materials

Article
Temperature Modeling of AISI 1045 Steel during
Surface Hardening Processes
Tsung-Pin Hung 1, * , Hao-En Shi 2 and Jao-Hwa Kuang 2
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung 840, Taiwan
2 Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-sen University,
Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan; tsungpin@gmail.com (H.-E.S.); kuang@faculty.nsysu.edu.tw (J.-H.K.)
* Correspondence: tphung@gcloud.csu.edu.tw; Tel.: +886-7-7358800 (ext. 3331)




Received: 20 August 2018; Accepted: 22 September 2018; Published: 25 September 2018


Abstract: A Coupled thermo-mechanical finite element model was employed to simulate the possible
effects of varying laser scanning parameters on the surface hardening process for AISI 1045 and
AISI 4140 steels. We took advantage of the high-power density of laser beams to heat the surface
of workpieces quickly to achieve self-quenching effects. The finite element model, along with the
temperature-dependent material properties, was applied to characterize the possible quenching
and tempering effects during single-track laser surface heat treatment. We verified the accuracy of
the proposed model through experiments. The effects of laser surface hardening parameters, such
as power variation, scanning speed, and laser spot size, on the surface temperature distribution,
hardening width, and hardening depth variations during the single-track surface laser treatment
process, were investigated using the proposed model. The analysis results show that laser power and
scanning speed are the key parameters that affect the hardening of the material. The numerical results
reveal that the proposed finite element model is able to simulate the laser surface heat treatment
process and tempering effect of steel.

Keywords: self-quenching effect; laser scanning; heat treatment

1. Introduction
In 1868, Russian metallurgist D. K. Chernov discovered that the heating and quenching of steel
alters its internal structure and thus proposed the iron-carbon phase diagram [1]. A variety of heat
treatment techniques have been developed for over a hundred years since this discovery, including,
for example, furnace-based heat treatment, induction heating-based heat treatment, flame hardening,
and chemical heat treatment. Over the last 50 years alone, scientists around the world invented
several novel heat treatment techniques, including vacuum heat treatment, austenite grain refinement,
and heat treatment methods for the control of martensitic and bainitic structures. Laser surface heat
treatment and laser surface cladding are among the most well-known heat treatment methods to have
emerged over the past decade.
As the laser energy absorption rate of a material depends on the wavelength of the laser,
at present, the most popular laser sources in the market are direct-diode lasers, carbon dioxide
(CO2 ) lasers, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG) lasers, argon lasers, and ruby
lasers. Direct-diode lasers and Nd:YAG lasers are commonly used in surface heat treatments because
these laser sources typically have high power densities and the energy absorption rates of steel for
these lasers are very high. In particular, the energy absorption rates of AISI 1045 steel for 10.6-µm
Nd:YAG and CO2 lasers are 8% and 40%, respectively. It has thus been shown that Nd:YAG lasers
have an excellent energy consumption-to-cost ratio, which is why we chose to use an Nd:YAG laser in
this study [2].

Materials 2018, 11, 1815; doi:10.3390/ma11101815 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2018, 11, 1815 2 of 21

In 2002, Ganeev experimentally investigated the effectiveness of low-power CO2 lasers in the
multi-track hardening of a steel surface in terms of the hardness of the processed surface and hardening
depth [3]. In 2006, Skvarenina and Shin used experimental and numerical approaches to study surface
hardness and hardening depth in AISI 1536 steels that were processed using a variety of laser quenching
parameters. In addition, they also calculated the laser energy absorption rate of AISI 1536 [4]. In the
following year, Lakhkar et al. employed numerical analysis to investigate how the back-tempered
zone affects hardening depth and surface hardness during multi-track laser hardening in AISI 4140
alloy steel [5]. In 2008, Bailey et al. employed experimental and numerical approaches to study the
residual stresses of laser-hardened AISI 4140 alloy steel workpieces [6]. In the year afterwards, Farrahi
and Sistaninia employed a variety of laser scanning patterns to investigate their effects on the laser
surface hardening of AISI 1036 alloy steel [7].
In 2013, Lambiase et al. combined analysis models with a neural network to investigate the
temperature distributions and transient temperature changes associated with laser surface hardening
processes and to predict the hardness of laser-hardened surfaces [8]. In the same year, Babic et al.
conducted an experimental study on laser surface hardening using a CO2 laser installed on a robotic
arm, in which they investigated the effects of laser overlap on surface hardness [9]. El-Batahgy et al.
used experimental and numerical approaches to investigate the laser surface hardening of AISI M2
high-speed tool steel. The maximum hardness and wear resistance of the laser-hardened specimens
were 23% and 30% higher than that of conventionally heat-treated specimens, respectively. In addition,
their numerical simulations were in good agreement with their experimental results, which proves that
numerical simulations can be used to predict surface temperature, surface hardness, and hardening
depth for a wide range of laser processing parameters [10]. Heitkemper et al. investigated the
mechanical and chemical properties of martensitic high-nitrogen tool steels that had undergone laser
surface heat treatment, and they showed that laser heat treatment improved the wear resistance,
fatigue resistance, and corrosion resistance of these steels [11]. In 2014, Ki et al. proposed a heat-sink
assisted laser hardening process and compared the results of laser hardening with four different heat
sink configurations (using either stainless steel, steel, or copper heat sinks or no heat sink at all).
They showed that the use of heat sinks improves the hardenability of steel sheets and their hardness
values [12]. In the same year, Orazi et al. proposed a laser surface hardening method for cylindrical
workpieces. This method produces a uniform and deep hardened layer across the entire work piece
surface without introducing a tempered zone [13]. Kostov et al. investigated the effects of process
atmosphere on the microstructures and residual stresses that originate from the laser surface hardening
of AISI 4140 steel. They showed that an evacuated or helium-filled atmosphere prevents the formation
of an oxide layer, which is beneficial for laser surface hardening. However, the use of a helium
atmosphere widens the hardened zone and compressively stressed region [14]. Li et al. experimentally
investigated the use of high-power diode lasers (HPDLs) and CO2 lasers for the laser surface hardening
of AISI 1045 medium-carbon steel. The HPDLs had a rectangular beam spot with a uniform energy
distribution, while the CO2 lasers had a circular beam spot with a Gaussian energy distribution. Their
results show that HPDLs are highly effective for surface hardening processes; surface melting was
not observed on the HPDL-treated specimen and the hardness of the hardened layer was practically
constant across its entire profile. Surface melting was observed in the CO2 laser-treated specimen,
which may be due to the laser’s Gaussian energy distribution. Furthermore, the hardness of the
hardened layer in this specimen decreased with depth; the effectiveness of CO2 lasers in surface
hardening processes was therefore deemed less than ideal [15]. In 2016, Liverani et al. used numerical
and experimental approaches to construct a numerical model for the prediction of residual stress
distributions and hardening depth in laser-hardened surfaces [16]. In the same year, Sarkar et al.
investigated the laser surface hardening of low-carbon steel (0.05% and 0.07% C) using high-power
Yb-fiber lasers. They found that the average Vickers hardness of 0.05% C steel was increased from
120 HV to 217 HV, while the average Vickers hardness of 0.07% C steel was increased from 160 HV to
280 HV [17]. Sato et al. proved that laser surface hardening technology is widely applicable for sintered
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 3 of 21

parts [17]. Bouquet et al. developed an integrated laser hardening system that is also equipped with an
ultrasonic-assisted grinding system. This system was then used to conduct a laser hardening study on
C45 medium-carbon steel. In that study, numerical and experimental methods were used to study the
relationship between hardening depth, hardness, temperature, and material melting when laser surface
hardening was performed with different process parameters [18]. This integrated laser hardening
system is also able to perform multiple machining processes on a single workpiece, which reduces
the time used for workpiece clamping and re-alignment, thus improving production efficiency [19].
In 2017, Farshidianfar et al. experimentally investigated the effects of laser scanning speeds and laser
power on the microstructure, surface hardness, and hardening depth of AISI low-carbon steel and
also how these properties correlate with the aforementioned laser parameters [20]. In the same year,
Guarinoa et al. performed an experiment in which diode lasers were used to perform surface hardening
treatments on AISI 1040 medium-carbon steel. In this work, they investigated the effectiveness of laser
heat treatments for hardening material surfaces and the effects of laser process parameters on fatigue
life [21].
As tool steels are typically not prone to quench cracking and have high levels of strength,
ductility, and heat treatment hardness, heat treatments are usually more effective for tool steels
than structural steels. Consequently, tool steels are usually used to fabricate important components,
such as crankshafts, linkages, gears, and cams. It is very challenging to control temperatures in a stable
and reliable manner when hardening treatments are being performed in local sections of a large
surface. To address this issue, we have proposed a finite element analysis model in this work and
experimentally validated its accuracy. The numerical analysis model was then used to numerically
simulate how laser scanning speed, laser power, and laser spot size affect hardening depth, hardening
width, maximum laser spot temperature, and the back-tempering effect in AISI 1045 and AISI 4140
steels. We hope that the predictions of the finite element analysis model enable users to derive optimal
parameters for laser surface heat treatments.

2. Finite Element Analysis Modeling

The numerical analyses of this study were performed using the thermo-elastic-plastic models
of the commercial MSC Marc software suite for finite element analysis. Coupled thermo-mechanical
analysis was used to improve the physical accuracy of our calculations. During each iteration of the
simulation, the actual temperature distribution of the model is acquired and the corresponding strains
and stresses of the model are also calculated. This ensures that the model will, at any point in time,
satisfy all equilibrium equations and convergence conditions. This method of numerical analysis
produces results that are more accurate than uncoupled thermomechanical methods. To ensure
a reasonable level of computational efficiency, a partial workpiece was selected, as shown in Figure 1.
The mechanical properties of AISI 1045 [22] and AISI 4140 [23,24] steels are shown in Table 1.
The changes in Young’s modulus, conductivity, and specific heat of these materials for changes in
temperatures are shown in Figures 2 and 3 Based on the existing literature, the hardening and melting
temperatures of AISI 1045 are 760 ◦ C and 1520 ◦ C, while the hardening and melting temperatures of
AISI 4140 are 850 ◦ C and 1410 ◦ C, respectively. These temperature ranges were used to determine
whether a material was successfully hardened. On the boundary condition setting, it is assumed that
the laser energy is focused on the surface of the material. The initial temperature of the material was
set to 25 ◦ C, and the temperature of the material was reduced to room temperature in consideration
of the natural heat convection effect of the air, and the heat convection coefficient was assumed to be
12.6 W/m2 ·◦ C.
Materials 2018,
Materials 11,11,
2018, 1815
x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of421
of 21
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

Figure 1. Proposed laser heat treatment model.

Figure1.1.Proposed
Figure Proposed laser
laser heat treatment
treatment model.
model.
Table1.
Table 1. Basic
Basic material
material properties.
properties.
Table 1. Basic material properties.
Property AISI 1045 AISI 4140
Property3
Property AISI
AISI 10451045 AISI4140
AISI 4140
Density (Kg/m ) 7870 7850
3
Thermal Density
Density(Kg/m ) ) 7870 7850
3
(Kg/m
Conductivity (W/m·°C) Figure7870
2 78503
Figure
Thermal
Thermal Conductivity
Conductivity
Specific Heat (J/Kg·°C)(W/m·◦ C)
(W/m·°C) Figure 22 2
Figure
Figure Figure
Figure333
Figure
Specific Heat
Heat(J/Kg·°C)
SpecificModulus
Young’s (J/Kg
(GPa) ·◦ C) Figure 22 2
Figure
Figure Figure
Figure333
Figure
Young’s
Young’s Modulus
Modulus
Yield Strength (GPa)
(GPa)
(MPa) Figure
Figure
310 2 2 Figure
415 33
Figure
YieldStrength
Yield Strength
CTE (MPa)(MPa) 310310 415
415
CTE
CTE 15 15
(Coefficient of Thermal Expension) (μm/m·°C)◦ 15 15 15
15
(Coefficient of Thermal
(Coefficient of Thermal Expension)
Expension)
Poisson’s Ratio (µm/m
(μm/m·°C) · C) 0.27 0.3
Poisson’sRatio
Ratio 0.27 0.3
HardeningPoisson’s
Temperature T h (°C) 0.27
760 0.3
850
Hardening
Hardening Temperature
Temperature (◦ C)
T hTh(°C) 760
760 850
850
Melting
MeltingTemperature
Temperature T mTm(°C)(◦ C) 15201520 1410
1410
Melting Temperature T m (°C)◦ 1520 1410
Tempering
Tempering Temperature
Temperature Tt T(°C)
t ( C) 400400 400
400
Tempering Temperature Tt (°C) 400 400
240 50
240 50
E(GPa)

°C)°C)

200
E(GPa)

k (W/m-

200 40
k (W/m-

40
Modulus,

160
Modulus,

160 30
Conductivity,

120 30
Conductivity,

120
Young's

20
80
Young's

20
80
40 10
40 0 400 800 1200 1600 10 0 400 800 1200 1600
0 400 800 (°C) 1200
Temperature 1600 0 400 800 (°C) 1200
Temperature 1600
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
1050
1050
°C)°C)

900
Cp(J/kg-

900
Cp(J/kg-

750
Heat,

750
Heat,
Specific

600
Specific

600
450
450 0 400 800 1200 1600
0 400 800 (°C) 1200
Temperature 1600
Temperature (°C)
(c)
(c)
Figure 2. The temperature depenent material properties of AISI 1045. (a) Young’s modulus;
(b) Coefficient of thermal conductivity; and (c) Specific heat.
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 21

Figure 2. The temperature depenent material properties of AISI 1045. (a) Young’s modulus; (b)
Materials 2018, 11, 1815
Coefficient of thermal conductivity; and (c) Specific heat. 5 of 21

210 50

Young's Modulus, E (Gpa)

Conductivity, k (W/m-°C)
180 45

150 40

120 35

90 30

60 25
0 400 800 1200 1600 0 400 800 1200 1600
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
(a) (b)
900
Specific Heat, Cp(J/kg-°C)

800

700

600

500

400
0 400 800 1200 1600
Temperature (°C)
(c)
The temperature
Figure 3. The
Figure temperature dependent
dependent material
material properties
properties of AISI 4140. (a) Young’s
4140. (a) Young’s modulus;
modulus;
(b) Coefficient of thermal conductivity; and (c) Specific heat.

2.1. Construction
2.1. Construction of of the
the Thermal
Thermal Source
Source Models
Models
There are
There are many
manyways waystotoassume
assume the distribution
the distributionof heat sources.
of heat For For
sources. example, Lostado
example, LorzaLorza
Lostado used
the Double Ellipsoidal Weld Flux setting to describe the GMAW (Gas Matal
used the Double Ellipsoidal Weld Flux setting to describe the GMAW (Gas Matal Arc Welding) heatArc Welding) heat source
distribution
source [25,26].[25,26].
distribution The laser
Thesource used inused
laser source this in
study
this was
studyanwas
Nd:YAG laser, and
an Nd:YAG theand
laser, heatthe
source
heat
distribution of the laser was set to transverse electromagnetic mode 00 (TEM 00
source distribution of the laser was set to transverse electromagnetic mode 00 (TEM00) [27], which ) [27], which is one of
is
the most common laser modes, as shown in Figure 4. This distribution is somewhat
one of the most common laser modes, as shown in Figure 4. This distribution is somewhat different different from
that ofthat
from conventional welding
of conventional heat sources,
welding which which
heat sources, usuallyusually
have a have
bi-elliptical distribution.
a bi-elliptical The TEM
distribution. 00
The
distribution is characterized by high power densities at the center of the light source,
TEM00 distribution is characterized by high power densities at the center of the light source, which which gradually
decreases asdecreases
gradually the distanceas from the centerfrom
the distance increases;
the this
centeris typical of Gaussian
increases; this isdistributions.
typical of Gaussian
The power
distributions. density of a TEM 00 laser may be expressed as:
The power density of a TEM00 laser may be expressed as:
Ee (re ) = Pi · Φ(re ), (1)
E (r ) = Pi ⋅Φ(re ) , (1)
where re is the distance from the center pointe ofe the laser spot (laser focal spot radius is 0.5 mm), Pi is
the magnitude
where re is the of the laser
distance power,
from and Φ point
the center is the of
Gaussian distribution
the laser spot (laserfunction.
focal spot radius is 0.5 mm),
The one-dimensional Gaussian distribution function is:
Pi is the magnitude of the laser power, and Φ is the Gaussian distribution function.
The one-dimensional Gaussian distribution function is: 2
1 re
Φ (r e ) = √ exp(− 2 ), (2)
1
2πs 2sr 2
Φ(re ) = exp(− 2 ) , e
(2)
where s is the standard deviation. 2π s 2s
As the Gaussian distribution is a probability function, it satisfies:
where s is the standard deviation.
As the Gaussian distribution is a probability function, it satisfies:
Z
0.5
0 Φ (re ) dre = 1, (3)
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 6 of 21

A two-dimensional Gaussian distribution may be obtained by rotating the 2D Gaussian

distribution by 360◦ , which gives:

1 re 2
Φ (r e ) = exp (− ). (4)
2πs2 2s2
This also satisfies: Z
2π
0 Φ (re )re dre dθ = 1. (5)

Based on the findings of Zacharia [28–30], the radius of the spot size, Re , may be defined as the
area covered by 95% of the laser power. This may be expressed as:

1 − re 22
Z 2π Z Re
e 2s re dre dθ = 0.95. (6)
0 0 2πs2

The following relation may then be derived from Equation (6):

Re Re
s= p ≈ √ , (7)
2 ln(20) 6

By substituting Equation (7) into Equation (4), Equation (1) may be re-written as:

3Pi 3re 2
Ee (re ) = exp (− ), (8)
πRe 2 Re 2

As the vast majority of materials cannot fully absorb the energy provided by the laser, it is
necessary to account for the laser energy absorption rate of the material used, η e . Based on the data
provided by Dekock [31], η e was defined as 40%. The energy absorption of a material, Pe , may then be
expressed as:
3Pi 3re 2
Pe = ηe · exp (− ), (9)
πRe 2 Re 2
The mathematical function for Pe was written in the Fortran programming language. Using the
subroutine flux interface provided by the boundary conditions function in MSC Marc, the numerical
values calculated using the Fortran code were subsequently fed into MSC Marc to be used in subsequent
calculations [32]. These calculations are as follows: In each time step, the Flux subroutine is called
during each Gaussian integration point of the analysis with the appropriate flux type being specified
in the DIST FLUXES input option, where the flux type is chosen according to the element type.
The equivalent heat flux obtained from the mathematical function of Pe at each node is then calculated
and stored.
Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 21

Figure 4.
Figure Heat source
4. Heat source distributions
distributions of
of various
various transverse
transverse electromagnetic
electromagnetic modes
modes (TEM)
(TEM) [25].
[25].

2.2. FE Model for Single-Track Laser Heat Treatment

The hardened layer width and depth determination is represented by a color matching
temperature gradient, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The temperature is indicated above white at 760
°C represents that the temperature in this area has reached the quenching temperature.
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 7 of 21
Figure 4. Heat source distributions of various transverse electromagnetic modes (TEM) [25].

2.2.
2.2. FE
FE Model
Model for
for Single-Track
Single-Track Laser
Laser Heat
Heat Treatment
Treatment
The
The hardened
hardened layerlayer width
width andand depth
depth determination
determination is is represented
represented by by aa color
color matching
matching
temperature gradient, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The temperature
temperature gradient, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The temperature is indicated above white is indicated above white at
at 760
760 ◦ C represents
°C represents thatthat the temperature
the temperature in this
in this areaarea
has has reached
reached the the quenching
quenching temperature.
temperature.
Due
Due to
to the
the local
local heating
heating of of the
the material
material by by YAG
YAG laser,
laser, the
the internal
internal temperature
temperature gradient
gradient ofof the
the
material is extremely narrow. During the calculation progress, when the analysis
material is extremely narrow. During the calculation progress, when the analysis data diverges, the data diverges,
the
mesh mesh
willwill be partially
be partially refined.
refined. UsingUsing
the the element
element remesh
remesh to refine
to refine thethe heat
heat affected
affected zone
zone range
range to
to improve data accuracy. The number of elements cannot be re-refined indefinitely.
improve data accuracy. The number of elements cannot be re-refined indefinitely. To increase the To increase the
efficiency
efficiency ofofthe
thecalculation,
calculation,the themesh
mesh convergence
convergence analysis is shown
analysis is shown in Figure 7. The
in Figure results
7. The showshow
results that
when the number
that when of meshes
the number reachesreaches
of meshes 17,000 or more,or
17,000 themore,
values theof values
the highest temperature,
of the hardening
highest temperature,
width and depth of the hardened layer of the material are close to being stable.
hardening width and depth of the hardened layer of the material are close to being stable. Therefore,Therefore, the number
of
themesh cutsof
number analyzed
mesh cutsin the future in
analyzed is the
divided
futureinto more than
is divided into17,000
moremeshes.
than 17,000 meshes.

Figure 5.
Figure 5. Example
Example of of the
the hardening
hardening width
width (W
(Whh)) and
and maximum
maximum spot
spot temperature
temperature (T
(Tcc)) caused
caused by
by the
the
application
Materials of
2018, 11, xof
application a
FOR laser heat
PEERheat
a laser source.
REVIEW
source. 8 of 21

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Example
Example of
of the
the hardening
hardening depth
depth (D
(Dhh)) caused
caused by
by the
the application
application of
of aa laser
laser heat
heat source.
source.

850 15.2
15.0
idth (mm)

825 14.8
ture (℃)

14.6
800
14.4
14.2
 Materials 2018, 11, 1815 8 of 21
Figure 6. Example of the hardening depth (Dh) caused by the application of a laser heat source.

850 15.2
15.0

Hardening Width (mm)

825 14.8
Temperature (℃)

14.6
800
14.4
14.2
775
14.0
750 13.8
13.6
725 13.4
13.2
700 13.0
0 16000 32000 48000 64000 80000 0 16000 32000 48000 64000 80000
Number of Elements Number of Elements
(a) (b)
90

80
Hardening Depth (μm)

70

60

50

40

30

20
0 16000 32000 48000 64000 80000
Number of Elements
(c)
Figure
Figure7.7. (a) Convergence analysis
(a) Convergence analysiswith
withtemperature;
temperature;
(b)(b) Convergence
Convergence analysis
analysis with with hardening
hardening width;
width;
and (c)and (c) Convergence
Convergence analysis
analysis with hardening
with hardening depth.depth.

TheFE
The FEmodel
modelthat thatisisbeing
beingsubjected
subjectedtotosingle-track
single-tracklaser
laserheat
heattreatment
treatmentisisshown
shownininFigure
Figure1.1.
The heat treatment track is 80-mm long, and P is the distance from the initial
The heat treatment track is 80-mm long, and Ps sis the distance from the initial position of the position of theheat
heat
treatmenttrack.
treatment track. In
In this
this work, the maximum
maximumtemperature
temperatureofofthethelaser
laserspot, TcT
spot, , was computed
c, was computed using
usingthe
MSC
the MSCMarc database
Marc databasefor temperatures at the at
for temperatures center of Gaussian
the center lasers, aslasers,
of Gaussian shownasinshown
Figure in
1. Hardening
Figure 1.
widths andwidths
Hardening depthsand were deduced
depths werefrom the temperature
deduced distributions
from the temperature of the MSCofMarc
distributions output
the MSC files
Marc
based files
on the previously defined heat treatment ◦ ◦
output based on the previously defined heat temperatures (760 C for(760
treatment temperatures AISI °C1045 and 850
for AISI 1045 Candfor
AISI°C4140).
850 The hardening
for AISI 4140). Thewidths and depths
hardening widthswereand then extracted
depths and calculated
were then extracted in succession
and calculatedusing
in
geometric scale measurements. Figure 5 shows an example calculation of hardening width using this
approach, while Figure 6 shows an example calculation of hardening depth. In the heat treatment of
medium carbon steel, when the temperature reaches 760 degrees or more, it will rapidly cool, and the
hardness of the surface of the material will increase greatly. Therefore, in this paper, the temperature
distribution after finite element analysis is used to determine the region with a temperature higher
than 760 degrees as the hardened region. The white area shown in Figures 5 and 6 is the hardened area.

2.3. Experimental Setup

During the experiment, the laser lens and cooling water are set beside the CNC spindle, as shown
in Figure 8a. A 1064-nm YAG laser with a maximum power of 1200 W was used in the experiment.
During the laser scanning experiment, thermocouples were used to acquire the temperature data of
the scanned tracks. The workpiece setup and thermocouples arrangement is shown in Figure 8b.
 During the experiment, the laser lens and cooling water are set beside the CNC spindle, as
shown in Figure 8a. A 1064-nm YAG laser with a maximum power of 1200 W was used in the
experiment. During the laser scanning experiment, thermocouples were used to acquire the
temperature data of the scanned tracks. The workpiece setup and thermocouples arrangement
Materials 2018, 11, 1815
is
9 of 21
shown in Figure 8b.

(a)

(b)

Figure 8. Experimental setup. (a) The arrangement of laser, workpiece and thermal couple; (b) Setup
thermocouples on the workpiece and quenching tracks.

The dimensions of the AISI 1045 medium-carbon specimen used in this experiment were
210 mm × 170 mm × 6 mm. To simplify numerical calculations with different scanning speeds,
various laser powers were used (ranging from 100 W up to 250 W), and the scanning speeds of the laser
varied between 10 mm/s and 250 mm/s. The diameter of the laser spot was 1 mm. The thermocouple is
welded at a distance of 1–1.5 mm from the center of the weld bead, as shown in Figure 8b. The Vickers
hardness testing instruments was used to measure the surface hardness via laser heating during the
hardness measurement experiment.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Results of Finite Element Analysis and Experimental Results

The results obtained with the thermo-mechanical model proposed in this study for the analysis
of laser quenching temperature fields was compared with our experimental results. We found
3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Results of Finite Element Analysis and Experimental Results

The
Materials results
2018, obtained
11, 1815 with the thermo-mechanical model proposed in this study for the analysis 10 of 21
of laser quenching temperature fields was compared with our experimental results. We found that
the predicted temperature variation curves are largely consistent with the experimental data. As
that
therethe
is predicted
a 1–1.5 mm temperature
gap between variation curves are points
the measurement largelyand
consistent with thetracks,
the hardening experimental
the measureddata.
As there is a 1–1.5 mm gap between the measurement points and the hardening
temperature data actually corresponds to the surrounding temperature of the hardening tracks. tracks, the measured
temperature
Hence, the datamaximumactuallymeasured
corresponds to the surrounding
temperatures will be temperature
slightly lower of the
thanhardening
the actualtracks.
Tc. Hence,
This is
the maximum measured temperatures will be slightly lower than the actual T
clearly reflected in Figure 9. According to the temperature variation curves, temperature decreasesc . This is clearly reflected
in
asFigure 9. According
the scanning to the temperature
speed increases if the laservariation
power is curves, temperature
fixed. Therefore, we decreases
can infer that as the Tc scanning
decreases
speed
as theincreases
scanningif speed
the laser power isInfixed.
increases. FigureTherefore, we can
9, the main infer
error the Tfinite
inthat c decreases
element as the scanning
analysis and
speed increases.
experimental In Figure 9,comparison
temperature the main error in the finite
is derived from element analysis
the distance and experimental
between the sampling temperature
point and
comparison
the highest is derived from
temperature. thedistance
The distanceon between the sampling
the finite element mesh pointmodel
and the canhighest temperature.
be defined by the
The
length of the grid and the highest temperature distance, fixed at 1.5 mm. It is extremelythe
distance on the finite element mesh model can be defined by the length of the grid and highest
difficult to
temperature
keep it fixeddistance, fixed at 1.5 mm.
on the measurement. As It
theis thermocouple
extremely difficult
has ato0.5 keep
mmit error
fixed with
on the themeasurement.
centerline of
As
thethe thermocouple
weld bead when haswelding
a 0.5 mm theerror
testwith the As
piece. centerline
the heatof the weld bead
affected zone when of thewelding
laser andthe test
the
piece. As the heat affected zone of the laser and the temperature distribution
temperature distribution gradient is extremely narrow, small changes in the position of the gradient is extremely
narrow, small changes
thermocouple will affectin the
the position
results ofofthe
thecomparison.
thermocouple will affect the results of the comparison.

Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure9.9. The
Figure The temperature
temperature comparison
comparison of of experimant
experimant ande
ande FEA.
FEA. (a)
(a) PP== 100
100W,
W,Speed
Speed==1010mm/s;
mm/s;
(b) P = 100
(b) P = 100 W, Speed = 20 mm/s; (c) P = 250 W, Speed = 30 mm/s; and (d) P = 250 W, Speed = 50 mm/s.
mm/s; (c) P = 250 W, Speed = 30 mm/s; and (d) P = 250 W, Speed = 50 mm/s.

From
FromTable
Table2,2,ititcan
canbebeseen
seenthat
thatthethe
average hardness
average hardnessof the untreated
of the material
untreated (No.(No.
material 1) is1) 213
is HV.
213
In experiments
HV. No. No.
In experiments 2, 4,2,7,4,and 8, the
7, and surface
8, the hardness
surface hardness increased
increasedbybymore
morethan
than45%.
45%.Based
Based on on
Experiments
Experiments 8–12,
8–12, increases
increases in in the
the scanning
scanning speed
speed lead
lead to
to decreases
decreases in
in surface
surface hardness
hardness ifif the
the laser
laser
power
powerwas fixed.
was Similar
fixed. resultsresults
Similar were obtained with otherwith
were obtained laser other
power-scanning speed combinations.
laser power-scanning speed
Hence, laser power
combinations. and laser
Hence, scanning speed
power andarescanning
the most important
speed arefactors for determining
the most important quenching
factors for
temperature.
determining The surface hardness
quenching that were
temperature. Theobtained
surfaceusing the aforementioned
hardness that were combinations
obtained using of laser
the
parameters are shown
aforementioned in Table 2.
combinations of laser parameters are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Hardnesses obtained for different combinations of laser parameters.

No. Laser Power (W) Laser Scanning Speed (mm/s) Average Hardness (HV) Increase in Hardness (%)
1 0 0 213 0
2 100 10 472 55
3 100 20 303 30
4 125 10 390 45
5 125 30 286 26
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 11 of 21

Table 2. Hardnesses obtained for different combinations of laser parameters.

No. Laser Power (W) Laser Scanning Speed (mm/s) Average Hardness (HV) Increase in Hardness (%)
1 0 0 213 0
2 100 10 472 55
3 100 20 303 30
4 125 10 390 45
5 125 30 286 26
6 200 30 286 26
7 200 50 385 45
8 250 30 397 46
9 250 50 301 29
10 250 100 298 29
11 250 200 297 28
12 250 250 269 21

3.2. Discussion of Parameters

The experimental results indicate that laser power and scanning speed are the most important
factors for determining quenching temperature. In the following sections, the analytical model was
used to perform an in-depth investigation on the effects of laser power, laser scanning speed, and laser
spot size on the hardening thickness, hardening width, Tc , and back-tempering effect on AISI 1045
medium-carbon steel and AISI 4140 alloy steel.

3.2.1. Laser Power

The laser hardening of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 was simulated to observe the effects of using
different laser powers on these systems. Three laser scanning speeds (1 mm/s, 8 mm/s and 16 mm/s)
were used in these simulations, while the diameter of the laser spot was set to 3 mm. Figure 10
illustrates the laser-induced temperature distribution profiles in AISI 4140 and AISI 1045 steels for
different laser powers and a laser scanning speed of 8 mm/s. The grey regions in these figures
correspond to regions where melting occurred and it is shown that when Pi = 450 W, the melting zone
is larger in AISI 1045 than in AISI 4140.
Given a constant laser scanning speed, the heat flux of each unit area increases with laser power,
and the maximum spot temperature (Tc ) is also positively correlated with laser power. In Figure 11a,
it is shown that Tc increases in proportion with laser power in AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 for all three
scanning speeds. However, the temperature trends of each material are different: The temperature
of AISI 1045 increases exponentially as the laser power increases, whereas the temperature of AISI
4140 increases linearly as the laser power increases. This could be caused by differences in the heat
transfer coefficients of these materials. We then observed the temperatures of the materials when the
laser power was varied between 300 W and 400 W for a scanning speed of 8 mm/s. Each additional 1
W of power increased the temperatures of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 by 5.8 ◦ C and 3.91 ◦ C on average,
respectively. Hence, the Tc of AISI 1045 is more sensitive to increases in power compared with that of
AISI 4140. In terms of the relationship between laser power and melting point, we found that AISI
1045 melted when the laser power ranged between 390 W and 410 W, while AISI 4140 melted when
the laser power ranged between 410 W and 420 W.
We then observed the effects of laser power on the hardening width (Wh ) in AISI 4140 and AISI
1045. In Figure 11b, it is shown that the hardening widths of both materials increase with power
in a non-linear quadratic fashion. When the laser scanning speed was 8 mm/s and the laser power
was 350 W, hardening widths of 1.246 mm and 1.075 mm were obtained in AISI 1045 and AISI 4140,
respectively. Hence, given the same processing conditions, AISI 1045 will yield a larger hardening
width than AISI 4140; this difference could help to save energy. When the laser power was varied
between 300 W and 400 W with a scanning speed of 8 mm/s, each additional 1 W of laser power
increased the hardening widths of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 by 0.06 mm and 0.083 mm, respectively.
 Materials 2018, 11, 1815 12 of 21

This indicates that AISI 4140 is more sensitive to increases in power than AISI 1045 in terms of the
hardening width when the same laser scanning speed is used.
Finally, we inspected the effects of laser power on hardening depth (Dh ) in AISI 1045 and AISI
4140. In Figure 11c, it is shown that the hardening depths of both materials increases linearly with
laser power. When the power of the laser was set to 350 W at a scanning speed of 8 mm/s, we found
that the corresponding hardening depths of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 were 0.217 mm and 0.161 mm,
respectively. In other words, provided the same processing conditions are met, AISI 1045 will have
a greater hardening depth than AISI 4140, thus making the former better suited for mechanical parts
that undergo long periods of wear. When the laser power was varied between 300 W and 400 W with
a scanning speed of 8 mm/s, we found that each additional 1 W of power increased the hardening
depths of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 by 0.02 mm and 0.017 mm, respectively, which is the opposite of the
trend that was observed for the hardening width. Hence, given the same laser scanning speed, AISI
1045
Materials is more
2018, sensitive
11, x FOR PEER to increases in laser power than AISI 4140 in terms of hardening depth.
REVIEW 13 of 21

Figure 10. Temperature distribution profiles induced by different laser powers during single-track
Figure 10. Temperature distribution profiles induced by different laser powers during single-track
laser heat treatment. (a) AISI 1045, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 250 W; (b) AISI 4140, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 250 W;
laser heat treatment. (a) AISI 1045, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 250 W; (b) AISI 4140, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 250 W;
(c) AISI 1045, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (d) AISI 4140, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (e) AISI 1045,
(c) AISI
Vi = 1045,
8 mm/s,Vi P= =8 450
mm/s, Pi (f)
W; and = 350
AISI W; (d)
4140, Vi AISI 4140,PV=i 450
= 8 mm/s, = 8 W.
mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (e) AISI 1045,
i i
Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 450 W; and (f) AISI 4140, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 450 W.

2500 1045,Vi=1mm/s 1045,Vi=8mm/s 1045,Vi=16mm/s

2.5 1045,Vi=1mm/s 1045,Vi=8mm/s 1045,Vi=16mm/s
Center Temperature, Tc (°C)

Hardening Width, Wh (mm)

4140,Vi=1mm/s 4140,Vi=8mm/s 4140,Vi=16mm/s 4140,Vi=1mm/s 4140,Vi=8mm/s 4140,Vi=16mm/s

2.0
2000
1.5
1500
1.0
1000 0.5

500 0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600
Laser Power, Pi(W) Laser Power, Pi (W)
 Figure 10. Temperature distribution profiles induced by different laser powers during single-track
laser heat treatment. (a) AISI 1045, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 250 W; (b) AISI 4140, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 250 W;
(c) AISI 1045, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (d) AISI 4140, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (e) AISI 1045,
Vi = 82018,
Materials mm/s, Pi = 450 W; and (f) AISI 4140, Vi = 8 mm/s, Pi = 450 W.
11, 1815 13 of 21

2500 1045,Vi=1mm/s 1045,Vi=8mm/s 1045,Vi=16mm/s

2.5 1045,Vi=1mm/s 1045,Vi=8mm/s 1045,Vi=16mm/s
Center Temperature, Tc (°C)

Hardening Width, Wh (mm)

4140,Vi=1mm/s 4140,Vi=8mm/s 4140,Vi=16mm/s 4140,Vi=1mm/s 4140,Vi=8mm/s 4140,Vi=16mm/s
2.0
2000
1.5
1500
1.0
1000 0.5

500 0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600 100 200 300 400 500 600
Laser Power, Pi(W) Laser Power, Pi (W)
(a) (b)

(c)

Figure
Figure Single-track laser
11.Single-track
11. laser heat
heattreatment.
treatment.(a)(a)
Relationship between
Relationship power
between and center
power temperature
and center temperature
(Tc); (b) Relationship between laser power and hardening width; and (c) Relationship
(Tc); (b) Relationship between laser power and hardening width; and (c) Relationship between between
hardeningdepth
hardening depthand
and laser
laser power.
power.
3.2.2. Laser Scanning Speed
The effects of laser scanning speed on steel materials were simulated and the results are presented
in this section. The laser powers used in these simulations were 200 W, 350 W, and 500 W, while the
spot diameter was set to 3 mm. The temperature distributions of both aforementioned steels, when
a laser power of 350 W was used, are shown in Figure 12. In that figure, it is shown that increases in
scanning speed exacerbate the hysteresis of the temperature field distribution and narrow the width of
the temperature field.
Given the same laser power, an increase in scanning speed decreases the heat flux received by
a unit area in each unit of time; hence, the temperature of the material should correlate negatively
with scanning speed. In Figure 13a, it is shown that a very large range of laser scanning speeds
(Vi ) is required to maintain Tc within the range of heat treatment temperatures for AISI 1045 and
AISI 4140 with the three aforementioned laser powers. In AISI 1045, scanning speeds of 0.25 mm/s
and 1.25 mm/s led to temperatures of 1593 ◦ C and 873 ◦ C, respectively, when the laser power (Pi )
was 200 W. Given a laser power of 500 W, Tc was 1588 ◦ C when the scanning speed was 22 mm/s,
but the latter had to be increased up to 70 mm/s to produce a Tc of 873 ◦ C. Similar trends were
observed for AISI 4140. Hence, in the planning of laser heat treatment parameters, laser power plays
an important role in determining the maximum temperatures of the heat treatment process and also
the laser scanning speeds that are necessary for this process. We then observed the temperatures of
AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 when the laser scanning speed was varied between 10 mm/s and 20 mm/s
with a laser power of 350 W. We found that each additional 1 mm/s of scanning speed decreased the
temperature of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 by an average of 24.8 ◦ C and 18.1 ◦ C, respectively. AISI 1045 is
therefore more sensitive to scanning speed than AISI 4140 in terms of Tc .
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 14 of 21

In the next step, we observed the effects of laser scanning speed on hardening width (Wh ).
In Figure 13b, it can be seen that the hardening width of both materials decreased quadratically as
the scanning speed increased. Given a laser power of 350 W, a hardening width of 1 mm can be
achieved in AISI 1045 with a scanning speed of 15 mm/s, whereas a scanning speed of 10 mm/s is
required to achieve the same hardening width in AISI 4140. Therefore, the same hardening width can
be achieved more quickly in AISI 1045 than in AISI 4140, which significantly shortens processing times.
Finally, we observed the changes in hardening width that accompanies the variation of scanning speed
between 10 mm/s and 20 mm/s with a laser power of 350 W. Each additional 1 mm/s in scanning
speed reduced the hardening widths of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 by 0.048 mm and 0.058 mm on average,
respectively. Hence, given the same laser power, AISI 4140 is more sensitive to scanning speed than
AISI 1045 in terms of hardening width.
We then observed the effects of laser scanning speed on the hardening depths (Dh ) of these
materials. In Figure 13c, it is shown that the hardening depth of both materials decreases
logarithmically as the laser scanning speed increases. It is also shown that the same hardening
depth can be achieved with higher scanning speeds in AISI 1045 than in AISI 4140 (using the same
laser power). Based on the data for AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 that was obtained using three different
laser powers, we found that greater hardening depths can be achieved with lower laser powers and
scanning speeds if the hardening process is constrained to temperatures for which material melting
does not occur. In AISI 1045, a laser power of 200 W with a scanning speed of 0.28125 mm/s leads to
a Tc of 1487 ◦ C and a Dh of 0.683 mm, while a laser power of 350 W and a scanning speed of 5 mm/s
produces a Tc of 1492 ◦ C and a Dh of 0.315 mm; the hardening depth of the latter is less than half of
the former. When the scanning speed of the laser was varied between 10 mm/s and 20 mm/s with
a power of 350 W, each additional 1 mm/s in scanning speed decreased the hardening depths of AISI
1045 and AISI 4140 by 0.011 mm and 0.008 mm, respectively. AISI 1045 is therefore more sensitive to
laser scanning speed than AISI 4140—in terms of hardening depth.
Figure 14a–c describe how scanning position (Ps ) is related to temperature, hardening width,
and hardening depth, respectively. In Figure 14a, it is shown that heterogeneities in temperature occurs
with changes in scanning position in both materials when the laser power is 200 W and low scanning
speeds are used. When the scanning speed was 0.5 mm/s, the Tc of AISI 1045 at Ps = 80 mm was 43%
higher than the corresponding Tc at Ps = 20 mm. In AISI 4140, the Tc at Ps = 80 mm was higher than that
at Ps = 20 mm by 33%; heterogeneities in temperature are therefore quite pronounced in these cases.
Upon further inspection, Figure 14b,c shows that the Wh and Dh of the materials become heterogeneous
with changes in the scanning position. This may be caused by low scanning speeds, which leads
to large accumulations of energy that cannot be dissipated via heat transfer or convection. Hence,
low laser power and low scanning speed is the worst possible combination of laser heat treatment
parameters in terms of temperature uniformity.
pronounced
scanning in these which
speeds, cases. Upon further
leads to large inspection, Figure
accumulations 14b,c shows
of energy that the
that cannot beWdissipated
h and Dh of the
via heat
materials become heterogeneous with changes in the scanning position. This may
transfer or convection. Hence, low laser power and low scanning speed is the worst possiblebe caused by low
scanning speeds,ofwhich
combination leads
laser heat to large parameters
treatment accumulations of energy
in terms that cannot
of temperature be dissipated via heat
uniformity.
transfer or convection. Hence, low laser power and low scanning speed is the worst possible
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 15 of 21
combination of laser heat treatment parameters in terms of temperature uniformity.

Figure 12. Temperature distributions induced by different scanning speeds during single-track laser
heat treatment. (a) AISI 1045, Vi = 10 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (b) AISI 4140, Vi = 10 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (c)
Figure 12. Temperature
FigureTemperature distributions inducedby bydifferent
different scanning speeds during single-track laser
AISI12. distributions
1045, Vi = 25 mm/s, Pi = 350 induced
W; (d) AISI 4140, Vi =scanning
25 mm/s,speeds during
Pi = 350 single-track
W; (e) AISI 1045,laser
Vi = 40
heat treatment. (a) AISI 1045, Vi = 10 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (b) AISI 4140, Vi = 10 mm/s, Pi = 350 W;
heatmm/s,
treatment. (a)W;
Pi = 350 AISI
and1045, Vi =4140,
(f) AISI 10 mm/s, Pi mm/s,
Vi = 40 = 350 W;Pi =(b)
350AISI
W. 4140, Vi = 10 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (c)
(c) AISI 1045, Vi = 25 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (d) AISI 4140, Vi = 25 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (e) AISI 1045,
AISI 1045, Vi = 25 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (d) AISI 4140, Vi = 25 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; (e) AISI 1045, Vi = 40
Vi = 40 mm/s, Pi = 350 W; and (f) AISI 4140, Vi = 40 mm/s, Pi = 350 W.
mm/s, Pi = 350 W; and (f) AISI 4140, Vi = 40 mm/s, Pi = 350 W.
2000 1045,Pi=200W 1045,Pi=350W 1045,Pi=500W
3.0
1045,Pi=200W 1045,Pi=350W 1045,Pi=500W
Center Temperature, Tc (°C)

Hardening Width, Wh (mm)

4140,Pi=200W 4140,Pi=350W 4140,Pi=500W 4140,Pi=200W 4140,Pi=350W 4140,Pi=500W

1800 2.5
2000 3.0
1600 1045,P =200W 1045,P =350W 1045,P =500W
i i i 1045,Pi=200W 1045,Pi=350W 1045,Pi=500W
Center Temperature, Tc (°C)

2.0
Hardening Width, Wh (mm)

4140,P =200W 4140,P =350W 4140,P =500W 4140,Pi=200W 4140,Pi=350W 4140,Pi=500W

1800 i i
2.5
i

1400
1600 1.5
1200 2.0
1400 1.0
1000 1.5
1200 0.5
800
1.0
1000
600 0.0
800 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0.5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Scanning Speed, Vi (mm/s) Scanning Speed, Vi (mm/s)
600 0.0
0 20 40 60(a) 80 100 120 0 20 40 (b) 60 80 100
Scanning Speed, Vi (mm/s) Scanning Speed, Vi (mm/s)
Figure 13. Cont.
(a) (b)
Materials 2018,
Materials 11,11,x11,
2018,
Materials 2018, FOR
1815 PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 16 of of 16
16 21 21 of 21

1.01.0 1045,P =200W

1045,P =200W 1045,P =350W
1045,Pii=350W 1045,P
1045,P =500W
=500W
i i i i

Hardening Depth, Dh (mm)

Hardening Depth, Dh (mm)
4140,P
4140,P =200W
=200W 4140,Pi=350W
4140,P =350W 4140,P
4140,P =500W
=500W
i i i i i

0.80.8

0.60.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.0
0.0 0 20 40 60 80 100
0 Scanning40Speed, V
20 60i (mm/s)80 100
Scanning Speed,
(c) Vi (mm/s)
(c)
Figure 13. (a) Relationship between scanning speed and temperature during single-track laser heat
Figuretreatment;
Figure 13.13.(a) (b) relationship
(a)Relationship
Relationship between
between
between scanning
scanning
scanning speed
speed
speed andand
and hardening
temperature
temperature width during
during
during single-track
single-track
single-track laser heat
laser
laser heat
heat
treatment; treatment;
(b) and
relationship (c) relationship
between scanningbetween
speed andscanning
hardeningspeed
widthand hardening
during depth
single-track
treatment; (b) relationship between scanning speed and hardening width during single-track laser laser during
heat
heat single-track
treatment; and laser
treatment; (c)andheat
(c)treatment.
relationship between scanning
relationship speed
between and hardening
scanning speeddepth
andduring single-track
hardening depthlaserduring
heat treatment.
single-track laser heat treatment.
1600 1045,Vi=0.5mm/s
3.0 1045,Vi=0.5mm/s
Center Temperature, TC (°C)

1500 1045,Vi=0.75mm/s Wh (mm) 1045,Vi=0.75mm/s

1045,Vi=1mm/s 2.5 1045,Vi=1mm/s
1600 14001045,V =0.5mm/s
1045,V =1.25mm/s i
3.0 1045,Vi=1.25mm/s
1045,V =0.5mm/s
Center Temperature, TC (°C)

i i
4140,Vi=0.5mm/s 4140,Vi=0.5mm/s
(mm)

1500 13001045,V =1mm/s

4140,V =0.75mm/s
1045,Vi=0.75mm/s 2.0 1045,V =0.75mm/s
4140,Vi=0.75mm/s
i
i
2.5 1045,V =1mm/s
Width,

i 4140,Vi=1mm/s 4140,Vi
=1mm/s
i

1400 12004140,V =0.5mm/s 1045,Vi=1.25mm/s

4140,V =1.25mm/s
i
1.5
1045,V
4140,Vi
=1.25mm/s
=1.25mm/s
i
h

4140,Vi=0.5mm/s
Width, W

i
2.0
1300 11004140,V =0.75mm/s i
1.0
4140,Vi=0.75mm/s
Hardening

4140,V =1mm/s i
4140,Vi=1mm/s

1200 1000 4140,Vi=1.25mm/s

1.5 4140,Vi=1.25mm/s

0.5
1100 900
1.0
Hardening

1000 80010 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0.0

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Scanning Position, Ps (mm) 0.5 Scanning Position, Ps (mm)
900
800 (a) 0.0 (b)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Scanning Position, Ps (mm)
0.7 Scanning Position, Ps (mm)
1045,Vi=0.5mm/s
Hardening Depth, Dh (mm)

1045,Vi=0.75mm/s
(a) 0.6 1045,Vi=1mm/s
(b)
1045,Vi=1.25mm/s
0.5 4140,Vi=0.5mm/s

0.7 4140,Vi=0.75mm/s
0.4 1045,V =0.5mm/s
4140,V
i i
=1mm/s
Hardening Depth, Dh (mm)

1045,V =0.75mm/s
4140,V =1.25mm/s
0.6 i i

0.3 1045,Vi=1mm/s
1045,Vi=1.25mm/s
0.50.2 4140,Vi=0.5mm/s
4140,Vi=0.75mm/s
0.40.1 4140,Vi=1mm/s
4140,Vi=1.25mm/s

0.30.0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0.2 Scanning Position, Ps (mm)
0.1 (c)

Figure
Figure 14.14.
(a)(a) Relationship
Relationship 0.0 temperature
between
between temperature
and and scanning
scanning position
position for a for a laser
laser powerpower
of Pi =of200
Pi =W;
200
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
(b)W; (b) relationship
relationship between
between hardening
hardening widthwidth
and and scanning
scanning position
position
Scanning Position, Ps (mm) for afor a
laserlaser power
power of Pof
i P
= i =
200200
W;W;
and (c) relationship between hardening thickness and scanning position for a laser power of P
and (c) relationship between hardening thickness and scanning position for a laser power of Pi i = = 200 W.
W.
(c)
3.2.3. Laser Spot
3.2.3. Size
FigureLaser Spot
14. (a) Size
Relationship between temperature and scanning position for a laser power of Pi = 200
W;The
(b)
The effects
effectsofoflaser
relationship laserspot
betweenspot size
size on
hardeningon the maximum
width
the temperature
and scanning
maximum (T
position(T
temperature forc ),ahardening
c),
hardening
laser power width
of Pi(W
width (W
= 200 ),
W;
h), hand
andandhardening
(c) depth
relationship
hardening depth (Dh) of (D
between ) of the
hardening aforementioned
thickness and steels
scanning were predicted
position for a using
laser
h the aforementioned steels were predicted using the FE model. The powerthe
of FE
P i = model.
200 W.
The parameters
parameters of the
of the laserlaser
heatheat treatment
treatment were were a laser
a laser power power ofW
of 350 350
andWaand a scanning
scanning speedspeed of
of 8 mm/s,
8 mm/s,
3.2.3. while
Laserthe
while Spot the diameter
Size
diameter of theof laser
the laser
spotspot
(Ri)(Rwas
i ) was variedbetween
varied between22 mm
mm andand 44mm. mm.TheThetemperature
temperature
distributions in the two materials that were generated using three different
distributions in the two materials that were generated using three different laser spot laser spot sizes are shown
sizes are
The
in shown
Figureeffects
15. of laser spot size on the maximum temperature (Tc), hardening width (Wh), and
in Figure 15.
hardening depth (Dh) of the aforementioned steels were predicted using the FE model. The
parameters of the laser heat treatment were a laser power of 350 W and a scanning speed of 8 mm/s,
while the diameter of the laser spot (Ri) was varied between 2 mm and 4 mm. The temperature
distributions in the two materials that were generated using three different laser spot sizes are
shown in Figure 15.
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 17 of 21

Given
Materialsthe
2018,same laser
11, x FOR power
PEER REVIEW and scanning speed, it can be inferred from the Gaussian distribution 17 of 21
presented in Equation (9) that the heat flux received by each unit area of the surface is determined
by the size Given
of the thelaser
same laserFurthermore,
spot. power and scanning speed, itbetween
the relationship can be inferred
laser spot from
sizethe
and Gaussian
heat flux is
distribution presented in Equation (9) that the heat flux received by each unit area of the surface is
not linear. In Figure 16a, it is shown that the laser-induced Tc of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 decreases
determined by the size of the laser spot. Furthermore, the relationship between laser spot size and
quadratically as Ri increases. We then observed that Tc induced by spot sizes ranging between 2.5 mm
heat flux is not linear. In Figure 16a, it is shown that the laser-induced Tc of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140
and 3.5 mm; for each 0.1-mm increase in spot size, the Tc values
decreases quadratically as Ri increases. We then observed
of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 decreased
that Tc induced by spot sizes ranging
by 137.4 ◦ C and 63 ◦ C on average, respectively. Hence, AISI 1045 is more sensitive than AISI 4140 to
between 2.5 mm and 3.5 mm; for each 0.1-mm increase in spot size, the Tc values of AISI 1045 and
increases
AISI in 4140laser spot size
decreased byin137.4
terms°C of Tc .63By°Cobserving
and on average, therespectively.
relationshipHence,between AISIlaser
1045spot size and
is more
material melting,
sensitive thanwe found
AISI 4140that meltingin
to increases occurs in AISI
laser spot size1045 for spot
in terms of Tcsizes between 2.8
. By observing the mm and 2.9 mm,
relationship
whilebetween
AISI 4140 laser spotwhen
melts size and thematerial
spot sizemelting,
rangeswe fromfound that melting
2.6 mm to 2.7 mm. occurs in AISI 1045 for spot
The effects of laser spot size on hardening width (Wh ) were then size
sizes between 2.8 mm and 2.9 mm, while AISI 4140 melts when the spot ranges from
observed. 2.6 mm
In Figure to it is
16b,
2.7 mm.
shown that hardening width decreases quadratically as the laser spot size increases because the power
The effects of laser spot size on hardening width (Wh) were then observed. In Figure 16b, it is
density was decreased in both AISI 4140 and AISI 1045. The hardening widths that were generated
shown that hardening width decreases quadratically as the laser spot size increases because the
using laser spot sizes between 2.5 mm and 3.5 mm were then observed. We found that each 0.1-mm
power density was decreased in both AISI 4140 and AISI 1045. The hardening widths that were
increase in laser spot size decreased the hardening widths of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 by 0.043 mm
generated using laser spot sizes between 2.5 mm and 3.5 mm were then observed. We found that
and 0.081 mm onincrease
each 0.1-mm average,inrespectively.
laser spot sizeThis showsthe
decreased that the hardening
hardening widths of widths of AISI
AISI 1045 and 4140 are more
AISI 4140
sensitive to changes
by 0.043 mm andin0.081 lasermm spot
onsize compared
average, with those
respectively. of AISIthat
This shows 1045.
the The data also
hardening shows
widths that the
of AISI
Tc values associated with a laser spot size of 2.5 mm either reach or exceed the
4140 are more sensitive to changes in laser spot size compared with those of AISI 1045. The data also melting points of both
showsNonetheless,
materials. that the Tc values evenassociated
when the with a laser
spot sizespot
wassize of 2.5
only 2.5 mm
mm,either reach or exceed
the hardening the melting spot
width-to-laser
points
size ratio ofofAISI
both1045
materials.
and AISI Nonetheless,
4140 wereeven onlywhen0.57 the
andspot
0.53,size was only 2.5
respectively, mm, are
which the lower
hardening
than the
width-to-laser
ideal ratio of 0.7. spot size ratio of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 were only 0.57 and 0.53, respectively, which
are lower than the ideal ratio of 0.7.
Finally, we observed the effects of laser spot size on hardening depth (Dh ). In Figure 16c, it is
Finally, we observed the effects of laser spot size on hardening depth (Dh). In Figure 16c, it is
shown that hardening depth decreases linearly as the laser spot size increases. Based on the hardening
shown that hardening depth decreases linearly as the laser spot size increases. Based on the
depths associated
hardening depthswith laser spot
associated withsizes
laserbetween
spot sizes2.5 mm and
between 2.5 mm3.5 and
mm,3.5we mm,found that that
we found eacheach
0.1-mm
increase
0.1-mm increase in laser spot size decreased the hardening depths of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 by and
in laser spot size decreased the hardening depths of AISI 1045 and AISI 4140 by 0.021 mm
0.0230.021
mm, mm respectively.
and 0.023AISI mm,4140 thereforeAISI
respectively. has 4140
a greater degree
therefore hasofa sensitivity
greater degreeto changes in laser
of sensitivity to spot
size than
changesAISIin1045
laser in terms
spot size of hardening
than AISI 1045 depth.
in terms of hardening depth.

Figure 15. Temperature distributions induced by different laser spot sizes during single-track laser heat
treatment. (a) AISI 1045, Ri = 2 mm; (b) AISI 4140, Ri = 2 mm; (c) AISI 1045, Ri = 3 mm; (d) AISI 4140,
Ri = 3 mm; (e) AISI 1045, Ri = 4 mm; and (f) AISI 4140, Ri = 4 mm.
 Materials 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 21

Figure 15. Temperature distributions induced by different laser spot sizes during single-track laser
heat treatment. (a) AISI 1045, Ri = 2 mm; (b) AISI 4140, Ri = 2 mm; (c) AISI 1045, Ri = 3 mm; (d) AISI
Materials4140, Ri =1815
2018, 11, 3 mm; (e) AISI 1045, Ri = 4 mm; and (f) AISI 4140, Ri = 4 mm. 18 of 21

1600 1.6
AISI 1045 AISI 1045
Center Temperature, Tc (°C) AISI 4140 1.4 AISI 4140

Hardening Width, Wh (mm)

1400
1.2

1200 1.0
0.8
1000 0.6
0.4
800
0.2
600 0.0
2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
Diameter of Spot, Ri (mm) Diameter of Spot, Ri (mm)

(a) (b)

0.30
AISI 1045
AISI 4140
0.25
Hardening Depth, Dh (mm)

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0
Diameter of Spot, Ri (mm)

(c)

Figure
Figure 16.16.
(a)(a) Relationshipbetween
Relationship betweenlaser
laserspot
spotsize
sizeand during single-track
andTTcc during single-track laser
laser heat
heat treatment;
treatment;(b)
relationship between laser spot size and hardening width during single-track
(b) relationship between laser spot size and hardening width during single-track laser laser heat treatment;
heat
and (c) relationship between hardening width and laser spot size during single-track
treatment; and (c) relationship between hardening width and laser spot size during single-track laser heat
treatment.
laser heat treatment.

TheTheresults
resultsofofFEFEsimulations
simulationsare aresummarized
summarizedininTables Tables33 and
and 4.4. Among
Among the the combination
combination of
of parameters
parametersthat thatinduce
inducethe quenching
the quenching effect, wewe
effect, found thatthat
found changes
changesin laser power,
in laser scanning
power, speed,
scanning
and laser
speed, spot spot
and laser size size
result in significant
result in significant changes
changes in material
in materialtemperature,
temperature, hardening
hardeningwidth, and
width,
andhardening
hardening depth.
depth.TheThedata
datashown
shownin inTable
Tables33andand 44 can bebe used
usedto toplan
planlaser
laserprocessing
processing parameters
parameters
ororto to predict
predict thethe thickness
thickness andand width
width of of
thethe hardened
hardened layer
layer after
after a laser
a laser quenching
quenching process.
process. Under
Under
certain
certain processing
processing parameters,the
parameters, thelaser
laserspot
spotdiameter
diameterincreases
increasesororincreases
increasesthethescanning
scanningspeed.
speed.
TheThe hardening
hardening depth,
depth, width,
width, andand maximum
maximum laser
laser spot
spot temperature
temperature of of
thethe material
material will
will decrease
decrease asas
shown
shown in in Table
Table 3. 3. Table
Table 4 shows
4 shows that
that increase
increase in in
thethe laser
laser power
power at at a fixed
a fixed scanning
scanning speed
speed andand spot
spot
size
size to to
getget deeper
deeper hardening
hardening depth
depth and and range.
range.

Table 3.
Table Recommended processing
3. Recommended processing parameters to reduce hardening zone

IncreasingLaser
Increasing Laser Spot
Spot Diameter
Diameter by by
0.1 0.1
mmmm Increasing
Increasing
LaserLaser Scanning
Scanning SpeedSpeed by 1 mm/s
by 1 mm/s
Processing
Processing 1. Laser Spot Diameter Range: 2.5–3.5 mm 1. Scanning Speed Range: 10–20 mm/s
1. Laser Spot Diameter Range: 2.5–3.5 mm 1. Scanning Speed Range: 10–20 mm/s
Parameters
Parameters 2.2. Laser
Laser Power: 350W
Power: 350W 2. 2.LaserLaser Power:
Power: 350W350W
3.3. Scanning Speed: 8 mm/s
Scanning Speed: 8 mm/s 3. 3. Laser Spot Diameter:
Laser Spot Diameter: 3 mm 3 mm
Temperature Wh Dh Temperature Wh Dh
Materials Temperature Wh Dh Temperature Wh Dh
Materials (K) (mm) (mm) (K) (mm) (mm)
(K) (mm) (mm) (K) (mm) (mm)
AISI 1045 −137.4 −0.043 −0.021 −24.8 −0.048 −0.011
AISI 1045 −137.4 −0.043 −0.021 −24.8 −0.048 −0.011
AISI 4140 −63 −0.081 −0.023 −18.1 −0.058 −0.008
AISI 4140 −63 −0.081 −0.023 −18.1 −0.058 −0.008
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 19 of 21

Table 4. Recommended processing parameters to increase hardening zone.

Increasing Laser Power by 1 W

Processing 1. Laser Power Range: 300–400W
Parameters 2. Scanning Speed: 8 mm/s
3. Laser Spot Diameter: 3 mm
Temperature Wh Dh
Materials
(K) (mm) (mm)
AISI 1045 +5.8 +0.06 +0.02
AISI 4140 +3.91 +0.083 +0.017

4. Conclusions
In this paper, a finite element analysis model of laser quenching heat treatment is proposed,
which can analyze a laser heat affected zone, hardening area after quenching, and temperature
variation during the laser heating process. Using the analysis data, it is possible to predict whether
the processing parameters are sufficient to achieve the quench effect. Experiments were performed
to measure the changes in temperature associated with a moving laser, and the results of these
experiments were compared to those of a numerical analysis model proposed in this study. We found
that the temperature trends predicted using the FE model is in close agreement with the experimental
data, thus validating the accuracy of FE model. The numerical model was used to investigate the
effects of various laser parameters (spot size, scanning speed, scanning position, and laser power)
on the maximum temperature (Tc ), hardening width (Wh ), and hardening depth (Dh ) of AISI 1045
and AISI 4140 steels during single-track laser heat treatment using an Nd:YAG laser. The proposed
FE model can also predict the hardening area of the material by adjusting the laser spot size, laser
power, and scanning speed. The analysis results indicate that increasing the laser power will increase
the hardening width and depth at a defined scanning speed and laser diameter. In specific cases,
increasing the laser diameter and scanning speed will reduce the hardening width and depth.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization: J.-H.K.; Data curation: T.-P.H.; Methodology: H.-E.S.; Software:
H.-E.S.; Validation: T.-P.H.; Experimental work: T.-P.H.; Writing—review and editing, T.-P.H. and H.-E.S.;
Supervision: J.-H.K.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thanks the Metal Industries Research and Development Centre (MIRDC)
for experimental and technical support.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Golovin, A.F. The Centennial of D. K. Chernov’s Discovery of Polymorphous Transformations in Steel
(1868–1968). Met. Sci. Heat Treat. 1968, 10, 5. [CrossRef]
2. Wissenbach, K.; Gillner, A.; Dausinger, F.; Beyer, E.; Wissenbach, K. Oberflächenbehandlung mit Laserstrahlung,
Allgemaine Grundlagen; Springer: Berlin, Germany, 1998.
3. Ganeev, R.A. Low-Power Laser Hardening of Steels. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2002, 121, 414–419. [CrossRef]
4. Skvarenina, S.; Shin, Y.C. Predictive Modeling and Experimental Results for Laser Hardening of AISI 1536
Steel with Complex Geometric Features by a High Power Diode Laser. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2006, 201,
2256–2269. [CrossRef]
5. Lakhkar, R.S.; Shin, Y.C.; Krane, M.J.M. Predictive Modeling of Multi-Track Laser Hardening of AISI 4140
Steel. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008, 480, 209–217. [CrossRef]
6. Bailey, N.S.; Tan, W.; Shin, Y.C. Predictive Modeling and Experimental Results for Residual Stresses in
Laser Hardening of AISI 4140 Steel by a High Power Diode Laser. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2009, 203, 2003–2012.
[CrossRef]
7. Farahi, G.H.; Sistaninia, M. Thermal Analysis of Laser Hardening for Different Moving Patterns. IJE Trans.
A Basics 2009, 22, 169–180.
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 20 of 21

8. Lambiase, F.; Ilio, A.M.D.; Paoletti, A. Prediction of Laser Hardening by Means of Neural Network.
Procedia CIRP 2013, 12, 181–186. [CrossRef]
9. Babic, M.; Balic, J.; Milfelner, M.; Belic, I.; Kokol, P.; Zorman, M.; Panjan, P. Robot Laser Hardening and the
Problem of Overlapping Laser Beam. Adv. Prod. Eng. Manag. 2013, 8, 25–32. [CrossRef]
10. El-Batahgy, A.M.; Ramadan, R.A.; Moussa, A.R. Laser Surface Hardening of Tool Steels—Experimental and
Numerical Analysis. J. Surf. Eng. Mater. Adv. Technol. 2013, 3, 146–153. [CrossRef]
11. Heitkemper, M.; Fischer, A.; Bohne, C.; Pyzalla, A. Laser Surface Treatment of the High-Nitrogen Steel
X30CrMoN15. In Proceedings of the 6th International Tooling Conference on the Use of Tool Steels:
Experience and Research, Karlstadt, Sweden, 10–13 September 2002; Volume 2, pp. 785–795.
12. Ki, H.; So, S.; Kim, S. Laser Transformation Hardening of Carbon Steel Sheets Using a Heat Sink. J. Mater.
Process. Technol. 2014, 214, 2693–2705. [CrossRef]
13. Orazi, L.; Liverani, E.; Ascari, A.; Fortunato, A.; Tomesani, L. Laser Surface Hardening of Large Cylindrical
Components Utilizing Ring Spot Geometry. CIRP Ann.-Manuf. Technol. 2014, 63, 233–236. [CrossRef]
14. Kostov, V.; Gibmeier, J.; Wanner, A. Laser Surface Hardening of Steel: Effect of Process Atmosphere on the
Microstructure and Residual Stresses. Mater. Sci. Forum 2014, 772, 149–153. [CrossRef]
15. Li, R.; Jin, Y.; Li, Z.; Qi, K. A Comparative Study of High-Power Diode Laser and CO2 Laser Surface
Hardening of AISI 1045 Steel. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2014, 23, 3085–3091. [CrossRef]
16. Liverani, E.; Lutey, A.H.A.; Ascari, A.; Fortunato, A.; Tomesani, L. A Complete Residual Stress Model for
Laser Surface Hardening of Complex Medium Carbon Steel Components. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2016, 302,
100–106. [CrossRef]
17. Sarkar, S.; Gopinath, M.; Chakraborty, S.S.; Syed, B.; Nath, A.K. Analysis of Temperature and Surface
Hardening of Low Carbon Thin Steel Sheets Using Yb-Fiber Laser. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2016, 302, 344–358.
[CrossRef]
18. Bouquet, J.; Camp, D.V.; Peeters, B.; Massa, J.; Lauwers, B. Machining and Selective Laser Hardening of
Complex Shaped Components on a Multi-Axis Machining Center. In Proceedings of the MTTRF 2016 Annual
Meeting, San Francisco, CA, USA, 5–7 July 2016; pp. 90–100.
19. Bouquet, J.; Camp, D.V.; Malek, O.; Haaf, P.T.; Vanmeensel, K.; Lauwers, B. Aiming for Improved Lifetime of
Die and Mold Components Through an Integrated Laser Hardening Operation, Combining Machining and
a Selective Heat Treatment in One Setup. Procedia CIRP 2016, 46, 541–544. [CrossRef]
20. Farshidianfar, M.H.; Khajepouhor, A.; Gerlich, A. Real-Time Monitoring and Prediction of Martensite
Formation and Hardening Depth during Laser Heat Treatment. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2017, 315, 326–334.
[CrossRef]
21. Guarino, S.; Barletta, M.; Afilal, A. High Power Diode Laser (HPDL) Surface Hardening of Low Carbon Steel:
Fatigue Life Improvement Analysis. J. Manuf. Process. 2017, 28, 266–271. [CrossRef]
22. Ding, H.T.; Yung, C.S. A Metallo-Thermomechanically Coupled Analysis of Orthogonal Cutting of AISI 1045
Steel. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 2012, 134, 051014. [CrossRef]
23. Gustavo, S.S.; Joaquin, F.B.; Lauralice, C.F.C.; Rosamel, M.M.R.; Rafael, A.M.; George, E.T.; Antonio, C.C.
Modeling Quenching Performance by the Kuyucak Method. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2007, 459, 383–389.
24. Edwan, A.A.; Marcelo, A.M.; Nelson, B.D.L.; Andre, P.T. Numerical Simulation with Thorough Experimental
Validation to Predict the Build-up of Residual Stresses During Quenching of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels.
ISIJ Int. 2014, 54, 1396–1405.
25. Lostado Lorza, R.; Escribano García, R.; Fernandez Martinez, R.; Martínez Calvo, M.Á. Using Genetic
Algorithms with Multi-Objective Optimization to Adjust Finite Element Models of Welded Joints. Metals
2018, 8, 230. [CrossRef]
26. Lostado Lorza, R.; Corral Bobadilla, M.; Martínez Calvo, M.Á.; Villanueva Roldán, P.M. Residual stresses
with time-independent cyclic plasticity in finite element analysis of welded joints. Metals 2017, 7, 136.
[CrossRef]
27. Dawes, C. Laser Welding; Ablington Publishing and Woodhead Publishing in Association with the Welding
Institute: Cambridge, UK, 1992; pp. 1–95.
28. Zacharia, T.; David, S.A.; Vitek, J.M.; Debroy, T. Weld Pool Development During GTA and Laser Beam
Welding of Type 304 Stainless Steel Part I. Theoretical Analysis. Weld. J. 1989, 68, 499–509.
29. Zacharia, T.; David, S.A.; Vitek, J.M.; Debroy, T. Weld Pool Development During GTA and Laser Beam
Welding of Type 304 Stainless Steel Part II. Experimental Correlation. Weld. J. 1989, 68, 510–519.
Materials 2018, 11, 1815 21 of 21

30. Zacharia, T.; David, S.A.; Vitek, J.M.; Debroy, T. Heat Transfer During Nd:YAG Pulsed Laser Welding and Its
Effect on Solidification Structure of Austenitic Stainless Steels. Metall. Trans. A 1989, 20, 957–967. [CrossRef]
31. DeKock, J. Laser Heat Treating Advances for the Gear Industry. GearSolution 2004, 49–54.
32. MSC. Software Corporation. Marc Product Documentation Volume A: Theory and User Information, MSC;
Software Corporation: Glen Rock, NJ, USA, 2010.

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).