BOILER INSPECTION

TUBE THICKNESS, CORROSION INSPECTION

 Contents
1. The purpose of boiler life assessment
2. Life Evaluation by Inspection
3. Preparations for Inspection
4. Data requirement
5. Inspection of high pressure parts.
6. Sample tube inspection.
7. Visual inspection for other parts of boiler .
8. Water quality survey.
9. Visual Inspection for aux Equipment
10. high pressure parts Inspection details
 1-The Purpose of boiler life assessment
o Evaluate the present state and the condition of the boiler
components in order To continue stable and reliable boiler
operation
o Evaluate the remaining life for Superheater and Reheater by
metallurgical inspection
o Evaluation of creep life and future inspection scheme by
metallurgical inspection for water wall, economizer,
Superheater and Reheater tubes
o Evaluation degree of creep damage for Superheater and
Reheater by hardness test
o Evaluate the remaining life based on thickness Measurement
for water wall,
o Evaluate the remaining life based on thickness thinning for
economizer due to low Temperature Corrosion,
o Evaluate the remaining life based on thickness thinning for
Superheater and Reheater tubes due to high Temperature
Corrosion
o Confirm the cause of the inner scale generation
o Evaluate the remaining life based on check of metal structure
,inner scale ,etc for sample tube
 2-Life Evaluation by Inspection
FAILURE DAMAG PHENOME LIFE INSPECTION ITEM
CAUSA NON EVALUATION
 Clogging Swelling Outside Metallurgical
CREEP with Metal diameter and inspection for SH, RH
foreign structure thickness header,
material change measurement Metallurgical
Depositi Metallurgica inspection and NDT
on and l inspection (UT) for main steam
growth of pipe line and high
scale on temperature RH pipe
Inner
surface
Long-
term
stress
FATIG Cycle Growth Stress NDE (PT, MT) of
UE thermal of crack analysis spacer welded for SH
stress Surface and RH Tube
crack
●CORR Cyclic Interacti Ultrasonic Sample tube
OSION thermal on of test inspection for SH, RH
FATIGUE stress corrosion Sample tube and water wall
under and inspection Check of Burner
corrosive fatigue Nozzle and Wind Box
environme Damper
nt

●CORR High Thickne Annual  measurement of

OSION temp ss thickness tube thickness for
corrosion thinning measurement SH ,RH, Water Wall
●EROSI Low and Eco by UT
ON temp Steam drum
corrosion Boiler aux
Ash Eco Hanger tube by
erosion endoscope, etc
 3-Preparations for Inspection
• Before inspection
– Superheater, reheater, economizer and water wall cleaning
– Air heater washing
– Scaffolding
– Removal of insulation
– Open man holes, inspection holes, flanges etc
• During inspection
– Surface preparation of inspection parts
– Surface finishing (grinding) of inspection parts
– Instrument of apparatus of inspection
– Cutting tubes
– Welding tubes
• Material requirement
– New tubes
– Man hole packing
– insulation
• Period of inspection
– Two weeks
 4- Data requirement

• Boiler reference data

– Steam temperature 0c
– Maximum Steam flow Ton/hr
– Boiler design pressure Kgm/cm2
– Feed water temp 0c

– Reheated inlet steam temperature 0c

– Reheated outlet steam temperature 0c

– Reheater design pressure Kgm/cm2

– Kind of fuel Coal,Gas, Oil

• Functional inspection with boiler in operation

– Collection of drawings and main technical data
– Recording of actual operating and functional data at different loads and
conditions at MCR and Verification of the operation of the boiler
– Collection of data relevant to the thermal history and interventions ,if any
made on the boiler during his operation life
 5-Inspection of high pressure parts
• NON Destructive test for the following item
1. Economizer headers, coils, Piping from economizer to steam drum,.
2. Steam drum.
3. Furnace water walls, screen, roof wall, feeders, riser ,Water walls headers.
4. Saturation steam pipe.
5. Primary, secondary super heater.
6. Connecting pipe between primary superheater and secondary superheater.
7. Reheater.
8. Main SH steam pipes

**Inspection item

1. External visual inspection

2. Internal visual inspection with endoscope
3. UT for thickness measurements
4. MT and UT on circumferential welds
5. MT on piping attachments
6. Metallographic inspection
7. MT on nozzles welds of the coil tubes
8. MT on nozzles welds to the shell of the inlet/outlet pipe
the minimum required thickness

t = minimum required thickness.

D = outside diameter of cylinder.
e = thickness factor for expanded tube ends.
P = maximum allowable working pressure.
S = maximum allowable stress value at the design temperature
of the metal.
 Design / Operating Information
for calculation of remaining time based on thickness

• Design information
– material type or grade
– Nominal outside diameter
– Designing pressure
– Design life
– Deign temperature
– Original nominal thickness
• Operating information
– Maximum tube metal
Thickness measurements
temperature of water wall tubes
– Normal operating pressure furnace
– Original measured minimum
thickness
– Metal thinning rate
Minimum required thickness for SA178-C

Minimum required thickness for different working

conditions for materials SA178- C
ASME Spec. ASME Grade ERW or Sm ls. Description Typical uses

SA-178 A ERW Low carbon steel - C=0.18 m ax. Boiler tubes, economizers, low tem p. superheaters

SA-178 C ERW Medium carbon steel - C=0.35 max. Boiler tubes, economizers, low tem p. superheaters

SA-178 D ERW Carbon-manganese steel - C=0.27 m ax Not in com mon use

SA-192 Smls. Low carbon steel - C=0.18 m ax Waterwalls, economizers, low temp. superheaters

SA-210 A1 Smls. Medium carbon steel - C=0.27 max. Waterwalls, economizers, superheaters

SA-210 C Smls. Medium carbon steel - C=0.35 max. Waterwalls, economizers, superheaters

SA-209 T1 Smls. Low alloy steel - low carbon, 1/2% moly Superheaters

SA-209 T1a Smls. Low alloy steel - medium carbon, 1/2% moly Superheaters

SA-209 T1b Smls. Low alloy steel - low carbon, 1/2% moly Superheaters

SA-213 T2 Smls. Intermediate alloy - 1/2% chrome, 1/2% moly Waterwalls, superheaters, not in common use

SA-213 T11 Smls. Intermediate alloy - 1 1/4% chrome, 1/2% moly Waterwalls, superheaters

SA-213 T22 Smls. Intermediate alloy - 2 1/4% chrome, 1% moly Waterwalls, superheaters

SA-213 T5 Smls. Intermediate alloy - 5% chrome, 1/2% moly High tem perature superheaters, not in common use

SA-213 T9 Smls. Intermediate alloy - 9% chrome, 1% m oly High tem perature superheaters, no longer in com mon use

SA-213 T91 Smls. Intermediate alloy - 9% chrome, 1% m oly, 1/4% vanadium High tem perature superheaters - the latest and greatest

SA-213 Tp-304 Smls. Stainless steel - 18% chrome, 8% nickel Superheaters

SA-213 Tp-304H Smls. Stainless steel for high tem perature service High tem perature superheaters

SA-213 Tp-316 Smls. Stainless steel - 16% chrome, 11% nickel Superheaters

SA-213 Tp-316H Smls. Stainless steel for high tem perature service High tem perature superheaters

SA-213 Tp-321 Smls. Stainless steel - 17% chrome, 9% nickel, 0.60% titanium Superheaters

SA-213 Tp-321H Smls. Stainless steel for high tem perature service High tem perature superheaters

SA-213 Tp-347 Smls. Stainless steel - 17% chrome, 9% nickel, columbium + tantalum=1.00% max. Superheaters

SA-213 Tp-347H Smls. Stainless steel for high tem perature service High tem perature superheaters
 6-Sample tube -
Destructive test for the Sample tube For Water Wall ,SR and RH tubes

– Life diagnoses based on check of metal structure, thickness, inner scale, etc
– Sample tube takes according to the result of hardness measurement

• Investigation Items
– Visual inspection
– Non destructive test
– Chemical analysis
– Measurement of the tube dimension
– Hardness measurement
– Cross sectional microstructure observation
– Steam oxidation observation
– Creep rupture test
– Measurement of the inner scale thickness

• Information
– Material of Sample tube
– tube dimension
 sample tubes

Thinning of bulged zone Internal surface scale External surface scale

 Optical micrograph

Optical micrograph of non-bulged zones tube wall side

showing ferrite –pearlite structure with no
internal defects
 Normal and deteriorated microstructure

normal microstructure deteriorated microstructure

( good condition tube) which shows the
Which shows a decomposition of the pearlite
typical ferritic pearlite colonies
structure
 7-Visual inspection for other parts of boiler
– Burner
– Wind Box
– Hanger for riser pipe
– Outer casing
– Skin casing
– Buckstay
 8-Water Quality Survey

This inspection to confirm the cause of the scale generation

• Inspection items
– Check of laboratory analysis method for quality items
– Confirmation of water quality results at previous load operation
– Check of instrument condition on sampling rack used for water
quality control
– Confirmation of PH value and iron/copper balance in the cycle
 9-Visual Inspection for aux Equipment
This inspection to confirm the cause of the scale generation

– Condenser hot well.

– Condenser tube side
– Deaerator.
– LP-feed water heater.
– Feed water tank.
– HP-feed water heater.
 10-high pressure parts Inspection details
1. Economizer headers ,coils, Piping from economizer to steam drum,
2. Steam drum
3. Furnace water walls, screen, roof wall, feeders, riser ,Water walls headers
4. Saturation steam pipe
5. Primary, secondary superheater
6. Connecting pipe between primary super heater and secondary superheater
7. Reheater
8. Main SH steam pipes
 10-1 Economizer
• NDE For headers
– External visual inspection
– Internal visual inspection with endoscope
– Measurement of thickness by UT
– MT on nozzles welds of the coil tubes and headers attachments
– MT and UT on circumferential welds between header and conical pieces

• NDE For tube

– External visual inspection
– Measurement of economizer tube and hanger tube thickness with endoscope
– UT for thickness measurements

• NDE For Piping from economizer to steam drum

– External visual inspection for piping, hangers and supports
– UT for thickness measurements
– MT and UT on circumferential welds
– MT on piping attachments
– MT on the elbows extrados
 10-2 steam drum
• Before the NDT inspections, the internal parts of
the drum shall be dismantled
• NDE For steam drum
– External visual inspection
– Internal visual inspection
– UT for shell thickness measurements
– UT for head thickness measurements
– MT and UT on circumferential and longitudinal welds
– MT on steam drum attachments (saddles and accessories)
– MT on nozzles welds

• NDE For downcomers

– External visual inspection for piping, hangers and supports
– UT for thickness measurements
– MT and UT on circumferential welds
– MT on piping attachments
 10-3 furnace water walls, screen, roof wall,
Feeders and Riser
• NDE for furnace water walls, screen, roof wall
– External visual inspection
– UT for thickness measurements
– Metallographic examination by plastic replicas
– Samples for destructive test

• NDE for feeders and riser

– External visual inspection
– UT for thickness measurements

• NDE for headers

– External visual inspection
– Internal visual inspection with endoscope
– UT for thickness measurements
– MT on nozzles welds of the coil tubes
– MT on branches welds and headers attachments, including drains tubes
 10-4 Saturation steam pipe
• NDE for each pipe
– External visual inspection
– UT for thickness measurements
– MT and UT on circumferential welds
– MT on piping attachments
– MT on the elbows extrados
 10-5 Primary,Secondary Superheater
• NDE for the headers
– External visual inspection
– Internal visual inspection with endoscope
– UT for thickness measurements
– UT for head thickness measurements
– MT on nozzles welds of the coil tubes
– MT on nozzles welds to the shell of the inlet/outlet pipe
– MT and UT on circumferential welds between header and heads/ piping
– MT on headers attachments
– Metallographic examination by plastic replicas

• NDE for Coils

– External visual inspection
– UT for thickness measurements
– Internal visual inspection with endoscope
– Hardness measurements
– Samples for destructive examinations
 10-6 Connecting pipe between primary and
Secondary Superheater, Desuperheater ATPS
• NDE for connecting pipe
– External visual inspection
– UT for thickness measurements
– MT and UT on circumferential welds
– MT on piping attachments
– MT on the elbows extrados
– Metallographic examination by plastic replicas
• NDE for desuperheater ATPS
– External visual inspection
– Internal visual inspection with endoscope
– UT for thickness measurements
– MT on circumferential welds
– Metallographic examination by plastic replicas
 10-7 Reheater
• NDE For each one of the headers
– External visual inspection
– Internal visual inspection with endoscope
– UT for thickness measurements
– UT for head thickness measurements
– MT on nozzles welds of the coil tubes
– MT on nozzles welds to the shell of the inlet/outlet pipe
– MT and UT on circumferential welds between header and heads/ piping
– MT on headers attachments
– Metallographic examination by plastic replicas
• NDE For Coils
– External visual inspection
– UT for thickness measurements
– Internal visual inspection with endoscope
– Hardness measurements
– Samples for destructive examinations
 10-8 Main SH steam pipes
• NDE for each pipe
– External visual inspection
– UT for thickness measurements
– MT and UT on circumferential welds
– MT on piping attachments
– MT on the elbows extrados
– MT on nozzles welds to the pipe
– Metallographic examination by plastic replicas
NDT

Inspect or measure without doing any harm

Various Terms used for NDT

Non-destructive Testing:
Technology for assessing the soundness of a component

Non-destructive Inspection:
Technology for inspecting material to known standards

Non-destructive Evaluation:
Art of developing NDT techniques arriving at acceptance standards
for components
Activities Come under NDT &E

•Flaw detection and evaluation

•Leak detection
•Metrology
•Microstructure characterization
•Estimation of mechanical /physical properties
•Stress (strain) and dynamic response determination
•Chemical composition
•Corrosion monitoring
Selection of NDT

• Reason for performing NDT

• Types of flaws of interest
• Size and orientation of flaws that is rejectable
• Anticipated location of flaws in the object
• Size and shape of the object
• Characteristics of the material to be evaluated
Selection of NDE

Question to be asked:

What is the reason for choosing an NDE procedure?

To find:
•If the object is acceptable after each fabrication step (in-process)
•If the object is acceptable for final use (final NDE)
•If the object/component in use can continue (in-service NDE)
 Non-destructive Testing & Evaluation Methods

ACTIVE DETECTOR
RADIOGRAPHY
NDT&E ULTRASONICS OUTPUT
EDDY CURRENT INTERROGATING SIGNAL
MPI/ LPT MEDIUM

PASSIVE DETECTOR
ACOUSTIC EMISSION

DETECTOR
THERMOGAPHY DETECTOR
VIBRATION MONITORING

DETECTOR
Common NDT Methods

•Visual Inspection
•Liquid Penetrant Testing
•Magnetic Particle Testing
•Ultrasonic Testing
•Eddy current Testing
•Radiography
•Thermography
•Acoustic Emission
Liquid Penetrant Testing
 Phenomenon used

Capillary action of liquid

Capillary action, or capillarity, is the ability of a liquid to flow in

narrow spaces without the assistance of external force.
Methodology

Cracks open to the surface

Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic is the most versatile NDT
technique

Uses high frequency sound energy to

conduct examinations
Phenomena used

.
Reflection
Refraction
Difraction
Attenuation
Reflection, Refraction

Snell’s law
Reflection, Refraction

Snell’s law
Diffraction

Have you ever wondered

why you can hear someone
who is round the corner of
a building, long before you
see them?
 Attenuation
when sound travels through a medium its intensity diminishes with
distance due to:
Spreading of waves
Scattering
Absorption

Scattering: Is the reflection of the sound in the directions other than

its original direction of propagation

Absorption : is the conversion of the sound energy to other form of

energy

The combined effect of scattering

and absorption is called attenuation
ATTENUATION:

A = A0 exp [i (kx - t)]exp (-x)

k = 2/  = 2f/v = / v
AMPLITUDE

(+) EXPONENTIAL DECAY of  = f (Absorption, Scattering)

(-) TIME AXIS

BACKSCATTERED SIGNAL
 Types of waves

The following types of waves are useful for Ultrasonic

testing:

a) Longitudinal or compressional wave

b) Transverse or shear wave
c) Surface or Rayleigh waves
d) Lamb or plate waves
 Longitudinal Waves
Also called, Compression Waves, Primary Waves

Excitation

Direction of Travel Direction of Particle Motion

Can propagate in Solids,

liquids and gases

E(1 - ν)
vL 
Wave Velocity: ρ1  ν 1  2ν 
 Transverse Waves
Also called, Shear Waves, Secondary Waves

Excitation

Direction of Travel Direction of Particle Motion

Does not propagate in
liquids and gases

E
v 
Wave Velocity: T 2ρ1  ν 
 Acoustic impedance
The acoustic impedance (Z) of a material is defined

as the product of its density () and acoustic velocity (V).

Z = V

Important:
 Transmission and Reflection
 Sound absorption
 Design of ultrasonic transducers
Reflection and Transmission

Transmitted wave

T = (1-R) = 4Z1Z2/(Z2+Z1)2
Ultrasound Testing Methods

•Pulse Echo
•Through Transmission
 Pulse-Echo using Contact Probe
Plate Testing

IP: Initial Pulse

BE: Back Wall
F: Flaw
 Through Transmission
Plate Testing
Angle-Beam
Angle-Beam
ABC’s of Ultrasonics
 A-SCAN
100%
+ Phase

Amplitude %FSH 0%

_ Phase
-100%
Time / Depth

A-Scans provide the following

information:
1. Amplitude / % of full screen height (FSH)
2. Phase / positive or negative peak
3. Time / Depth
 B-Scan
Front surface

Signal from
indication

Back surface

The yellow line (B-scan gate) represents the

depth of information recorded.

Back surface
Front surface Signal from
indication
C-SCAN
IP
Front surface Back surface

Area of interest

The red box (data gate) indicates the depth of

information.
Ultrasonic Time of flight Diffraction (TOFD)

Used for sizing a flaw

Ultrasonic Time of flight Diffraction (TOFD)

Used for sizing a flaw

 Near Surface Crack

1 2
 Concave Root

1
2
2 3
3

Distortion of back-wall echo

Lack of Fusion – Inter pass

1
2

3
Internal Rotary Inspection System
(IRIS)
IRIS
A computerized ultrasonic inspection system best suited for
integrity assessment of air fin cooler tubes, which are
inaccessible from external sides because of fins.

It consists of ;

• a high frequency, high-resolution transducer and

• a 45 deg mirror mounted on a small water driven turbine.

– The mirror rotates at high speed and reflects the ultrasonic beam
around the tube circumference to perform a 360 deg scan of the wall
thickness.

IRIS principle IRIS test head with centering

spider
IRIS

• An advanced technique for metal thickness measurement

of tubes in air fin coolers, heat exchangers, boilers etc.

• Developed in late 50’s by Shell Oil for inspection of their

Fin-Fan cooler tubes.

• Now this technique used world-wide for inspection and

integrity assessment of Air fin coolers.
Phased Array Ultrasonic
Phased Array Probes
Left: monocrystal single-angle inspection requires multiangle
scans and probe movement; right: linear array probe can
sweep the focused beam through the appropriate region of
the component without probe movement
Magnetic Particle Testing
Phenomenon Used

Magnetic Flux Leakage

Magnetic Particle Testing

Surface defects
MPT

N S
 MPT

The presence of this leakage field, or the presence of the discontinuity:

•detected by the use of finely divided ferromagnetic particles

applied over the surface

•with some of the particles being gathered and held by the

leakage field.

Types of particles:
•dry particles, or
• wet particles in a liquid carrier such as water or oil.
MPT

Magnetized bars showing directions of magnetic field (a) circular

(b) longitudinal
 MPT

Effect of direction of magnetic field or flux flow on the detectability

of discontinuities with various orientations. (a) Circular
magnetization. (b) Longitudinal magnetization
Single and double prod contacts. Discontinuities are detected by
the magnetic field generated between the prods
Eddy Current Testing
Eddy Current

Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in a

circular path. They get their name from “eddies” that are
formed when a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around
obstacles when conditions are right.
Phenomenon Used

Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Experiment

91
Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Minus Sign
The electromotive force (EMF) induced in a coil of wire is
proportional to the time rate of change of magnetic field coupling
into that coil.

Lenz’s Crucial Extension:

A change in magnetic flux through a circuit induces an electric field

in the circuit, which causes a current to flow in the circuit, which in
turn gives rise to a magnetic flux that opposes the original flux.

92
Eddy Current Technique
When a metallic material is placed close to an alternating magnetic field, current is
induced within the materials which opposes the applied magnetic field. The current
induced within the materials due to the presence of external magnetic field is known as
eddy current

GENERATION OF EDDY CURRENT

Primary and secondary magnetic field opposing

in nature
=> a.c. coil impedance changes
=> any defect in the specimen reduces this
change
 R0

i
0

V0=VR+VL
=iR0+L0 (di/dt)
=iR0+ jL0 ωi
i=i0ejωt where ω=2πf, j=√-i

di/dt =d/dt(i0ejωt )
Imag (Lo)
=jωi0ejωt Z
= jωi 
Z0=V0/i
=R0+j (ω L0) Real
imaginary Z2=R02+ω2 L02 (Ro)
real =tan-1(L0/R0)
 R

XL ~

Resistance Reactance

Impedance Z2 = R2 + XL2

= R2 + 2L2
Inductance
 Phaser  = 2  f (frequency)
 Diagra
m
Reactance (L)

Resistance (R)
 Resistance Reactance

Impedance Z 2 = R 2 + XL 2

= R2 + 2L2
Inductance
 = 2  f (frequency)

Initial coil is chosen in such a way that Ro~ 0, Zo = Lo

Normalised Phaser diagram
Z=R+jω L
=
w
Lo
Normalised Reactance (L/L0)

Z/Z0=R/ ω L0+ jω L/L0

0
Ti Phaser
Diagra
Conductivity

Fe 
m
Al 
h

Cu 
Hi g

 =
Normalised Resistance (R/L0)
 Factors Affecting Eddy Currents

• Strength of exciting electromagnetic field

• Frequency of excitation
• Electrical conductivity of the material
• Magnetic permeability of the material
• Coupling between the exciter and the part under test
 Depth of Penetration
Higher emf -> larger amplitude of currents
-> high opposing flux -> weaker flux at
lower levels -> lower δ.

Lower conductivity -> lower currents ->

lower opposing flux -> more flux deeper
in the metal -> higher δ.

The Standard Depth of penetration δ is defined as the depth at which

eddy current density is reduced to 1/e times (approximately 37%) the
density at the surface.

 = depth of penetration
= 1/ (fµ )1/2
δ At Different
At 10 KHz
Frequencies
At 240 KHz

Frequency needs to be selected with due consideration to δ.

Surface properties need a higher frequency.
Sub-surface defects require a lower frequency.
For conductivity measurements thickness must be more than
3δ.
Metal Sorting

100
 Effect of Lift off

Application 1.6mm hole

:
5% ID Groove 10% OD Groove 0.25mm dent
2.5mm wide 2.5mm wide Carbon steel
support

Y-Channel

Distanc
e
Current trends:
Multiufrequency, approach, Modeling for defect size
determination, materials Characterisation
Coating Thickness Measurement

Coating is a measure of lift-off

Higher frequencies are used:

Crowded conductivity

Better angular separation

Higher sensitivity to liftoff

Can measure on thinner sheets

Can be calibrated against shims

102
Detecting Cracks with Eddy Currents

A crack interrupts eddy currents

An emf is still induced

It results in currents deeper below

Reducing opposing flux

That leads to higher inductance

Choice of Test Frequency
Thank you
 IRIS (Internal Rotary Inspection System)

• It is an ultrasonic system for inspection of heat

exchangers and boilers.

• It employs the conventional pulse-echo technique for

measuring the wall thickness, but uses novel methods
for displaying the measurements.

• All measurements, made during a complete scan

around the circumference of the tube, are displayed on
the computer screen, producing real time rectangular or
circular pictures.
IRIS
 EMAT(Electromag. Acoustic Transducer)
• This method generates ultrasonic wave directly in the
material (hence there is no need of couplant or close contact)
• Magnetite bounded to surface acts as an active element
 EMAT (Electomagnetic Acoustic Transducer)
Advantages
• Not necessary to remove oxide scale for measurements,
• No couplant required
• Scale thickness is not added into the wall thickness
measurement,
Limitations
• Magnetostrictive EMAT works only when ext. bounded scale is
present
• Minimum measurable wall thickness and measurement accuracy
inferior to conventional UT and EMATs are relatively insensitive
to small internal pits.
• Hence, EMATs are often used for quick initial wall thickness
 Remote Field Eddy Current Testing
• RFT uses a low frequency signal which allows penetration of the
tube walls
giving approx. same sensitivity to ID & OD flaws.

• Where the tube grows thin, there is effectively less shielding.

Hence the
field arrives with less time delay (greater phase) and less
attenuation (greater
amplitude). Phase and amplitude traces are generated as the
probe is pulled
through the tube and are used to detect and size metal loss
 MFL/LFET

MFL Technique is an electromag.

technique that is adapted to the
inspection of small-bore
ferromagnetic heat exchanger tubes .
Pickup- coil type (diff.) & Hall
element (abs.)

LFET:
(a) Electromag. driver creates
magnetic flux lines (nominal
condition with no discontinuities)
(b) flux lines that deviate from the
nominal condition (discontinuity)
Phase and amplitude of the induced
 Internal oxide scale thickness measurement (S/H & R/H tubes

• Internal oxide (magnetite) forms on the S/H &

R/H tubes at high temp.
3 Fe + 4 H20 = Fe3O4 + 4 H2

• Speed of this reaction increases with temp.

Magnetite scale acts as thermal insulation on
the pipe (thermal conductivity of scale is ~ 5%
that of steel), making heat transfer inefficient
and increasing the metal temp

• Long term exposure to overly high temp.

combined with the very high pressure inside
the tube, leads to intergranular micro-cracking
in the metal and to creep deformation.
 Digital Radiography

Progress of Digital Industrial Radiology, Uwert, INDE Apr., 2007

 Digital Radiography
Digital radiography gives the final image in the digital form.

• Digitization of radiographed film

This is analogous to image scanner.

• Computed radiography

• In this form of digital radiography, flexible & reusable storage phosphor plate is used
for imaging in place of the radiographic film. Subsequent processing is necessary to
get the digital image as described below.
• When exposed to radioactive rays, electrons inside the phosphor crystals get excited
and are trapped in a semi-stable higher energy state. This impression of radiographic
rays (latent image) on phosphor screen is invisible.
• The phosphor screen is taken/moved to the laser beam unit. Very small scanning laser
strikes the screen and releases the trapped electron, causing visible light to be emitted
in proportion to the radioactive exposure.
• Light detector measures the brightness of light on the phosphor screen and the
analogous data measured for each pixel of the screen is digitized and stored in
computer as a digital image
 ECT for assessing life/thick of coating
(ctd.)
 The Frequency scanning
eddy current system F-
SECT has been developed
for nondestructive
condition assessment of
new and serviced high-
temperature coatings
applied on the hot gas-path
components of modern gas
turbines.