Role, Angle, Contingency: Role: as a world heritage site ….; as a teacher at
Angle and Contingency the School….; as a modern day writer
Teach Contingency (condition) in a procedure: -
become valuable when As the driest inhabited continent on earth, Australia
With the isolating valve shut, remove the ….;
developing exposition has …
writing. Through the use of
these circumstance phrases Challenge and Interrogate students thinking when reading Angle: from their point of view…; in their
students are able to show listening and writing texts by asking questions such as “Whose position…;
greater insight into the view is this”; “What role does this person/group have in this
actions of the actors/ issue”; “What conditions were/will be (or won’t be) in place Contingency: condition - with more tourists;
provocateurs within the for this to happen”; “What would happen if….?”; “What without tourists; without touching the magnet ….
argument. wouldn’t happen if …….?”
see further categories of Contingency in Level 13-14
Language Level Discussion Activities Expansion and other examples
from the Levels
Level 13 – 14 It is important to teach Role – As a dispossessed young women with a disability her struggle was
circumstances in context of almost insurmountable. Comparison: like a leaf falls off a
Across the stages the focus genre and topic tree in the middle of autumn; as
of schooling this is matter. Further focus on Contingency using the same type of questions. opposed to the more commonly
equivalent to the
used term.
end of Year 10 Interrogate and challenge students ideas when modelling texts and/or when
conferencing their writing by asking “What conditions were/will be (or won’t Cause: for his efforts in promoting
Further extension of Role,
be) in place for this to happen”; “What would happen if….?”; “What wouldn’t the sport; because of their
Angle and Contingency
happen if …….?” personalities and where and how
Have students write down the answers to these questions. they were brought up; for
At this level of written
eg In Issues Analysis, when speaking to students about an issue such as guidance; out of fear and hunger …
language students are
exploitation of garment out-workers, ask
expected to present views Role: as small gas particles; as
“What conditions would make this situation better for the women?”
and arguments that explore prisoners of war of the Japanese;
List ideas. Use each idea to model circumstance of contingency (condition) eg
possibilities. Thus the under the banner of Australia
They need to have:- shorter working hours; better light; better equipment;
circumstances which give
comfortable chairs; regular breaks; increase in pay; fair bosses etc. Angle: According to my results; in
context are linguistically
Then model sentences with circumstance of contingency: condition eg “With the eyes of Australians …
much more challenging.
better work conditions such as shorter working hours, the women would be
Students are expected to Contingency: Concession - Despite
healthier”
describe ideas and situations the bad weather, the boats set out
NB make comparison by using a conditional clause eg “If there was better
that exist ‘despite other from the harbor; Despite the urging
lighting // the women would be healthier.” This is more spoken-like.
circumstances’ ‘in spite of of the event organisers, the circus
other circumstances. This is Also model concession “Despite the difficult conditions, the women….” management cancelled / didn’t
called Contingency of Repeat questions to investigate cause: eg cancel the performance.
concession. Closely related is “Why do young women get trapped in this industry?”
Contingency of condition. Contingency: Condition – Without
Possible student answer, “Because they are poor and desperate for income the deteriorating weather, the
This states what could for their families; because they are unskilled.”
happen with or without a circus would not have been
Ask “what noun/s can you make from the adjective ‘poor’ and ‘desperate’?” cancelled; With some urging on the
particular circumstance Then model for students the circumstances of cause: Due to poverty and part of the organisers, the
desperation; Because of poverty and desperation; due to lack of skills/job performers decided to continue.
opportunities.
Narrative
Look for nominalisations in advertisements on trucks,
work vans and billboards eg excellence, expertise Persuasive
List them and discuss why they have been used. text
Historical
Recount
Language Discussion Activities and examples Expansion
Level
Level 11 – 12 It is important to teach
Use modelled texts to focus on the noun groups and
nouns, noun groups and
nominalisations. What technical vocabulary is used?
nominalisations in context of
Introduce specific vocabulary relevant to new topics. Talk
the focus genre and topic
about why it is important to the text to help achieve its
matter.
purpose and what specific meaning it brings to the text.
Nouns and noun groups are Clarify the information by looking at:
Across the
used to express shades of classifiers eg. domestic animals, chemical reaction, primary
stages of
meaning and more industry, and
schooling
specialised knowledge. qualifiers eg sand dunes which have been eroded; business
equivalent to
Students begin to use more practices that have reduced the number of workers.
the end of
complex noun groups built
year 8.
around a nominalisation Develop understanding of the purpose and benefits of
using precise and technical using nominalisations
vocabulary. • ability to include a lot of information in less words
• moving a focus of the text from concrete to
abstract concepts eg
I feel happy My happiness
Water dries up Dehydration occurs
when ……..
• naming a complex phenomenon or process eg
filtration; dehydration; evaporation;
For older learners refer to EALD Teaching and Learning
photosynthesis; logging.
under first tab DTLA cycle
• being able to show the relationship between
https://myintranet.learnlink.sa.edu.au/teaching/english-
things eg eruption and the flow of lava ie the
as-an-additional-language-or-dialect-eald/professional-
eruption resulted in the flow of lava
learning/designing,-teaching-and-learning-and-
• convey a particular image of a product eg as in
assessment-cycle
made up words such as schweppervessence
Year 9 Explanation:
Appendix D: (work sheet 2 – moving lexically dense to
Ask students to de-nominalise words within a sentence, more spoken-like)
paragraph or short text. Discuss how this changes the Appendix F (worksheet 3 moving from spoken to written
tenor of the text. For more examples refer to language)
Language Discussion Activities and examples Expansion
Level
Level 13 – 14 It is important to teach nouns, Use a variety of genre and texts from different subject Nominalise a sentence or paragraph.
noun groups and areas including scientific or medical articles. Look for: De-nominalise a text on the same topic. Compare
Across the stages nominalisations in context of the • complex and expanded noun groups with both texts. When and why would you use one or
of schooling focus genre and topic matter. nominalisations the other text? How does it change the tenor of
equivalent to the the text? What affect could/would it have on the
eg the industrial construction process
end of Year 10.
• multiple classifiers and qualifiers that carry a lot of intended purpose of the text or a particular
At this level of written language information before and after the head noun audience?
students are expected to eg the continual mass destruction (of the world’s
compose texts which are more forests). Texts with a lot of nominalisation may appear to
academic and formal showing a • nominalisations that express be challenging (eg dense, difficult to read) when:
definite move to the right hand o cause eg impact, outcome • noun groups are complex
side of the register continuum o thinking and saying verbs eg debate, notion • “actors” are removed
o abstraction and technicality eg evidence, • abstract concepts are used
Nominalisations also hide the
approach • metaphorical relating verbs are used (e.g.
actor and action ie what is
contains, comprises, indicates). See Verbs
actually happening.
Activity: look at examples of resource in this document.
eg “collateral damage” .
We know what this means but it • critical book and film reviews,
is implied or inferred. • applications for grants, for permission to do
something ,
• advertisements,
• political statements. The taking of evasive measures resulting in the
avoidance of predatory actions by the offending
Engage students in critical literacy, focussing on use of party was a result of the meeting of the
nominalisations. How effectively are the messages previously mentioned little pigs and their
conveyed? (Refer to Evaluative language resource in this awareness of the premeditation of the wolf in
document for further critical literacy focus ideas) terms of harmful deceptions and his cleverness in
Would the messages be different without the nominalised the execution of his criminal intentions.
words? How easy is it to read the text? How easy is it to
understand the text and its message? The little pigs evaded the attempt of the sneaky
wolf to kill them because they had met before
Refer to example of two texts in the next column. and knew that he planned to deceive and to kill
them.
NB overuse of nominalisation should be avoided.
Appendix 1: Adjectives - Word Order
An adjective can be a describer or a classifier that describes (eg old hat) or classifies (eg sports car) a noun (person, place or thing).
Although not fixed there is a common order (culturally accepted order) of these describers and classifiers:-
NB commas are used when describers/adjectives are interchangeable ie to separate describers use from within the same category.
Appendix 2
a, an, the one , two, second, most, few, a lot really, very, red, black, big, old , round, Male, female, teenage in the corner, under the
of, a little, another, enough, a bit absolutely, long, hairy, long-necked, girl, mountain bike, table, over the bridge
this, that, these, those of, several, much, plenty of, extremely, sharp Holden car, Tiger shark,
my, your, his, her, its, numerous, various, more, less, somewhat, slightly, due to the rain, with the
our, their, mum’s, many, some incredibly lovely, pretty, wonderful living room curly hair, for dinner on
Gloria’s Thursday, who lived with
horrible, scary, boring her grandmother
NB intensifiers do not add to the head noun but are used to vary the effect of the describers.
Appendix 3
RELATIVE PRONOUNS:- the noun group and the additional can be written on cards. Students then rewrite the noun group with the correct relative pronoun so making a noun group
with a qualifier. Refer to ‘Sentence Structure’ resource in this document for complex sentences with dependent relative clauses.
NB ‘whom’ is used when the relative clause has a subject eg Could the person whom I spoke to yesterday please come forward. Although this is correct English, it is very formal and the
more common linking word used is ‘that’. Although ‘that’ is a demonstrative it can be used like a pronoun.
Noun Group Answers: Relative pronoun used to Additional information to turn into a qualifier
join qualifier to noun group
The loggers WHO The loggers harvest trees from the forest plantations
The wood mill WHICH The wood mill is on the edge of town
The ground up pulp. WHICH The ground up pulp is treated with steam and chemicals
The mill cat THAT The mill cat chases the mice
Graduation of evaluative language Assuming the students have done an exercise like the A third copy of Tangaroa’s gift at the end of
becomes important as writers make one suggested in level 8 to 10 continue with the following: this resource (Appendix 4) has words in
language choices to show the nuance Find a suitable media text that reports on an issue of purple that show graduation.
of meanings. In the Tangaroa text national or international importance and
greater focus and force is given Examine it together with the class for evaluative language.
through language such as: a single Look for describers, adverbs and nominalisations. Some
solitary friend; a booming voice. verbs (processes) may also carry feelings or judgements eg
the activists were seen creeping along the edge of the
NB. Older students will need to use forest; the doctors have been sympathising with the local eg Conservation issue around logging of old growth
Appreciation language to report on inhabitants. forest in South America
their science experiments, If the issue involves different groups of people create a + positive - negative
movie/book reviews and excursions as words words
table with the ‘participants’ of the text in the left hand Loggers Provide jobs Destroying
well as their Personal Learning Plan column. In the middle and right hand column the positive heritage; money
(PLP). Refer to the table in the next and negative evaluative language is recorded. grabbers.
Levels to introduce relevant evaluative Subsistence friendly; just Lacking
(Appreciation) language. Discuss how each of the participants in the text is farmers trying to education/world
presented. In a positive light? In a negative light? survive knowledge
Indigenous proud;
Discuss critical literacy and bias with students. people knowledgeable;
sustainable
Show the shift from subjectivity to objectivity with practices
examples from Levels as per Appendix 6.
Language Discussion Questions and examples
Level
Level 13 – 14 For the SACE Personal Learning Plan Possible questions around POSITIVE - language to model NEGATIVE – language to model
students are required to write an evaluation the three aspects of
appreciation of ‘things’.
Across the stages of their learning in literacy, numeracy,
of schooling this Community and work experience. The PLP is Reaction to the PLP I liked the Personal Learning Plan because it Doing the PLP was confusing and did not
is equivalent to often done in year 10 as part of pre-SACE. made me think deeply about my learning. It engage me in thinking about my learning.
What did I like about the
end of Year 10 Supporting students through an engaged me positively and I found it enjoyable. I found it boring, (un-enjoyable, tiring,
process of reflecting on
understanding of the type of language used my learning in literacy? (satisfying, absorbing, interesting) stultifying).
to evaluate their learning will greatly Being made to think about learning in this way
enhance their reflective writing. What was it about the
was both exciting and engaging. It gave me a Having to think about my learning in this
program/process of
Learners will be tempted to write sentences new interest in learning. way did not interest me. It was not an
literacy learning that
such as “I enjoyed doing my Personal engaged me? engaging process for me.
Learning Plan because I felt good about
what I learned and could see that I am quite Composition of the PLP My PLP program was well constructed. There It was hard to follow the process and it
an intelligent student.” Here the student is Was the program of were well organised questionnaires and didn’t support my learning in my other
expressing their attitude about themselves, learning well put evaluation proformas to follow. Peer discussions subjects. The materials we were given
in other words they are making language together/constructed? were guided appropriately There was a balanced were difficult to follow and poorly
choices from the Affect language category. amount of discussion and writing. Each step of presented. It was disjointed, confusing,
Was it easy to follow the the program was well supported and easy to muddled.
For a student to move to the ‘B’ or ‘A’ grade
ideas that teachers were follow.
they need to make language choices from
giving me to help me
the Appreciation category of language, that
focus on my PLP?
is the language that shows appreciation
(positive, neutral, negative) of the product. Valuation of my PLP The ideas and suggestions given were very This process has not been helpful and has
The product in this case is the program and helpful, however the whole process of reflecting lacked depth and quality to further my
What was worthwhile in
process of their Personal Learning Plan. on my learning was challenging at times but I education and growth as a student. I was
this program of
have found this part of my SACE very not given support to solve and overcome
It is also important for students to be able learning?
worthwhile. My research methods were reliable the issues I faced. It was shallow,
to extend their evaluative statements/ What was the value of and my data was accurate and useful. It has meaningless, outdated and irrelevant
sentences using causal or concession engaging in this been a rewarding and constructive experience. I process. It was repetitive, repetitious and
clauses that reflect at a deeper level and approach to my felt the whole program was effective. This tedious. It was not stimulating. It failed to
more objective tone eg This part of SACE learning? innovative (valuable) program has had a big meet my needs as a student.
was challenging because the content had to
impact and influence on my learning by
come from my own thinking and experience.
supporting and developing my capabilities. It has
Even though there were no subject
made me very aware of learning challenges I will
reference books to use, it was valuable to
face in tertiary education but has prepared me
come up with my own ideas about my
for the opportunities.
learning.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 13 – 14 English speaking students are Deconstruct a higher order text to record the various
Cont’d expected to reach Language Level 14 language items that express low to high modality.
by the end of year 10 if they are high Concentrate on modal clauses and phrases. See
Across the stages achieving learners. Level 14 is a highly Appendix 1.
of schooling sophisticated Language Level that
equivalent to
end of year 10 many students do not reach while Show the shift from subjectivity to objectivity with
they are teenagers. examples from Levels. Expand on Appendix 6 with
your own examples.
While students are developing their
language between Levels 11 and 14
they sometimes drop back to less
complex language and grammar. This
is because their ‘internal language
voice’ is seeking clarity which they
may feel is not evident in the higher
order language.
The following modal language is more typical of highly written-like language at Levels 11 to 14. However
mental processes eg think; believe and rhetoric ‘in my opinion’ are taught at lower language levels.
Modal clauses and I contend (that) I think/believe (that) I guess (that)
phrases It is obvious/clear (that) In my opinion It seems (that)
Everyone knows (that) It is/isn’t likely (that) This suggests (that)
I am sure you will agree … If………..then……
Rhetorical (expository) Does it have to be this Will science provide an Can literature save the
questions way? answer to global world?
warning?
Adapted from Humphries, Love, Droga (2011) Working Grammar, table 7.1 page 88
Appendix 2
Tangaroa’s Gift
Affect. Words in blue describe the emotions and feelings of the character.
Once, in the days of old, there lived a sad and lonely sea creature named Paua. In all the ocean, he could not
find a single solitary friend to play with. There were so few like him, for they had no means of protecting
themselves from hungry fish and because they moved so slowly they had trouble finding one another in the
myriad crevices and hiding places in the rocks.
So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.
Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”
Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”
“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.
The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.
The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.
The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.
Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”
And he cried.
Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.
So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.
And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”
And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.
Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.
The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.
Tangaroa heard him crying.
“I love this beautiful coat,” Paua sobbed, “but the other creatures despise me and are so jealous of me. I long
for peace and quiet but I can’t even hide from them now, I’m so conspicuous.”
Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.
And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”
And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 3
Tangaroa’s Gift
Once, in the days of old, there lived a sad and lonely sea creature named Paua. In all the ocean, he could not
find a single solitary friend to play with. There were so few like him, for they had no means of protecting
themselves from hungry fish and because they moved so slowly they had trouble finding one another in the
myriad crevices and hiding places in the rocks.
So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.
Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”
Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”
“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.
The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.
The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.
The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.
Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”
And he cried.
Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.
So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.
And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”
And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.
Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.
The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.
Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.
And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”
And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 4
Tangaroa’s Gift
So Paua huddled gloomily under the seaweed thinking sad thoughts and aching with loneliness.
Suddenly, a great surge of water plucked away his protective cover of weed. The sand swirled and danced
about him like a whirlwind, stinging his eyes and filling his mouth. As he wept and spluttered and spat out the
sand, he heard a booming voice, saying, “Paua, why are you so sad?”
Paua’s eyes were so gritty and blurred that he could not see, but he recognised immediately the booming
voice of Tangaroa, god of the sea.
“Oh, Tangaroa!” he cried forlornly. “I’m so very lonely”
“The snooty Snapper taunts me with his bright blue spots on his pretty pink skin as he flashes past.
The stealthy Stingray glides gracefully overhead, sleek and shiny and shimmering.
The swishing Seaweed bends and sways with the current, gently caressing the rocks and clothing them with all
manner of wonderful shapes.
The kinky Kina boasts of his sharp spikes and adorns himself with pretty beads and pebbles and shells.
Other creatures flaunt their delicate, intricate shells and laugh at my thick, black rubbery lips. I’m so ugly, so
slow, so defenceless.”
And he cried.
Tangoroa thought for a moment. Here was a steadfast, tenacious little creature who deserved something
special.
Something just for him.
So he said to Paua,
“I will take the coolest blues from my domain…….
….and I will ask of my brother Tane some of the freshest greens of the forest.
And over all, a shimmer of mother-of-pearl and the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest Nautilus shell.”
And he fashioned for Paua a wonderful coat that sparkled and dazzled with its beauty.
Indeed, it was so beautiful that all the creatures of the sea came to gaze in wonder upon this new being that
sparkled in their midst.
The other sea creatures became envious of Paua and started to tease and ridicule him and made his life utterly
miserable.
“I love this beautiful coat,” Paua sobbed, “but the other creatures despise me and are so jealous of me. I long
for peace and quiet but I can’t even hide from them now, I’m so conspicuous.”
Tangaroa was angry with all those who made Paua so miserable, and said
“From the rocks I take a drabness so that you may be as one with them,
and to you , and only you, I give the coolest blues of the ocean,
the freshest greens of the forest,
a tinge of violet from the dawn,
a bluish pink from the sunset,
and over all a shimmer of mother-of-pearl.
And it will be your life’s work to add, layer upon layer, the most intricate patterns, as fine as the finest nautilus
shell, each a different hue and blend.”
And so it was that Paua got his beautiful shell. He hugs the secret of its beauty to himself and only at the end
of his life, when his empty shell washes ashore, is his artistry revealed ….each layer a unique, multi-coloured
masterpiece.
Appendix 5
CONVICT SHIPS
The convicts were not fed well. The people in charge wanted to keep costs low. The daily diet was made up
of ox-cheek, either boiled or made into soup, pease (peas), bread or biscuits. The biscuits were often
mouldy. Tobacco was supplied as part of their ration and as a reward for good behaviour.
Convicts got up at sunrise and worked very hard for up to 10 hours a day. All convicts were sentenced to
hard labour as part of their punishment and could be forced to work at any manual task such as timber
cutting, brick making or stone cutting.
At higher Language Levels there is more extensive evaluative language, more intensity and modality.
The evaluative language in this text is at Levels 9 to 10
The huge ships, called hulks, were floating gaols. Conditions in these floating gaols were terrible. The hulks
were over-crowded and cramped. Often there wasn’t even room to stand up! A hulk could be up to 65
metres long. This is the same size as 6 buses placed end to end. On board each hulk, there could be up to
300 convicts. Can you imagine 50 people living in one bus, for many months? There were many diseases on
board. The stench was disgusting and the matter on the floors was indescribably awful. Between 1776 and
1795, nearly 2000 out of almost 6000 convicts held on hulks, died due to the appalling conditions. The
majority died from diseases such as typhoid and cholera.
The convicts were not fed very well - in fact – often they were not fed at all. The slightest misdemeanour
resulted in food being withdrawn for 24 hours or longer. The people in charge did not value the lives of
these poor convicts and wanted to keep costs low. The daily diet was often made up of ox-cheek, either
boiled or made into soup, pease (peas), bread or biscuits. The biscuits were either tasteless or mouldy.
Tobacco could be supplied as part of their ration as a reward for a job well done or for good behaviour.
Poor convicts often did hard physical work on board ship just to get a paltry measure of tobacco to pass the
time of day.
On arrival in Australia, convicts got up at sunrise and worked extremely hard for up to 10 hours a day-
sometimes more. All convicts were sentenced to hard labour as part of their punishment and could be
forced to work at just about any manual task such as timber cutting, brick making or stone cutting. Such
were the harsh conditions resulting from something as small as stealing a loaf of bread.
Appendix 6
Subjectivity and Objectivity
While subjectivity is about opinion, objectivity is about facts. The opinion can be a personal opinion or the
opinion of others eg I think; Many people say; Doctors tell us; Historians argue;
Objectivity requires reference to data eg These results show; Due to all the evidence previously stated;
Research tells us; Recent reports confirm that; Recent findings conclusively support…;
Highly Subjective Highly Objective
Moving towards objectivity
I think that smoking is There is much evidence that Recent Reports indicate 89% of people
really bad for your health. shows us smoking is really bad for admitted to hospitals in 2009 – 2014
our health. suffering from lung cancer had been
smokers at some point in their lives.
I found the PLP very SACE Board believes the skills At the end of 2012, all year 10 students
rewarding. learnt in the PLP improve completed the SACE questionnaire which
students’ ability to be showed that 74% agreed that the PLP was
independent learners rewarding
I liked doing Community Many people say that we should Of 825 students interviewed in December
Service as I think it is a spend more time on voluntary 2013 79.2% of them indicated that they
really valuable thing to community service as it is so found the Community Service activities
do. valuable. valuable and 92.4% said they hoped to do
more in 2014.
Being overweight is a Many doctors say that being Recent findings from the World Health
huge health risk overweight is the major cause of Organisation (WHO) show that high
heart attack. consumption of sugar rather than fat is the
cause of obesity and thus heart attack.
In my opinion. Global Tim Flannery urges us the act This research conclusively demonstrates
warming is a real issue because global warming is a real that the earth’s atmospheric temperature
issue. is increasing.
My dad told me that life One of the many theories is that Sankar Chatterjee (ASTROBIOLOGY
came to earth on a life was brought to earth on a magazine Nov 6th 2013) Professor of
comet. comet. Geosciences and Curator of palaeontology
said “Thanks to heavy comet and meteorite
bombardment, the large craters left behind
not only contained water and basic building
blocks of life but also became the crucible
to concentrate and cook the chemicals to
form the first life”.
Teachers can use Appendix 6 as examples to model the shift across the continuum from subjectivity to
objectivity and/or create
• an ‘information gap’ sheet where facts are quoted in the right hand column and students fill in the left
hand and middle columns with more subjective spoken-like language
• a teaching/learning activity in which students analyse short texts and sort them according to where they
might fit on a continuum from subjectivity to objectivity. Students can then share and justifying their
decisions focussing on the vocabulary choices; the modality; and varying phrases used to express
subjective and objective perspectives.
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
Vocabulary
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Word Knowledge development, for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Vocabulary is vital for success with comprehension and fluency. It is also a key component of reading for meaning. It is learned directly through repeated exposure to
new words in conversations, listening to stories, by reading and through media exposure in meaningful contexts. Explicit teaching of vocabulary adds to the vocabulary
growth of all children. Teachers realise the importance of the role of vocabulary and how to directly support its development.
Most of the activities listed below could be adapted to suit a variety of year levels.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Language development from birth to 5 Label items in the classroom. Ask students to point
is vital for a child’s future learning in to/touch a nominated item.
Tell stories that use elaborate language, use
reading and writing. A learner’s use
Across the Discuss the purpose of the item, what it is made of etc. audio books and model good language to also
and understanding of, is developed
years of Have a large picture of a room, a farmyard scene, or a support vocabulary development of all
through opportunities and
schooling shopping precinct that shows numerous objects. Ask students.
encouragement to speak, to
equivalent to students to name particular items and explain what they
experiment with words and to Fill a bag or box with a variety of objects,
end of are and how they are used.
Reception). respond to or pose questions. students select an object (without looking at it
Ask questions which encourage complete answers and first) from the bag and describe it.
Teaching vocabulary in context of the
include spatial terms: eg Where is the …….? It is on the….. Have a box with items that have a
topic and focus genre is paramount.
commonality eg kitchen utensils. Students
Pre-teaching critical vocabulary and What is the name of the ‘thing’ under the table? It is a ……..
choose one and talk about it.
discussing meanings and associated Read picture books. Print vocabulary is more extensive and
concepts before reading a story aloud varied than oral language. Read a text several times as it
or before students read new texts is provides the repeated exposure students need to
essential to ensure new words are in internalise the new vocabulary.
the reader’s oral vocabulary.
Write words related to a theme or topic on cards and have
pictures to match those words on another set of cards.
Students can match the word with the picture.
Tiers of Vocabulary Teach specific words that relate to a topic eg shopping:
create a list of the types of shops that the students know,
See next page.
go to a shopping centre, take photos/write a list of the
shops. Compare lists.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 – 4 Tiers of Vocabulary Match the name of the shop with what happens there eg
butcher – where we buy meat.
Cont’d Tier 1 – basic and high frequency
greengrocer – where fruit and vegetables are sold
Across the words eg said, house, school used in
newsagency – where we buy newspapers, cards, pens etc
years of everyday conversation and learnt
schooling reasonably quickly. Teach the names of the person in the shop eg butcher,
equivalent to greengrocer, newsagent
Tier 2 – words used by more mature
end of
Reception).
users of a particular age group so will Create a list of shopping items eg cash register, shelves,
differ depending on the age of the counter, display cabinet, trading hours etc
children. Words appear more often in
Create a wall chart/word wall/class book of new words
texts but not so frequently in everyday
with matching pictures to build vocabulary knowledge.
language. These words should be the
focus of direct instruction as they are
the most useful across multiple Collect a variety of pictures or objects eg animals; modes
contexts and words that children are of transport; flowers; foods and work with students to
sort them into categories. Discuss/explain the categories. Lead students in a hyponymy activity with
less likely to learn without help.
Develop further with hyponymy activity topics eg birds – and subsets of birds: crow,
Tier 3 – words that relate to specific budgie (budgerigar), parrot, kookaburra;
fields of knowledge (subject specific seagull etc.
vocabulary) and are usually taught as Ask students for translations of key nouns in their
part of content area literacy. home/first language. eg if you are doing an information
report on frogs, ask what the word for frog is in
Vietnamese etc. Make a display using the English and
Vietnamese words with an accompanying picture.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 5 – 7 Continue to introduce and Teach the correct use of words that have different meanings in learning area
teach new vocabulary in contexts eg
Label parts of a plant; an insect; a
context of the focus genre Put it on the table; Write the results in the table.
map; a piece of technology or any
and topic matter. Here is a phone message for you; The message of the story is …….
Across the object relevant to the topic/L A
years of Continue to pre-teach Explain key learning area vocabulary relevant to this language level context.
schooling critical vocabulary and eg English:, fairy-tale, paragraph Provide a topic related text which
equivalent to discuss meanings and Geography: stream, city, contour lines.
the end of year
describes an animal or object with a
associated concepts before History: olden days, memorial, goldfields
3. picture of the animal or object.
reading a text and before Maths: half past, edges, fraction Students label the picture using the
students read new Science: nest, seedling, investigation appropriate vocabulary from the text
Learning Area texts. Check for differing meaning in different Learning Areas. eg a text about camels would have
Teach abbreviations and the full word eg phone –telephone, bike - bicycle, coat, mouth, nostrils, eyelashes etc.
Dan –Daniel Write the words next to the correct
body part.
Students write these word in full
Nov _______________ temp ___________
Ltd _______________ Rd _____________
Km _______________ max ____________
vol ________________ Ave _____________
Explain why words are shortened.
Students write down the full words for these letters Some words are shortened to make
them quicker to say. Some groups of
ACT NT SA WA QLD VIC NZ words are shortened so much that
Use real life objects when practical to assist in the explanation of words eg only their first letter remains.
wood, plastic, metal.
Make a list of different words which express ways of moving eg strolling,
ambulating, waddling, slithering etc. Match the word with the movement of Students can place sticky notes next to
an animal. Which words describe how a person can move? unknown or unfamiliar words. They
Repeat a hyponymy activity (see Expansion Level 1 – 4) with other topics eg can work with a friend, re-read the
fruit; vegetables. Write topic words on cards with accompanying pictures. sentence or use a dictionary to find its
Students group the cards and write a category name for each set of cards. meaning.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 8 – 10
Continue to teach Provide opportunities for students to use subject specific vocabulary In Maths a student could give instructions
vocabulary in context of during whole class two way information gap activities (barrier games). to the whole class so they can draw the
the focus genre and same geometric shape eg “The circle’s
Across the years Focus on the nouns in a selected text or paragraph. How specifically do
topic matter. circumference is 30 cms” instead of “The
of schooling they define the subject of the text? Is it general or specific? Is the noun
equivalent to the Continue to pre-teach circle has an outside length of 30 cms”
general in the introduction and become more specific as the text goes on?
end of year 6. critical vocabulary and What words are used to make it specific? eg lagoon rather than lake;
Provide a topic related text which
discuss meanings and convict rather than prisoner
describes parts of a system. Students label
associated concepts
Teach the appropriate choice of word for the purpose of the text and the diagram using the appropriate
before students read
audience eg chop up, cut, slice, dissect; move, turn, rotate, oscillate by vocabulary from the text eg a text about
new Learning Area
placing them on a cline from informal and everyday language to formal the skeleton. Write the words next to the
texts.
and technical language correct body part eg cranium, radius, ulna,
Teach abbreviations by matching the short words to the longer versions tibia, sternum, ribs, clavicle etc
and writing them in full:-
Christine petroleum exam Maths
fridge influenza add petrol
addition examination Chris Geoffrey
Geoff refrigerator flu mathematics
Introduce acronyms, see Appendix 1, and review abbreviations. Teach students to use clues in the text (eg
An acronym is a word formed from the first letters of other words and a dash is often used in front of a definition)
pronounced as a word. to help understand particular words eg
eg RAM - random access memory Sophie was bewildered- she didn’t
DOS – disc operating system understand what was happening
Begin a class dictionary of polysemous words which are words that have
multiple meanings eg the word scale can mean to climb, a plant disease, a
measuring instrument or a feature of a fish. Students each add a word.
Introduce the process for dictogloss to develop learners’ confidence to use
topic and specific/technical Learning Area vocabulary. See Appendix 2.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 11 – 12
Continue teaching Teach students to use clues in the text to help understand particular
vocabulary in the context words. A dash is often used in front of a definition eg Sophie was
Across the of the topic being bewildered – she didn’t understand what was happening.
years of studied.
Model ways for students to learn new vocabulary eg underline, highlight or
schooling
place sticky notes next to unknown or unfamiliar words, find the meaning
equivalent to
the end of year
using a glossary or a dictionary, have a guess, re-read the text, find it a
8. second time in the same text where its meaning is more obvious.
Reinforce specific vocabulary by labelling a visual (eg aerial photograph,
map, graph, schematic drawing) relevant to the topic.
By end of year
8 students use
Model using subject specific vocabulary to explain a graphic in a subject
a wide range of text.
new specialist
and topic Reinforce specific vocabulary by labelling items in a practical Learning
vocabulary to Area.
contribute to
the specificity, Continue use of dictogloss, see Appendix 2. Where appropriate focus upon
authority and hyponyms for example in a text about farm birds use poultry instead of
abstraction of ducks, geese, chickens.
texts
Model a process whereby students read a text and then, highlight key
words and suggest different terminology/word forms as possible headings,
before deciding upon the most appropriate ‘Heading’ for each section eg
DICTOGLOSS*
A dictogloss is a writing activity in which students attempt to reconstruct a short piece of text which the teacher will have read aloud to them. On the first
reading they simply listen to the text. On the second reading they take down key words and phrases and then, with a partner try to reproduce the text
they have just heard. When they have done that, they compare their text to the original text. The idea is to get as close to the register of the original text
as possible.
The aim of the activity is to develop skills for writing in a particular register**. One of the strengths of the activity is that it gives students the opportunity
to negotiate meaning of a shared text with their peers. Another strength is that, in replicating the meanings of the original texts, students will have to use
equally complex nominal groups and a similar level of nominalisation.
How to do it
There are 4 stages in a dictogloss:
• preparing for listening
• listening to the text – the first time, just listening- the second time, jotting down words and phrases
• reconstructing the text
• comparing versions of the text
Preparation
If the students have not done a dictogloss before, give a very brief explanation of the main stages. The next step is to provide a context for the listening
task. This stage includes reviewing the field that is being studied in the unit of work, using a range of multimodal resources. Such preparation helps
students to anticipate what they are going to hear and thus, to listen more actively and effectively.
Listening to the text
Read the text aloud at normal speed. Students listen, in order to understand the passage as a whole.
The second time the text is read aloud, students jot down key words and phrases. Remind students that they won’t be able to write down the text in its
entirety or even to take notes in the normal sense. The task is to record words and phrases that will trigger their memory and allow them to reconstruct
the text with their partner.
Reconstruction of the text
Students work in pairs or small groups to reconstruct the text they have heard, using:
• key words and phrases they have jotted down individually
• their knowledge of the topic
• their collective understanding of how language works.
The text they create should:
• maintain the register of the original text as much as possible (ie same content and degree of technicality and abstraction (field), same degree of
objectivity or subjectivity and certainty (tenor), similar elements being foregrounded (mode))
• be “sound English text” – cohesive and as grammatically accurate as possible. To support students in note taking, the class as a whole, could share the
notes they have taken so they can discuss which were relevant for the reconstruction.
*Teaching ESL students in mainstream classrooms: language in learning across the curriculum pp 151- 153 2012 version
**A term used to refer to combined aspects of specific situations or contexts which influence language choices and meanings. The three aspects which
combine to form register are:
• what the subject matter is (field)
• who is taking part and their relative roles and relationships (tenor)
• how language is organised to create a cohesive text, the medium or channel of communication and whether language is used to accompany action
or as reflection (mode)
from Language and Literacy Levels across the Australian Curriculum: EALD students - Glossary
APPENDIX 3
i. Read aloud the sentence or mention where the students first met the word. Show students the word and ask them to say it aloud.
rudimentary
ii. Ask students to repeat it several times. Brainstorm possible meanings with the group. Point out any parts of the word that might help with meaning eg a
prefix or Latin or Greek root. Reread the sentence or refer to the context in which it was used to see if there are any contextual clues.
iii. Explain the meaning explicitly through a student-friendly definition and use of synonyms.
Rudimentary means simple or very basic.
iv. Provide examples, emphasising the target word.
Ben found the test easy because all the questions were quite rudimentary.
Bella speaks rudimentary German because she has only been learning it for three months.
The pilot’s final test was not rudimentary because it covered everything he had learned in three years of training.
v. Ask questions to determine if students understand the word.
Would a doctor have a rudimentary understanding of the human body? Why or why not?
Would a primary school teacher have a rudimentary understanding of the human body? Why or why not?
vi. Provide sentences that students can judge as being true or false.
The high court judge had a rudimentary knowledge of the law. True or False?
The first year apprentice had a rudimentary knowledge of how to build a house. True or False?
vii. Students then write their own sentences to be judged as true or false by other students.
viii. Consciously use the word throughout the day to reinforce the meaning and different ways in which it can be used.1
NEXT RESOURCE FOLLOWS
1
DECS June 2011 Research into practice paper - Understanding the reading process Series 1/1.4
Spelling
This resource is to support teachers who have set goals and targets, around Word Knowledge development, for their students’ texts using the Teaching and Learning
Goals and Language and Literacy Levels Targets proforma. This proforma is in the Language and Literacy Levels: Recording and Tracking for Learning document.
Types of Spelling Knowledge (See Appendix 1)
• phonological – how words sound
• visual – how words look
• morphemic – how words change form eg jump, jumps, jumped, jumping
• etymological – where words come from
Stages of Spelling Development. (See Appendix 2)
• emerging print concepts
• semi-phonetic – phonic activities eg onsets and rimes,
• phonetic- digraphs, silent letters, prefixes, suffixes
• transitional - spell by using rules/generalisation
• proficient – spell from memory
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1 - 4
This is the beginning stage of learning the Assess students’ prior knowledge of words and letter clusters.
Across the stages
relationship between letters and the Introduce selected/relevant letter/s and sound/s related to the Students walk around school and
of schooling sounds they represent. Students begin to genre or topic being taught. look for, draw or write items that
equivalent to the use this knowledge to recognise and read
Teach each letter’s name and its sound. begin with that letter.
end of reception words. They also build skills to blend
Display items beginning with that/those letter/s. Have a ‘sound/s of the week.’
onsets and rimes (eg c-at) and segment
sounds (d/o/g) in words. Through this Whole class or individual activity: Plan activities in different
they become familiar with the consonant- learning areas (where practical) to reinforce recognition of
vowel-consonant (CVC) pattern. These selected letters eg if the letter is “f”, jointly compose an
aspects along with syllables are Information Report including the life cycle about frogs/fish,
components pf ‘Phonological Awareness’ draw frogs/fish, teach songs about frogs/fish, introduce topic
(refer to Big 6) vocabulary related to frogs/fish, move like a frog/fish etc.
Focus on letter formation instruction. It is Read texts. Ask students to identify nominated sounds by
important to teach spelling in context. pointing, using post it notes or highlighting or circling on
photocopied pages.
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 1-4 Cont’d Consider adapting teaching strategies
for New Arrival students (regardless of Teach and make lists of words with the same pattern (CVC) Assess “spelling” by incidental testing
their age) whose language system isn’t eg. word ending in ‘at’, ’en’, ‘it’, ‘ug’ etc eg “Who can sound out mat?” “Who
alphabetical eg Chinese, Arabic. can write sun?” “What does h-a-t
The use of symbols as an introduction Teach recognition and spelling of high frequency words. say?” Use the sounds of the letters,
may bridge the gap. not the name.
Encourage independent writing by focussing on letter-sound
relationship, listening to and saying beginning, middle and end
sounds and high frequency words.
Promote the use of student glossaries. Spell it using mnemonics – using ‘tricks’ to
remember how to spell words eg “parallel” has two
Use cloze exercise and crosswords using selected parallel lines (double letter l) in the middle of the
words, and close exercises using extracts from the word
texts.
May use spelling creatively for Read news report headlines that include puns and Cele-brat is about the birthday celebration of a
effect explain their humour. young misbehaving celebrity
Language Discussion Activities Expansion
Level
Level 13 – 14 It is important to teach spelling in Refer to Levels 11-12. Use required or chosen texts as the basis for
context of the focus genre and teaching and learning activities.
topic matter.
Across the years Align the acquisition of spelling with the
of schooling At this level students continue to understanding of the word in context.
equivalent to the
spell most words correctly and
end of year 10.
apply their understanding of
. spelling to spell difficult topic or
subject specific/technical words,
and unusual words.
Spelling: from beginnings to proficiency Chapter 6 - Teaching and learning activities page 55