2.

1 Table of Specifications (TOS)

A TOS can be used as a planning tool intended to help teachers align objectives,

instruction, and assessment. This strategy can be used for a variety of assessment methods but is

most commonly associated with constructing traditional summative tests (Didonato-barnes, N.,

Fives, H., & Krause, E. S. (2013). It is also defined as a blueprint for selecting appropriate test

items that helps teachers align objectives, instruction, and assessment(Chalifah, N 2018,

Margareta, Y., (2016), Magno, C., 2015, Alade, O. ., &Omoruy, 2014, Notar, Zuelke, Wilson

and Yunker, 2004). Meanwhile, Gregory (2006) sees table of specification as an activity which

enumerates the information and cognitive tasks on which test takers are to be assessed.

According to Didonato-barnes, N., Fives, H., & Krause, E. S. (2013), there are several

beneficial integrate TOS in language assessment; first, it can be used to help teachers frame the

decision-making process of test construction and improve the validity of teachers’ evaluations

based on tests constructed for classroom use. Second, it can help teachers map the amount of

class time spent on each objective with the cognitive level at which each objective was taught

thereby helping teachers to identify the type of items they used to include in their tests. And the

last, it can also serve to clearly define the scope and the focus of the test.

TOS has used in several study, and it’s proved beneficial while integrating it into

assessment. Gregory (2006) sees that the table of specification can be used for a variety of

assessment methods. However, it is most commonly associated with constructing traditional

summative assessment. Moreover, Akem (2006) states that the function of table specification is a

guide that assists teachers or examiners in the evaluation system. Didonato-barnes, N., Fives, H.,

& Krause, E. S. (2013), states the main purpose of a TOS is to improve the validity of a

teacher’s evaluation in relation to a particular assessment (Fives & Barnes, 2003). Moreover
Fives et al (2013) mentioned that table of specification will be vary depend on the needs.

Furthermore, a test blueprint can be used in conducting formative assessment (Guskey, 2005) or

summative assessment (Fives et al., 2013).

2.1.1 The Method of Developing of Specification (TOS) of Assessment

In developing assessment specification, Carey (1998) cited in Alade, O. ., &Omoruy,

(2014), Carey states that there are six major elements that should be intended to developing table

of specifications in order to achieve a comprehensive end of unit examination. They include: the

first element is the balance among goals selected for examination. The goalmeans the outcome

statement which is trying to obtain in this assessment. The second is balance among levels of

learning. The third is the test format. The fourth is the total number of items. The fifth is the

number of test items for each goal and level of learning. The last element is the enabling skills to

be selected from each goal framework.

Meanwhile Brown (2004) gives a more simple way in designing the TOS. He proposed

only three elements that should be considered by the language teacher; 1) a broad outline of the

test; 2) the skills that you want to test; 3) the items that will look like.

Furthermore, Prince George Community College stated in its guidelines for creating

assessment descriptions the steps to plan an assessment. They are 1) review the course outcomes,

2) identify embedded assignments to assess the course, 3) select an appropriate format for

assignments, 4) select the number of assessments, 5) provide a clear overview of the assignment,

6) indicate when the assignments will be given during the semester, 7) determine the value of the

assignments, and 8) save and name the file. (cited in FItriani, D (2018))

2.1.2 Example Models of Table of Specification (TOS) of Assessment

 There are some example possible models of Table of Specification (TOS) that suggested

by scholars. Those models involve the approaches, format in developing and using TOS in

designing assessment.

First example of integrated TOS model adopted from Brown (2004)

These informal, classroom-oriented specifications figure adopted from Brown (2004) give some

an indication of

• the topics (objectives) which will cover,

• the implied elicitation and response formats for items,

• the number of items in each section, and

• the time to be allocated for each.

First example possible model which was suggested by Alade, O. ., &Omoruy, (2014),

they suggested a possible model of TOS like the following table:

Table 2.1 the possible model of table specifications suggested by Alade and Omoruyi

Content Knowledge No and Understanding No and Application No Total

or percentage or percentage and or

 percentage

Topic 1

Total

In each cell, the number and / percentage of item. To be constructed are indicated. These

depend on the relative emphasis on topics and behaviors as might be indicated by the

instructional objective. For example, if teacher wants to developan end of term test in

Economics, he may have to consider the following instructional objectives;At the end of the

lesson students should be able to:1.Define the term consumer’sbehavior i.e.demand and

supply.2.State the law of demand and supply.3.Identifythe forces of demand and supply as

determinant of price of goods and services.

Table of specification above is used for practical classroom application is intended to

help classroom teachers develop summative assessments that are well aligned to the subject

matter studied and the cognitive process used during instruction. However, for this strategy to be

helpful in every teaching practice, Alade, O. ., &Omoruy, (2014), suggest to make it based the

need practical assessment.

There is another possible model of TOS suggested by Fives and Barnes (2013). They

states The TOS can help teachers map the amount of class time spent on each objective with the
cognitive level at which each objective was taught, thereby helping teachers to identify the types

of items they need to include on their tests. A sample TOS used in their study can be found in

Figure 2. A Sample Table of Specifications for Fifth Grade Social Studies Chapter 6: The Middle

Colonies

Figure 2.1 the possible model suggested by Fives and Barnes (2013)

While another sample TOS suggested by Didonato-barnes, N., Fives, H., & Krause, E. S.

(2013). A sample TOS used in their study can be found in Figure 3. A Sample Table of

Specifications for Fifth Grade Social Studies Chapter 6: The Southern Colonies.

Figure 2.2 the possible model suggested by Didonato-barnes, N., Fives, H., & Krause, E. S.

(2013)

These sample models TOS consist of 7 columns from A-G. The columns A, B, C are

based on teachers’ lesson plans and reflective notes in the classroom. Moreover, the numbers in
column D are the result of the material or topic percentage that teacher spent with students in the

classroom. Next, column E consists of the number of items for assessing each topic. The last,

column F and G describes the professional judgment of teacher and the cognitive level of

students for each objective or material.

Moreover, another example possible model which was design by Margareta, Y., (2018),

in designing the following model of TOS writing assessment, she integrated it with CEFR. In

designing the TOS writing assessment, Margareta, Y., (2018) adopted from Regional Language

Center (ReLC) Singapore,. The model of TOS designed by Margareta, Y., (2018), is on the

following figure.

The last example possible model which was design by Chalipah, N (2018), in designing

this possible model of Assessment, she adapted the guidelines from scholars, and then she

integrated it with EPG competence. The model of TOS designed by Chalipah, N (2018) is on the

following figure.

Figure 2.3 the possible model suggested by Chalipah, N (2018)

 Chalipah, N (2018)designed the TOS which met to her study needed, as her study about

developing the EPG-based assessment specifications of methodology competences, so she

needed to integrate the TOS with EPG competence. Chalipah, N (2018)states that there are some

elements that have to be considered by the researcher in designing model of TOS which was

integrated to EPG: 1) objectives; 2) descriptor in development phase based on EPG-methodology

competence; 3) materials; 4) cognitive level of the items; 5) type of assessment; and 6) time

allocation 7) performance competence and written competence 8) questions number 9) number

of items.