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CHAPTER 6
6.1 INTRODUCTION
problem because they cause bigger losses to the customer and utility
the power system impedance, any current (or voltage) harmonic will
harmonics and affects the entire power system [64]. Fig 6.1 illustrates
power systems.
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supply system because of the control systems, limiting the plasma (an
transformers is very high in India, i.e. around 25% per annum, when
Loads with highly distorted current waveforms also have a very poor
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supply systems. It was found that with increasing set up currents, the
include all components down line from the substation which can be
seen in Fig 6.3 looking from bus A toward the individual feeders.
Static and dynamic load models are two types of load models most
These models are best suited for loads where the steady state
into account the past and present values of voltage and frequency.
Dynamic loads typically take longer to reach steady state than static
loads; however, they are commonly represented with the static load
models [67].
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The three generic static load models are constant impedance, constant
load power varies with the square of voltage. In the constant current
model, the load power varies in proportion with voltage. The load
power, in the constant power model, does not change with voltage.
These responses are typical for small perturbations in voltage but may
not accurately reflect the response due to larger voltage sags. Voltage
sags greater than 20% can cause sensitive loads to trip off-line. These
The most common and widely practiced static load model is the
dP
V dV
P Po
1 K Kpf .( f f o ) ,
Vo (6.1)
dQ
V dV (6.2)
Q Qo
1 K qf .( f f o )
Vo
where P0 ans Q0 are the total active and reactive load, respectively; Kpf
and Kqf are the active and reactive load frequency characteristics; (f–
V0 are the actual and nominal RMS voltages, respectively. Since the
active and reactive exponential load models defined in (6.1) and (6.2),
respectively reduce to
dP
V dV
P Po (6.3)
V o
dQ
V dV
Q Q o (6.4)
V o
0.5 to 1.8, and the reactive power characteristic typically ranges from
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constant current for active load and constant impedance for reactive
load [68].
Another common static load model is the polynomial load model which
current, and constant power loads. The load power varies with the
2 1
V V
P p 1 . p 2 . p 3 (6.5)
Vo Vo
2 1
V V
Q q 1 . q 2 . q 3 (6.6)
Vo o
V
where p1, p2, and p3 are the constant impedance, constant current,
and constant active power load, respectively; and q1, q2, and q3 are the
load, respectively.
The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) developed its own static
the model had gone through many revisions and can be found in [69].
EPRI’s model represents the active load with two components, the first
voltage. The reactive load also has two components. The first is the
total reactive load, and the second is the total reactive load minus
shunt capacitance.
circuit via the source impedance and all other parallel paths. As a
are present all over the installation. Source impedances influence the
series
f (t ) A0 ( Ah cosh w0t Bh sinh w0t )
h1
A0 h 1
C h cos( hw 0 t h ) (6.7)
1
T
A0 f ( t ) dt
T 0
2
T
A h f ( t ) cos( hw 0 t ) dt
T 0
2
T
B h f ( t ) sin( hw 0 t ) dt
T 0
C h A 2
h B 2
h
B
h tan 1
h
A h
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i (t )
h 1
I h cos( hw 0 t h )
(6.8)
v (t ) V
h 1
h cos( hw 0 t h )
1
P
2
V
h 1
h I h cos( h h )
(6.9)
V
h 1
hrms I hrms cos( h h )
1
Q
2
V
h 1
h I h sin( h h )
(6.10)
V
h 1
hrms I hrms sin( h h )
distortion is defined as
1
VDF
V1
h2
V h
2
(6.11)
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1
CDF
I1
h2
I h2 (6.12)
where
respectively. With
Vrms V h1
2
h rms V1rms 1 (VDF)2
and (6.13)
I rms I
h1
2
h rms I1rms 1 (CDF) 2
S VrmsI rms V
h1
2 2
I
h rms h rms
power factor is
P P 1
pf *
S S1 1 (VDF ) 1 ( CDF ) 2
2
pf disp * pf dist
P (6.15)
pf disp
S1
1
pf dist
1 (VDF ) 2 1 ( CDF ) 2
where
current harmonics to the power system. Since middle 80’s and with
power and power loss. The power loss in an office building wirings due
to the current harmonics may be more than twice that of the linear
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Replacing the incandescent light bulbs with CFLs means replacing the
electricity, e.g. places where natural gas or other fossil fuels are used
the number of CFLs carefully. Most of the present studies on the effect
factor measuring before and after using the devices in the power
system [73], and proposing a model for the network has been less
discovered.
Performance Index (KPI) of the power system and study how these KPI
Input filter (see Fig 6.5) limits the effect of current deformation and
the range of audible sound, i.e. 20 kHz (upper limit lies about 100
lamp.
The common 220V power system voltage is not enough to start the
which are used in CFLs have much better quality [74]. Electronic
Fig. 6.9 shows one sample CFL ballast circuit model. This circuit is
similar to that of [75] with slight changes. The input full wave rectifier
and the large input capacitor make the current have narrow high
peaks at short intervals and almost zero value elsewhere. Fig. 6.10
shows the output voltage and current of the circuit in Fig 6.9.
values. Equation (6.16) shows the mathematical model for a CFL when
vCFL V cos(2ft )
4 (6.16)
iCFL I 2 n1 cos2 (2n 1) ft 2 n1 I 2 n1 cos2 (2n 1) ft 2 n1
n 0 n 0
The more the number of harmonics is, the more accurate the model
will be. In this study the first five odd harmonics (1, 3, 5, 7, and 9) are
used. A schematic of the model is shown in Fig 6.11. The power factor
of this circuit is 93%. In order for having a flexible model for different
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experiments.
The values of the current and phase in Equation 6.16 are summarized
Table 6.1 Peak value and phase of the current harmonics for the CFL
harmonic distortion of the shape (sine wave) of the electric wave form.
and 35%. Most electronic ballasts have the total harmonic distortion
India. The first block contains the protection, filtering and current
peak limiting components. Block 2 is the full diode bridge filter to the
capacitor reduces the ripple but increases the peak of the AC current
waveform and hence the harmonics in it. Some other ballast designs
also reduce the harmonic content but increase the crest factor.
the harmonic content but also increases the complexity and cost of
the CFL. CFLs can be divided into four main categories in terms of
factor.
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Fig 6.13 shows a simple CFL with no filtering and hence nothing to
is the absence, and the source impedance is relied upon to limit the
capacitor charging peak. This circuit has very high harmonic current
cheapest to manufacture.
Obviously, the more extensive the filtering is, the better the ac current
However, the major drawback is the physical size and weight, which
makes it unattractive due to the limited space and inherent power loss
[75].
6.6.3.4 Valley-Fill
shown in Fig 6.15. In this circuit, the filter capacitor following the
diode rectifier is split into two different capacitors C1 and C2, which
draw the current from the ac source during the cross-over period,
excellent, which are associated with the ballast circuits used (Fig
6.17-6.20.
100
Fig 6.18 Wave form and harmonic spectra of Passive filtering Circuit
Fig 6.19 Wave form and harmonic spectra of Valley-fill filtering Circuit
Fig 6.20 Wave form and harmonic spectra of Acive filtering Circuit
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computers are calculated and provided in the literature [70], [75]. Fig
models to that of Fig 6.9 for modelling such electronic devices are
used.
computer.
4
im I 2 n1 cos2 (2n 1) ft 2 n1 (2n 1) m (6.17)
n 0
phase shift ΔΦm from the central phase. Distribution of ΔΦm can be
data sheet.
c max m c max ,
1 (6.18)
P ( m )
2 max
In the above equation, Φmax is the maximum phase shift from the
( ) 2
1
P( m ) e 2 2
(6.19)
2 2
Where φ and σ are the mean and variance of the phase lag. The
M M 4
i im I 2 n1 cos2 (2n 1) ft 2 n1 (2n 1) m (6.20)
m 0 m 0 n 0
CFLs. The average phase lag of these CFLs is fifteen degrees and has a
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[76] approach to find the PDF of the peak output current. Fig 6.22
shows the result. The mean value and standard deviation of the
current in this experiment are 611.5 and 2.45. It may notice that if
the variance in the phase shift is not considered, meaning that do not
assume the CFL phase to be a random variable, the peak current will
obtained for different values of phase range for the electronic devices.
loads, various tests were conducted in the lab. For the purpose of
analysis Power Quality Analyser 3196 was used to capture the signals.
Watts and measured Volt Amperes i.e. VAmeas. Waveforms for different
loads are shown from Figure 6.23 to 6.33. They clearly show the
TABLE-6.2
% THD
True P in
of DPF VA
PF Watts
Current
Fluorescent Tube
8.47 0.587 0.585 51.32 88.32
with magnetic choke
Compact Fluorescent
136.95 0.874 0.524 14.95 17.44
Lamp
Fig.6.25. UPS
Fig.6.28. Computer 1
Fig.6.29. Computer 2
Indian low voltage range. The first of these tests involved supplying
the appliances at 253 V RMS which is at the upper limit of the range,
and the second involved supplying the appliances with 207 V RMS
which is at the lower limit of the range. The remaining test involved
applied. For example, a value of 100% means that the value obtained
for the test was equal to the value obtained when the appliance was
results for total harmonic current are more diverse. CFL, TV and the
and UPS appear to have electronics on the input which aim to lessen
The data Table 6.4 indicate that there is little variation in the
total harmonic current. Further, the variations seen here are much
with high load and low load respectively are compared in Fig.6.36.
TABLE 6.3
THD (I) VALUES OF DIFFERENT DEVICES USED IN VARYING INPUT
VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE
Computer-1 88 100 93 99
Ceiling Fan 76 79 82 89
TABLE 6.4
THD(I) VALUES OF DIFFERENT DEVICES – HARMONIC TEST
WAVEFORM
Ceiling Fan 79 81 84 93
Fig 6.37 shows the experimental set up, which contain all types of
sensitive electronic loads.
loads. Then power loss due to harmonics i.e. Pmeas – Pf is calculated for
to 250 kWh per month. This extra energy loss is solely due to
enormous.