AREMA

8
CHAPTER 8
CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND
FOUNDATIONS1
FOREWORD
The material in this chapter is written with regard to typical North American Railroad Concrete Structures and Foundations
and other structures mentioned herein with
• Standard Gage Track, 1

• Normal North American passenger and freight equipment, and
• Speeds of freight trains up to 80 mph and passenger trains up to 90 mph.
Additional special provisions for speeds higher than those listed above may be added by the Engineer as necessary.
3
This chapter is presented as a consensus document by a committee composed of railroad industry professionals having
substantial and broad-based experience designing, evaluating, and investigating Concrete Structures and Foundations used by
railroads. The recommendations contained herein are based upon past successful usage, advances in the state of knowledge,
and current design and maintenance practices. These recommendations are intended for routine use and might not provide
sufficient criteria for infrequently encountered conditions. Professional judgement must be exercised when applying the
recommendations of this chapter as part of an overall solution to any particular issue.
This chapter is published annually, incorporating revisions made in the previous year. The latest published edition of the
chapter should be used, regardless of the age of an existing structure. For purposes of determining historical recommendations
under which an existing structure may have been built and maintained, it can prove useful to examine previous editions of the
chapter. However, when historical recommendations differ from the recommendations contained in the latest published
edition of the chapter, the recommendations of the latest published edition of the chapter should be used.
Part 8, Rigid Frame Concrete Bridges was deleted from the manual in 1975. Part 9, Reinforced Concrete Trestles was deleted
from the manual in 1971. Part 15 is reserved for future use. Part 18, Elastomeric Bridge Bearings was moved to Chapter 15 in
2001.
1
The material in this and other chapters in the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering is published as recommended practice to railroads and others
concerned with the engineering, design and construction of railroad fixed properties (except signals and communications), and allied services and facilities.
For the purpose of this Manual, RECOMMENDED PRACTICE is defined as a material, device, design, plan, specification, principle or practice
recommended to the railways for use as required, either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable to meet the needs
of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting efficiency and economy in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of
railways. It is not intended to imply that other practices may not be equally acceptable.
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-i

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part/Section Description Page
1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-1

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.2 Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.3 Other Cementitious Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.4 Aggregates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.7 Concrete Admixtures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.8 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.9 Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.10 Details of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.11 Concrete Jointing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.12 Proportioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31
1.13 Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-37
1.14 Depositing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.15 Depositing Concrete Under Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.16 Concrete in Sea Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.17 Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.18 Curing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.19 Formed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.20 Unformed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.21 Decorative Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.22 Penetrating Water Repellent T reatment of Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.23 Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.24 High Strength Concrete (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.25 Specialty Concretes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.26 Self-Consolidating Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-60
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
2 Reinforced Concrete Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-1

2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.2 Notations, Definitions and Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8
2.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
2.4 Hooks and Bends. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.7 Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.8 Distribution of Reinforcement in Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.9 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10 Shear Reinforcement – General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.11 Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.12 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.13 Development Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.14 Development Length of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.15 Development Length of Deformed Bars in Compression (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.16 Development Length of Bundled Bars (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.17 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-31
2.18 Combination Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19 Development of Welded Wire Fabric in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
8-ii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)
2.20 Mechanical Anchorage (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33

2.21 Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.22 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.23 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.24 Design Methods (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.25 General Requirements (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.26 Allowable Service Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.27 Flexure (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.28 Compression Members with or without Flexure (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.29 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45
2.30 Strength Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52
2.31 Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.32 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.33 Compression Members with or without Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56
2.34 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.35 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-60
2.36 Permissible Bearing Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.37 Serviceability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.38 Fatigue Stress Limit for Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.39 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69 1
2.40 Control of Deflections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70
3 Spread Footing Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-1

3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2
3.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.3 Depth of Base of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6 3
3.4 Sizing of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.5 Footings with Eccentric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.6 Footing Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7 Field Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.8 Combined Footings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
4 Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-1 4

4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.3 Pile Length Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7
4.4 Pile Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.5 Installation of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15
4.6 Inspection of Pile Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-1

5.1 Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2
5.3 Computation of Applied Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.4 Stability Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.5 Design of Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.6 Designing Bridges to Resist Scour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-iii

5.7 Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Retaining Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.8 Details of Design and Construction for Bridge Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
6 Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-1

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.2 Design of Crib Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.3 Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3
6.4 Requirements for Metal Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.5 Requirements for Timber Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
7 Mechanically Stabilized Embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-1

7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.2 Design of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-3
10 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-1

10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
10.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3
10.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.4 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
11 Lining Railway Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-1

11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.3 Forms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.4 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
12 Cantilever Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-1

12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-3
14 Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-1

14.1 Scope (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.2 Determination of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.3 Evaluation of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.4 Principal Materials Used in the Repair of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.5 Repair Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7
14.6 Repair Methods for Prestressed Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-24
16 Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-1

16.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-2
16.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4
16.3 Design Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.4 Design Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.5 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.6 Manufacture of Precast Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15
8-iv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

16.7 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
17 Prestressed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-1

17.1 General Requirements and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4
17.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-5
17.3 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-7
17.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9
17.5 Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.6 General Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.7 Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.8 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.9 Frames and Continuous Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14
17.10 Effective Flange Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14
17.11 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-15
17.12 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.13 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.14 General Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.15 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.16 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-18
17.17 Loss of Prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-20 1
17.18 Flexural Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25
17.19 Ductility Limits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-27
17.20 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-28
17.21 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29
17.22 Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34
17.23 Pretensioned Anchorage Zones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.24 Concrete Strength at Stress Transfer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44 3
17.25 General Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.26 General Fabrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-47
17.27 Mortar and Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51
17.28 Application of Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29 Materials - Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.30 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
Commentary (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-55 4
19 Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-1
19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2 Rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.3 Loads and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.5 Load Combinations and Rating Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.6 Excessive Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
20 Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-1

20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2
20.3 Computation of Lateral Forces Acting on Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5
20.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-v

20.5 Design of Anchored Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10

20.6 Cantilever Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.7 Notations (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-15
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-16
21 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1

21.1 General (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1
21.2 Reporting of Defects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-19
22 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-1

22.1 General (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.2 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.3 Classification of Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.4 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3
22.5 Exploration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.6 Determination of Groundwater Level (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.7 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.8 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.9 Inspection (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.10 Geophysical Explorations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.11 In-Situ Testing of Soil (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.12 Backfilling Bore Holes (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
22.13 Cleaning Site (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
23 Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-1

23.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.2 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3
23.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4
23.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20
Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-24
24 Drilled Shaft Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-1

24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2
24.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.4 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.5 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.6 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
C - Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
25 Slurry Wall Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-1

25.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2
25.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-7
25.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
Commentary (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-13
8-vi AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

26 Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-1

26.1 General Requirements and Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.3 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.4 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.5 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.6 Prestress Losses (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-22
26.7 Flexural Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8 Shear and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.9 Fatigue Stress Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10 Design of Local and General Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.11 Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.12 Duct Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.13 Couplers (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.14 Connection of Secondary Beams (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.15 Concrete Cover and Reinforcement Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.16 Inspection Access (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17 Box Girder Cross Section Dimensions and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
1
27 Concrete Slab Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-1
27.1 Scope and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.2 Application and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.3 General Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6
27.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.5 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10 3
27.7 Direct Fixation Fastening System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.8 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-24
28 Temporary Structures for Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-1

28.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4 4
28.3 Computation of Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5 Design of Shoring Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.6 Design of Falsework Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-14
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-20
29 Waterproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-1
29.1 General Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.2 Waterproofing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.3 Dampproofing (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4 Specific Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.5 Terms (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.6 Applicable ASTM Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.7 General Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.8 Primers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-vii

29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.10 Membrane Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.11 Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane Protection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.12 Anti-Bonding Paper (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.13 Inspection and Tests (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.14 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.15 Introduction to Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16 Materials for Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.17 Application of Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
C - Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
Chapter 8 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-G-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-R-1
INTRODUCTION
The Chapters of the AREMA Manual are divided into numbered Parts, each comprised of related documents (specifications,
recommended practices, plans, etc.). Individual Parts are divided into Sections by centered headings set in capital letters and
identified by a Section number. These Sections are subdivided into Articles designated by numbered side headings.
Page Numbers – In the page numbering of the Manual (8-2-1, for example) the first numeral designates the Chapter
number, the second denotes the Part number in the Chapter, and the third numeral designates the page number in the Part.
Thus, 8-2-1 means Chapter 8, Part 2, page 1.
In the Glossary and References, the Part number is replaced by either a “G” for Glossary or “R” for References.
Document Dates – The bold type date (Document Date) at the beginning of each document (Part) applies to the document
as a whole and designates the year in which revisions were last made somewhere in the document, unless an attached footnote
indicates that the document was adopted, reapproved, or rewritten in that year.
Article Dates – Each Article shows the date (in parenthesis) of the last time that Article was modified.
Revision Marks – All current year revisions (changes and additions) which have been incorporated into the document are
identified by a vertical line along the outside margin of the page, directly beside the modified information.
Proceedings Footnote – The Proceedings footnote on the first page of each document gives references to all Association
action with respect to the document.
Annual Updates – New manuals, as well as revision sets, will be printed and issued yearly.
8-viii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

8
Part 1
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section/Article Description Page
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6

1.1.1 Purpose (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.2 Scope (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.3 Terms (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6
1.1.4 Acceptability (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7 1
1.1.5 ASTM - International (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.6 Selection of Materials (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.7 Test of Materials (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-7
1.1.8 Defective Materials (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.1.9 Equipment (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
3
1.2 Cement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.2 Specifications (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-8
1.2.3 Quality, Sampling and Testing (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9
1.3 Other Cementitious Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10

1.3.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.2 Acceptability (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.3 Specifications (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.4 Materials Not Included in This Recommended Practice (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10
1.3.5 Documentation (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.4 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11

1.4.1 General (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11
1.4.2 Fine Aggregates (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
1.4.3 Normal Weight Coarse Aggregate (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-14
1
References, Vol. 3, 1902, p. 311; Vol. 4, 1903, pp. 336,397; Vol. 5, 1904, pp. 605,610; Vol. 6, 1905, pp. 704,726; Vol. 11, 1910, p. 956; Vol. 13, 1912, pp.
333, 1564; Vol. 24, 1923, pp. 478, 1324; Vol. 28, 1927, pp. 1056, 1436; Vol. 29, 1928, pp. 607, 1399; Vol. 30, 1929, pp. 783, 1461; Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1148,
1737; Vol. 32, 1931, pp. 330, 796; Vol. 33, 1932, pp. 622, 732; Vol. 34, 1933, pp. 578, 868; Vol. 35, 1934, pp. 953, 1130; Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 843, 1018; Vol.
37, 1936, pp. 632, 1040; Vol. 39, 1938, pp. 136, 332; Vol. 45, pp. 227, 642; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 793, 1341; Vol. 56, 1955, pp. 436, 1084; Vol. 58, 1957, pp.
650, 1182; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 637, 1970, p. 230; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 136; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 138; Vol. 75, 1974, p. 465; Vol. 78, 1977, p. 108; Vol. 83, 1982, p.
285; Vol. 92, 1991, p. 62; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 78; Vol. 96, p. 55; Vol. 97, p. 57.
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-1-1

Concrete Structures and Foundations

1.4.4 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-15
1.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.5.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.6.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.2 Welding (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.3 Specifications (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16
1.6.4 Bending and Straightening Reinforcing Bars (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.7 Concrete Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19

1.7.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.7.2 Types of Admixtures and Standard Specifications (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19
1.8 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20

1.8.1 Cementitious Materials and Concrete Admixtures (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.8.2 Aggregates (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20
1.8.3 Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21

1.9.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.2 Safety (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.3 Design (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-21
1.9.4 Construction (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-22
1.9.5 Moldings (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-22
1.9.6 Form Coating and Release (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.9.7 Temporary Openings (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.9.8 Removal (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-23
1.10 Details of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24

1.10.1 Surface Conditions of Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.2 Fabrication (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.3 Provisions for Seismic Loading (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.4 Placing of Reinforcement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-24
1.10.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.10.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.10.7 Future Bonding (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-26
1.11 Concrete Jointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27

1.11.1 Scope (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.2 Types of Jointing (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.3 Expansion Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-27
1.11.4 Expansion Joints in Walls (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28
1.11.5 Contraction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28
1.11.6 Construction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-29
1.11.7 Watertight Construction Joints (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-29
1.12 Proportioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31

1.12.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31
8-1-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements
1.12.2 Measurement of Materials (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31

1.12.3 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-31
1.12.4 Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-32
1.12.5 Strength of Concrete Mixtures (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33
1.12.6 Workability (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-34
1.12.7 Slump (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.8 Compression Tests (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.9 Field Tests (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-35
1.12.10 Special Provisions When Using Cementitious Materials Other Than Portland Cement (2009) . . . . . 8-1-35
1.13 Mixing ................................................................................ 8-1-37

1.13.1 General (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-37
1.13.2 Site-Mixed Concrete (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.3 Ready-Mixed Concrete (2009). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.4 Delivery (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-38
1.13.5 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete (2009) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.14 Depositing Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39

1.14.1 General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39
1.14.2 Handling and Placing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-39 1
1.14.3 Chuting (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.4 Pneumatic Placing (Shotcreting) (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.5 Pumping Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-40
1.14.6 Compacting (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-41
1.14.7 Temperature (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-41
1.14.8 Continuous Depositing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.9 Bonding (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42 3
1.14.10 Placing Cyclopean Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.11 Placing Rubble Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.12 Placing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
1.14.13 Placing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.14.14 Water Gain (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15 Depositing Concrete Under Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43 4

1.15.1 General (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.2 Capacity of Plant (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.3 Standard Specifications (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.4 Cement (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.5 Coarse Aggregates (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-43
1.15.6 Mixing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.7 Caissons, Cofferdams or Forms (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.8 Leveling and Cleaning the Bottom to Receive Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.9 Continuous Work (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.10 Methods of Depositing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-44
1.15.11 Soundings (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-45
1.15.12 Removing Laitance (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-45
1.15.13 Concrete Seals (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.16 Concrete in Sea Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-1-3

1.16.1 Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46

1.16.2 Depositing in Sea Water (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.16.4 Minimum Cover (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.16.5 Protecting Concrete in Sea Water (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-46
1.17 Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47

1.17.1 Condition of Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.2 Concrete for Moderate Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.3 Concrete for Severe Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.4 Concrete for Very Severe Exposure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
1.17.5 Concrete for Alkali Soils or Alkali Water (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.17.7 Minimum Cover (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.17.8 Placement of Concrete (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.18 Curing ............................................................................... 8-1-48

1.18.1 General (2000) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-48
1.18.2 Hot Weather Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-49
1.18.3 Wet Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-49
1.18.4 Membrane Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-49
1.18.5 Steam Curing (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.6 Curing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.7 Curing Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.18.8 Curing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-50
1.19 Formed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51

1.19.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.19.2 Rubbed Finish (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.20 Unformed Surface Finish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51

1.20.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-51
1.20.2 Sidewalk Finish (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.3 Finishing Concrete Containing Silica Fume (2004). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.4 Finishing Concrete Containing Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.20.5 Finishing Concrete Containing Fly Ash (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.21 Decorative Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.22 Penetrating Water Repellent Treatment of Concrete Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52

1.22.1 General (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.22.2 Surface Preparation (2003). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-52
1.22.3 Environmental Requirements (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.4 Application (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.5 Materials (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-53
1.22.6 Quality Assurance (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-54
1.22.7 Delivery, Storage and Handling (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-54
1.23 Repairs and Anchorage Using Reactive Resins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55

1.23.1 General (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55

1.23.2 Surface Preparation (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.23.3 Application (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.24 High Strength Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55

1.24.1 General (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-55
1.24.2 Materials (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.24.3 Concrete Mixture Proportions (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-56
1.25 Specialty Concretes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57

1.25.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25.2 Sulfur Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25.3 Heavyweight Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-57
1.25.4 Polymer Concrete (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-58
1.26 Self-Consolidating Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-60

1.26.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-60
1.26.2 Mix Design and Testing (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-60
1.26.3 Forms and Reinforcement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
1.26.4 Mixing Concrete (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61 1
1.26.5 Placement (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
1.26.6 Curing (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-61
LIST OF FIGURES
3
Figure Description Page
8-1-1 Full-Depth Expansion Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-28

8-1-2 Two Methods for Making Contraction Joints for Slabs-on-Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-30
8-1-3 Keyed Construction Joint with Waterstop Inserted Perpendicular to the Plane of the Joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-30
4
LIST OF TABLES
Table Description Page
8-1-1 Portland Cement ASTM C150. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9

8-1-2 Blended Hydraulic Cements ASTM C595 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-9
8-1-3 Sampling and Testing Methods in Addition to those of ASTM C33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
8-1-4 Aggregate Soundness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-12
8-1-5 Fine Aggregate Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-13
8-1-6 Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-14
8-1-7 ASTM Specifications for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-17
8-1-8 ASTM Specifications for Coated Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-18
8-1-9 Maximum Permissible Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (by Weight) for Different Types of Structures and
Degrees of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-32
8-1-10 Air-Entrained Concrete Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33

LIST OF TABLES (CONT)
8-1-11 Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio for Air Entrained Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-33

8-1-12 Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-36
8-1-13 Concrete Temperature Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-42
8-1-14 Recommendations For Concrete In Sulfate Exposures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-47
SECTION 1.1 GENERAL
1.1.1 PURPOSE (2004)

This recommended practice is for work carried out by the Company or by Contractors for the Company when so requested by
the Engineer.
1.1.2 SCOPE (2004)

This recommended practice describes the selection, sampling and testing of materials to be used, the composition of concrete,
and the mixing, transporting, placing, finishing and curing of concrete. This recommended practice shall govern whenever it is
in conflict with other cited references.
1.1.3 TERMS (2006)
Following is a list of terms associated with this Part. These terms are defined in the Glossary located at the end of this Chapter.
AASHTO Blast-Furnace Slag, Ground Granulated

Absorption Bleeding
ACI International Cement, Blended
Admixture Cement, Hydraulic
Admixture, Accelerating Cement, Slag
Admixture, Air-Entraining Cementitious
Admixture, Retarding Centering
Admixture, Water Reducing Company
Admixture, Water Reducing (High Range) Compound, Curing
Admixture, Water Reducing and Accelerating Concrete
Admixture, Water Reducing and Retarding Concrete, Cyclopean
Agent, Bonding Concrete, Polymer
Aggregate Concrete, Polymer Cement
Air, Entrained Concrete, Structural Lightweight
Approved or Approval Contractor
ASTM - International Engineer
Blast-Furnace Slag Falsework

FHWA Resistance, Chemical

Fly Ash Shore / Shoring
Form / Formwork Sieve
Honeycomb Sieve Analysis
Joint, Expansion Sieve Number
Laitance Silica Fume
Modulus, Fineness Slump
PCI Soundness
Plans Strength, Compressive
Plasticizer Superplasticizer
Pozzolan USDOT
Reinforcement Water Absorption
Reinforcement, Deformed Water-Cementitious Material Ratio
Reinforcement, Plain
1.1.4 ACCEPTABILITY (2004)
a. Concrete shall be proportioned, mixed, transported, placed and cured by the methods herein recommended.
b. All materials used in the work shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer who shall be the sole judge of their
quality, suitability, and acceptability as to type. The Engineer shall be notified in advance whenever any phase of the 1
work is to begin.
1.1.5 ASTM - INTERNATIONAL (2004)
Whenever reference is made to the ASTM - International (ASTM), the letter ‘M’ indicating a metric edition and the number
indicating the year of issue are omitted from the designation. The latest issue of the referenced designation is to be used in
each case. 3
1.1.6 SELECTION OF MATERIALS (2004)
The concrete materials shall be selected for strength, durability and chemical resistance, and ability to attain specified
properties as required, in accordance with this recommended practice and as approved by the Engineer. They shall be
combined in such a manner as to produce uniformity of color and texture in the surface of any structure or group of structures
in which they are to be used. No change shall be made in the brand, type, source or characteristics of cementitious materials, 4
the character and source of aggregate or water, or the class of concrete and method of transporting, placing, finishing or curing
without approval of the Engineer.
1.1.7 TEST OF MATERIALS (2004)
a. The Engineer shall have the right to order testing of any materials used in concrete construction to determine if they are
of the quality specified.
b. Tests of materials and concrete shall be made in accordance with appropriate standards of the ASTM - International as
specified.
c. Pre-construction tests shall be carried out on cementitious materials, other than portland cement, as indicated in this
recommended practice.

1.1.8 DEFECTIVE MATERIALS (2004)
All materials of any kind rejected by the Engineer shall be immediately removed from the site and any work affected by the
defective material shall be remedied by the Contractor at his own expense and to the satisfaction of the Engineer.
1.1.9 EQUIPMENT (2004)
The Contractor shall provide all equipment required for the work, including all staging, scaffolding, apparatus, tools, etc., as
necessary. All equipment must be approved by the Engineer who may require the removal of any piece of equipment. The
Contractor shall substitute satisfactory equipment to replace rejected equipment without delay. Upon request, the Contractor
shall furnish for approval a statement of methods and equipment proposed for use in all aspects of the work. Exercise of this
approval by the Engineer shall not relieve the Contractor of his sole responsibility for the safe, adequate and lawful
construction, maintenance and use of such methods and equipment.
SECTION 1.2 CEMENT
1.2.1 GENERAL (2004)
Cement shall be furnished by the Contractor or the Company as provided for in the contract. Cement used in the work shall be
the same as that required by the mix design.
1.2.2 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)1
a. Cement shall conform to one of the following Standard Specifications except as modified in this Chapter.
(1) ASTM C150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement as shown in Table 8-1-1
(2) ASTM C595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements as shown in Table 8-1-2
b. The use of slag cement Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ as defined in ASTM C595 are not included in this recommended practice.
c. Refer also to Section 1.3 Other Cementitious Materials.
1
See C - Commentary

Table 8-1-1. Portland Cement ASTM C150
Type Description
Type I For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required.
Type IA Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type II For general use, especially when moderate sulfate resistance, or moderate heat of hydration is
desired.
Type IIA Air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type III For use when high early strength is desired.
Type IIIA Air-entraining cement for the same use as Type III, where air-entrainment is desired.
Type IV For use when a low heat of hydration is desired.
Type V For use when high sulfate resistance is desired.
Table 8-1-2. Blended Hydraulic Cements ASTM C595
Type Description
Portland Blast-Furnace Slag Cement

Type IS Portland blast-furnace slag cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type IS( ) Modified sulfate resistant (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
1
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes.
Portland-Pozzolan Cement
Type IP Portland-pozzolan cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type IP( ) Moderate sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
combination may be specified by adding the appropriate suffixes. 3
Type P Portland-pozzolan cement for use in concrete construction where high early strengths are not required.
Type P( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or low heat of hydration (LH), or any
Pozzolan-Modified Portland Cement
Type I(PM) Pozzolan-modified portland cement for use in general concrete construction. 4
Type I(PM)( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
Slag-Modified Portland Cement
Type I(SM) Cement for use in general concrete construction.
Type I(SM)( ) Modified sulfate resistance (MS), air-entrainment (A), or moderate heat of hydration (MH), or any
1.2.3 QUALITY, SAMPLING AND TESTING (2004)
The quality of the cement and the methods of sampling and testing shall meet the requirements of the appropriate ASTM
Standard Specification or Method of Test.

SECTION 1.3 OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
1.3.1 GENERAL (2004)
When using cementitious materials other than portland cement, reference should also be made to the provisions of Section
1.12 Proportioning; Section 1.13 Mixing; Section 1.14 Depositing Concrete; Section 1.16 Concrete in Sea Water; Section 1.17
Concrete in Alkali Soils or Alkali Water; Section 1.18 Curing; and Section 1.20 Unformed Surface Finish.
1.3.2 ACCEPTABILITY (2004)
Cementitious materials other than portland cement will be permitted only if approved in writing by the Engineer of the
Railroad Company.
1.3.3 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)1
The specifications listed in Articles 1.3.3.1 and 1.3.3.2 apply to the use of other cementitious materials, either supplied in
blended form with portland cement or added separately at the time of mixing.
1.3.3.1 ASTM C595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cements; and ASTM C618 Standard
Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland
Cement Concrete, and the following:
a. Silica Fume - ASTM C1240 Standard Specification for Silica Fume for Use in Hydraulic-Cement Concrete, Mortar,
and Grout, of the following types:
(1) As-produced silica fume -- in its original form of an extremely fine powder
(2) Slurried silica fume -- in a water base, containing 40 to 60% silica fume by mass
(3) Densified silica fume -- a compacted form of as-produced silica fume
b. Fly Ash - ASTM C618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a
Mineral Admixture in Concrete, of the following Classes:
(1) Class F -- Normally produced from high energy coals such as bituminous and anthracite coals, but sometimes
produced with sub-bituminous and lignite coals
(2) Class C -- Normally produced from sub-bituminous and lignite coals
(3) Class N – Natural materials such as highly reactive volcanic ash, metakaolin (and other calcined clays),
diatomaceous earths, calcined shales, and other reactive materials
1.3.3.2 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag - ASTM C989 Standard Specification for Ground Granulated
Iron Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars.
1.3.4 MATERIALS NOT INCLUDED IN THIS RECOMMENDED PRACTICE (2004)
The following materials are not included in this recommended practice:
a. Pelletized silica fume -- consisting of hard pellets, not presently being used as an additive for concrete.
1
See C - Commentary

b. Types of slag not produced in the iron making process.
c. Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ blended hydraulic cements containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag, as defined in ASTM
C595.
d. Blended cements containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag blended with hydrated lime.
1.3.5 DOCUMENTATION (2004)
a. Each shipment of fly ash or silica fume or ground granulated blast-furnace slag used on a project shall have a
certificate of compliance which includes the following:
(1) Name of supplier
(2) Consignee and destination of the shipment
(3) Vehicle identification number
(4) A unique unrepeated order number or other identification number for each shipment
(5) Source
b. Each shipment of fly ash shall also include a certificate of compliance indicating the Class (either Class C or Class F),
with certified test numbers demonstrating that the material meets ASTM C618. 1
c. Each shipment of silica fume shall also include a certificate of compliance demonstrating that it meets the requirements
of ASTM C1240.
d. Each shipment of ground granulated blast-furnace slag shall also include a certificate of compliance indicating its
grade (either Grade 80, 100 or 120), with certified test numbers demonstrating that it meets the requirements of ASTM
C989. 3
SECTION 1.4 AGGREGATES

4
1.4.1 GENERAL (2004)
1.4.1.1 Specifications
Except as specified otherwise herein, all aggregates shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C33, Standard Specification
for Concrete Aggregates.
1.4.1.2 Sampling and Testing
a. Representative samples shall be selected and sent to the testing laboratory at frequent intervals as directed by the
Engineer. Aggregates may not be used until the samples have been tested by the laboratory and approved by the
Engineer.
b. Sampling and testing shall be in accordance with ASTM C33 and the Standard Specifications and Methods of Test of
ASTM - International found in Table 8-1-3.

Table 8-1-3. Sampling and Testing Methods in Addition to those of ASTM C33
ASTM
Type
Designation
Surface Moisture in Fine Aggregate C70
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate C127
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Fine Aggregate C128
Standard Sand C778
c. The required tests shall be made on test samples that comply with requirements of the designated test methods and are
representative of the grading that will be used in the concrete. The same test sample may be used for sieve analysis and
for determination of material finer than the No. 200 (75 μm) sieve. Separated sizes from the sieve analysis may be used
in preparation of samples for soundness or abrasion tests. For determination of all other tests and for evaluation of
potential alkali reactivity where required, independent test samples shall be used.
d. The fineness modulus of an aggregate is the sum of the percentages of a sample retained on each of a specified series of
sieves divided by 100, using the following standard sieve sizes: No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, No. 4, 3/8 inch,
3/4 inch, 1-1/2 inches (150 μm, 300 μm, 600 μm, 1.18 mm, 2.36 mm, 4.75 mm, 9.5 mm, 19.0 mm, 37.5 mm) and
larger, increasing in the ratio of 2 to 1. Sieving shall be done in accordance with ASTM Method C136.
1.4.1.3 Soundness
a. Except as provided in Paragraph 1.4.1.3(b), aggregate subjected to five cycles of ASTM C88 Soundness of Aggregates
by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate shall show a loss weighed in accordance with the grading procedures,
not greater than the percentages found in Table 8-1-4.
Table 8-1-4. Aggregate Soundness
Aggregate Sodium Sulfate Magnesium Sulfate

Fine 10 15
Coarse 12 18
b. Aggregate failing to meet the requirements of Paragraph 1.4.1.3(a) may be accepted provided that concrete of
comparable properties, made with similar aggregate from the same source, has given satisfactory service when exposed
to weathering similar to that to be encountered.
1.4.2 FINE AGGREGATES (2004)
1.4.2.1 General1
Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand or, subject to the approval of the Engineer, manufactured sand with similar
characteristics. Lightweight fine aggregate shall not be used.
1.4.2.2 Grading
a. Sieve Analysis–Fine aggregate, except as provided in ASTM C33, shall be graded within the limits found in Table 8-1-
5.
1
See C - Commentary

Table 8-1-5. Fine Aggregate Grading
Total Passing
Sieve Size Percentage by
Weight
3/8 inch (9.5 mm) 100
No. 4 (4.75 mm) 95-100
No. 8 (2.36 mm) 80-100
No. 16 (1.18 mm) 50-85
No. 30 (600 μm) 25-60
No. 50 (300 μm) 10-30
No. 100 (150 μm) 2-10
No. 200 (75 μm) zero
b. The minimum percentages shown above for material passing the No. 50 (300 μm) and No. 100 (150 μm) sieves may be
reduced to 5 and 0, respectively, if the aggregate is to be used in air-entrained concrete containing more than 420 lb of
cement per cubic yard (250 kg per cubic meter), or in non-air-entrained concrete containing more than 520 lb of 1
cement per cubic yard (310 kg per cubic meter). Air-entrained concrete is here considered to be concrete containing
air-entraining cement or an air-entraining admixture and having an air content of more than 3%.
c. The fine aggregate shall have not more than 45% retained between any two consecutive sieves of those shown in
Table 8-1-5 and its fineness modulus shall be not less than 2.3 nor more than 3.1.
d. For walls and other locations where smooth surfaces are desired, the fine aggregate shall be graded within the limits 3
shown in Table 8-1-5, except that not less than 15% shall pass the No. 50 (300 μm) sieve and not less than 3% shall
pass the No. 100 (150 μm) sieve.
e. To provide the uniform grading of fine aggregate, a preliminary sample representative of the material to be furnished
shall be submitted at least 10 days prior to actual deliveries. Any shipment made during progress of the work which
varies by more than 0.2 from the fineness modulus of the preliminary sample shall be rejected or, at the option of the
Engineer, may be accepted provided that suitable adjustments are made in concrete proportions to compensate for the 4
difference in grading.
f. The percentages listed above do not apply when using pozzolans or ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Such
percentages shall be determined by tests as outlined in this recommended practice.
1.4.2.3 Mortar Strength
Fine aggregate shall be of such quality that when made into a mortar and subjected to the mortar strength test prescribed in
ASTM C87, the mortar shall develop a compressive strength not less than that developed by a mortar prepared in the same
manner with the same cementitious materials and graded standard sand having a fineness modulus of 2.40±0.10. The graded
sand shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C778.
1.4.2.4 Deleterious Substances
a. The amount of deleterious substances in fine aggregate shall not exceed the limits found in Table 8-1-6.

Table 8-1-6. Deleterious Substances in Fine Aggregate
Maximum Limit
Item
Percentage by Weight
Clay Lumps 1.0
Coal and Lignite 0.5 (Note 1)
Material finer than No. 200 sieve (75 μm):
Concrete subject to abrasion 3.0 (Note 2)
All other classes of concrete 5.0 (Note 2)
Note 1: Does not apply to manufactured sand produced from blast-furnace slag.
Note 2: For manufactured sand, if the material finer than the No. 200 (75 μm) sieve consists of the
dust of fracture, essentially free from clay or shale, these limits do not apply.
b. A fine aggregate failing the test for organic impurities may be used provided that, when tested for mortar-making
properties, the mortar develops a compressive strength at 7 and 28 days of not less than 95% of that developed in a
similar mortar made from another portion of the same sample which has been washed in a 3% solution of sodium
hydroxide followed by thorough rinsing in water. The treatment shall be sufficient so that the test of the washed
material made in accordance with ASTM C40 will have a color lighter than the standard color solution.
c. Fine aggregate for use in concrete that will be subject to wetting, extended exposure to humid atmosphere, or contact
with moist ground shall not contain any materials that are deleteriously reactive with the alkalies in the cement in an
amount sufficient to cause excessive expansion of mortar or concrete, except that if such materials are present in
injurious amounts, the fine aggregate may be used with a cement containing less than 0.6% alkalies as measured by
percentage of sodium oxide plus 0.658 times percentage of potassium oxide, or with the addition of a material that has
been shown to prevent harmful expansion due to the alkali-aggregate reaction.
1.4.3 NORMAL WEIGHT COARSE AGGREGATE (2004)
1.4.3.1 General
a. Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, crushed slag, or a combination thereof or, subject to the
approval of the Engineer, other inert materials with similar characteristics, having hard, strong durable pieces, free
from adherent coatings, and shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C33 except as required by this Part.
b. Crushed slag shall be rough cubical fragments of air-cooled blast-furnace slag, which when graded as it is to be used in
the concrete, shall have a compact weight of not less than 70 lb per cubic foot (1100 kg per cubic meter). It shall be
obtained only from sources approved by the Engineer.
1.4.3.2 Grading
a. Coarse aggregate shall be graded between the limits specified by ASTM C33.
b. The maximum size of aggregate shall be not larger than one-fifth of the narrowest dimension between forms of the
member for which concrete is used, nor larger than one-half of the minimum clear space between reinforcing bars,
except as provided for precast concrete in Section 2.5.

1.4.3.3 Deleterious Substances
a. The amount of deleterious substances in coarse aggregate shall not exceed the limits found in
ASTM C33.
1.4.3.4 Abrasion Loss
Coarse aggregate to be used in concrete when subjected to test for resistance to abrasion (ASTM C535 or ASTM C131) shall
show a loss of weight not more than the following:
a. For concrete subject to severe abrasion such as concrete in water, precast concrete piles, paving for sidewalks,
platforms or roadways, floor wearing surfaces, and concrete cross or bridge ties, the loss of weight shall not exceed
40%.
b. For concrete subject to medium abrasion such as concrete exposed to the weather, the loss of weight shall not exceed
50%.
c. For concrete not subject to abrasion, the loss in weight shall not exceed 60%.
1.4.3.5 Rubble Aggregate
Rubble aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone retained on a 6-inch (150 mm) square opening and with individual
pieces weighing not more than 100 lb (45 kg).
1.4.3.6 Cyclopean Aggregate

1
Cyclopean aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone with individual pieces weighing more than 100 lb (45 kg).
1.4.4 LIGHTWEIGHT COARSE AGGREGATE FOR STRUCTURAL CONCRETE (2004)
1.4.4.1 Scope 3
a. This recommended practice covers lightweight coarse aggregates intended for use in lightweight concrete in which
prime considerations are durability, compressive strength, and light weight. Structural lightweight concrete shall only
be used where shown on the plans or specified.
b. Aggregates for use in non-structural concrete such as fireproofing and fill, and for concrete construction where
capacity is based on load tests rather than conventional design procedures, are not included in this recommended 4
practice.
1.4.4.2 General Characteristics
The aggregates shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C330 Standard Specifications for Lightweight Aggregates for
Structural Concrete, except as otherwise specified herein.
1.4.4.3 Unit Weight (Mass Density)
a. The dry weight (mass density) of lightweight aggregates shall not exceed 55 lb per cubic foot (880 kg per cubic meter),
measured loose by accepted ASTM practice.
b. Uniformity of weight (density). The unit weight (mass density) of successive shipments of lightweight aggregate shall
not differ by more than 6% from that of the sample submitted for acceptance tests.

1.4.4.4 Concrete Making Properties
Concrete specimens containing lightweight coarse aggregate under test shall conform to ASTM C330 and shall meet the
following requirements. A magnesium sulfate soundness test shall be conducted for 10 cycles in accordance with ASTM C88.
Loss thus determined shall not exceed 15%. Loss of individual gradation size shall not exceed 20% of that size.
SECTION 1.5 WATER
1.5.1 GENERAL (2010)
1.5.1.1 Specifications
Mixing water shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C 1602, Standard Specification for Mixing Water Used in the
Production of Hydraulic Cement Concrete.
SECTION 1.6 REINFORCEMENT
1.6.1 GENERAL1 (2013)

Reinforcement shall be deformed reinforcement, except that plain bars and plain wire shall be permitted for spirals or tendons,
or for dowels at expansion or contraction joints. Reinforcement consisting of structural steel, steel pipe, or steel tubing shall be
permitted for composite compression members.
1.6.2 WELDING (2013)

a. Welding of reinforcing bars shall conform to “Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing Steel” (AWS D1.4/D1.4M) of the
American Welding Society. Type and location of welded splices and other required welding of reinforcing bars shall be
indicated on the plans or in the project specifications. The ASTM specifications for reinforcing bars, except for ASTM
A706/A706M, shall be supplemented to require a report of the chemical composition necessary to conform to welding
procedures specified in AWS D1.4/D1.4M.
b. If welding of wire to wire, and of wire or welded wire reinforcement to reinforcing bars or structural steel is to be
required on a project, the Engineer shall specify procedures or performance criteria for the welding.
c. Welders of reinforcing bars shall maintain certification by the American Welding Society.
1.6.3 SPECIFICATIONS (2013)
1.6.3.1 Reinforcement
Bars, wire, welded wire reinforcement, prestressing tendons, structural steel, steel pipe and tubing shall conform to one of the
ASTM specifications listed in Table 8-1-7.
1
See C - Commentary

Table 8-1-7. ASTM Specifications for Reinforcement
Type Specifications
Bars, Wire and Welded Wire
Deformed and Plain Carbon-Steel Bars A615/A615M
Deformed and Plain Low-Alloy Steel Bars A706/A706M
Deformed Rail-Steel and Axle-Steel Bars A996/A996M
Deformed and Plain Stainless Steel Bars A955/A955M
Headed Steel Bars A970/A970M
Deformed and Plain Low-Carbon, Chromium Steel Bars A1035/A1035M
Steel Wire, Plain (wire shall not be smaller than size W4 A1064/A1064M
(0.226 inch (5.74 mm) dia.))
Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Plain A1064/A1064M
Steel Wire, Deformed (wire shall not be smaller than size D4 (0.225 inch (5.72 A1064/A1064M
mm) dia.)) 1
Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed (welded intersections shall not be A1064/A1064M
spaced farther apart than 16 inches (400 mm) in direction of primary flexural
reinforcement)
Stainless Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement, Deformed and Plain A1022/A1022M
Prestressing Tendons
3
Uncoated Seven-Wire Steel Strand A416/A416M
Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire A421/A421M
Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar A722/A722M
Structural Steel, Steel Pipe and Tubing
Structural-Steel A36/A36M, A242/A242M,
A529/A529M, A572/A572M,
4
A588/A588M or A709/A709M (Grade
36, 50 or 50W)
Steel Pipe A53/A53M (Grade B)
Steel Tubing A500/A500M, A501/A501M or
A618/A618M
1.6.3.2 Coated Reinforcement
a. Coated reinforcement, when specified or shown on the plans as a corrosion-protection system, shall conform to one of
the ASTM specifications listed in Table 8-1-8.

Table 8-1-8. ASTM Specifications for Coated Reinforcement
Type Specification
Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars A775/A775M
Epoxy-Coated Prefabricated Steel Reinforcing Bars A934/A934M
Epoxy-Coated Steel Wire and Welded Wire Reinforcement A884/A884M
Epoxy-Coated Seven-Wire Prestressing Steel Strand A882/A882M
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Reinforcing Bars A767/A767M
Zinc and Epoxy Dual-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars A1055/A1055M
Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Steel Welded Wire Reinforcement A1060/A1060M
b. Repair all damaged epoxy coating on reinforcing bars with patching material conforming to ASTM A775/A775M,
A934/A934M or A1055/A1055M. Repair shall be done in accordance with the material manufacturer’s
recommendations.
c. Repair all damaged epoxy coating on wire or welded wire reinforcement with patching material conforming to ASTM
A884/A844M. Repair shall be done in accordance with the material manufacturer’s recommendations.
d. Repair all damaged zinc coating on reinforcing bars in accordance with ASTM A780/A780M. The maximum amount
of damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar. If the damaged
areas exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar, the bar shall be replaced.
e. Equipment for handling epoxy-coated reinforcing bars shall have protected contact areas. Bundles of coated bars shall
be lifted at multiple pickup points to prevent bar-to-bar abrasion from sags in the bundles. Coated bars or bundles of
coated bars shall not be dropped or dragged. Coated bars shall be stored on protective cribbing. All damaged coating
shall be repaired. The maximum amount of damaged areas shall not exceed 2% of the surface area of each linear foot
(300 mm) of the bar. If the damaged areas exceed 2% of the total surface area in each linear foot (300 mm) of the bar,
the bar shall be replaced.
f. After installation of mechanical splices on epoxy-coated, zinc-coated (galvanized), or zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars, all damaged coating shall be repaired. All parts of mechanical splices used on coated bars, including
steel splice sleeves, bolts, and nuts shall be coated with the same material used for repair of damaged coating on the
spliced material. Remove coating for 2 inches (50 mm) back from the mechanical splice to bright metal before repair.
g. After completion of welding for welded splices on epoxy-coated, zinc-coated (galvanized), zinc and epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars, all damaged coating shall be repaired. All welds, and steel splice members when used to splice bars,
shall be coated with the same material used for repair of damaged coating. Remove coating for 6 inches (150 mm)
back from the welded splice to bright metal before repair.
h. Repair all damaged zinc coating on welded wire reinforcement in accordance with ASTM A780/A780M.
i. Plants applying fusion-bonded epoxy coatings to reinforcing bars shall maintain certification by the Concrete
Reinforcing Steel Institute.

1.6.4 BENDING AND STRAIGHTENING REINFORCING BARS1 (2013)
a. Reinforceing bars shall be fabricated in accordance with Article 1.10.2 and Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.4.2. Field bending and/or straightening of bars that are partially embedded in concrete shall be done in
accordance with the Plans or as permitted by the Engineer.
b. When epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars, or zinc-coated (galvanized)
reinforcing bars are field bent and/or straightened, damaged coating shall be repaired in accordance with Articles
1.6.3.2b or 1.6.3.2d. Field bending and/or straightening of epoxy-coated reinforcing bars conforming to ASTM
A934/A934M shall be prohibited.
SECTION 1.7 CONCRETE ADMIXTURES
1.7.1 GENERAL (2013)
a. The selection of admixtures to be used in concrete, if any, shall be subject to the prior approval of the Engineer.
b. An admixture shall be shown capable of maintaining essentially the same composition and performance throughout the
work as the product used in establishing concrete proportions in accordance with Section 1.12 Proportioning.
c. Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used unless approved by the Engineer. 1
d. Special purpose admixtures may be used if approved in writing by the Engineer. However, before an admixture can be
approved for use, it must be shown that its use will not adversely affect the placement, strength and/or durability of the
concrete. Admixtures used in combination may be incompatible and their performance should be verified by prior
testing from a certified third party agency.
3
1.7.2 TYPES OF ADMIXTURES AND STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS (2013)
The specifications listed in Paragraphs 1.7.2(a) and 1.7.2(b) apply in the use of admixtures.
a. ASTM C260 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete.
b. ASTM C494 Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete: 4

(1) Type A--Water-reducing admixtures
(2) Type B--Retarding admixtures
(3) Type C--Accelerating admixtures
(4) Type D--Water-reducing and retarding admixtures
(5) Type E--Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures
(6) Type F--Water-reducing, high range admixtures
(7) Type G--Water-reducing, high range, and retarding admixtures
1
See C - Commentary

(8) Type S--Specific performance admixtures
SECTION 1.8 STORAGE OF MATERIALS
1.8.1 CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS AND CONCRETE ADMIXTURES (2009)
a. Immediately upon delivery, all cement shall be stored in watertight ventilated structures to prevent absorption of water.
b. Sacked cement shall be stacked on pallets or similar platforms to permit circulation of air and access for inspection.
The cement sacks shall not be stacked against outside walls.
c. Cement sacks shall not be stacked more than 14 layers high for periods of up to 60 days, nor more than 7 layers high
for periods over 60 days. Older cement shall be used first.
d. Storage facilities for bulk cement shall include separate compartments for each type of cement used. The bins shall be
so constructed as to prevent dead storage in corners.
e. All cement shall be subject at any time to retest. If under retest it fails to meet any of the requirements of the
specifications, it will be rejected and shall be promptly removed from the site of the work by the Contractor.
f. Where the Company furnishes the cement and the failure of the cement to pass the retest is due to negligence on the
part of the Contractor to store it properly, the cost of such cement shall be charged to the Contractor.
g. The above provisions also apply to other cementitious materials and blended cementitious materials, except that fly ash
shall be stored in a separate structure or bin without common walls to avoid leakage of the fly ash into the other
cementitious materials.
h. Liquid admixtures shall be protected from freezing. If freezing occurs then the material shall not be used in concrete
unless the manufacturer approves a method of ensuring the effectiveness of the thawed material, such as agitation.
1.8.2 AGGREGATES (2009)
a. The storage of coarse aggregates shall be minimized, as to avoid the natural tendency of such stockpiles to segregate.
b. Fine and coarse aggregates shall be stored separately and in such a manner as to avoid the inclusion of foreign
materials in the concrete. Aggregates shall be unloaded and piled in such a manner as to maintain the uniform grading
of the sizes. Stockpiles of coarse aggregates shall be built in horizontal layers, not by end dumping, to avoid
segregation. Equipment such as dozers and loaders shall not be operated on the stockpile, so as to avoid contamination,
segregation and breakage.
c. A hard base shall be provided to prevent contamination from underlying material. Overlap of the different sizes shall
be prevented by suitable walls or ample spacing between stockpiles. Stockpiles shall not be contaminated by swinging
aggregate-filled buckets or clams over the various stockpiled aggregate sizes. Crushed slag shall be wetted down when
necessary to ensure a minimum 3% moisture content.
d. Special measures shall be taken to maintain a uniform moisture content in the aggregates as batched. Control and
testing procedures shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.

1.8.3 REINFORCEMENT (2013)
a. Reinforcement shall be stored in such a manner as to avoid contact with the ground. If reinforcement remains in
storage at the site for more than a month, it shall be covered to protect it from the weather. If reinforcement
accumulates rust, dirt, mud, loose scale, paint, oil, or any foreign substance during storage, it shall be cleaned before
being used. Deterioration may be a basis for rejection. Coated reinforcement shall be handled in accordance with
Section 1.6.
b. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, epoxy-coated wire and welded wire reinforcement, and zinc and/or epoxy dual-coated
reinforcing bars shall be covered by opaque polyethylene sheeting or other suitable opaque protective material as
approved by the Engineer. For stacked bundles, the protective covering shall be draped around the perimeter of the
stack. The covering shall be secured in a manner that allows for air circulation around the coated reinforcement to
minimize condensation under the covering. Epoxy-coated reinforcing bars, epoxy-coated wire and welded wire
reinforcement, and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be handled and repaired in accordance with
Section 1.6.
SECTION 1.9 FORMS
1.9.1 GENERAL (2009)
Forms shall be constructed of wood, steel, or other suitable material, and be of a type, size, shape, quality and strength, which
will produce true, smooth lines and surfaces conforming to the lines and dimensions shown on the plans. Forms shall be
substantial and designed to resist the pressures to which they are subjected. Lumber in forms for exposed surfaces should be 1
dressed to a uniform thickness. Undressed lumber may be used in forms for unexposed surfaces. Forms shall be kept free of
rust, grease and other foreign matter which will discolor the concrete.
Forms may be omitted for foundation concrete if, in the opinion of the Engineer, the sides of the excavation are sufficiently
firm so that the concrete may be thoroughly vibrated without causing the adjacent earth to slough. The actual dimensions of
the excavation shall then be slightly greater than the plan dimensions of the foundation so as to ensure design requirements.
3
1.9.2 SAFETY (2009)
The Contractor shall follow all local, state and federal codes, ordinances and regulations pertaining to forming of concrete at
all stages of construction, in addition to the requirements of this Section and the railroad Company.
1.9.3 DESIGN (2009) 4

a. The Contractor shall be responsible for the design of all forms required to complete the work.
b. Structural design of forms shall be performed in conformance with ACI 347R, Guide to Formwork for Concrete, or
other generally accepted standards, subject to the approval of the Engineer.
c. Forms shall be designed by a licensed engineer.
d. Drawings and structural design calculations shall be provided to the Engineer for review and acceptance prior to
undertaking the work, unless excluded by the project Plans.
e. Documentation demonstrating the adequacy of forms supports to safely resist the design loads shall be provided for
review and acceptance prior to undertaking the work, unless excluded by the project Plans.
f. Shoring and falsework shall be in accordance with Part 28 except as provided herein.

g. Special provision for load transfer and movements shall be taken into account in the design of forms for prestressed
concrete.
h. Special provision for forms supporting concrete that is required to act compositely with other materials in the finished
work shall be made.
i. The review and acceptance of Contractor’s submittals shall not relieve the Contractor of responsibility for the safe and
functional design of the forms and their supports.
1.9.4 CONSTRUCTION (2009)
a. The supervisor responsible for construction of forms should be certified by the American Concrete Institute Inspector
Certification Program as a Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector. The Contractor may appoint a similarly
qualified and experienced individual with the approval of the Engineer.
b. Forms shall be constructed mortar-tight, and shall be made sufficiently rigid by the use of ties and bracing to prevent
displacement or sagging and to withstand the pressure and vibration without deflection and/or objectionable distortion
from the prescribed lines during and after placement of the concrete.
c. Joints in forms shall be horizontal or vertical, and suitable devices shall be used to hold adjacent edges together in
accurate alignment.
d. All forms shall be constructed and maintained so as to prevent warping and the opening of joints.
e. All forms shall be constructed so that they may be readily removed without damaging the concrete.
f. Bolts and/or rods shall be used for internal form ties. They shall be so arranged that, when the forms are removed, no
corrodible metal shall be within 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) of any surface.
g. When wire form ties are used, where permitted, spacer blocks shall be removed as the concrete is placed. Wire form
ties shall be cut back 1-1/2 inches (38 mm) from the face of the concrete upon removal of the forms.
h. All fittings for ties shall be of such a design that upon their removal the remaining cavities will be the smallest
practicable size. The cavities shall be filled with cement mortar and the surfaces left in a sound condition, even and
uniform in color with respect to the original surface.
i. All temporary fasteners in contact with concrete shall be countersunk.
j. Any material once used in forms shall be thoroughly cleaned and form release agent shall be applied before erection in
a new location. All rough surfaces shall be smoothed and repairs made to the satisfaction of the Engineer. Forms which
have been used repeatedly and are not acceptable to the Engineer for further use shall be removed from the site.
k. In the case of long spans where no intermediate supports are possible, deflection in the forms due to the weight of the
fresh concrete shall be compensated for by using camber strips, wedges or other devices so that the finished members
conform accurately to the desired line and grade.
l. Foundations for falsework shall be provided in accordance with Part 28.
1.9.5 MOLDINGS (2009)
Unless otherwise specified or directed by the Engineer, suitable moldings or bevels shall be placed in the angles of forms to
round or bevel the edges of the concrete, including abutting edges of expansion joints.

1.9.6 FORM COATING AND RELEASE (2009)
Prior to placing reinforcement, the inside surfaces of forms shall be coated with a non-staining form release agent. A thin film
shall be applied to all surfaces that will be in contact with the fresh concrete.
1.9.7 TEMPORARY OPENINGS (2009)
Temporary openings shall be provided at the base of the column and wall forms, and at other locations where necessary, to
facilitate cleaning and inspection immediately before depositing concrete. Forms for walls or other thin sections of
considerable height shall be provided with openings or other devices which will permit the concrete to be placed in a manner
to avoid accumulation of hardened concrete on the forms or reinforcement.
1.9.8 REMOVAL (2009)
a. Forms shall be removed in such a manner as to ensure the complete safety of the structure. Care shall be taken to
preserve formed surfaces and not to damage the corners or surfaces of the concrete. Hammering on or prying between
forms and concrete shall not be permitted.
b. Form and falsework shall not be removed until the following are achieved:
(1) The concrete has adequately cured and has acquired sufficient strength to support its weight and any anticipated
loads.
(2) The minimum time specified in the Plans has elapsed. 1

(3) The Contractor has submitted and the Engineer has accepted a procedure and schedule for removal of form and
falsework with calculations, if applicable, for loads transferred to the structure during the process.
c. The time of removal of forms will depend on the type of the concrete, the location of the form, and the temperature and
moisture conditions which affect the strength of the concrete.
3
d. The age-strength relationship of the concrete used in determining the time for form and falsework removal shall be
determined from tests conducted on representative samples of the same concrete as used in the structure and cured
under job conditions, in accordance with ASTM C 39.
e. If not otherwise specified on the Plans or by the Engineer, formwork and supports shall not be released until the
concrete has attained sufficient strength to support its weight and any anticipated loads upon it, but not less than 70% 4
of its specified compressive strength. In continuous structures, support shall not be released in any span until the first
and second adjoining spans on each side have reached the specified strength.
f. Bulkheads at construction joints shall not be removed for a period of 15 hours after casting adjacent concrete.
g. Forms for ornamental work, railings, parapets, and vertical surfaces which require a surface finishing operation shall
be removed not less than 12 hours, nor more than 48 hours after casting the concrete, depending upon weather
conditions.
h. Support for pretensioned and post-tensioned concrete members shall not be removed until sufficient prestress has been
applied to enable the member to support its weight and anticipated loads.

SECTION 1.10 DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
1.10.1 SURFACE CONDITIONS OF REINFORCEMENT (2013)
a. Reinforcement at the time concrete is placed shall be free from mud, oil, or other coatings that adversely affect bond
strength. Epoxy coating on bars, wire, and welded wire reinforcement conforming to standards referenced in Table 8-1-
8 is permitted.
b. Reinforcement, except prestressing tendons with rust, mill scale, or a combination of both, shall be considered as
satisfactory, provided the minimum dimensions, including height of deformations, and weight of a hand wire-brushed
test specimen are not less than the applicable ASTM designation requirements.
c. Prestressing tendons shall be clean and free of oil, excessive soaps, dirt, scale, pitting and excessive rust. A light
coating of rust without pitting shall be permitted.
1.10.2 FABRICATION (2003)
a. Reinforcement shall be prefabricated to the dimensions shown on the plans. Reinforcement shall be bent cold, and
shall not be bent or straightened in a manner that will damage the material. Bars with kinks or bends not shown on the
plans shall be rejected. Hot bending of reinforcement will be permitted only when approved by the Engineer.
b. Diameter of bends measured on the inside of the bar shall be as shown on the plans. When diameter of bend is not
shown, minimum bend diameter shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
c. Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, the tolerance in fabricated lengths of bars from that shown on the placing
drawings shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) for bar sizes #11 (36 mm) and under and 2 inches (51 mm) for bar sizes #14 and
#18 (43 mm and 57 mm); the tolerance in out-to-out dimensions of hooks shall be ±1/2 inch (13 mm); the tolerance in
out-to-out dimensions of stirrups and ties shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) and the maximum angular deviation on 90 degree
hooks or bends shall be 0.5 inches per foot (1 in 24).
1.10.3 PROVISIONS FOR SEISMIC LOADING (2013)
For structures located in earthquake-risk areas as determined from Chapter 9, consideration shall be given to reinforcement
details that will provide adequate ductility and enable reinforcement to be strained beyond yield to allow the structure to
absorb the energy of an earthquake.
1.10.4 PLACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2013)
1.10.4.1 General
a. Reinforcement, prestressing tendons and ducts shall be accurately placed and adequately supported before concrete is
placed, and shall be secured against displacement within permitted tolerances. Tie wire shall be 16-1/2 gage (1.4 mm)
or heavier. Welding of crossing bars shall not be permitted for the assembly of reinforcement unless authorized by the
Engineer.
b. Reinforcing bars shall not be cut in the field except when authorized by the Engineer. Flame-cutting of epoxy-coated
reinforcing bars and zinc-coated and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall not be permitted.
c. When epoxy-coated, zinc and epoxy dual-coated, or zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars are cut in the field, the
ends of the bars shall be coated with the same material that is used for the repair of damaged coating and shall be
repaired in accordance with Articles 1.6.3.2b and 1.6.3.2d. The limit on the amount of repaired damaged coating does
not apply to cut ends that are coated with patching material.

d. The supervisor responsible for placing reinforcing bars, tendons, and ducts shall maintain certification by the American
Concrete Institute as a Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
1.10.4.2 Tolerances
Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement, prestressing tendons, and prestressing ducts shall be placed in
flexural members, walls and compression members within the following tolerances:
a. Clear distance to formed or unformed concrete surfaces:
(1) When member size is 12 inches (300 mm) or less . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±3/8 inch (10 mm)
(2) When member size is over 12 inches (300 mm) but not over 2 feet (600 mm). . . ±1/2 inch (13 mm)
(3) When member size is over 2 feet (600 mm) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1 inch (25 mm)
(4) Reduction in concrete cover shall not exceed one-third specified concrete cover.
(5) Reduction in concrete cover to formed soffits shall not exceed 1/4 inch (6 mm).
Tolerances shall not permit a reduction in concrete cover except as shown above, and shall not permit reduction
in concrete cover below values specified as minimums as defined in Article 1.10.6.
b. Tolerance on minimum distance between bars shall be minus 1/4 inch (6 mm).
c. Tolerance in uniform spacing of reinforcement from theoretical location shall be ±2 inches (50 mm).
d. Tolerance in uniform spacing of stirrups and ties from theoretical location shall be ±1 inch (25 mm). 1
e. Tolerance for longitudinal location of bends and ends of bars shall be ±2 inches (50 mm), except at discontinuous ends
of members where the tolerance shall be ±1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
f. Tolerance in length of bar laps shall be minus 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
g. Tolerance in embedded length shall be minus 1 inch (25 mm) for #3 to #11 bars (10 mm to 36 mm) and minus 2 inches 3
(50 mm) for #14 and #18 bars (43 mm and 57 mm).
h. When it is necessary to move bars to avoid interference with other reinforcement, conduits, or embedded items by an
amount exceeding the specified placing tolerances, the resulting arrangement of bars shall be approved by the
Engineer.
i. Tolerance in the vertical and horizontal location of prestressing strand shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm) except in precast
slabs. The tolerance for vertical location in precast slabs shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm). The tolerance for horizontal
4
location of prestressing strand in precast slabs shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) in any 15 feet (4.6 m) of strand length.
j. Tolerance in the vertical and horizontal location of unbonded post-tensioning tendons and ducts in bonded post-
tensioning shall be ±1/4 inches (6 mm) except in slabs. The tolerance for vertical location in slabs shall be ±1/4 inches
(6 mm). The tolerance for horizontal location of post-tensioning tendons and ducts in bonded post-tensioning in slabs
shall be ±1 inch (25 mm) in any 15 feet (4.6 m) of strand length.
k. In precast concrete members the bearing plates shall be concentric with the tendons and tolerance for the
perpendicularity with tendons in concrete shall be ±1 degree.
1.10.4.3 Bar Supports and Side-Form Spacers
a. Unless otherwise specified by the Engineer, reinforcement supported from the ground shall rest on precast concrete
blocks not less than 4 inches (100 mm) square, and having a compressive strength equal to or greater than the specified
compressive strength of the concrete being placed. Reinforcement supported by formwork shall rest on bar supports
and spacers made of concrete, metal, plastic, or other materials approved by the Engineer.

b. Where noted on the plans and at all formed surfaces that will be exposed to the weather in the finished structure, bar
supports and side-form spacers spaced no further than 4 feet (1200 mm) on center shall be provided. Bar supports and
spacers and all other accessories within 1/2 inch (13 mm) of the concrete surface shall be noncorrosive or protected
against corrosion.
c. Epoxy-coated and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars supported from formwork shall rest on coated wire bar
supports, or on bar supports made of dielectric material and other acceptable materials. Wire bar supports shall be
coated with dielectric material for a minimum distance of 2 inches (50 mm) from the point of contact with the epoxy-
coated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars. Reinforcing bars used as support bars shall be epoxy-coated. In
walls reinforced with epoxy-coated or zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars, spreader bars shall be epoxy-
coated where specified. Proprietary combination bar clips and spreaders used in walls with epoxy-coated or zinc and
epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be made of corrosion-resistant material or coated with dielectric material.
d. Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars supported from formwork shall rest on galvanized wire bar supports coated
with dielectric material, or on bar supports made of dielectric material or other acceptable materials. All other
reinforcement and embedded steel items in contact with galvanized reinforcing bars, or within a minimum clear
distance of 2 inches (50 mm) from galvanized reinforcing bars unless otherwise required or permitted, shall be
galvanized.
e. Epoxy-coated and zinc and epoxy dual-coated reinforcing bars shall be fastened (tied) with plastic-coated or epoxy-
coated tie wire; or other materials authorized by the Engineer.
f. Zinc-coated (galvanized) reinforcing bars shall be fastened (tied) with zinc-coated tie wire, or non-metallic-coated tie
wire, or other materials authorized by the Engineer.
1.10.4.4 Draped Welded Wire Reinforcement
When welded wire reinforcement with wire size not greater than W5 or D5 is used for slab reinforcement in slabs not
exceeding 10 feet (3000 mm) in span, the reinforcement may be curved from a point near the top of the slab over the support
to a point near the bottom of the slab at mid-span, provided such reinforcement is either continuous over, or securely anchored,
at the support.
1.10.5 SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2003)

Spacing of reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans. When spacing of reinforcement is not shown, spacing shall be in
accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design for reinforcing bars, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, Section 17.5
Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts.
1.10.6 CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT (2003)

Concrete cover for reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans. When concrete cover is not shown, minimum concrete cover
shall be provided in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Details of Reinforcement, Section 2.6 for bars and
wire, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, Article 17.5.2 for prestressing tendons and ducts.
1.10.7 FUTURE BONDING (2003)

Exposed reinforcement intended for bonding with future extensions shall be protected from corrosion in an approved manner.

SECTION 1.11 CONCRETE JOINTING
1.11.1 SCOPE (2009)
This recommended practice is applicable to the design of concrete slabs and walls in concrete structures such as bridges,
buildings and flat work, finger joints and other mechanical joint systems are not included in these recommended practices.
1.11.2 TYPES OF JOINTING (2009)
a. Expansion joints are filled separations between adjoining parts of the concrete structure which are provided to allow
for relative movement such as those caused by thermal changes.
b. Contraction joints are sawed, tooled, or constructed in a concrete surface to create a weakened plane to control the
location of cracking resulting from dimensional changes caused by shrinkage.
c. Construction joints occur where two successive placements of concrete meet, across which it is desired to maintain
bond between two concrete placements, and through which any reinforcement which may be present is not interrupted.
1.11.3 EXPANSION JOINTS (2009)
a. Expansion joints allow for differential movement of the concrete mass on either side of the joint. These may also be
referred to as isolation joints.
b. The Engineer may require that the joint be designed to resist movements in other directions, such as those resulting
1
from shear.
c. Expansion joints shall be installed as shown on the Plans or as specified by the Engineer. Waterstops may also be
required.
d. Jointing materials shall be in accordance with ASTM D994 or ASTM D1751. There shall be no connection across the 3
joint except as shown on the Plans or as required by the Engineer.

Figure 8-1-1. Full-Depth Expansion Joint
1.11.4 EXPANSION JOINTS IN WALLS (2009)
Expansion joints between the finished surface and the waterstop shall be filled with a material such as a 1/2 inch (13 mm)
thick strip of Preformed Expansion Joint meeting ASTM D994, ASTM D1751 or ASTM D1752.
1.11.5 CONTRACTION JOINTS (2009)
a. These recommended practices do not include full contraction joints, where all reinforcement is terminated at the joint
and where joint details may include waterstops, bond breakers, joint sealant or shear connectors.
b. Contraction joints allow for differential movement across the joint only in one direction, usually in the plane of the
finished surface. They are provided to allow for dimensional changes such as those caused by drying shrinkage of the
concrete.
c. Contraction joints in slabs-on-grade shall be located and detailed as shown on the plans. Unless otherwise shown or
noted, joints shall be placed at 15 to 25 foot (5 – 8 m) intervals in each direction.
d. Contraction joints for slabs-on-grade shall be made by one of the methods shown in Figure 8-1-2 or as shown on the
plans.
e. Sawing of contraction joints shall be done as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to prevent aggregates being
dislocated by the saw and shall be completed within twelve hours after placement unless otherwise approved by the
Engineer. Sawing shall not be done when the concrete temperature is falling, unless approved by the Engineer.
f. Contraction joints may also be constructed by means or methods specifically designed to create a plane of weakness in
freshly placed concrete. This may include a reduction in the amount of reinforcement passing through the joint if
approved by the Engineer.
g. Contraction joints may also be made by other methods if approved by the Engineer. Sawed or tooled contraction joints
shall be cleaned and filled with polymeric sealant conforming to ASTM D1190 or ASTM D3405 or as specified by the
Engineer.

h. Prior to the application of a polymeric sealing material, a heat resistant backer rod shall be inserted to a minimum depth
of 1/2 inch (13 mm) below the slab surface. The remaining reservoir shall then be filled flush with the slab surface (see
Figure 8-1-2).
1.11.6 CONSTRUCTION JOINTS (2009)
a. Construction joints allow for no differential movement across the plane of the joint. They are provided only at
locations where casting is temporarily suspended or interrupted.
b. The procedures specified in Article 1.14.9 for bonding fresh concrete to hardened concrete shall be followed in the
formation of all construction joints.
c. Reinforcement shall continue through the joint. Additional reinforcement such as dowels and other features such as
keys and waterstops may also be included. Special measures such as attention to vibration shall be taken in the casting
of concrete to either side of the joint in the vicinity of keys.
d. Structures or portions of the structures shall be continuously cast except as specified herein. When necessary to provide
construction joints not indicated or specified by the Plans, such construction joints shall be located as approved by the
Engineer and formed so as not to impair the strength, appearance, or durability of the structure.
1.11.7 WATERTIGHT CONSTRUCTION JOINTS (2009)
a. Contraction joints shall not be used in watertight construction unless shown on the plans approved by the Engineer.
See Figure 8-1-1. 1
b. Where a construction joint is used in watertight construction, special care shall be taken in finishing the concrete to
which the succeeding concrete is to be bonded. The consistency of the concrete shall be carefully controlled and the
surface shall be protected from loss of moisture as described in Article 1.18.4.
c. Where construction joints are required to be watertight, a continuous keyway shall be constructed in the interface of the
first section of the concrete placed with an approved waterstop embedded in this first placement. One half of the 3
waterstop shall be embedded in the first placement and the remaining material shall be embedded in the adjacent
placement. See Figure 8-1-3 for details. The concrete shall be thoroughly vibrated to ensure uniform contact over the
entire surface of the waterstop and the key on either side of the construction joint. The waterstop shall be in accordance
with Corps of Engineers Specification CRD C 572 (PVC) or CRD C 513 (Rubber).
d. Keyed joints shall not be used in slabs less than 6 inches (150 mm) thick.
4

Figure 8-1-2. Two Methods for Making Contraction Joints for Slabs-on-Grade
Figure 8-1-3. Keyed Construction Joint with Waterstop Inserted Perpendicular to the Plane of the Joint

SECTION 1.12 PROPORTIONING
1.12.1 GENERAL (2009)
Mix proportions shall be proposed by the Contractor for the various parts of the work subject to the approval of the Engineer.
Revised mix proportions may be submitted by the Contractor for approval by the Engineer during the work to reflect concrete
test results. Proportions of materials for making concrete shall be selected to provide the strength, workability, durability and
other qualities specified on the Plans and required by the Engineer.
1.12.2 MEASUREMENT OF MATERIALS (2009)
a. In the measurement of cement, 94 lb, 1 bag, 1/4 barrel or 1#cubic foot all are assumed equivalent (1.5 Kg of cement
shall be assumed as one liter). Materials shall be measured by weighing, except as otherwise specified or where other
methods are specifically authorized by the Engineer. The apparatus provided for weighing the aggregates and cement
shall be suitably designed and constructed for this purpose. The aggregates and cement shall be weighed separately.
The accuracy of all weighing devices shall be such that successive quantities can be measured to within 1% of the
desired amount. Cement in standard packages (bags) need not be weighed, but bulk cement and fractional packages
shall be weighed. The mixing water shall be measured by volume or by weight. The water-measuring device shall be
accurate to within 1/2%. All measuring devices shall be subject to approval of the Engineer.
b. Where volumetric measurements are authorized by the Engineer, the weight proportions shall be converted to
equivalent volumetric proportions. In making this conversion, suitable allowance shall be made for variations in the
moisture condition of the aggregates, including the bulking effect in the fine aggregate.
1
1.12.3 WATER-CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS RATIO (2009)
a. The proportioning of materials shall be based on the requirements for a plastic and workable mix suited to the
conditions of placement containing not more than the specified amount of water, including the free water contained in
the aggregates. The maximum specified amount of water shall not exceed the quantities shown in Table 8-1-9 for the
type of structure and the condition of exposure to which it will be subjected. Moisture in the aggregates shall be 3
measured by methods satisfactory to the Engineer.
b. Free water content of aggregates included in the quantities specified must be deducted from the amounts given in the
Table to determine the amount to be added at the mixer. Allowance may be made for absorption when aggregates are
not saturated.

Table 8-1-9. Maximum Permissible Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio (by Weight)

for Different Types of Structures and Degrees of Exposure
Exposure Conditions (Note 1)
Severe wider range in

temperature or Mild temperature rarely
frequent alternations of below freezing,
freezing and thawing or rainy, or arid
(air-entrained conc. only)
At the water line or At the water line or

Description within the range of within the range of
fluctuating water fluctuating water
level or spray level or spray
In Air In Sea In Air In Sea

Water or In Water or In
In
In Fresh Contact Contact
Fresh
Water With With
Water
Sulfates Sulfates
(Note 2) (Note 2)
Thin sections, such as railings, curbs, sills, ledges, 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.53 0.49 0.40
ornamental or architectural concrete, reinforced (Note 3) (Note 3)
piles, and pipe
Moderate sections, such as retaining walls, 0.53 0.49 0.44 (Note 4) 0.53 0.44
abutments, piers, girders, beams (Note 3) (Note 3)
Exterior portions of heavy (mass) sections 0.58 0.49 0.44 (Note 4) 0.53 0.44
(Note 3) (Note 3)
Concrete deposited by tremie underwater – 0.44 0.44 – 0.44 0.44
Concrete slabs laid on the ground 0.53 – – (Note 4) – –
Concrete protected from weather, interiors of (Note 4) – – (Note 4) – –
buildings, concrete below ground
Concrete which will later be protected by 0.53 – – (Note 4) – –
enclosure of backfill but which may be exposed to
freezing and thawing for several years before such
protection is offered
Note 1: Air-entrained concrete shall be used under all conditions involving severe exposure and may be used under mild
exposure conditions to improve workability of the mixture.
Note 2: Soil or ground water containing sulfate concentrations of more than 0.2%.
Note 3: When sulfate resisting cement is used, maximum water-cementitious material ratio may be increased by 0.05.
Note 4: Water-cementitious material ratio should be selected on basis of strength requirements.
Note 5: The water-cementitious materials ratio may require adjustment as outlined in Article 1.12.10.
1.12.4 AIR CONTENT OF AIR-ENTRAINED CONCRETE (2009)
a. The volume of entrained air in concrete shall be within the limits shown in Table 8-1-10.

Table 8-1-10. Air-Entrained Concrete Volume
Maximum Size Coarse Air Content %

Aggregate Inches (mm) by Volume
1-1/2, 2, or 2-1/2 (38, 50, 63) 5 ±1
3/4, 1 (19, 25) 6 ±1
3/8, 1/2 (10, 13) 7-1/2 ±1
b. The air content shall be determined by one of the following methods:
(1) The gravimetric method, ASTM C138.
(2) The volumetric method, ASTM C173.
(3) The pressure method, ASTM C231.
1.12.5 STRENGTH OF CONCRETE MIXTURES (2011)
a. The provisions of this Section are not applicable when using cementitious materials other than Portland cement.
b. When preliminary tests of the materials to be used are not available, the required water-cementitious materials ratio
shall be determined in accordance with Method 1 (Article 1.12.5.1). When strengths in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa) are
required, or where lightweight aggregates or admixtures (other than those exclusively for the purpose of entraining air)
1
are to be used, the required water-cementitious materials ratio shall be determined in accordance with Method 2
(Article 1.12.5.2). Method 3 (Article 1.12.5.3) may be used if statistical data conforming to Article 1.12.5.3 are
available.
1.12.5.1 Method 1 – Without Preliminary Tests

3
a. Concrete proportions may be determined in accordance with this method if approved by the Engineer. Concrete
proportions shall then be based on the water-cementitious materials ratio limits found in Table 8-1-11. These limits are
only for concrete that is made with cements meeting Types I, IA, II, IIA, III, IIIA, or V of ASTM C150, or Types IS,
IS-(A), IS(MS), IS-(A)(MS), IP or IP-(A), of ASTM C595. Volume of entrained air shall be within limits of Article
1.12.4. Air Content of Air-Entrained Concrete (2009) ratio shall not be greater than that required by Article 1.12.3.
Table 8-1-11. Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio for Air Entrained Concrete 4

Specified 28 Day Compressive Strength Absolute Water-Cementitious Materials
of Concrete, f′ c psi (MPa) Ratio by Weight (Mass)(Note)
2,500 (17) 0.66
3,000 (21) 0.58
3,500 (24) 0.51
4,000 (28) 0.46
5,000 (34) 0.40
Note: Not applicable for concrete containing lightweight aggregates or admixtures other than for
entraining air.
b. The values in Table 8-1-11 are based on the use of cement and aggregates meeting the requirements of this Section and
the concrete being sufficiently protected from loss of moisture and from low temperatures to ensure that proper curing

will take place. When Type III Portland cement is used in lieu of Type I or Type II Portland cement, it may be assumed
that the specified compressive strength will be obtained at the age of 7 days.
c. The strength of cylinders made with Types I, IA, II or IIA Portland cement and tested at the age of 7 days shall not fall
below 65% of the assumed compressive strength at the age of 28 days. The strength of cylinders made with Types III or
IIIA Portland cement and tested at the age of 3 days shall not fall below 65% of the assumed minimum compressive
strength at the age of 28 days shown for Types I, IA, II and IIA Portland cement. The strength of cylinders tested at the
age of 28 days shall be at least 1200 psi (8.3 MPa) greater than the strength specified on the plans when using this
method.
1.12.5.2 Method 2 – With Preliminary Tests
The strength of concrete shall be determined by tests made with representative samples of the materials to be used in the work.
The results of the tests shall be submitted to the Engineer in advance of construction. These tests shall be made using the
consistencies suitable for the work. These samples shall be proportioned to produce a slump of within 3/4 inch (19 mm) of the
maximum permitted slump and with an entrained air content of within 0.5 percent of the maximum air content required. Tests
shall be conducted in accordance with ASTM C192 Standard Practice for Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the
Laboratory and with ASTM C39 Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. At least
three tests shall be conducted for each of three water-cementitious material ratios that will encompass the required concrete
strength. A curve representing the relation between the water content and the average 28 day compressive strength or earlier
strength at which the concrete is to receive its full working load shall be established for this range of values. The maximum
permissible water-cementitious material ratio for the concrete to be used shall be shown by the curve to produce a strength
15% greater than specified on the Plans or specifications. If any changes are to be made in the materials, new curves shall be
established by tests as described above.
1.12.5.3 Method 3 – On Basis of Field Experience
a. Where a concrete production facility has a record based upon at least 30 consecutive strength tests that represent
similar materials and conditions to those expected, required average compressive strength used as the basis for
selecting concrete proportions shall exceed required f’c at designated test ages by at least:
(1) 1.34 standard deviations, where the standard deviation is less than or equal to 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
(2) 2.33 standard deviations less 500 psi (3.45 MPa), where the standard deviation is greater than 500 psi (3.45 MPa).
b. Strength test data for determining standard deviation shall be considered to comply with the above if data represents
either a group of at least 30 consecutive tests or a statistical average for two groups totaling 30 or more tests.
c. Strength tests used to establish standard deviation shall represent concrete produced to meet a specified strength within
±1000 psi (±6.90 MPa) of that specified for the proposed work.
d. Changes in materials and proportions within the population of background tests used to establish standard deviation
shall not have been more closely restricted than for the proposed work.
1.12.6 WORKABILITY (2009)
The concrete shall be of such consistency and composition that it can be worked readily into the corners and angles of the
forms and around the reinforcement without segregation of materials or the collection of free water on the surface. Subject to
the limiting requirements of Article 1.12.3, the contractor shall, if the Engineer requires, submit a new mix design to adjust the
proportions of cement and aggregates so as to produce a mixture which will be easily placeable at all times, due consideration
being given to the methods of placing and compacting used on the work and subject to the approval of the Engineer.

1.12.7 SLUMP (2009)
The slump test may be used as a control measure to maintain the consistency suitable for the work. When mechanical vibrators
are used to compact the concrete, the consistency suitable to that method shall be used. The slump test shall be made in
accordance with the ASTM Method of Test C143 Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic Cement Concrete.
1.12.8 COMPRESSION TESTS (2009)
Specimens for compression tests shall be made and stored in accordance with ASTM C31 Standard Practice for Making and
Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Field. These specimens shall be tested in accordance with ASTM C39.
1.12.9 FIELD TESTS (2009)
a. During the progress of construction, the Engineer will have tests made to determine whether the concrete produced
compares to the quality specified by the Plans. The Contractor shall cooperate in the making of such tests and allow
free access to the work for selection of samples and storage of specimens and in affording protection to the specimens
against injury or loss through construction operations.
b. Four cylinders will generally be made for each class of concrete used in any one day’s operation. In special cases, this
normal number of control specimens may be exceeded when in the opinion of the Engineer such additional tests are
required. The Contractor, however, shall not be required to furnish for such additional tests more than 2 cubic feet (75
liters) of concrete for each 100 cubic yard (76 cubic meter) of concrete being placed (75 liters for each 100 cu. m).
c. Samples of concrete for test specimens shall be taken at the mixer, or in the case of ready-mix concrete, from the 1
transportation vehicle during discharge. When, in the opinion of the Engineer, it is desirable to take samples elsewhere,
they shall be taken as directed. Specimens shall be made and stored in accordance with Article 1.12.8.
d. The air content of freshly mixed air-entrained concrete shall be checked at least twice daily for each class of concrete,
or each time cylinders are cast. Changes in air content above or below the amount specified shall be corrected by
adjustment in the mix design or quantities of air-entraining material being used.
3
e. If the strengths shown by the test specimens fall below the values given in Article 1.12.5 or as specified by the Plans,
then the Engineer shall have the right to require changes in proportions to apply on the remainder of the work.
f. Technicians performing field tests of concrete materials shall maintain Level I certification by the American Concrete
Institute as a Concrete Field Testing Technician. The person in responsible charge of field test operations shall maintain
Level 3 certification by the National Ready Mix Concrete Association as a Concrete Technologist. 4
1.12.10 SPECIAL PROVISIONS WHEN USING CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS OTHER THAN
PORTLAND CEMENT (2009)
1.12.10.1 Maximum Cementitious Materials
Concrete exposed to deicing chemicals shall contain total weights (masses) of cementitious materials no greater than those
specified in Table 8-1-12.

Table 8-1-12. Concrete Exposed to Deicing Chemicals
Cementitious Material Maximum Percentage of Total Cementitious

Materials by Weight (mass)
Fly ash or other pozzolans conforming to 25
ASTM C618
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag 50
conforming to ASTM C989
Silica fume conforming to ASTM C1240 10
Total fly ash or other pozzolans, ground 50
granulated blast-furnace slag and silica fume
Total fly ash or other pozzolans, and silica 35
fume
Notes: Total cementitious material also includes ASTM C150, ASTM C595, ASTM C845
and ASTM C1157 cements (ASTM C845 is the Standard Specification for Expansive
Hydraulic Cement and is not included in this recommended practice).
The maximum percentages include:
a. Fly ash and other pozzolans and ground granulated blast-furnace slag included in
Types IP or I(PM) or IS or I(SM) blended cements, ASTM C595
b. Silica fume, ASTM C1240, present in blended cements
1.12.10.2 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete
1.12.10.2.1 General
The ability of the concrete mixture to exhibit special properties should be determined by tests for each source of silica fume.
1.12.10.2.2 High-Range Water Reducing Admixtures
High-range water reducing admixtures should be used in concrete containing silica fume in order to achieve the desired
workability.
1.12.10.2.3 Entrained Air
The amount of admixture required to entrain the desired amount of air should be determined by tests as part of the design of
the concrete mixture.
1.12.10.3 Requirements When Using Fly Ash in Concrete
1.12.10.3.1 General
Mix proportions, including the proportions of fly ash, shall be determined by tests.
1.12.10.3.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures and High Range Water-Reducing Admixtures
Water reducing admixtures and high-range water reducing admixtures may be used in concrete containing fly ash.

1.12.10.3.3 Testing to Verify Mix Design
The mixture shall be designed and proportioned to provide the properties for which the fly ash was used, and to avoid other
possible undesirable properties. Tests shall include slump/workability, requirements for air-entraining admixtures, the rate of
bleeding of fresh concrete, the time of setting, the rate of early strength gain and any need to use an accelerating admixture or
a water-reducing admixture, the heat of hydration (if required), reactivity with sulphates or expansion due to alkali-silica
reactions (if required), and the 28-day or later strength as required by the design parameters.
1.12.10.3.4 Water to Cementitious Materials Ratio
The water to cementitious material ratio will normally be reduced in concrete containing fly ash.
1.12.10.3.5 Air Entrainment
Concrete containing fly ash should be air entrained if it is to be subjected to freezing and thawing conditions. Concrete should
also attain the desired design strength before being subjected to chlorides.
1.12.10.4 Requirements When Using Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag in Concrete
1.12.10.4.1 General
Mix proportions, including the proportion of ground granulated blast-furnace slag, shall be determined by tests.
1.12.10.4.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures

1
Water-reducing admixtures may be used in concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag, in order to increase the
rate of strength gain.
1.12.10.4.3 Accelerators
An accelerating admixture may be used when using ground granulated blast-furnace slag in a concrete mix. 3
1.12.10.4.4 Proportioning of Aggregates
Concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will normally be proportioned for a larger quantity of coarse
aggregate than normal Portland cement concrete.
1.12.10.4.5 Entrained Air 4

The amount of admixture required to entrain the desired amount of air should be determined by tests as part of the design of
the concrete mixture.
SECTION 1.13 MIXING
1.13.1 GENERAL (2009)
a. The concrete shall be mixed only in the quantity required for immediate use. Concrete that has developed an initial set
shall not be used.

b. The first batch of concrete materials placed in the mixer shall contain a sufficient excess of cement, sand, and water to
coat the inside of the drum without reducing the required mortar content of the mix. The mixer shall be thoroughly
cleaned if mixing is interrupted for a period that would permit initial set to take place.
c. Concrete may be mixed at the site of construction, at a central point, and/or in truck mixers.
d. The ingredients shall be thoroughly mixed to specification.
1.13.2 SITE-MIXED CONCRETE (2009)
a. Unless authorized by the Engineer, the concrete shall be mixed in a batch mixer of approved type and size which will
ensure a uniform distribution of the material throughout the mass. The equipment at the mixing plant shall be so
constructed that all materials (including the water) entering the drum can be accurately measured and weighed. The
batch shall be fully discharged from the mixer before recharging. The volume of the mixed material per batch shall not
exceed the manufacturer’s rated capacity of the mixer. Mixing of each batch shall continue for the periods noted below,
during which time the drum shall rotate at a peripheral speed as recommended by the manufacturer. The mixing time
shall be measured from the time when all of the solid materials are in the mixer drum, provided that all of the mixer
water has been introduced before one-fourth of the mixing time has elapsed. The mixer shall have a timing device with
a bell or other suitable warning device adjusted to give a clearly audible signal each time the lock is released. In case of
failure of the timing device, the contractor shall be permitted to operate while it is being repaired, provided an
approved timepiece equipped with minute and second readings is furnished. If the timing device is not placed in good
working order within 24 hours, further use of the mixer will be prohibited until repairs are made.
b. Minimum mixing time shall be as follows:
(1) For mixers of a capacity of 1 cubic yard (0.8 cubic meter) or less – 90 seconds unless a shorter time is shown to be
satisfactory in accordance with concrete uniformity test requirements of ASTM C94.
(2) For mixers of a capacity greater than 1 cu yd (0.8 cubic meter), the time of mixing shall be increased 25 seconds
for each cubic yard (0.8 cubic meter) of capacity or fraction thereof or as determined by the concrete uniformity
test requirements of ASTM C94.
c. The production of concrete shall meet the applicable requirements of ASTM C94.
1.13.3 READY-MIXED CONCRETE (2009)
Ready mixed concrete shall be mixed and delivered to the site by any of three methods of operation: central mixing, shrink
mixing or truck mixing. The production of ready-mixed concrete shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C94. The batch
plant providing ready-mixed concrete shall be certified by the National Ready Mix Concrete Association.
1.13.4 DELIVERY (2009)
a. The organization supplying concrete shall have sufficient plant capacity and transporting equipment to ensure
continuous delivery at the rate required. The rate of delivery of concrete during concrete operations shall be such as to
provide for the proper handling, placing, and finishing of the concrete. The methods of delivering and handling
concrete shall facilitate placing with minimum rehandling and without damage to the structure or concrete.
b. The Contractor shall submit records to the Engineer showing the time and date of each batch produced and the mix
proportions and the approximate location within the structure of each batch.

1.13.5 REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE (2009)
1.13.5.1 Material Handling Procedures When Using Silica Fume
It is recommended that persons handling silica fume use protective equipment and procedures to minimize the generation and
accumulation of dust. Manufacturers’ material safety data sheets should be consulted for specific health and safety practices to
be followed.
1.13.5.2 Workability of Delivered Concrete
Tests for slump and entrained air content should be carried out at the site before placing concrete containing silica fume to
ensure that specification limits are met.
SECTION 1.14 DEPOSITING CONCRETE
1.14.1 GENERAL (2000)
Before beginning placement of concrete, hardened concrete and foreign materials shall be removed from the inner surfaces of
the mixing and conveying equipment. Before depositing any concrete all debris shall be removed from the space to be
occupied by the concrete, and mortar splashed upon the reinforcement and surfaces of forms shall be removed. Reinforcement
shall be checked for position and fastening and approval of the Engineer obtained. Where concrete is to be placed on a rock 1
foundation, all loose rock, clay, mud, etc., shall be removed from the surface of the rock. Any unusual conditions or excess
fissures shall be treated as directed by the Engineer. Water shall be removed from the space to be occupied by the concrete
before concrete is deposited, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer. Any flow of water into an excavation shall be diverted
through proper side drains to a sump, or be removed by other approved methods which will avoid washing the freshly
deposited concrete. If directed by the Engineer water ventpipes and drains shall be filled by grouting or otherwise after the
concrete has thoroughly hardened. All temporary runways for delivery of concrete must be supported free from all reinforcing
steel. The supervisor of the concrete placing crew shall maintain certification by the American Concrete Institute as a 3
Concrete Flatwork Finisher, or Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
1.14.2 HANDLING AND PLACING (1993)
a. Concrete shall be handled from the mixer, or in case of ready-mixed concrete, from the transporting vehicle, to the
place of final deposit as rapidly as practicable by methods which will prevent the separation or loss of the ingredients. 4
Special care shall be taken to fill each part of the forms by depositing concrete as near final position as possible, to
work the coarser aggregates back from the face and to force the concrete under and around the reinforcement without
displacing it. Concrete shall not have a free fall of more than 4 feet unless permitted by the Engineer. Depositing a large
quantity at any point and working it to final position, shall not be permitted.
b. Concrete shall be placed in horizontal layers and each layer shall be placed and compacted before the preceding layer
has taken initial set so as to prevent formation of a joint. It shall be so deposited as to maintain, until the completion of
the unit, a plastic surface approximately horizontal, except in arch rings. Temporary struts or braces within the form
shall be removed when concrete has reached an elevation rendering their further service unnecessary. These temporary
members shall be entirely removed from the forms and not buried in the concrete. After the concrete has taken its
initial set, care shall be exercised to avoid jarring the forms or placing any strain on the ends of the projecting
reinforcement. Under no circumstances shall concrete that has partially hardened be deposited in the work.
c. In placing concrete for an arch ring, the work shall be carried on symmetrically with respect to the center line, and the
working faces of the completed courses shall be on approximately radial planes. This requirement applies whether or
not the arch is placed in voussoir sections with allowance for key sections for final placement.

d. In order to allow for shrinkage or settlement, at least 2 hours shall elapse after placing concrete in walls, columns or
stems of deep T-beams before depositing concrete in girders, beams or slabs supported thereon, unless otherwise
specified or shown on the plans. If the columns are structural steel encased in concrete, the lapse of time to allow for
shrinkage or settlement need not be observed.
e. Concrete in girders, slabs and shallow T-beam construction shall be placed in one continuous operation for each span,
unless otherwise provided. Concrete shall be deposited uniformly for the full length of the span and brought up evenly
in horizontal layers.
f. No concrete shall be placed in the superstructure until the pier forms have been stripped sufficiently to determine the
character of the concrete in the piers, and the load of the superstructure shall not be allowed to come upon abutments,
piers and column bents until they have been in place at least 7 days, unless otherwise permitted by the Engineer.
1.14.3 CHUTING (1993)
When concrete is conveyed by chuting, the plant shall be of such size and design as to insure a practically continuous flow in
the chute. The chutes shall be of metal or metal lined. The angle of the chute with the horizontal and the shape of the chute
shall be such as to allow the concrete to slide without separation of the ingredients. The delivery end of the chute shall be as
close as possible to the point of deposit. When the operation is intermittent, the chute shall discharge into a hopper. The chute
shall be thoroughly flushed with water before and after each run: the water used for this purpose shall be discharged outside
the forms. Chutes must be properly baffled or hooded at the discharging end to prevent separation of the aggregates.
1.14.4 PNEUMATIC PLACING (SHOTCRETING) (1993)
Shotcrete construction shall be in accordance with ACI Standard “Guide to Shotcrete” (ACI 506) and ACI Standard
“Specification for Materials, Proportioning, and Application of Shotcrete” (ACI 506.2) of the ACI.
1.14.5 PUMPING CONCRETE (1993)
a. The pump and all appurtenances shall be so designed and arranged that the specified concrete can be transported and
placed in the forms without segregation. The pump shall be capable of developing a working pressure of at least 300
psi and the pipeline and fittings shall be designed to withstand twice the working pressure.
b. Where it is necessary to lay the pipe on a down grade, a reducer shall be placed at the discharge end of the pipe to
provide a choke and thus produce a continuous flow of concrete. When the type of pump is such that it discharges the
concrete in small batches, or “belching,” a baffle box shall be provided into which the concrete shall be discharged.
This box should preferably be of metal, about 2 feet square, with open sides so as to permit the concrete to flow into the
forms at right angles to line of discharge. The pipe shall be not less than 6 inches nor more than 8 inches outside
diameter, and the line shall be laid with as few bends as possible. When changes in direction are necessary they shall be
made with bends of 45 degrees or less, unless greater bends are specifically permitted. If greater bends are permitted in
special cases, they shall be long-radius bends. The maximum distance of delivery of concrete by pumping shall be
1000 feet horizontally and 100 feet vertically, unless otherwise specifically permitted by the Engineer. (A 90-degree
bend is figured as equivalent to 40 feet of horizontal piping. A 45-degree bend is equivalent to 20 feet. A 22.5-degree
bend is equivalent to 10 feet.) When pumping is completed, the concrete remaining in the pipeline if it is to be used,
shall be ejected in such a manner that there will be no contamination of the concrete or separation of the ingredients.
The pipeline and equipment must then be thoroughly cleaned. The pipeline can be cleaned by either water or air. If
water is used, a pump shall be provided with a capacity of at least 80 gpm and capable of developing a pressure of 400
psi. Cleaning of the pipe can also be accomplished by the use of a “go-devil” which is propelled through the line by
water or air pressure. (The “go-devil” is a dumbbell shaped piece with a rubber cup on each end. The cups are turned
toward the liquid, or air, and the seal is the same as in a simple plunger pump.) If water is used, it must be discharged
outside of the forms. On important work duplicate pumping equipment and additional pipe shall be provided to prevent
delay due to breakdown of equipment.

1.14.6 COMPACTING (1993)
a. Concrete shall be thoroughly compacted during and immediately after depositing by vibrating the concrete internally
by means of mechanical vibrating equipment, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer.
b. Internal mechanical vibrators shall be of a type approved by the Engineer. They shall be of sturdy construction,
adequately powered, capable of transmitting vibration to the concrete in frequencies of not less than 3500 impulses per
minute and shall produce a vibration of sufficient intensity to consolidate the concrete into place without a separation
of the ingredients.
c. The vibratory elements shall be inserted into the concrete at the point of deposit and in the areas of freshly placed
concrete. The time of vibration shall be of sufficient duration to accomplish thorough consolidation, complete
embedment of the reinforcement, the production of smooth surfaces free from honeycomb and air bubbles, and to work
the concrete into all angles and corners of the forms. However, over-vibration shall be avoided, and vibration shall
continue in a spot only until the concrete has become uniformly plastic and shall not continue to the extent that pools of
grout are formed. The length of time of vibration depends upon the frequency of the vibration (impulses per minute),
size of vibrators and the slump of the concrete. This length of time must be determined in the field.
d. The internal vibrators shall be applied at points uniformly spaced, not farther apart than the radius over which the
vibration is visibly effective, and shall be applied close enough to the forms effectively to vibrate the surface concrete.
The vibration shall not be dissipated in lateral motion but shall be concentrated in vertical settlement in consolidation
of the concrete.
e. The vibrator shall not be used to push or distribute the concrete laterally. The vibrating element shall be inserted in the 1
concrete mass a sufficient depth to vibrate the bottom of each layer effectively, in as nearly a vertical position as
practicable. It shall be withdrawn completely from the concrete before being advanced to the next point of application.
f. To secure even and dense surfaces, free from aggregate pockets or honeycomb, vibration shall be supplemented by
working or spading by hand in the corners and angles of forms and along form surfaces while the concrete is plastic
under the vibratory action.
3
g. A sufficient number of vibrators shall be employed so that, at the required rate of placement, thorough consolidation is
secured throughout the entire volume of each layer of concrete. Extra vibrators shall be on hand for emergency use and
for use when other vibrators are being serviced.
h. The use of surface vibrators to supplement internal vibration will be permitted when satisfactory surfaces cannot be
obtained by the internal vibrations alone and when the contractor has obtained the approval of the Engineer of the
equipment to be used. Surface vibrators shall be applied only long enough to embed the coarse aggregate and to bring 4
enough mortar to the surface for satisfactory finishing.
i. The use of approved form vibrators will be permitted by the Engineer only when it is impossible to use internal
vibrators. They shall be attached to or held on the forms in such a manner as to effectively transmit the vibration to the
concrete and so that the principal path of motion of the vibration is in a horizontal plane.
1.14.7 TEMPERATURE (1993)
a. Concrete when deposited shall have temperatures within the limits shown in Table 8-1-13.
b. The method of controlling the temperature of the concrete shall be approved by the Engineer.

Table 8-1-13. Concrete Temperature Limits
Temperature of Concrete
Temperature of Air
When Placed–Degrees F
Degrees - F Minimum Maximum

Below 30 70 90
Between 30 and 45 60 90
Above 45 50 90
1.14.8 CONTINUOUS DEPOSITING (1993)
Concrete shall be deposited continuously and as rapidly as practicable until the unit of operation approved by the Engineer is
completed. Construction joints in addition to those provided on the plans will not be allowed unless authorized by the
Engineer. If so authorized, they shall be made in accordance with Section 1.11, Concrete Jointing.
1.14.9 BONDING (1993)
Before new concrete is placed against hardened concrete, the surface of the hardened concrete shall be cleaned and all laitance
removed. Immediately before new concrete is placed, the existing surfaces shall be thoroughly wetted and all standing water
removed. Prior to placing fresh concrete, apply a bonding layer of mortar, usually 1/8 inch to 1/2 inch in thickness, which is
spread on the moist and prepared hardened concrete surface. In lieu of mortar, a suitable commercial bonding agent may be
used, when applied in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
1.14.10 PLACING CYCLOPEAN CONCRETE (1993)
Cyclopean aggregate shall be thoroughly embedded in the concrete. The individual stones shall not be closer than 12 inches to
any surface or adjacent stones. Stratified stone shall be laid on its natural bed. Cyclopean aggregate shall be carefully placed to
avoid injury to forms or adjoining masonry.
1.14.11 PLACING RUBBLE CONCRETE (1993)
Rubble aggregate shall be thoroughly embedded in the concrete. The individual stones shall not be closer than 4 inches to any
surface or adjacent stones. Rubble aggregate shall be carefully placed to avoid injury to forms or adjacent masonry.
1.14.12 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)1
1.14.12.1 Protection from Moisture Loss
Protection of concrete from early moisture loss is to begin at the first opportunity after placement and may require that such
measures precede the curing phase of the work. Evaporation retarders, fogging and protection from the wind during the
placement stage, or immediate curing, may be options included in the project specifications. Appropriate measures to protect
against early moisture loss in concrete containing silica fume should be included and stressed in the project specifications.
Subgrade moistening may be required to prevent excessive drying from the underside of the concrete.
1.14.12.2 Consolidation
Careful attention to effective vibration is required for concrete containing silica fume.
1
See C - Commentary

1.14.13 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
1.14.13.1 Air Entrainment
Tests shall be performed at the site to verify that the required amount of entrained air is present at the time of depositing the
concrete.
1.14.14 WATER GAIN (1993)
Water gain is characterized by an accumulation of water at the surface. Whenever water gain appears in the concrete placed,
the succeeding batches must be placed sufficiently dry to correct the over-wet condition by the reduction of the water cement
ratio without changing the proportions of the other ingredients.
SECTION 1.15 DEPOSITING CONCRETE UNDER WATER
1.15.1 GENERAL (1993)
a. The methods specified in Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete shall be used except when the space to be filled with
concrete contains water which cannot be removed in some practical way. In such cases, and when authorized by the
Engineer, concrete shall be deposited under water in accordance with the following.
1
b. The methods, equipment and materials proposed to be used, shall be submitted first to the Engineer for approval before
the work is started. The methods used shall be such as will prevent the washing out of the cement from the concrete
mixture, minimize the segregation of materials and the formation of laitance, and prevent the flow of water through or
over the new concrete until it has fully hardened. Concrete shall not be placed in water having a temperature below 35
degrees F.
3
1.15.2 CAPACITY OF PLANT (1993)
Sufficient mixing, transporting and placing equipment shall be provided to insure that the depositing of all underwater
concrete for each predetermined section or unit of the work to be done, shall be continuous until completion.
1.15.3 STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS (1993) 4

The materials, preparations and methods to be used in making concrete to be deposited under water shall all conform to the
requirements of these specifications except as modified or supplemented by the following Articles.
1.15.4 CEMENT (1993)
Not less than 610 lb of cement per cubic yard of concrete shall be used.
1.15.5 COARSE AGGREGATES (1993)
Aggregate for this work shall be of exceptionally good quality, strong and durable. The maximum size of aggregate preferably
shall be 2 inches and shall not exceed 3 inches. The coarse aggregate shall be well graded in such proportions that the weight
of the coarse aggregate shall be not less than 1.25 nor more than 2.0 times that of the fine aggregate.

1.15.6 MIXING (1993)
The cement and aggregates shall be mixed for a period of 2 minutes with sufficient water to produce a concrete having a slump
of not less than 6 inches nor more than 8 inches for concrete placed by tremies, and not less than 3 inches nor more than 6
inches for concrete placed by bottom dump buckets or for concrete placed in sacks.
1.15.7 CAISSONS, COFFERDAMS OR FORMS (1993)
Caissons, cofferdams or forms shall be sufficiently tight to prevent loss of mortar or flow of water through the space in which
the concrete is to be deposited. Pumping will not be permitted while concrete is being deposited, nor until a minimum of 24
hours thereafter or longer period if required by the Engineer.
1.15.8 LEVELING AND CLEANING THE BOTTOM TO RECEIVE CONCRETE (1993)
a. Before starting to deposit concrete under water, the condition of the bottom shall be examined and reported upon to the
Engineer by a competent diver, and shall be approved by the Engineer.
b. The surface of the bottom, whether of clay, rock, or other material, shall be leveled as directed by the Engineer, before
depositing concrete under water.
c. Where the bottom on which concrete is to be deposited under water is, or is likely to be, covered with silt, such material
shall be removed down to solid material before any concrete is placed. The method to be used to clean the bottom of
silt or similar material, shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.
1.15.9 CONTINUOUS WORK (1993)
Concrete shall be deposited continuously until it is brought up to the required elevation. While depositing, the top surface shall
be kept as nearly level as possible, and the formation of laitance planes avoided.
1.15.10 METHODS OF DEPOSITING (1993)
a. Tremie. When concrete is to be deposited under water by means of a tremie, the top section of the tremie shall be a
hopper large enough to hold one entire batch of the mix or the entire contents of the transporting bucket, when one is
used. The tremie pipe shall be not less than 8 inches in diameter and shall be large enough to allow a free flow of
concrete and strong enough to withstand the external pressure of the water in which it is suspended, even if a partial
vacuum develops inside the pipe. Preferably, flanged steel pipe should be used, of adequate strength to sustain the
greatest length and weight required for the job. A separate lifting device shall be provided for each tremie pipe with its
hopper at the upper end. Unless the lower end of the pipe is equipped with an approved automatic check valve, the
upper end of the pipe shall be plugged with an approved material, before delivering the concrete to the tremie pipe
through the hopper, which plug will be forced to and out of the bottom end of the pipe by filling the pipe with concrete.
It will be necessary to slowly raise the tremie in order to cause a uniform flow of the concrete, but the tremie shall not
be emptied so that water enters above the concrete in the pipe. At all times after the start of placing the concrete and
until all concrete is placed, the lower end of the tremie pipe shall be below the top surface of the plastic concrete. This
will cause the concrete to build up from below instead of flowing out over the surface thus avoiding formation of
laitance layers. If the charge in the tremie is lost while depositing, the tremie shall be raised above the concrete surface,
and unless sealed by a check valve it shall be replugged at the top end, as at the beginning, before refilling for
depositing concrete.
NOTE: Experience has shown that tremie concrete can be placed as above specified, so that it will flow as much as
50 feet horizontally from the discharge end of the tremie with a slope of less than 3 feet in 50 feet.

b. Bottom Dump Bucket. Where concrete is to be deposited under water by means of a bottom dump bucket, the bucket
shall be of the type that cannot be dumped until after it has rested, with its load, on the surface upon which the concrete
is to be deposited. The bottom doors shall be so equipped as to be automatically unlatched by the release of tension on
the supporting line or cable of the bucket, and the bottom doors shall then open downward and outward as the bucket is
raised. The top of the bucket shall be fitted with double, overlapping canvas flaps, or other approved covers, to cover
the contained concrete and to protect it from wash when it enters the water and as the bucket descends to the bottom.
The bucket, preferably, should be so designed that the hinged bottom doors will operate inside of a steel skirt, which
skirt will surround the bucket while the bottom doors are shut and will extend below the bucket as the bottom doors
open and hence minimize turbulence and motion while the concrete is being deposited. The bucket shall be submerged
slowly until it is completely under water. The normal line speed after that shall not exceed 200 feet per minute. After
the bucket has reached the surface on which the concrete is to be deposited, it shall be raised slowly for the first 6 or 8
feet while the concrete is being deposited.
c. Placing Sacks of Concrete. Where a relatively small amount of concrete is to be placed that does not warrant the
equipment required for other tremie or open-bottom bucket methods, concrete may be placed under water in sacks or
bags. In such case the space shall be filled with sacks of concrete carefully placed by hand in header and stretcher
formation, so that the whole mass becomes interlocked. Sacks used for this purpose shall be made of jute or other
coarse material free from deleterious materials, and shall be filled about two-thirds full of concrete and the sack
openings securely tied.
d. Grouted Aggregate. Installed by placing course aggregate in the forms, then injecting cement grout through pipes
which extend to the bottom of the forms. The pipes are withdrawn as grouting proceeds. The grout forces the water
from the forms and fills interstices in the aggregate.
(1) Grout insert pipe system shall be designed and installed to deliver grout to the entire mass. Vent pipes shall be
1
required to relieve entrapped water or air. Sounding wells should be provided to determine the location of grout
surface during the grout injection.
(2) The coarse aggregate shall be placed in horizontal layers of such maximum thickness as will provide a dense fill
without segregation and shall be well compacted.
3
(3) The grout mixture shall be applied under such pressure and at such consistency as will insure complete filling of
voids, and group pipes shall be properly spaced to be consistent with this requirement.
(4) Mineral fillers and admixtures may be added to the grout mixture if approved by the Engineer.
(5) The grout mixture required for this class of work necessitates the use of special mixers and agitators to deliver
suitable grout in place. This equipment and all grout lines shall be maintained in good operating condition. After 4
every shift or work stoppage, they shall be cleaned of all grout.
1.15.11 SOUNDINGS (1993)

During the time that concrete is being deposited under water, soundings shall be continuously taken to the surface of the
deposited concrete and recorded. The surface of the deposited concrete shall be maintained relatively level over the area being
covered.
1.15.12 REMOVING LAITANCE (1993)

Upon completing a unit or section of underwater concrete, any laitance or silt collecting on the upper surface of the same shall
be removed and the concrete surface thoroughly cleaned, if additional concrete is to be deposited on that surface.

1.15.13 CONCRETE SEALS (1993)
Under favorable conditions it is possible to place underwater concrete of a limited thickness in the bottoms of caissons or
cofferdams and so completely seal the structures that after the concrete has set, all water can be pumped out. In such cases, if it
is economical to do so, the water shall be pumped out, the exposed surfaces cleaned and the balance of the concrete deposited
in air.
SECTION 1.16 CONCRETE IN SEA WATER
1.16.1 CONCRETE (2004)
a. Unless otherwise specifically provided, concrete for structures in, or exposed to, sea water shall be air-entrained in
accordance with Article 1.12.4, and shall be made with Type II or IIA portland cement having a maximum tricalcium
aluminate content of 8%. Concrete in sea water or exposed directly along the sea coast shall contain a minimum of 560
lb of portland cement per cubic yard. The concrete shall be mixed for a period of not less than 2 minutes and the water
content of the mixture shall be carefully controlled and regulated so as to produce concrete of maximum
impermeability. Porous or weak aggregates shall not be used.
b. When concrete mix designs include cementitious materials other than portland cement, the resistance to the harmful
effects of exposure to sea water shall be determined by tests, or by experience from using materials from the same
sources.
1.16.2 DEPOSITING IN SEA WATER (1993)
Between levels of extreme low water and extreme high water as determined by the Engineer, sea water shall not come in direct
contact with the concrete for a period of not less than 30 days. Sea water shall not be allowed to come in contact with other
concrete that will be in or exposed to sea water until it is hardened for at least 4 days. Concrete may be deposited in sea water
only when so approved by the Engineer. The original surface, as the forms are removed from the concrete, shall be left
undisturbed.
Concrete shall be placed in such a manner that no construction joints shall be formed between levels of extreme low water and
extreme high water as determined by the Engineer. Construction joints outside the level between extreme low water and
extreme high water shall be held to the minimum necessary, and all construction joints shall be made as described in Section
1.11, Concrete Jointing and Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete, Article 1.14.9.
1.16.4 MINIMUM COVER (1993)
Reinforcing steel or other corrodible metal shall have a cover of not less than 4 inches of concrete.
1.16.5 PROTECTING CONCRETE IN SEA WATER (1993)
Where severe climatic conditions or severe abrasions are anticipated, the face of the concrete from 2 feet below low water to 2
feet above high water, or from a plane below to a plane above wave action, shall be protected by stone of suitable quality,
dense vitrified shale brick as designated or as required by the Engineer, or in special cases the protection may be creosoted
timber.

SECTION 1.17 CONCRETE IN ALKALI SOILS OR ALKALI WATER
1.17.1 CONDITION OF EXPOSURE (1993)
In areas where concrete may be exposed to injurious concentrations of sulfates from soils and waters, concrete shall be made
with sulfate resisting cement. Table 8-1-14 gives limitations on tricalcium aluminate content in cement for various exposure
conditions, severity of conditions may be judged by the extent of deterioration which has occurred to concrete previously used
in the immediate vicinity or from the sulfate concentrations found in either the soil or the water.
Table 8-1-14. Recommendations For Concrete In Sulfate Exposures
Normal Weight Lightweight

Sulfate Concentration as SO4 Maximum Aggregate Aggregate
Tricalcium Concrete Concrete
Sulfate
Aluminate in Maximum Water-
Exposure Minimum
In Soil, Percent Cement, Percent Cementitious
In Solution, PPM (Note 1) Compression
by Weight Material Ratio,
Strength, f′ c, psi
by Weight
Moderate 0.10–0.20 150–1500 8 0.50 3750
Severe 0.20–2.00 1500–10,000 5 0.45 4000
Very Severe over 2.00 over 10,000 5 plus pozzolan 0.45 4000 1
(Note 2)
Note 1: Maximum tricalcium aluminate content of cement for concrete in seawater shall be 8%.
Note 2: Use a pozzolan which has been determined by tests to improve sulfate resistance when used in concrete containing a
cement with a maximum tricalcium aluminate content of 5% or less.
3
1.17.2 CONCRETE FOR MODERATE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for moderate sulfate exposure shall be made from Type II or specified portland blast furnace slag cement Type IS
(MS), and portland pozzolan cement Type IP (MS) may be used to meet the 8% tricalcium aluminate limitation. Concrete shall
contain not less than 610 lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with Section 1.12,
Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.
4
1.17.3 CONCRETE FOR SEVERE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for severe sulfate exposure shall be made using Type V portland cement with a 5% maximum tricalcium aluminate
content. Concrete shall contain not less than 660 lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with
Section 1.12, Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.
1.17.4 CONCRETE FOR VERY SEVERE EXPOSURE (1993)
Concrete for very severe exposure shall be made using Type V portland cement with a 5% maximum tricalcium aluminate
content plus pozzolan. The pozzolan used should have been determined by tests to improve the sulfate resistance of concrete
containing a cement with a maximum tricalcium aluminate content of 5% or less. The concrete shall contain not less than 660
lb of cement per cu yd. The concrete shall be air-entrained in accordance with Section 1.12, Proportioning, Article 1.12.4.
NOTE: Type III may also be specified to meet either the 5% or 8% tricalcium aluminate limitation. In certain
areas the tricalcium aluminate content of other types of cement may be less than 5% or 8%. Sulfate

resisting cement will not increase resistance to some chemically aggressive solutions, for example
ammonium nitrate. The special provisions of the project specifications shall cover all special cases.
1.17.5 CONCRETE FOR ALKALI SOILS OR ALKALI WATER (2004)
When concrete mix designs include cementitious materials other than portland cement, resistance to the harmful effects of
exposure to alkali soils or alkali water shall be determined by tests, or by experience from using materials from the same
sources.
Wherever possible, placing of concrete shall be continuous until completion of the section or until the concrete is at least 18
inches above ground or water level. If construction joints are required they shall be minimized, and all construction joints shall
be made as described in Section 1.11, Concrete Jointing and Section 1.14, Depositing Concrete, Article 1.14.9.
1.17.7 MINIMUM COVER (1993)
Reinforcing steel or other corrodible metal shall have a cover of not less than 4 inches of concrete.
1.17.8 PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE (1993)
Alkaline water or soils shall not be in contact with the concrete during placement and for a period of at least 72 hours
thereafter.
SECTION 1.18 CURING
1.18.1 GENERAL (2000)

a. In freezing weather, or when there is likelihood of freezing temperatures within the specified curing period, suitable
and sufficient means must be provided before concreting, for maintaining all concrete surfaces at a temperature of not
less than 50 degrees F (10 degrees C) for a period of not less than 7 days after the concrete is placed when Type I, IA,
II or IIA portland cement is used, and not less than 3 days when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used.
b. The temperature of concrete surfaces shall be determined by thermometers placed against the surface of the concrete.
Provision shall be made in form construction to permit the removal of small sections of forms to accommodate the
placing of thermometers against concrete surfaces at locations designated by the Engineer. After thermometers are
placed, the apertures in forms shall be covered in a way to simulate closely the protection afforded by the forms.
c. In determining the temperatures at angles and corners of a structure, thermometers shall be placed not more than 8
inches (200 mm) from the angles and corners. In determining temperatures of horizontal surfaces, thermometers shall
rest upon the surface under the protection covering normal to section involved.
d. Temperature readings shall be taken and recorded at intervals to be designated by the Engineer, over the entire curing
period specified, and the temperatures so recorded shall be interpreted as the temperature of the concrete surfaces when
the thermometers were placed.
e. When protection from cold is needed to insure meeting these specification requirements, all necessary materials for
covering or housing must be delivered at the site of the work before concreting is started and must be effectively
applied or installed, and such added heat must be furnished as may be necessary without depending in any way upon
the heat of hydration during the first 24 hours after concrete is placed when Type I, IA, II or IIA portland cement is

used, or the first 18 hours when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used. The methods of heating and protecting the
concrete shall be approved by the Engineer. Chemicals or other foreign materials shall not be mixed with the concrete
for the purpose of preventing freezing, unless approved by the Engineer.
f. When heat is supplied by steam or salamanders, covering or housing of the structure shall be so placed as to permit free
circulation of air above and around the concrete within the enclosure, but to the exclusion of air currents from without,
except that where salamanders are used, sufficient ventilation shall be provided to carry off gases. Special care shall be
exercised to maintain the specified temperature continuously and uniformly in all parts of the structure enclosures, and
to exclude cold drafts from angles and corners and from all projecting reinforcing steel. All exposed surfaces in the
heated enclosure shall be kept continuously wet during the heating period unless heat is supplied in the form of live
steam.
g. The supervisor responsible for curing procedures shall maintain certification by the American Concrete Institute as a
Concrete Flatwork Finisher or Concrete Transportation Construction Inspector.
1.18.2 HOT WEATHER CURING (1993)

a. The temperature of concrete at times of placement shall not exceed 90 degrees F (32 degrees C). When the temperature
of the concrete approaches 90 degrees F (32 degrees C), special efforts to prevent too rapid drying out must be made.
b. Continuous wet curing is preferred and shall commence as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to resist
surface damage. Wet curing shall be carried out in accordance with the practice recommended under Article 1.18.3.
Curing water shall not be much cooler than the concrete to avoid temperature-change stresses resulting in cracking.
Exposed, unformed concrete surfaces shall be protected from wind and direct sun.
1
1.18.3 WET CURING (1993)
a. All concrete surfaces when not protected by forms, or membrane curing compounds, must be kept constantly wet for a
period of not less than 7 days after concrete is placed when Type I, IA, II or IIA portland cement is used, or not less
than 3 days when Type III or IIIA portland cement is used.
b. The wet curing period for all concrete which will be in contact with brine drip, sea water, salt spray, alkali or sulfate- 3
bearing soils or waters, or similar destructive agents, shall be increased to 50% more than the periods specified for
normal exposures. Salt water and corrosive waters and soils shall be kept from contact with the concrete during
placement and for the curing period.
c. When wood forms are left in place during the curing period they shall be kept sufficiently damp at all times to prevent
openings at the joints and drying of the concrete.
4
1.18.4 MEMBRANE CURING1 (1993)
a. In lieu of wet curing, a concrete curing compound in full conformance to ASTM C309 may be used, with the approval
of the Engineer.
b. Liquid Membrane-Forming Curing Compounds shall meet the requirements of ASTM C309:
(1) Type 1 (Clear).
(2) Type 1D (Clear with Fugitive Dye).
(3) Type 2 (White Pigmented).
(4) Class B (Solids Restricted to Resin Only).
1
See C - Commentary

c. The compounds shall be applied to all exposed concrete surfaces except those areas where concrete or other materials
are to be bonded, such as construction joints or areas to be dampproofed or waterproofed.
d. The compound shall be sprayed on finished surfaces as soon as the surface water has disappeared. Spraying equipment
shall be of the pressure-tank type with mist producing spray orifice. If forms are removed during the curing period,
concrete shall be sprayed lightly with water and the moistening continued until the surface will not readily absorb more
water. The curing compound shall then be sprayed on the concrete surface as soon as the moisture film has
disappeared.
1.18.5 STEAM CURING (1993)
Steam curing shall be done in an enclosure capable of containing the live steam in order to minimize moisture and heat losses.
The application of the steam shall be delayed from 2 to 4 hours after final placement of concrete to allow the initial set of the
concrete to take place. If retarders are used, the waiting period before application of the steam may be increased to 4 to 6
hours. The steam shall be at 100% relative humidity to prevent loss of moisture and to provide excess moisture for proper
hydration of the cement. Application of the steam shall not be directly on the concrete. During application of the steam, the
ambient air temperature shall increase at a rate not to exceed 40 degrees F (4.5 degrees C) per hour until a maximum
temperature of 140 degrees F to 160 degrees F (60 degrees C to 70 degrees C) is reached. This temperature shall be held for 12
to 18 hours or until the concrete has reached the required strength. In discontinuing the steam, the ambient air temperature
shall decrease at a rate not to exceed 40 degrees F (4.5 degrees C) per hour until a temperature has been reached about 20
degrees F (-7 degrees C) above the temperature of the air to which the concrete will be exposed. The concrete shall not be
exposed to temperatures below freezing for 6 days after casting.
1.18.6 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2003)1
1.18.6.1 Delays in Implementing Curing
Curing of freshly placed concrete as outlined in this Article should be implemented immediately upon having placed the
concrete or other measures should be taken to minimize the opportunity for shrinkage cracking to occur.
1.18.7 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-FURNACE

SLAG (2004)2
1.18.7.1 General
Curing time may have to be extended due to slower strength gain during the initial curing period.
1.18.7.2 Delays in Implementing Curing
Curing of freshly placed concrete as outlined in this Article may require implementation sooner than normal if the mix exhibits
less bleed water than normal.
1.18.8 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)3
Curing procedures and times should be determined from the concrete mix design requirements.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary
3 See C - Commentary

SECTION 1.19 FORMED SURFACE FINISH
1.19.1 GENERAL (2005)
The following requirements, except as modified by the Plans or as approved by the Engineer, shall apply to the construction of
concrete surfaces exposed upon the completion of the structure:
a. Construct all face forms smooth and watertight. If constructed of wood, size the face boards to a uniform thickness and
dress all offsets or inequalities to a smooth surface. Fill and point flush all openings and cracks, as approved by the
Engineer, to prevent leakage and the formation of fins.
b. Cast concrete in one continuous operation between prescribed construction limits, true to line with sharp, unbroken
edges beveled or rounded as specified. Make joints not shown on the plans only if approved by the Engineer.
c. Mix, place and consolidate concrete so that the aggregate is uniformly distributed and a full surface of mortar, free
from air pockets and void spaces, is brought against the form.
d. Remove the forms carefully. Remove any fins or projections neatly as approved by the Engineer. If any small pits or
openings appear in the exposed surface of the concrete, or if the removal of bolts used for securing the forms leave
small holes, thoroughly saturate the surface with water and neatly fill all such holes, pits, etc., with an approved mortar.
Smooth with a wooden float to achieve an even finish. Mix the pointing mortar in small quantities, and use while still
plastic.
e. Perform all work in connection with the correction of damaged sections, voids or honeycomb as approved by the 1
Engineer.
f. Do not apply mortar or cement to the surface except to fill pits or voids, tie bolt holes, etc., as provided above, and not
by plastering.
1.19.2 RUBBED FINISH (2005)

3
a. Do not rub the surface unless called for on the plans or directed by the Engineer.
b. Fill all voids. Then thoroughly wet the surface and rub with a carborundum brick, or similar abrasive, to a smooth,
even finish of uniform appearance without applying any cement or other coating.
SECTION 1.20 UNFORMED SURFACE FINISH
1.20.1 GENERAL (2005)
a. After placing and consolidating concrete, strike off and finish with floats and trowels or finishing machines in a
manner approved by the Engineer. Finish edges with an edging tool satisfactory to the Engineer. Take care to avoid an
excess of water in the concrete and drain or otherwise promptly remove any water that accumulates on the surface. Do
not sprinkle dry cement, or a mixture of cement and sand, directly onto the surface.
b. Slope all horizontal surfaces of bridge seats to drain, except those directly under bearing plates.
c. Require the supervisor responsible for finishing unformed surfaces to have and maintain certification by the American
Concrete Institute as a Concrete Flatwork Finisher.

1.20.2 SIDEWALK FINISH (2005)
Float and trowel the top surface of all walks to a smooth finish with a steel trowel. After the water sheen has disappeared, final
finish the surface by brushing with a bristle brush. Draw the brush across the walk, at right angles to the edge of the walk.
Adjacent strokes should slightly overlap, to produce a uniform surface, moderately roughened by parallel brush marks. The
stiffness of the bristles and the time at which the surface is finished shall leave well defined brush marks. Keep the brush clean
at all times to avoid depositing mortar picked up during previous strokes.
1.20.3 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)1
For concrete containing silica fume, trial placements and finishing may be required prior to the start of the project.
1.20.4 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-FURNACE

SLAG (2004)2
Finishing techniques may have to be adjusted to account for reduced amounts of bleed water.
1.20.5 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
Finishing may have to be delayed unless the concrete mix was proportioned to avoid delayed setting.
SECTION 1.21 DECORATIVE FINISHES
Construct special or decorative finishes as called for on the Plans and as set forth in a special specification or special provision.
SECTION 1.22 PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT TREATMENT

OF CONCRETE SURFACES3
1.22.1 GENERAL (1993)
When called for on the plans, in the specifications or ordered by the Engineer the following requirements shall be applicable to
the treatment of exposed concrete surfaces upon completion of the structure or precast member. Water repellent treatment is
not intended to be used on surfaces subject to hydrostatic pressure.
1.22.2 SURFACE PREPARATION (2003)
a. Concrete surfaces shall be cleaned by light sand or shot blasting, followed by vacuum cleaning to remove all traces of
curing compounds, laitance, dirt, salt, oil, grease, fluids or other foreign material that would prevent penetration or
adhesion of the sealer.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

b. Concrete surface shall be clean and dry or as recommended by manufacturer. If concrete is subjected to rain or
moisture the surface should be allowed to air dry for a minimum of forty-eight (48) hours before treatment.
c. The cleaning process shall not alter the existing surface finish unless specified by the Engineer as an intentional part of
the design.
1.22.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2003)
a. Volatile Organic Compound regulations may vary by individual state. Therefore, it is mandatory that materials selected
for use be in total conformance to the applicable legislation of the state within which the work will be performed.
b. Ambient and surface temperatures at time of application shall be as specified by the manufacturer but not less than 40
degrees F (5 degrees C) or greater than 100 degrees F (38 degrees C).
c. No rain shall be predicted for a minimum of 12 hours after completion of water repellent treatment.
d. No precipitation shall occur within 24 hours preceding application.
e. No wind shall be predicted of velocity, per the manufacturer, greater than that which will cause an improper application
rate to drift, etc.
f. Adjoining surfaces of other materials shall be protected unless solvent carrier is certified as harmless to these materials
by water repellent manufacturer.
1
1.22.4 APPLICATION (2003)
a. The penetrating water repellent treatment solution shall be applied in strict accordance with manufacturer’s
instructions and not diluted or altered unless specified by the manufacturer. Equipment for the application of the
water-repellent treatment shall be clean of foreign materials and approved by the Engineer before use. The sealer shall
be applied by brushing, spraying or rolling, as recommended by the manufacturer.
3
b. Surface treatment of new concrete prior to 28 days curing is not permitted, unless approved by the manufacturer and
the Engineer.
c. The sealer manufacturer should be consulted on the recommended treatment of cracks.
d. Follow all safety precautions required by occupational jurisdiction.

4
e. A minimum of two (2) coats of water-repellent treatment is recommended to achieve uniform coverage. The second
and each additional coat shall be applied perpendicular to the previous coat. Care shall be taken when applying each
coat, such that running or puddling does not occur. Each coat shall be allowed to dry for a minimum of two (2) hours
before the next coat is applied. The final coat shall be allowed to dry according to the manufacturer’s instructions
before applying ballast and track.
1.22.5 MATERIALS (2003)
a. The penetrating water repellent material shall consist of an isobutyltrialkoxy silane, n-octyltrialkoxy silane or iso-
octytrialkoxy silane dissolved in a suitable solvent that will produce a hydrophobic surface covalently bonded to the
concrete. Only one (1) brand and specific type of penetrating sealer shall be used on each individual concrete element
(i.e., each pier, deck, abutment, etc.). The penetrating sealer must be a one part liquid, with no field blending required.

b. Qualities of the material to be furnished for the project shall be tested and results certified by an independent testing
laboratory with report provided to the owner. The following tests shall be performed on standardized laboratory
specimens:
(1) Water Penetration. ASTM C642–50 Day Soak less 1% Absorption (untreated specimen 4%, 0.2% absorption).
(2) Water Penetration. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244–21 Day Soak–Effective
Average Minimum 80% (Series II).
(3) Vapor Transmission. National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244–Minimum 100%.
(4) Surface Appearance. No change in surface appearance or texture.
(5) Penetration. Oklahoma DOT OHD L-34 Visible Average 0.15 inches.
(6) Drying Time. Dry and ready for use 1 hour after application.
(7) Accelerated Weathering. ASTM G23–2000 hours are weatherometer–Maximum 3% loss of effectiveness.
(8) Water Penetration. Alberta DOT Type 1 Class B minimum.
(9) Salt Water Ponding. AASHTO T-259–Maximum 1.50 lb per cubic yard at 1/16 inch to 1/2 inch; 0.75 lb per cubic
yard at 1/2 inch to 1 inch.
(10) Traction – ASTM E303. No change when treated surface is compared to control surface. Measured in British
Pendulum Numbers.
1.22.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE (1993)
a. The manufacturer shall provide written certification of the quality of the product being offered and issue a warranty as
to its effectiveness when it is applied in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications.
b. Manufacturer shall have an established Quality Assurance Program with the Program available to the owner or buyer.
c. Pre-Test. An eight square feet (0.75 square meter) test panel on the job shall be treated and evaluated in accordance
with the primary water repellent manufacturer’s recommendations and written test procedures which would allow the
water repellent to cure for a minimum of 5 days. Two test cores (minimum 3 inches (75 mm) diameter and 3 inches (75
mm) deep) should be taken at locations determined by the Engineer. In the presence of the manufacturer, or one of its
representatives, the cores should be split by chisel. One core should be retained by the Engineer. The water repellent
material shall have penetrated the core at least 1/8 inch (3 mm) (avg) and shall appear as a band of non-wettable
concrete.
d. Test Data. All test data submitted by the water repellent manufacturer must be data generated by an independent testing
laboratory. Product tests must be totally controlled by the testing laboratory. Specimens cannot be pre-treated by the
manufacturer.
1.22.7 DELIVERY, STORAGE AND HANDLING (1995)
a. Materials shall be delivered to job site in manufacturer’s original undamaged containers with labels and seals intact.
b. Materials shall be stored in accordance with manufacturer’s requirements and in a dry area with a temperature range of
not less than 32 degrees F (0 degrees C) and not more than 120 degrees F (49 degrees C). Adequate ventilation shall be
provided, away from sources of ignition.

c. Manufacturer’s application instructions and Material Safety Data Sheet shall be consulted for additional safety
instructions.
SECTION 1.23 REPAIRS AND ANCHORAGE USING REACTIVE RESINS1
1.23.1 GENERAL (2003)
a. This recommended practice covers reactive resin polymer materials (i.e. epoxy) used for concrete repairs and
installation of anchor bolts and other miscellaneous items in concrete.
b. The material shall be a non-metallic, non-shrinking polymer resin supplied in prepackaged and/or pre-measured
containers. It shall contain no rust or corrosion promoting agents and shall be moisture insensitive.
c. Packaged stability of each component in original unopened containers stored in temperatures between 40 degrees F (5
degrees C) and 90 degrees F (32 degrees C) shall be a minimum of six months. The mixing instructions, setting time
and expiration date of the material shall appear on each container.
1.23.2 SURFACE PREPARATION (2003)
a. The surface of the concrete should be prepared per the manufacturer’s recommendations for the type of application
being conducted. 1
b. The concrete surface shall be clean and dry, with no traces of curing compounds, laitance, dirt, salt, oil, or grease.
a. The reactive resins should be chosen to provide the requirements (i.e. viscosity, strength, flexibility, adhesion etc.) of 3
the specific repair to be performed. The specific type, grade and class of material is to be selected by the Engineer in
accordance with the recommendations of the manufacturer.
SECTION 1.24 HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE2 4
1.24.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. The following specifications shall apply to structures with a minimum specified concrete compressive strength of
6,000 psi (41 MPa) and made with portland cement concrete. These provisions do not apply to “exotic” materials and
techniques such as polymer-impregnated concrete, polymer concrete, or concrete with artificial aggregates.
b. The compressive strength of production concrete shall be tested at 7 and 28 days and at other times as required by the
Engineer in accordance with ASTM C39.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

1.24.2 MATERIALS (1995)
Trial batches containing the materials to be used on the job shall be prepared at the proposed slump and tested to determine
compressive strength. Unless tests on additional trial batches are performed, materials shall be of the same type, brand and
source of supply throughout the duration of the project.
1.24.2.1 Cement
a. Cement mill test reports shall be submitted by cement suppliers for each shipment of cement. Silo test certificates shall
be submitted for the previous 6 to 12 months. Cement uniformity in accordance with ASTM C917 shall be reported.
Variations shall be limited to the following:
Tricalcium silicate (C3S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4%

Ignition Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5%
Fineness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 cm2/g (Blaine)
Sulfate (SO3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.20% of optimum
b. Mortar cube tests shall be performed in accordance with ASTM C109.
1.24.2.2 Chemical Admixtures
Chemical admixtures shall conform to the following ASTM specifications:
Air-entraining admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C260

Retarders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types B and D
Normal-setting water reducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Type A
High-range water reducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types F and G
Accelerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ASTM C494, Types C and E
1.24.2.3 Mineral Admixtures
Mineral admixtures consist of fly ash (Class C and F), silica fume and ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Fly ash shall
conform to ASTM C618 specifications. Methods for sampling and testing of fly ash shall conform to ASTM C311. Silica fume
shall conform to ASTM C1240. Slag shall conform to ASTM C989.
1.24.2.4 Aggregates
Fine and coarse aggregate shall meet the requirements of ASTM C33.
1.24.2.5 Water
Water for use in high-strength concrete shall conform to Section 1.5, Water. Acceptance requirements specified in Table 1 of
ASTM C94 shall be met.
1.24.3 CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONS (1995)
Trial batches shall be performed to generate sufficient data to obtain optimum mixture proportions.

SECTION 1.25 SPECIALTY CONCRETES
1.25.1 GENERAL
This manual article describes and provides requirements for specialty concretes that may be used in railroad construction.
Before any specialty concrete is used, additional investigation of specific and detailed specifications shall be made.
1.25.2 SULFUR CONCRETE1
1.25.2.1 General
Sulfur concrete is a thermoplastic material produced by mixing heated aggregate 350F to 400F (177C to 204C) with modified
sulfur cement and fine mineral filler (ambient temperature) to prepare a well-mixed concrete that is maintained within a
temperature range of 270F to 285F (132C to 141C) until placed. The ACI Manual of Concrete Practice contains detailed
information.
1.25.2.2 Design
a. Mixture design for sulfur concrete is different from portland cement concrete.
b. Aggregate for sulfur concrete shall conform with ASTM C33.
c. Reinforcement may be with reinforcing steel, epoxy-coated reinforcing steel or with fibers.
1
1.25.2.3 Handling
The requirements for mixing/transporting equipment are defined by the unique thermoplastic characteristic of sulfur concrete.
Sulfur concrete must be maintained in a molten state and continuously monitored to maintain the temperature range of 270F
(133C) to 285F (147C). The concrete mixture must be thoroughly mixed so the molten sulfur cement adequately coats the fine
and coarse aggregate and mineral filler.
3
1.25.2.4 Placing
Sulfur concrete can be placed in either wooden or metal forms.
1.25.3 HEAVYWEIGHT CONCRETE

4
1.25.3.1 Design
Heavyweight concrete, unless otherwise stipulated, shall conform to the other requirements of Chapter 8, Part 1, shall be made
with Type II cement, and shall be proportioned as directed by the Engineer, with not more than 6 gal. (22.7 L) of water per 94
lb (42.8 kg) of cement. Where heavyweight concrete is required for counterweights, the coarse aggregate shall be trap rock,
iron ore, or other heavy material or the concrete may incorporate steel punchings or scrap metal. The mortar shall be composed
of 1 part of cement and 2 parts of fine aggregate. Fine metallic aggregate shall consist of commercial chilled-iron or steel shot
or ground iron, meeting SAE J 444a. All metallic aggregate shall have a specific gravity of 6.50 or greater and be clean and
free from foreign coatings of grease, oil, machine shop compounds, zinc chromate, loose scale, and dirt. The maximum weight
of heavy concrete shall be 315 lb per cu feet (5,050 kg per cu m).
1
See C - Commentary

1.25.3.2 Placing
a. Heavyweight concrete shall be placed in layers and consolidated with vibrators or tampers. Heavyweight concrete
usually will not “flow” in a form and must be placed uniformly throughout the area and compacted in place with a
minimum of vibration. Under no circumstances shall an attempt be made to move heavyweight concrete during
consolidation with vibration equipment. Layers shall be limited to a maximum 12 inch (300 mm) thickness.
Consolidation shall be by internal vibrators to achieve uniform and optimum density. In heavyweight concrete
vibrators have a smaller effective area, or radius of action; therefore greater care shall be exercised to insure that the
concrete is properly consolidated. Vibrators shall be inserted at closely spaced intervals and only to a depth sufficient
to cause complete intermixing of adjacent layers. Counterweights containing punchings or scrap metal or iron ore
aggregates shall be enclosed in steel boxes.
b. Heavyweight concrete not enclosed in steel boxes shall be adequately reinforced.
1.25.3.3 Determining Weight
For ascertaining the weight of the concrete, test blocks having a volume of not less than 0.1 cu m (4 cu feet) for ordinary
concrete, and 1 cu feet (0.03 cu m) for heavy concrete, and 1 cu feet (0.03 cu m) for the mortar for heavy concrete, shall be cast
at least 30 days before concreting is begun. Two test blocks of each kind shall be provided, and one weighed immediately after
casting and the other after it has cured for 28 days.
1.25.4 POLYMER CONCRETE (2013)
1.25.4.1 General1
This section covers polymer concrete that is to be used for repair of bridges and other structures. The section describes the
selection, sampling and testing of materials, material properties and construction requirements under specific conditions.
1.25.4.2 Selection of Materials2
The materials shall meet the project requirements and be approved by the Engineer.
1.25.4.3 Submittals
a. Submittals shall be reviewed and approved by the Engineer.
b. Contractor shall have a copy of all approved submittals at work site during construction.
c. Manufacturer(s) Submittals:
(1) Material descriptions, brochures and technical data sheets including general chemical composition and physical
properties, pertinent test data, and specific recommendations for surface preparation, testing, mixing, application,
fillers (e.g. aggregates, sands) and curing.
(2) Manufacturer’s Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for all materials to be used including instructions for storing
and handling.
d. Contractor’s Submittals:
(1) Details of proposed storage methods.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

(2) Form(s): drawings, prepared by a licensed engineer, including fabrication, assembly, and support of forms per
Section 1.9.
(3) Detailed installation procedures:
(a) Surface preparation including testing.
(b) Mixing, including detailed mixing and application instructions.
(c) Installation.
(d) Quality assurance.
(4) Concrete design mixture including procedures for ensuring quality of polymer concrete and repair materials.
1.25.4.4 Surface Preparation1
a. The substrate to which the polymer concrete is to be applied must be sound, clean, dry and properly prepared.
b. Sufficient surface preparation shall be demonstrated, when specified, by use of a tensile adhesion test in accordance
with ASTM D4541.
c. Defective areas and honeycombed areas shall not be patched until examined and approved by the Engineer. When
such approval is received by the Contractor, areas involved shall be repaired in accordance with the applicable
manufacturers written instructions.
1
1.25.4.5 Installation2
Installation shall be in accordance with the Manufacturer’s recommendations as approved by the Engineer.
1.25.4.6 Quality Assurance3 3

a. Applicator:
Personnel using the product must have previous experience using similar products.
b. Manufacturer(s):
4
(1) Submit a listing of representative projects installed in similar climates and for similar substrate conditions, in the
last 5 years.
(2) Manufacturer must employ trained technical representatives who will be available for consultation and project site
inspection.
c. Contractor:
Contractor shall confirm in writing that substrates have been inspected, are adequately prepared and represent a
suitable substrate for the application of the materials.
d. Testing and inspection services shall be approved by the Engineer.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

e. Pre-installation Conference: Engineer may conduct conference at Project site with Contractor and/or Manufacturer.
1.25.4.7 Delivery, Storage and Handling
a. Materials delivered to the project site shall be in sealed in, undamaged containers with labels intact and legible,
indicating the material name and lot number.
b. Comply with manufacturer’s written instructions for minimum and maximum temperature requirements and other
conditions for storage. Store materials in a dry location, at temperatures not exceeding 90ºF (32ºC) or as otherwise
permitted by the manufacturer.
1.25.4.8 Removal of Forms
Contractor shall be responsible for proper removal of forms in accordance with Article 1.9.8.
SECTION 1.26 SELF-CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
1.26.1 GENERAL (2013)1
a. Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) is a highly fluid yet stable concrete mix that can spread readily into place and fill the
forms without mechanical consolidation or undergoing significant segregation. Concrete is not made self-
consolidating by the addition of extra water, which would increase segregation and have other undesired effects.
b. Self-consolidating concrete shall be designed, mixed, formed, and cured in accordance with the other provisions of
Part 1 except as stipulated herein.
1.26.2 MIX DESIGN AND TESTING (2013)2
1.26.2.1 Mix Design
The mix designer shall be experienced in the design and production of SCC. High-range water-reducing and viscosity-
modifying admixtures as well as fine limestone powder and mineral pozzolans are generally included in the design mix. The
size, smoothness and gradation of the aggregates shall be selected based on the requirements of the particular project. The
required slump flow to be achieved by the mix design is dependent upon the requirements for placement of the SCC. By
careful selection and design of the mix, the cured SCC can have properties comparable to that of conventional concrete.
1.26.2.2 Quality Control Testing
Slump flow, visual stability index, column segregation and J-Ring tests shall be performed on the as-designed mixture by the
supplier at the plant. Tests of the cured concrete shall also be performed to ensure that the design mix produces the required
properties. Test results shall be subject to review for approval by the Engineer. New tests will be required whenever there is a
change in the source of a component material or whenever there is a change in a production procedure.
1.26.2.3 Testing Methods
a. Among the tests specifically designed for ensuring the desired flow and stability characteristics of fresh SCC are the
following:
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

(1) ASTM C1610 Test Method for Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating Concrete Using Column Technique,
(2) ASTM C1611 Test Method for Slump Flow of Self-Consolidating Concrete, and
(3) ASTM C1621 Test Method for Passing Ability of Self-Consolidating Concrete by J-Ring.
b. Other tests can also be used in addition to or in place of the tests listed above. The Engineer will direct which tests
shall be employed and the frequency of testing. See Articles 1.12.8 and 1.12.9 of this Part for testing requirements for
the hardened concrete. The tests shall be performed by qualified personnel.
c. Quality control personnel must understand the engineering properties, placement techniques, element characteristics,
and raw materials considerations that were used to determine mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties.
1.26.3 FORMS AND REINFORCEMENT (2013)1
a. The structural design of forms shall take into account the fluid nature of self-consolidating concrete as well as the rate
of placement. Forms shall be designed to support lateral concrete pressures in accordance with the full fluid pressure
provisions of ACI 347R. If the design of the forms is in accordance with ACI 347R, but to a loading less than the full
fluid pressure, form pressure measuring devices shall be used to prevent rapid concrete placements from exceeding the
rated capacity of the forms.
b. Forms should be sufficiently watertight to prevent leakage of fluid from the SCC. Form release agents with a high
solids content should be used.
1
c. Reinforcement ties and other attachments shall be designed to account for the fluid nature of the concrete.
1.26.4 MIXING CONCRETE (2013)2
Mixing proportions and procedures shall be carefully controlled to achieve consistency in the stability and fluidity of SCC.
SCC may require additional mixing time (30 to 90 seconds) as compared to conventional concrete. Wash water, if used, shall
be completely discharged from the drum before a succeeding batch is produced. 3
1.26.5 PLACEMENT (2013)3
SCC should be placed continuously and in layers of such thickness that no fresh SCC is placed on concrete that has hardened
enough to cause a plane of weakness. A detailed placement plan shall be submitted to the Engineer and approved prior to
placing SCC. 4
1.26.6 CURING (2013)
Curing of SCC is essential and early protection of exposed surfaces is critical to preventing plastic shrinkage cracking.
Procedures for curing conventional concrete should be applied.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various Articles in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. In the numbering of Articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the Section/Article being
explained.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

C - SECTION 1.2 CEMENT
C - 1.2.2 SPECIFICATIONS (2004)
The use of slag cement Types ‘S’ and ‘S(A)’ as defined in Standard Specification C 595 is not included in this recommended
practice as these cements are not intended to be used alone in producing structural concrete.
C - SECTION 1.3 OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
C - 1.3.3.1(a) Silica Fume
One of the primary benefits of including silica fume in a concrete mix design is to reduce the permeability of the hardened
concrete. Porosity will be significantly reduced if proper proportioning, pre-construction testing, and curing methods are used.
Long term durability, resistance to chemical attack including sulphate attack, and penetration of chloride ions can all be
favorably affected.
Other possible benefits include improved resistance to abrasion. Silica fume has been used to obtain both of these properties.
However, the replacement method may inhibit other special properties.
C - 1.3.3.1(b) Fly Ash
All fly ashes contain pozzolanic materials, but some fly ashes also exhibit cementitious properties of their own. Factors
affecting this are the glass content, its fineness and gradation, and silica or silica-plus-alumina content. There is therefore a
wide variation in pozzolanic and cementitious efficiency of different fly ashes, which cannot be predicted by selecting Class C,
Class F or Class N. Direct tests of strength development, and tests to determine the efficiency of fly ash to produce special
properties such as sulphate resistance, or resistance to alkali-silica reactions, are necessary.
Possible benefits of using fly ash in a concrete mix which is properly designed, deposited and cured include increased long-
term strength potential, improved workability and pumpability, reductions in the heat of hydration when using fly ash as a
replacement for some of the cement that would otherwise be used, a finer pore structure which reduces the ingress of chloride
ions, and improved resistance to sulphate attack and to alkali silica reactions. Possible difficulties in using fly ash include a
need to adjust the dosage of air entraining admixture, reduced bleeding of fresh concrete, reduced rate of strength gain which
could effect form and/or falsework removal parameters, and a need to delay finishing of unformed surfaces under some
circumstances.
C - 1.3.3.2 Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag
When used as provided in this recommended practice, replacement of part of the portland cement that would otherwise be
required in a concrete mix design with ground granulated blast-furnace slag may impart several benefits. These include a
much reduced permeability, with a consequent reduction of penetration of chloride ions and reductions in corrosion of
reinforcement; reduced heat of hydration at early ages; improved sulphate resistance; and reduced levels of alkali silica
reactivity. Reductions in alkali silica reactivity are due to reduced permeability, reductions in available alkali, chemical
effects, and other effects.
C - SECTION 1.4 AGGREGATES
C - 1.4.2.1 General
Use of lightweight fine aggregates is not allowed because of their poor performance in all lightweight concrete, and the many
difficulties and restrictions to their use.

C - SECTION 1.5 WATER
Non-potable water (not fit for human consumption) is being used as mixing water in hydraulic cement concrete to a much
larger extent than when the AREMA recommendation effective in 2009 was written. Use of a non-potable water source
requires limiting the solids content of the water. ASTM C1603, which is referenced by ASTM C1602, provides a test method
for measurement of the solids content of water by means of measuring the water’s density.
In addition to limiting the amount of solids in mixing water, maximum concentrations of other materials that impact the
quality of concrete must be limited. These include levels of chloride ions, sulfates, and alkalies. ACI 318-08, R 3.4.1 is the
requirement that water used to mix concrete must comply with ASTM C1602. As indicated in ACI 318-08, R 3.4.1, ASTM
C1602 permits the use of potable water without testing.
The chief concern over high chloride content is the possible effect of chloride ions on the corrosion of embedded reinforcing
steel, prestressing tendons, aluminum embedments or stay-in-place galvanized metal forms. Limitations placed on the
maximum concentration of chloride ions that are contributed by the ingredients including water, aggregates, cement, and
admixtures are given in ACI 318-08, Chapter 4, Table 4.3.1. ASTM C1602 limits the chloride ions in ppm (parts per million)
and only applies to that contributed by the mixing water.
Test results for non-potable water shall be furnished to the Engineer and approved prior to use.
C - SECTION 1.6 REINFORCEMENT
C - 1.6.1 GENERAL (2013)

1
“Report on Steel Reinforcement - Material Properties and U.S. Availability (ACI 439.4R-09)” provides further guidance for
steel reinforcement.
C - 1.6.4 BENDING AND STRAIGHTENING REINFORCING BARS (2013)
a. Field bending and straightening of partially embedded reinforcing bars is discouraged, but when this operation is 3
required it should be closely controlled. Construction conditions that make field bending or straightening necessary
also make it difficult to control the conditions under which it is done thus making field inspection even more critical.
b. Numerous technical papers published on this subject contain varying opinions on the best procedures to use. Current
known factors that affect field bending and straightening of partially embedded reinforcing bars in concrete include:
(1) Application of heat appears to be necessary to bend or straighten larger sized bars, but either overheating (above 4
1800 degrees F (980 degrees C)) or under heating between 450 degrees F (230 degrees C) and 650 degrees F (340
degrees C) can result in reduced strength or even cause failure of the bars.
(2) Repeated bending and straightening weakens the steel and could result in failure even under the best controlled
conditions.
(3) Tight bending diameters decreases the strength of the steel.
c. The reworking of reinforcing bars that are partially embedded in concrete involves some level of risk and is not
encouraged. Risks may be minimized by using reinforcing bars of a more ductile steel such as low-alloy steel bars
(ASTM A706/A706M) rather than carbon-steel bars (ASTM A615/A615M) in locations where field bending and/or
straightening will be required.
d. When field bending and straightening of partially embedded bars is permitted by the Engineer, the following example
procedural guideline should be used:

(1) Bars of size #3 (10 mm) through #7 (22 mm).
(a) Bend or straighten bars cold (bars should be above freezing temperature).
(b) Do not allow more than one cycle of bending and straightening.
(c) Diameter of bends should conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Table 8-2-6. Bends should not
exceed 90 degrees.
(d) Bending should be done with a uniform application of force.
(e) Straightening should be accomplished by using a steel pipe pushed tightly against the bend, with application
of force as follows:
1 Steel pipe should have an inside diameter 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch (3 mm to 9 mm) larger than the outside
diameter of the bar to be straightened.
2 Steel pipe should be long enough to provide sufficient leverage.
3 Straightening pipe should be reset against the bar at 45 degrees for #4 (13 mm) and smaller bars and at 30
degrees and 60 degrees for #5 to #7 (16 mm to 22 mm) bars.
4 Workers should have a firm base from which to apply straightening pressure.
(2) Bars of size #8 through #11 (25 mm through 36 mm).
(a) Bend or straighten bars after preheating to 1100 degrees F to 1500 degrees F (590 degrees to 810 degrees C)
as measured with temperature-indicating crayons.
(b) Concrete must be protected from exposure to excessive heat. If necessary protective insulation should be
used.
(c) Atmospherically cool bars. Do not expose to water or other cooling mediums.
(d) Do not allow more than one cycle of bending and straightening.
(e) Diameter of bends should conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Table 8-2-6.
(f) Bending should be done with a uniform application of force.
(g) Straightening should be accomplished by using a steel pipe pushed tightly against the bend, with application
of force as follows:
1 Steel pipe should have an inside diameter 1/8 inch to 3/8 inch (3 mm to 9 mm) larger than the outside
diameter of the bar to be straightened.
2 Steel pipe should be long enough to provide sufficient leverage.
3 Straightening pipe should be reset progressively against the bar around the bend.
4 Workers should have a firm base from which to apply straightening pressure.

C - SECTION 1.12 PROPORTIONING
C - 1.12.10 SPECIAL PROVISIONS WHEN USING CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS OTHER

THAN PORTLAND CEMENT (2009)
C - 1.12.10.2 Requirements When Using Silica Fume in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing silica fume.
C - 1.12.10.2.2 High-Range Water Reducing Admixtures
Concrete containing silica fume will have a greater water demand to maintain workability than concrete not containing silica
fume. However, this additional water is rarely provided since it would negate the potential benefits of using silica fume. High
range water reducers (superplasticizers) are commonly used instead. If a superplasticizer is not used, then the fresh concrete
would appear sticky and not consolidate properly. Concrete containing silica fume is more cohesive and less prone to
segregation than other fresh concretes. It is common to increase the slump by 2 inches (50mm) from what would otherwise be
provided.
The use of a high range water reducing admixture will also benefit the rate of strength gain. Initial strength gain will be slower
when using silica fume. Twenty-eight (28) to ninety (90) day strengths can be enhanced using silica fume, however, as long as
the water to cementitious material ratio is kept low by using a high range water reducing admixture.
C - 1.12.10.2.3 Entrained Air

1
Concrete containing silica fume will require more air entraining admixture than normal concrete to obtain the desired result.
The amount will depend upon the amount of silica fume and the type of air entraining admixture used.
C - 1.12.10.3 Requirements When Using Fly Ash in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing fly ash.
3
C - 1.12.10.3.3 Testing to Verify Mix Design
Reduced bleeding rates in fresh concrete may result in raising the possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking.
Initial setting time and the rate of early strength gain may be retarded by the use of fly ash. Setting time requirements can also
delay finishing. The rate of early strength gain can be satisfactory with a properly designed and tested mix, which usually
includes increases in the total cementitious material (fly ash plus portland cement) content. The proportion of fly ash to 4
cement may be varied from winter to summer.
Air entraining admixture requirements will be different for concrete containing fly ash to achieve the same amount of air that
would have resulted in concrete not containing fly ash.
The heat of hydration can be reduced if the fly ash is used to replace some of the portland cement instead of being added as
additional cementitious material.
The long term strength of the hardened concrete may be enhanced using fly ash.
Improved performance against sulphate attack and resistance to alkali aggregate reactivity will require the addition of
sufficient quantities of cementitious materials other than portland cement that may exceed the proportions of what would be
used otherwise.

C - 1.12.10.3.4 Water to Cementitious Materials Ratio
The improved workability and pumpability of concrete containing fly ash will permit reductions in the amount of water. This
is due to the spherical shape of the fly ash particles imparting improved workability; and to the reduced unit weight of fly ash
as compared with cement which can result in increased paste content when cement replacement with fly ash is by weight.
Reductions in the amount of water can also reduce the possibility of plastic shrinkage. The measurement of water as a
proportion of total cementitious material by weight provides a consistent approach which is also applicable when using
blended cements.
C - 1.12.10.4 Requirements When Using Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag in Concrete
ACI 211.1 provides guidance for proportioning concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag.
C - 1.12.10.4.1 General
The amount of ground granulated blast-furnace slag as a proportion of the total cementitious material normally varies between
25% and 70%, with approximately 40% to 50% being a common proportional amount. A maximum amount of 50% can also
be applicable, per Table 8-1-12.
Final concrete properties will also be determined by the portland cement used, the grade or reactivity of the ground granulated
blast-furnace slag, curing conditions, and the special properties for which the material was used, such as reduced early heat of
hydration.
C - 1.12.10.4.2 Water-Reducing Admixtures
Concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will have a slower rate of strength gain than normal portland cement
concretes, especially at early ages, unless the water content is reduced.
C - 1.12.10.4.3 Accelerators
Significant retardation has been observed at low temperatures when using ground granulated blast-furnace slag. Accelerating
admixtures can be used to counter this effect. However, the source and reactivity of the ground granulated blast-furnace slag,
the ratio of ground granulated blast-furnace slag to normal portland cement, the characteristics of the cement, and the water to
cementitious material ratio will also influence set time. Therefore the need for pre-construction tests, as noted previously, is
also confirmed here.
C - 1.12.10.4.4 Proportioning of Aggregates
Portland cement concrete containing ground granulated blast-furnace slag will have a higher volume of paste than normal
portland cement concrete when both mixes are proportioned by weight (mass). The proportional difference is due to ground
granulated blast-furnace slag being lighter than portland cement. The coarse to fine aggregate ratio can therefore be increased
or the water to cementitious material ratio can be reduced. Increases in the amount of coarse aggregate may be beneficial to
finishing, which may aid in reducing shrinkage and potential for scaling. The natural tendency of concrete containing ground
granulated blast-furnace slag is to be more workable and easier to place and consolidate. This will compensate for some
increases in the proportion of coarse aggregate.
C - SECTION 1.13 MIXING
C - 1.13.5 REQUIREMENTS WHEN USING SILICA FUME IN CONCRETE (2009)
C - 1.13.5.2 Workability of Delivered Concrete
Refer to Commentary for Article 1.12.10.2.2.

C - SECTION 1.14 DEPOSITING CONCRETE
C - 1.14.12 PLACING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)
C - 1.14.12.1 Protection from Moisture Loss
Fresh concrete containing silica fume displays significantly less bleeding than normal concrete. There is therefore the
potential that shrinkage cracking will occur if the evaporation rate exceeds the bleeding rate. Increased amounts of silica fume
will increase the potential for such shrinkage cracking. Other conditions including adverse temperatures, wind, or low
humidity could also increase the potential for shrinkage cracking. Evaporation retarders, fogging, and protection from the
wind during the placement stage are options which may be included in the project specifications to counter this. Measures to
protect against early moisture loss in concrete containing silica fume should included in the project specifications. Shrinkage
cracking can be eliminated through the use of proper procedures.
C - 1.14.12.2 Consolidation
The cohesive nature of concrete containing silica fume makes it susceptable to excessive entrapment of air, even with higher
slumps. Proper placing techniques are essential to achieving any special properties for which silica fume is specified.
C - SECTION 1.18 CURING
C - 1.18.4 MEMBRANE CURING (1993)

1
a. With the emergence of legislation designed to limit the amounts of Volatile Organic Compound (V.O.C.) emission, it is
incumbent upon specifying Engineers to be cognizant of these new laws.
b. Volatile Organic Compound regulations may vary by individual state. Therefore, it is mandatory that materials selected
for use be in total conformance to the applicable legislation of the state within which the work will be performed.
C - 1.18.6 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2003) 3

C - 1.18.6.1 Delays in Implementing Curing
Refer to the commentary concerning Article 1.14.12.1.
C - 1.18.7 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST- 4

FURNACE SLAG (2004)
C - 1.18.7.1 General
Strength gain may be slower at low temperatures during the initial curing period when the ground granulated blast-furnace slag
is used to replace part of the portland cement in a mix. The amount of retardation will depend upon the temperature, the
proportions and characteristics of each of the cementitious materials, the total content of cementitious material and other
factors. Little, if any, retardation occurs at temperatures above about 70° F (21° C), and the behavior of concretes containing
ground granulated blast-furnace slag under elevated curing temperatures has been reported to be good.
Refer also to the commentary concerning accelerators, in Article 1.12.10.4.3.
C - 1.18.7.2 Delays in Implementing Curing
Ground granulated blast-furnace slags that are finer than portland cements are likely to produce mixes with reduced bleed
water when the combined amount of cementitious material is not also reduced.

C - 1.18.8 CURING CONCRETE CONTAINING FLY ASH (2004)
Time of setting and the rate of early strength gain will have been prescribed in arriving at the mix design and proportioning.
This will have determined the water to cementitious material ratio that, if high, may require special curing measures to avoid
plastic shrinkage cracking. Special curing requirements may also result if a minimum specified strength is to be attained
before subjecting the hardened concrete to freeze-thaw cycles or to chlorides.
C - SECTION 1.20 UNFORMED SURFACE FINISH
C - 1.20.3 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING SILICA FUME (2004)
The tackiness and lack of bleed water of concrete containing 10% to 20% silica fume will make finishing of unformed surfaces
more difficult and may require trial placements in order to determine finishing methods. The use of evaporation retarders and
other methods to reduce evaporation will aid the finishing process.
C - 1.20.4 FINISHING CONCRETE CONTAINING GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-

FURNACE SLAG (2004)
See the commentary for Article 1.18.7.2 regarding delays in implementing curing procedures.
C - SECTION 1.22 PENETRATING WATER REPELLENT TREATMENT OF CONCRETE

SURFACES
C - 1.22.1 GENERAL (1993)

a. Penetrating sealers are primarily intended for use in sealing the surface of concrete structures against intrusion of water
and chlorides, while having a minimum effect on the concrete’s ability to breathe (transfer water vapor). Of the 21
materials tested and addressed in National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 244, only the silane
exhibited a measurable penetration effect.
NCHRP Report 244:
“This silane material produces a non-wettable concrete surface to a depth of 0.10 inch (2.5 mm). The other materials
tested in this project, including boiled linseed oil, generally do not produce a measurable penetration or a measurable
thickness of non-wettable concrete. Most of these other materials are coatings and should not be referred to in
specifications as ‘penetrating sealers’.”
b. With the emergence of new legislation designed to limit the amounts of Volatile Organic Compound (V.O.C.) emission,
it is incumbent upon specifying Engineers to be cognizant of these new laws.
C - 1.22.2 SURFACE PREPARATION (2003)

a. Good surface preparation, prior to applying the sealer, is essential to achieve the desired maximum penetration into the
concrete. When the sealers penetrate below the surface of the concrete, they chemically bond to the concrete and
prevent water and chlorides from entering the concrete. Contaminants must be totally removed and the surface
allowed to dry. Properly applied sealers shall provide protection from the ingress of water and chlorides for a period of
five (5) years.
b. Surface preparation may be accomplished by:
(1) High pressure water (hot or cold).

(2) Chemical cleaners.
(3) Sandblasting.
(4) Shotblasting.
c. When high pressure water is employed, all surfaces shall be free of standing water or moisture at the time of the
treatment which could restrict surface penetration. Care must be taken when using high-pressure water steam to avoid
excessive exposure of coarse aggregate.
C - 1.22.3 ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS (2003)

There is some question of the effects of high temperature on water repellent treatments as one author states that high
temperatures actually speed up the condensation reaction of monomeric silanes into oligomeric siloxanes. Because of this,
application of treatment at temperatures over 100 degrees F should be carefully considered.
C - 1.22.4 APPLICATION (2003)

Consult the manufacturer’s material safety data sheet and application instructions for further safety information.
C - 1.22.6 QUALITY ASSURANCE (1993)

a. The owner of a concrete structure or buyer of a concrete sealer shall be satisfied that the manufacturer can furnish the
quality assurance claimed. This can be done by comparing test results of the product against test results obtained by
independent test studies, several of which are listed in the References found at the end of this Chapter. The buyer or 1
owner should also be satisfied that an agent or distributor who makes such claims or offers such a warranty has the full
authority to do so by the manufacturer.
b. The owner of a concrete structure or buyer of a concrete sealer should seek out an applicator (either owner’s own
employee or outside contractor) approved by the manufacturer in order to validate its warranty.
3
C - SECTION 1.23 REPAIRS AND ANCHORAGE USING REACTIVE RESINS
a. Reactive resins may be selected for inclusion with fine and/or coarse aggregate in polymer concrete or included with a
clean, dry, fine aggregate in a polymer mortar. Reactive resins can be used in chemical bonding systems as an adhesive
for concrete or as a binder for mortars or concrete.
b. Reactive resins may also be used neat (without the addition of aggregate) as a bonding agent, as a bonding coat for 4
adhesion, as well as anchoring between metallic inserts and concrete when the spacing between the metallic insert and
the interior wall of the bored hole in the concrete is 1/8 inch (3.2 mm) minimum. While the general rule for anchor bolt
embedment is ten (10) to fifteen (15) times the bolt diameter, the embedment shall be designed based upon loads to be
carried.
C - SECTION 1.24 HIGH STRENGTH CONCRETE
C - 1.24.1 GENERAL (1995)
a. With the advances in concrete technology during the last few decades, the commonly achievable limits of concrete
strength have steadily increased. The use of high-strength concrete in construction has also increased. Concrete
compressive strengths approaching 20,000 psi (138 MPa) have been used in cast-in-place concrete buildings. High-
strength concrete has also been used in bridge structures. Research has been conducted on the performance of high-
strength prestressed concrete in bridges.

b. Because of the continuing advances in technology, the definition of the minimum concrete compressive strength for
high-strength concrete is changing with time. Different geographic locations may also have varying limits for what
they consider as high-strength concrete. The ACI Committee 363 report on high-strength concrete (ACI 363R-92)
defines high-strength as having compressive strengths of 6,000 psi (41 MPa) or greater.
c. The ACI Committee 363 report on high-strength concrete provides detailed information on material and structural
aspects of high-strength concrete.
C - 1.24.2 MATERIALS (1995)
a. To achieve adequate consistency and quality of high-strength concrete, stringent control of constituent materials is
necessary. Variations in type, brand and source of supply of the components can have major influences on the
properties of high-strength concrete. Therefore, emphasis is placed on the preparation of trial batches and maintenance
of the same component materials throughout the project.
b. Testing and comparison of laboratory and production-sized trial batches are needed to establish the required strength of
laboratory trial batches. This is because the laboratory trial batches have often exhibited significantly higher strength
than production batches.
C - 1.24.2.1 Cement
The quality and consistency of cement used in high-strength concrete need verification through mill test reports, and mortar
cube tests. The most suitable types of cement for high-strength concrete are Type I or Type III with minimum 7-day cube
compressive strength of 4500 psi (31 MPa). In addition, cement should not show signs of false set.
C - 1.24.2.2 Chemical Admixtures
a. Chemical admixtures are commonly used in high-strength concrete to increase compressive strength through reduction
of water, control rate of hardening, accelerate strength gain, and improve workability and durability. Performance of all
materials in high-strength concrete as a whole should be considered when selecting the type, brand and dosage of any
admixtures.
b. Air-entraining admixtures (ASTM C260) are used to improve durability and freeze-thaw resistance. However, air voids
have the effect of reducing compressive strength and their use is therefore recommended only when durability is a
concern. Incorporation of entrained air may reduce strength at a rate of 5% to 7% for each percent of air in the mix.
c. Retarders (ASTM C494, Types B and D) are used to control early hydration and hardening of concrete. Factors such as
an increase in strength and temperature effects should be considered.
d. Normal-setting water reducers (ASTM C494, Type A) are used to increase strength without affecting the rate of
hardening. High-range water reducers (ASTM C494, Types F and G) are used to increase strength (decrease water
demand) especially high early strength (24 hours) or increase slump. Matching the admixture to the cement used (both
in type and dosage rate) is an important consideration.
e. High-range water reducers (ASTM C494, Types F and G) are often used in high-strength concrete mixtures and are
essential with the very high-strength concretes to ensure adequate workability with low water-cementitious ratios.
Further information is available in ACI SP-68.
f. Accelerators (ASTM C494, Types C and E) are not normally used in high strength concrete except when early form
removal is critical. Accelerators will normally be counterproductive in long-term strength development.

C - 1.24.2.3 Mineral Admixtures
a. Mineral admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume, and ground granulated blast-furnace slag have been widely used in
high-strength concrete. Variations in physical and chemical properties of mineral admixtures (even when within
tolerance of specifications) can have a major influence on properties of high-strength concrete.
b. Fly ash generally reduces early strength gain and improves late age strength of concrete. There are two (2) classes of
fly ash available (ASTM C618). Class F fly ash is generally available in eastern U.S. and Canada and has pozzolanic
properties, but little or no cementitious properties. Class C fly ash is generally available in western U.S. and Canada
and has pozzolanic and some autogenous cementitious properties. An ignition loss of 3% or less is desirable, although
ASTM C618 permits a higher value. ASTM C311 provides standard test methods for sampling and testing of fly ash or
natural pozzolans.
c. Silica fume consists of very fine spherical particles, approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement particle,
and is a highly effective pozzolanic material. It is used in concrete in applications where abrasion resistance and low
permeability are desired. Normally, silica fume content ranges from 5% to 15% of portland cement content. The
availability of high-range water reducers has facilitated the use of silica fume in high-strength concrete. However,
concrete with silica fume has an increased tendency to develop plastic shrinkage cracks. Therefore steps should be
taken to prevent rapid water evaporation.
d. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (ASTM C989) is used as a partial replacement for portland cement in various
proportions to enhance different properties of concrete. Research has shown promise for its use in high-strength
concrete.
C - 1.24.2.4 Aggregates
1
a. The optimum gradation of fine aggregates for high-strength concrete is mainly determined by its effect on water
requirement rather than physical packing. High-strength concrete has high contents of fine cementitious materials and
therefore the grading of fine aggregates is relatively unimportant compared to conventional concrete. Fine aggregates
with rounded particle shapes and smooth texture require less mixing water and are therefore preferred in high-strength
concrete. 3
b. The desirable maximum size of coarse aggregate should be 1/2 inch (13 mm) or 3/8 inch (10 mm). Mix designs with
maximum size aggregate of 3/4 inch (19 mm) and 1 inch (25 mm) have also been successfully used. Many studies have
shown that crushed stone produces higher strengths than rounded gravel because of improved mechanical bond in
angular particles. However, accentuated angularity can result in higher water requirement and reduced workability and
therefore should be avoided. The ideal aggregate should be clean, cubical, angular, 100% crushed aggregate with a
minimum of flat and elongated particles. It would also be beneficial if the aggregate has moderate absorption capability 4
to provide added curing water for high-strength concrete.
c. High-strength concrete requires high-strength aggregates. However, this trend holds only true until the limit of the
bonding potential of the cement-aggregate combination is reached.
C - 1.24.3 CONCRETE MIXTURE PROPORTIONS (1995)
a. High-strength concrete mix proportioning is a more critical process than the design of normal-strength concrete
mixtures. Generally, chemical admixtures and pozzolanic materials are added and the attainment of low water-
cementitious ratio is essential. Trial batches are often required to optimize constituent materials and mixture
proportions. Additional information can be found in ACI 211.1, ACI 211.4, and ACI Publication SP-46.
b. The relationship between water-cementitious ratio and compressive strength in high-strength concrete is similar to that
identified for normal-strength concrete. The use of high-range water reducers has provided lower water-cementitious

ratios and higher slumps. Water-cementitious ratios by weight for high-strength concrete typically have ranged from
approximately 0.27 to 0.50. The compressive strength of concrete at a given water-cementitious ratio varies widely
depending on the cement, aggregates and admixtures used. The quantity of liquid admixtures, particularly high-range
water reducers, has sometimes been included in the calculation of water-cementitious ratio. When silica fume as a
slurry is used, its water content must be included in the water-cementitious ratio.
c. Typical cement contents in high-strength concrete range from 660 lb/cy (390 kg/m3) to 940 lb/cy (560 kg/m3). For any
given set of materials in a concrete mixture, there may be an optimum cement content that produces maximum
concrete strength. The strength of concrete may decrease if cement is added in excess of the optimum level. The
strength for any given cement content will vary with the water demand of the mixture and the strength-producing
characteristics of that particular cement. Loss of workability (stickiness) will be increased as higher cement amounts
are used.
d. The maximum temperature desired in the concrete element may limit the quantity or type of cement. Addition of ice,
set retarders or pozzolans may be considered.
C - 1.24.3.1 Aggregate Proportions
Table 3.1 in the ACI 363R-92 suggests the amounts of coarse aggregate based on the fineness modulus of sand for the purpose
of initial proportioning. In general, the least sand consistent with necessary workability has given the best strengths for a given
paste. The use of smaller coarse aggregates (maximum 3/8 inch (10 mm) to 1/2 inch (13 mm)) are generally beneficial, and
crushed aggregates seem to bond best to the cementitious paste.
C - 1.24.3.2 Proportioning of Admixtures
a. In high-strength concrete, pozzolanic admixtures have been used to supplement the portland cement from 10% to 40%
by weight of the cement content. The use of fly ash has often reduced the water demand of the mixture. Silica fume, on
the other hand, dramatically increases the water demand of the mixture which has made the use of retarding and high-
range water-reducing admixture (superplasticizing) admixtures a requirement.
b. The amount of conventional water reducers and retarders in high-strength concrete varies depending on the particular
admixture and application. In general, the tendency has been to use maximum quantities of these admixtures.
Typically, water reductions of 5% to 8% may be increased to 10%. Corresponding increases in fine aggregate content
have been made to compensate for the loss of volume due to the reduction of water.
c. Most high-strength concretes contain both mineral admixtures and chemical admixtures. It is common for these
mixtures to contain combinations of chemical admixtures. High-range water reducers have performed better in high-
strength concretes when used in combination with conventional water reducers or retarders.
C - 1.24.3.3 Workability
a. High-strength concrete mixtures tend to lose slump more rapidly than lower-strength concrete. If slump is to be used as
a field control, testing should be done at a prescribed time after mixing. Concrete should be discharged before the
mixture becomes unworkable.
b. High-strength concrete, often placed with 1/2 inch (13 mm) maximum size aggregate and with a high cementitious
content, is inherently placeable provided attention is given to optimizing the ratio of fine to coarse aggregate. Local
material characteristics have a marked effect on proportions. Cement fineness and particle size distribution influence
the character of the mixture. Appropriate admixtures improve the placeability of the mixture.
c. Mixtures that were proportioned properly but appear to change in character and become more sticky should be
considered suspect and checked for proportions, possible false setting of cement, undesirable air-entrainment, or other
changes. A change in the character of a high-strength mixture could be a warning sign for quality control.

C - 1.24.3.4 Trial Batches
Frequently, the development of a high-strength concrete program has required a large number of trial batches. In addition to
laboratory trial batches, field-sized trial batches have been used to simulate typical production conditions. Once a desirable
mixture has been formulated in the laboratory, field testing with production-sized batches should be preformed.
C - SECTION 1.25 SPECIALTY CONCRETES
C - 1.25.2 SULFUR CONCRETE
c. Sulfur concrete is generally not resistant to alkalis or oxidizers. However sulfur concrete exhibits excellent
characteristics of:
(1) High strength [in excess of 62 MPa (9,000 psi)] and fatigue resistance;
(2) Excellent corrosion resistance against salts and most acids;
(3) Extremely rapid set and strength gains and achieves a minimum of 70% to 80% of ultimate compressive strength
within 24 hours;
(4) Placement year round, above and below freezing temperatures;

1
(5) Very low water permeability.
C - 1.25.2.2 Handling
Extreme care should be used when handling sulfur concrete to avoid burns.
C - 1.25.2.3 Placing 3
Wall construction should be given special consideration to preclude poor consolidation. Preheating the reinforcing steel and
forms using infrared or suitable heaters, plus using insulation on the outside of wall forms should be utilized to retain heat
during placement.
C - 1.25.4 POLYMER CONCRETE (2013) 4

a. Polymer concretes are composite materials that combine synthetic resins with blended aggregates and graded fillers to
produce low permeability concretes, mortars and grouts with high resistance to water, chlorides, and freeze-thaw
cycles.
b. The resins comprise of monomers, or monomers and polymers which polymerize when mixed with cure initiators or
catalysts. Graded fillers, sands and, where applicable, aggregates are then added into the polymerizing solution. The
resin binds the materials tightly together to form a hard impermeable composite.
c. The resins are formulated to provide a range of characteristics, including varying degrees of flexibility, rigidity and
strength.
d. The resins used in these products are from a wide range of generic chemical groups, most commonly epoxies, methyl
methacrylates, polyesters and polyurethanes.

e. Polymer concretes typically cure more rapidly than cement-based equivalents, while exhibiting greater flexural and
tensile strengths. The rate of curing depends on the polymer resin base.
f. As a result, polymer concretes can be used to provide effective solutions to construction conditions, particularly where
rapid cure and high strength gain may be required.
g. Common uses are keyway joint grouting, joint headers, bedding of bridge bearings, and structural repairs.
h. The repair areas and volume of polymer concrete placements are generally small.
i. Polymer concretes are also used as an alternative to cement-based material in locations exposed to high chloride and
water ingress.
j. The materials can generally be placed without specialized equipment and do not require a sensitive curing procedure.
C - 1.25.4.2 Selection of Materials
Care must be taken to ensure that the properties of the product proposed meet the specific site requirements:
a. Some products are susceptible to outgassing when installed in humidity levels above 85%, which may lead to
pinholing and/or foaming, causing a reduced impermeability to liquid water and reduced ultimate strength.
b. Some resins have strict allowable timeframes for overcoating their primers, without which their removal or other
treatment may be required.
c. Some products, such as some epoxy-based systems, exhibit a slower rate of curing or even no curing at lower
temperatures.
d. Elevated temperatures can make certain products unsuitable.
e. Filler aggregate - For applications greater than 1 inch of thickness, add aggregate in accordance with the
Manufacturer’s recommendations.
C - 1.25.4.4 Surface Preparation
a. A suitably level area on the prepared substrate should be identified and primed. Using the proposed polymer concrete
material as the adhesive, the primed area should be tensile tested per ASTM D4541. After sufficient curing of the
polymer concrete the adhesion should be tested, and the mode of failure must be in the concrete substrate. Failure at the
bond line indicates insufficient surface preparation, and further removal of additional weak or unsound material is
required.
b. The surface should be prepared by shotblasting or other mechanical means to remove all laitance, weak, damaged,
contaminated and friable material. Saw cut repair boundaries along straight edge and chip edge down a minimum of 1
inch (25 mm) to sound concrete by means of cold chisels or pneumatic chipping hammers. Where honeycombing
exists around reinforcing, chip concrete to provide a minimum space of ¾ inch (19 mm) around the reinforcing to
afford sufficient bond.
C - 1.25.4.5 Installation
Installation should be in accordance with the Manufacturer’s recommendations, however, but the minimum guidelines below
should be followed:
a. Surfaces to be treated should be primed as required.

b. Do not apply materials if rain is anticipated within three hours of application without approved protective measures in
place.
c. Ensure that the product’s maximum humidity limit and over-coating window are adhered to.
d. Mix and place polymer concrete used for structural concrete slabs and full depth overlays in accordance with
manufacturer's printed instructions.
e. Provide control joints as recommended by Manufacturer, or as indicated on drawings.
f. Repair placement cavities in accordance with repair procedures outlined below.
(1) Place patching mortar by trowelling toward edges of patch to force intimate contact with edge surfaces. For large
patches, fill edges first and then work toward center, always troweling toward edges of patch. At fully exposed
reinforcing bars, force patching mortar to fill space behind bars by compacting with trowel from sides of bars.
(2) For vertical patching, place material in lifts of not more than 2 inch (50 mm) nor less than 1/8 inch (3 mm). Do not
feather edge.
(3) For overhead patching, place material in lifts of not more than 1½ inch (38 mm) nor less than 1/8 inch (3 mm). Do
not feather edge.
(4) Where multiple lifts are used, score surface of lifts to provide a rough surface for application of subsequent lifts.
Allow each lift to reach final set before placing subsequent lifts.
1
g. Allow surfaces of lifts that are to remain exposed to become firm and then finish to a smooth surface with a trowel.
h. Floated finish: Provide where concrete flatwork is to receive waterproofing membranes or setting beds for finished
materials.
i. Contractor, at his own expense, shall level depressed spots and grind high spots in concrete surfaces which are in 3
excess of specified tolerances. Leveling materials proposed for providing proper surface shall be approved by
Engineer.
j. Some Manufacturers recommend using lifts no greater than 2 inch (50 mm) in thickness for polymer concrete, but
some specific products are designed for lifts greater than 2 inch (50 mm) thickness.
C - 1.25.4.6 Quality Assurance 4

a. Applicator
Documentation of experience shall be provided in a listing of representative projects completed by personnel using the
proposed materials in the last 5 years. Provide Owner contact information for each representative project.
d. Testing Services and Inspection Services:
(1) The Contractor should accept as indicative, the results of tests, including results involving mix designs and field
quality control of materials. If, as a result of these tests, it is determined that the specified material properties are
not being obtained, the Engineer may order such changes in proportions or materials, or both, as may be necessary
to secure the specified properties, at no additional expense to the Company.
(2) The use of testing and inspection services should not relieve the Contractor of his/her responsibility to furnish
materials and construction in compliance with the Contract.

(3) Failure to detect any defective work or material should not in any way prevent later rejection when such defect is
discovered, nor should it obligate the Engineer for final acceptance.
(4) Additional testing and inspection services requested by the Contractor because of changes in materials, sources, or
proportions, or occasioned by failure of tests and inspection to meet specification requirements, should be paid for
by the Contractor.
(5) The minimum number of test cylinders to be made for each type of polymer concrete and for each placement
should be as specified by the Engineer or as recommended by the Manufacturer.
C - SECTION 1.26 SELF-CONSOLIDATING CONCRETE
C - 1.26.1 GENERAL (2013)
a. SCC may be used to reduce labor during placement, to more completely fill around and between congested
reinforcement, and to reduce or eliminate honeycombing and bug holes. It may also be used in such structural
elements as drilled shafts, where the difficulty of inspecting the placement for air pockets is a concern.
b. SCC normally contains a greater percentage of fine materials making up the paste and of fine aggregates, and a lesser
percentage of coarse aggregates than conventional concrete.
C - 1.26.2 MIX DESIGN AND TESTING (2013)
C - 1.26.2.1 Mix Design
As with conventional concrete, the water-cement ratio, quality and gradation of aggregates, and the inclusion of mineral
admixtures such as fly ash and silica fume affect the strength, modulus of elasticity and creep and shrinkage properties of the
hardened concrete. For structural elements such as columns, cantilevers and prestressed concrete beams where those
properties are important, relevant tests should be performed unless information from other completed projects can confirm
that the mix design will produce the required properties despite the high fines content and reduced maximum aggregate size
typical of SCC.
C - 1.26.2.2 Quality Control Testing
a. The supplier should have a full range of test results for the mix that is proposed. The purpose of the plant testing is to
ensure that the concrete can flow into and completely fill forms under its own weight, that it will flow around and bond
to reinforcing steel under its own weight, and that it will have a high resistance to segregation.
(1) ASTM C1610 is used to evaluate the stability of a concrete mixture. A column is filled with concrete and given
time to segregate. The column is then separated into sections and each section is washed over a sieve and the
retained aggregate is weighed. The degree of segregation is measured by the difference in the results for the
various sections. This is a laboratory test and is normally not practical to be performed in the field.
(2) ASTM C1611 is used to evaluate the filling ability (deformability) of a concrete mixture and its stability. The test
is performed similar to a standard slump cone test. However, instead of measuring the slump vertically, the mean
spread of the resulting concrete is recorded as the slump flow with results ranging between 22 to 28 inches (560 to
710 mm) being typical, depending on project requirements. The standard slump cone is inverted for this test,
which is suitable for laboratory and field use.
(3) ASTM C1621 is used to evaluate the passing ability of a concrete mixture. The test consists of a ring of
reinforcing bars that fits around the base of a standard test cone. The slump flow is measured with and without the
J-Ring and the difference is noted. A difference of less than 1 inch (25 mm) indicates good passing ability,

whereas a difference of more than 2 inches (50 mm) indicates poor passing ability. This test can be used in the
laboratory and in the field.
C - 1.26.3 FORMS AND REINFORCEMENT (2013)
a. Rapid placement into the forms is desirable in order to achieve the economies that can result from the use of self-
consolidating concrete. Maintaining the flowability of a concrete pour even after it is placed in order to improve the
bond to subsequent pours also implies rapid placement. Rapid placement can reduce the thixotrophic properties of the
concrete mass to act as a semi-solid or gel and this has the potential to increase form pressures beyond those which
would normally be expected. Stronger form systems allow faster placement since the labor involved with normal
consolidation techniques is not required when using SCC.
b. Form release agents with a high-solids content will better resist abrasion from the movement of the concrete. Light
application of form release agents, or wiping off after application is also recommended to avoid staining of
architectural finishes.
C - 1.26.5 PLACEMENT (2013)
a. SCC is commonly placed by discharging the material into the forms at a single location, depending on the fluidity of
the SCC to fill the forms within a distance of about 33 feet (10 m). Considerations with respect to placement that
determine the required slump flow include the intricacy of the form, depth, length and size of form, surface finish, and
amount of reinforcement. A high rate of placement can be desirable to achieve flow momentum, which is also helpful
in filling the forms. Overfilling of forms should be avoided due to the difficulty of screeding the fluid material.
1
b. Specific placement techniques may be required for various types of structural elements, such as beams, double-tees,
slabs, modules and walls, columns and drilled shafts. Free falling placement should be avoided.
c. The field inspector should expect to see a sheen but no sign of free water on the top of the concrete as it is being placed.
The coarse aggregates should also remain prominent on top of the concrete as a sign that segregation is not taking
place. Concrete should not be allowed to set up before subsequent lifts are placed, and production rates and delivery
schedules should be arranged accordingly. The previous lift should be able to flow under the weight of the subsequent 3
lift. If the previous lift has begun to gel but has not hardened significantly, it may be rodded to restore its flowability.
d. Dropping concrete during placement will increase turbulence and could result in entrapped air and segregation. Any
anomaly on the surface of the forms, such as that resulting from splashed concrete is also likely to be visible on the face
of the completed work. A tremie tube may be used to avoid dropping the concrete. SCC should not splatter.
4

THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK.

8
Part 2
Reinforced Concrete Design1
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5

2.1.1 Scope (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.2 Design Methods (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.3 Highway Bridges (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-5
2.1.4 Buildings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6 1
2.1.5 Pier Protection (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6
2.1.6 SuperStructure Protection (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-6
2.1.7 Skewed Concrete Bridges (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-7
2.2 Notations, Definitions and Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8

2.2.1 Notations (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-8 3
2.2.2 D e f i n i t i o n s (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-11
2.2.3 Design Loads (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-11
2.2.4 Loading Combinations (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
2.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20

2.3.1 Concrete (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
2.3.2 Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
Details of Reinforcement
2.4 Hooks and Bends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21

2.4.1 Standard Hooks (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.4.2 Minimum Bend Diameter (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
2.5 Spacing of Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6 Concrete Protection for Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22

2.6.1 Minimum Concrete Cover (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
2.6.2 Concrete Cover for Bar Bundles (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
1
References, Vol. 31, 1930, pp. 1148, 1787; Vol. 48, 1947, p. 418; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 291, 757; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 794, 1341; Vol. 57, 1956, p. 996; Vol. 63,
1962, pp. 278, 688; Vol. 68, 1967, p. 313; Vol. 71, 1970, pp. 230, 242; Vol. 72, 1971, p. 136; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 205; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 91; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 53;
Vol. 91, 1990, p 63; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 92; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 98.
© 2013 , American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-2-1

2.6.3 Concrete Cover for Corrosive and Marine Environments (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.6.4 Corrosion Protection (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.7 Minimum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.8 Distribution of Reinforcement in Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-23
2.9 Lateral Reinforcement of Flexural Members (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10 Shear Reinforcement – General Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24

2.10.1 Minimum Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10.2 Types of Shear Reinforcement (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-24
2.10.3 Spacing of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.11 Limits for Reinforcement of Compression Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25

2.11.1 Longitudinal Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.11.2 Lateral Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-25
2.12 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
Development and Splices of Reinforcement
2.13 Development Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27

2.13.1 General (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-27
2.13.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-28
2.13.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-28
2.13.4 Special Members (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.14 Development Length of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
2.15 Development Length of Deformed Bars in Compression (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.16 Development Length of Bundled Bars (1990) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
2.17 Development of Standard Hooks in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-31
2.18 Combination Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19 Development of Welded Wire Fabric in Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32

2.19.1 Deformed Wire Fabric (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
2.19.2 Smooth Wire Fabric (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.20 Mechanical Anchorage (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33
2.21 Anchorage of Shear Reinforcement (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33

Reinforced Concrete Design
2.22 Splices of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35

2.22.1 Lap Splices (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.22.2 Welded Splices and Mechanical Connections (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.22.3 Splices of Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-35
2.22.4 Splices of Deformed Bars in Compression (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36
2.22.5 End Bearing Splices (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36
2.22.6 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36
2.22.7 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
Analysis and Design – General Considerations
2.23 Analysis Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37

2.23.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.23.2 Expansion and Contraction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.23.3 Stiffness (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-37
2.23.4 Modulus of Elasticity (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.5 Thermal and Shrinkage Coefficients (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.6 Span Length (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.7 Computation of Deflections (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-38
2.23.8 Bearings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39 1
2.23.9 Composite Concrete Flexural Members (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-39
2.23.10 T-Girder Construction (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-40
2.23.11 Box Girder Construction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-40
2.24 Design Methods (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
Service Load Design 3

2.25 General Requirements (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.26 Allowable Service Load Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42

2.26.1 Concrete (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-42
2.26.2 Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-43
4
2.27 Flexure (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.28 Compression Members with or without Flexure (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-44
2.29 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45

2.29.1 Shear Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45
2.29.2 Permissible Shear Stress (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-45
2.29.3 Design of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-47
2.29.4 Shear-Friction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-47
2.29.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-49
2.29.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-50
2.29.7 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-51

Load Factor Design
2.30 Strength Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52

2.30.1 Required Strength (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52
2.30.2 Design Strength (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-52
2.31 Design Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53

2.31.1 Strength Design (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.32 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53

2.32.1 Maximum Reinforcement of Flexural Members (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-53
2.32.2 Rectangular Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-54
2.32.3 I- and T-Sections With Tension Reinforcement Only (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-54
2.32.4 Rectangular Sections With Compression Reinforcement (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-55
2.32.5 Other Cross Sections (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56
2.33 Compression Members with or without Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56

2.33.1 General Requirements (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-56
2.33.2 Compression Member Strengths (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-57
2.33.3 Biaxial Loading (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.34 Slenderness Effects in Compression Members. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58

2.34.1 General Requirements (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.34.2 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-58
2.35 Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-60

2.35.1 Shear Strength (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-60
2.35.2 Permissible Shear Stress (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-61
2.35.3 Design of Shear Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-62
2.35.4 Shear-Friction (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-63
2.35.5 Horizontal Shear Design for Composite Concrete Flexural Members (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-65
2.35.6 Special Provisions for Slabs and Footings (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-66
2.35.7 Special Provisions for Brackets and Corbels (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-67
2.36 Permissible Bearing Stress (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.37 Serviceability Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68

2.37.1 Application (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.37.2 Service Load Stresses (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.38 Fatigue Stress Limit for Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-68
2.39 Distribution of Flexural Reinforcement (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.40 Control of Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69

2.40.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-69
2.40.2 Superstructure Depth Limitations (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-70

LIST OF FIGURES
8-2-1 Cooper E 80 (EM 360) Axle Load Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-13

8-2-2 Reinforcement Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-30
8-2-3 Standard Hook Bars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-32
8-2-4 #6, 7, or 8 Stirrups (fy > 40,000 psi) (#19, 22, or 25) (fy > 280 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-34
C-8-2-1 Pier Protection: Minimum Crash Wall Requirements (Not To Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-72
C-8-2-2 Comparison of Impact Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-73
LIST OF TABLES
8-2-1 Coefficient for Nose Inclination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-17

8-2-2 Coefficient for Design Ice Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-18
8-2-3 Temperature Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
8-2-4 Group Loading Combinations – Service Load Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-19
8-2-5 Group Loading Combinations – Load Factor Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-20
8-2-6 Minimum Diameter of Bend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-21
8-2-7 Minimum Concrete Cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-22
8-2-8 Development Length for Deformed Bars and Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-29
8-2-9 Tension Lap Splices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-36 1
8-2-10 Recommended Minimum Thickness For Constant Depth Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-41
SECTION 2.1 GENERAL 3

2.1.1 SCOPE (2005)
These recommended practices shall govern the design of reinforced concrete members of railway structures supporting or
protecting tracks and shall govern both SERVICE LOAD DESIGN and LOAD FACTOR DESIGN.
2.1.2 DESIGN METHODS (2005)

4
a. The design of reinforced concrete members shall be made either with reference to service loads and allowable service
load stresses as provided in the Service Load Design Section or, alternately, with reference to load factors and strength
as provided in the Load Factor Design section. The design method to be used, SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or LOAD
FACTOR DESIGN, shall be as directed by the Engineer.
2.1.3 HIGHWAY BRIDGES (2005)
Unless otherwise specified by highway authority, all highway bridges shall be designed in accordance with the latest
Specifications for Highway Bridges adopted by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

2.1.4 BUILDINGS (2005)
Unless otherwise specified by local governing ordinances or state codes, all concrete railway buildings shall be designed in
accordance with the latest “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI 318)” of the American Concrete
Institute, subject to design loads conforming to railway requirements.
2.1.5 PIER PROTECTION (2005)
2.1.5.1 Adjacent to Railroad Tracks1
a. To limit damage by the redirection and deflection of railroad equipment, piers supporting bridges over railways and
with a clear distance of 25 feet (7600 mm) or less from the centerline of a railroad track shall be of heavy construction
(defined below) or shall be protected by a reinforced concrete crash wall. Crash walls for piers from 12 to 25 feet (3600
to 7600 mm) clear from the centerline of track shall have a minimum height of 6 feet (1800 mm) above the top of rail.
Piers less than 12 feet (3600 mm) clear from the centerline of track shall have a minimum crash wall height of 12 feet
(3600 mm) above the top of rail.
b. The crash wall shall be at least 2′-6″ (760 mm) thick and at least 12 feet (3600 mm) long. When two or more columns
compose a pier, the crash wall shall connect the columns and extend at least 1 foot (300 mm) beyond the outermost
columns parallel to the track. The crash wall shall be anchored to the footings and columns, if applicable, with
adequate reinforcing steel and shall extend to at least 4 feet (1200 mm) below the lowest surrounding grade.
c. Piers shall be considered of heavy construction if they have a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than that required
for the crash wall and the larger of its dimensions is parallel to the track.
d. Consideration may be given to providing protection for bridge piers over 25 feet (7600 mm) from the centerline of
track as conditions warrant. In making this determination, account shall be taken of such factors as horizontal and
vertical alignment of the track, embankment height, and an assessment of the consequences of serious damage in the
case of a collision.
2.1.5.2 Over Navigable Streams
Piers located adjacent to channels of navigable waterways shall have a protection system in accordance with Part 23 Pier
Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams.
2.1.6 SUPERSTRUCTURE PROTECTION (2010)2
2.1.6.1 General Requirements
a. An evaluation of a railroad bridge over a roadway should be performed when the risk potential and consequence from
a vehicular collision with a railroad superstructure is deemed necessary by the Engineer. Factors to be considered in
the evaluation should include but not limited to railroad safety and operational requirements, vertical clearance over
roadway surface, roadway functional classification, roadway design speed, roadway sight distance, traffic data, and
other reasonable data for the specific location. Reasonable protection of the superstructure should be determined based
upon results from the evaluation and approval by the Engineer.
b. A re-evaluation of the grade separation requirements should be performed when changes in conditions at the location
or other factors warrant.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

2.1.7 SKEWED CONCRETE BRIDGES (2005)1
a. The skew angle, on most concrete bridges, is the smallest angle measured between a line perpendicular to the
centerline of bridge and the centerline of the abutments or piers. Skewed concrete bridges should be avoided when
possible. When skewed bridges are unavoidable, cast-in-place concrete bridges are preferable. The following table
illustrates the maximum recommended skew for different types of concrete bridges.
TYPE OF STRUCTURE SKEW IN DEGREES

Precast concrete slabs and box girders 15
Precast concrete I-girders and T-girders 30
Cast-in-place concrete slabs and girders 60
b. When interior diaphragms are used on concrete girder bridges, they should be placed perpendicular to the web of the
girder.
c. Abutments may be skewed, provided there is either a haunch in the backwall of the abutment, or an approach slab is
provided for each track. The end of the haunch in the backwall of the abutment and the end of the approach slab shall
be set perpendicular to the center of the track.
d. Concrete bridges with a curved superstructure should not be skewed. Piers and abutments for these bridges should be
placed radial to the centerline of the bridge.
e. The ends of concrete slabs and concrete box girders with flange widths 5’-0” (1525 mm) and wider may be skewed. 1
Skews on the ends of concrete I-girders, concrete T-girders and concrete box girders with flange widths less than 5’-0”
(1525 mm) should be avoided.
f. All concrete bridges that differ from these guidelines should be evaluated on a case by case basis.
1
See Commentary

SECTION 2.2 NOTATIONS, DEFINITIONS AND DESIGN LOADS
2.2.1 NOTATIONS (2005)
a = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block, inches (mm). See Article 2.31.1f
ab = depth of equivalent rectangular stress block for balanced strain conditions, inches (mm). See Article 2.33.2
av = shear span, distance between concentrated load and face of support, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the same centroid as that
reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When the main reinforcement consists of
several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area divided by the area of the largest bar
used. See Section 2.39
Ab = area of an individual bar, square inches (mm2). See Section 2.14
Ac = area of the core of a spirally reinforced compression member measured to the outside diameter of the spiral, square
inches (mm2). See Article 2.11.2
Af = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting moment, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
Ag = gross area of section, square inches (mm2).
Ah = area of shear reinforcement parallel to flexural tension reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7 and
Article 2.35.7
An = area of reinforcement in bracket or corbel resisting tensile force, Nc(Nuc), square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.7
and Article 2.35.7
As = area of tension reinforcement, square inches (mm2)
A′s = area of compression reinforcement, square inches (mm2)
Asf = area of reinforcement to develop compression strength of overhanging flanges of I- and T-sections, square inches
(mm2). See Article 2.32.3
Ask = area of skin reinforcement per unit height in one side face, square inches/foot (mm2/m). See Section 2.8
Ast = total area of longitudinal reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.33.1 and 2.33.2
Av = area of shear reinforcement within a distance s, square inches (mm2)
Avf = area of shear-friction reinforcement, square inches (mm2). See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
Aw = area of individual wire to be developed or spliced, square inches (mm2)
b = width of compression face of member, inches (mm)
bo = perimeter of critical section for slabs and footings, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.6
bv = width of cross section being investigated for horizontal shear, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.5
bw = web width, or diameter of circular section. For tapered webs, the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width,
whichever is smaller, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.1 and Article 2.35.1
c = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, inches (mm). See Article 2.31.1
Cm = a factor relating the actual moment diagram to an equivalent uniform moment diagram. See Article 2.34.2
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches (mm)
d′ = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of compression reinforcement, inches (mm)
d″ = distance from centroid of gross section neglecting the reinforcement, to centroid of tension reinforcement, inches
(mm)
db = diameter of bar or wire, inches (mm)

dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest thereto, inches
(mm). See Section 2.39
dp = diameter of round pile or cross sectional depth of H-pile at footing base, inches (mm). See Article 2.29.6 and
Article 2.35.6
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 2.23.4
EI = flexural stiffness of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi (MPa). See Article 2.23.4
fb = average bearing stress in concrete on loaded area, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1 and Section 2.36
fc = extreme fiber compressive stress in concrete at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
f ′c = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
f′ c = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa)
fct = average splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete, psi (MPa)
fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, psi (MPa). See Section 2.38
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa). See Section 2.38 and Article 2.26.2
fs = tensile stress in reinforcement at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.2
f ′sb = stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions, psi (MPa). See Article 2.32.4 and Article 2.33.2
ft = extreme fiber tensile stress in concrete at service loads, psi (MPa). See Article 2.26.1
fy = specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi (MPa)
h = overall thickness of member, inches (mm) 1
hf = compression flange thickness of I- and T-sections, inches (mm)
Icr = moment of inertia of cracked section transformed to concrete. See Article 2.23.7
Ie = effective moment of inertia for computation of deflection. See Article 2.23.7
Ig = moment of inertia of gross concrete section about centroidal axis, neglecting reinforcement
Io = moment of inertia of reinforcement about centroidal axis of member cross section
3
k = effective length factor for compression member. See Article 2.34.2
la = additional embedment length at support or at point of inflection, inches (mm). See Article 2.13.2
ld = development length, inches (mm). See Section 2.13 through Section 2.22
ldh = development length of standard hook in tension, measured from critical section to outside end of hook (straight
embedment length between critical section and start of hook [point of tangency] plus radius of bend and one bar
diameter), inches (mm). 4
lhb x applicable modification factors
lhb = basic development length of standard hook in tension, inches (mm).
lu = unsupported length of compression member. See Section 2.34
M = computed moment capacity as defined in Article 2.13.2
Ma = maximum moment in member at section for which deflection is being computed. See Article 2.23.7
Mb = nominal moment strength of a section at balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.33.2
Mc = moment to be used for design of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
Mcr = cracking moment. See Article 2.23.7
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section
Mnx = nominal moment strength of a section considered about the x axis. See Article 2.33.3
Mny = nominal moment strength of a section considered about the y axis. See Article 2.33.3
Mu = factored moment at section ≤ΦMn
Mux = factored moment component in direction of x axis. See Article 2.33.3

Muy = factored moment component in direction of y axis. See Article 2.33.3

M1b = value of small end moment on compression member due to loads that result in no appreciable side sway, calculated
by conventional elastic frame analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double
curvature. See Article 2.34.2
M2b = value of larger end moment on compression member due to loads that result in no appreciable side sway, calculated
by conventional elastic frame analysis, always positive. See Article 2.34.2
M2s = value of larger end moment on compression member due to loads that result in appreciable side sway, calculated by
conventional elastic frame analysis, always positive. See Article 2.34.2
n = modular ratio = Es/Ec. See Article 2.27
N = design axial load normal to cross section occurring simultaneously with V to be taken as positive for compression,
negative for tension, and to include the effects of tension due to shrinkage and creep. See Article 2.29.2
Nc = design tensile force applied at top of bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with V, to be taken as positive for
tension. See Article 2.29.7
Nu = factored axial load normal to the cross section occurring simultaneously with Vu to be taken as positive for
compression, negative for tension, and to include the effects of tension due to shrinkage and creep. See
Article 2.35.2
Nuc = factored tensile force applied at top of bracket or corbel acting simultaneously with Vu, to be taken as positive for
tension. See Article 2.35.7
Pb = nominal axial load strength of a section at balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.33.2
Pc = critical load. See Article 2.34.2
Pn = nominal axial load strength at given eccentricity.
Pnx = nominal axial load strength corresponding to Mnx with bending considered about the x axis only. See Article 2.33.3
Pny = nominal axial load strength corresponding to Mny with bending considered about the y axis only. See Article 2.33.3
Pnxy = nominal axial load strength with biaxial loading. See Article 2.33.3
Po = nominal axial load strength of a section at zero eccentricity. See Article 2.33.2 and Article 2.33.3
Pu = factored axial load at given eccentricity ≤ΦPn
r = radius of gyration of cross section of compression member. See Article 2.34.2
s = tie spacing, inches (mm). See Article 2.22.4
s = shear reinforcement spacing in a direction parallel to the longitudinal reinforcement, inches (mm)
sw = spacing of wire to be developed or spliced, inches (mm)
S = span length as defined in Article 2.23.6, feet (meters)
v = design shear stress at section. See Section 2.29
vc = permissible shear stress carried by concrete. See Section 2.29 and Section 2.35
vdh = design horizontal shear stress at any cross section. See Article 2.29.5
vh = permissible horizontal shear stress. See Article 2.29.5 and Article 2.35.5
vu = factored shear stress at section. See Section 2.35
vuh = factored horizontal shear stress at any cross section. See Article 2.35.5
V = design shear force at section. See Section 2.29
Vu = factored shear force at section. See Section 2.35
wc = weight of concrete, pounds per cubic foot (kg/m3)
yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension, inches (mm).
See Article 2.23.7
Z = a quantity limiting distribution of flexural reinforcement. See Section 2.39
α = angle between inclined shear reinforcement and longitudinal axis of member
αf = angle between shear-friction reinforcement shear plane. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4

βb = ratio of area of bars cut off to total area of bars at the section. See Article 2.13.1
βc = ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. See Article 2.29.6 and Article 2.35.6
βd = ratio of maximum factored axial dead load to maximum total factored axial load, where the load is due to gravity
effects only in the calculation of Pc in EQ 2-43, or ratio of the maximum factored sustained lateral load to the
maximum total factored lateral load in that level in the calculation of Pc in EQ 2-43. See Article 2.34.2
β1 = a factor defined in Article 2.31.1
δb = Moment magnification factor for members braced against sidesway to reflect effects of member curvature between
ends of compression member.
δs = Moment magnification factor for members not braced against sidesway to reflect lateral drift resulting from lateral
and gravity loads.
λ = correction factor related to unit weight of concrete. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
μ = coefficient of friction. See Article 2.29.4 and Article 2.35.4
ρ = tension reinforcement ratio = As/bd
ρ′ = compression reinforcement ratio = A′s/bd
ρb = reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain conditions. See Article 2.32.1
ρs = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to total volume of core (out-to-out of spirals) of a spirally reinforced
compression member. See Article 2.11.2
ρv = ratio of tie reinforcement area to area of contact surface
ρw = reinforcement ratio (As/bwd) used in EQ 2-15 and EQ 2-46. See Article 2.29.2 and Article 2.35.2
Φ = strength reduction factor. See Article 2.30.2
1
2.2.2 DEFINITIONS (2005)
The following terms are for general use in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design. Specialized terms appear in individual
paragraphs. Refer to the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of the chapter for definitions.
3
Compressive Strength of Concrete (f ′c) Nominal Strength
Deformed Reinforcement Plain Reinforcement
Design Load Required Strength
Design Strength Service Load
Development Length Spiral
4
Embedment Length Stirrups or Ties
Embedment Length, Equivalent (le) Yield Strength or Yield Point (fy)
End Anchorage Concrete, Structural Lightweight
Factored Load
2.2.3 DESIGN LOADS (2012)
a. General.

(1) The following loads and forces shall be considered in the design of railway concrete structures supporting
tracks:
D = Dead Load F = Longitudinal Force due to Friction or

L = Live Load Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings
I = Impact
CF = Centrifugal Force EQ = Earthquake (Seismic)
E = Earth Pressure SF = Stream Flow Pressure
B = Buoyancy ICE = Ice Pressure
W = Wind Load on Structure OF = Other Forces (Rib Shortening, Shrinkage,
WL = Wind Load on Live Load Temperature and/or Settlement of
Supports)
LF = Longitudinal Force from Live Load
(2) Each member of the structure shall be designed for that combination of such loads and forces that can occur
simultaneously to produce the most critical design condition as specified in Article 2.2.4.
b. Dead Load.
(1) The dead load shall consist of the estimated weight of the structural member, plus that of the track, ballast, fill, and
other portions of the structure supported thereby.
(2) The unit weight of materials comprising the dead load, except in special cases involving unusual conditions or
materials, shall be assumed as follows:
• Track rails, inside guardrails and fastenings – 200 lb per linear foot of track. (3kN/m)
• Ballast, including track ties – 120 lb per cubic foot. (1900 kg/m3)
• Reinforced concrete – 150 lb per cubic foot. (2400 kg/m3)
• Earthfilling materials – 120 lb per cubic foot. (1900 kg/m3)
• Waterproofing and protective covering – estimated weight.
c. Live Load.
(1) The recommended live load for each track of main line structure is Cooper E 80 (EM 360) loading with axle loads
and axle spacing as shown in Figure 8-2-1. On branch lines and in other locations where the loading is limited to
the use of light equipment, or cars only, the live load may be reduced, as directed by the engineer. For structures
wherein the material in the primary load-carrying members is not concrete, the E loading used for the concrete
design shall be that used for the primary members.
(2) The axle loads on structures may be assumed as uniformly distributed longitudinally over a length of 3 feet (900
mm), plus the depth of ballast under the tie, plus twice the effective depth of slab, limited, however, by the axle
spacing.
(3) Live load from a single track acting on the top surface of a structure with ballasted deck or under fills shall be
assumed to have uniform lateral distribution over a width equal to the length of track tie plus the depth of ballast
and fill below the bottom of tie, unless limited by the extent of the structure.

Figure 8-2-1. Cooper E 80 (EM 360) Axle Load Diagram
(4) The lateral distribution of live load from multiple tracks shall be as specified for single tracks and further limited
so as not to exceed the distance between centers of adjacent tracks.
(5) The lateral distribution of the live load for structures under deep fills carrying multiple tracks, shall be assumed as
uniform between centers of outside tracks, and the loads beyond these points shall be distributed as specified for
single track. Widely separated tracks shall not be included in the multiple track group.
(6) In calculating the maximum live loads on a structural member due to simultaneous loading on two or more tracks,
the following proportions of the specified live load shall be used:
• For two tracks – full live load, 1

• For three tracks – full live load on two tracks and one-half on the other track,
• For four tracks – full live load on two tracks, one-half on one track, and one-fourth on the remaining track.
(7) The tracks selected for full live load in accordance with the listed limitations shall be those tracks which will
produce the most critical design condition on the member under consideration.
3
d. Impact Load.1
(1) Impact forces, applied at the top of rail, shall be added to the axle loads specified. For rolling equipment without
hammer blow (diesels, electric locomotives, tenders alone, etc.), the impact shall be equal to the following
percentages of the live load: 4
(U.S. Customary)
For L ≤ 14 feet I = 60
For 14 feet < L ≤ 127 feet I = 225 ⁄ ( L )
For L > 127 feet I = 20
1
See Commentary

(Metric)
For L ≤ 4 meters I = 60
For 4 meters < L ≤ 39 meters I = 125 ⁄ ( L )
For L > 39 meters I = 20
Where L is the span length in feet (meters).
This formula is intended for ballasted-deck spans and substructure elements as required.
(2) For continuous structures, the impact value calculated for the shortest span shall be used throughout.
(3) Impact may be omitted in the design for massive substructure elements which are not rigidly connected to the
superstructure.
(4) For steam locomotives with hammer blow, the impact calculated according to Article 2.2.3d(1) shall be increased
by 20%.
e. Centrifugal Force.
(1) On curves, a centrifugal force corresponding to each axle load shall be applied horizontally through a point 8 feet
(2450 mm) above the top of rail measured along a line perpendicular to the line joining the tops of the rails and
equidistant from them. This force shall be the percentage of the live load computed from the formulas below.
(2) On curves, each axle load on each track shall be applied vertically through the point defined in the first paragraph
of this article.
(3) The greater of loads on high and low sides of a superelevated track shall be used for the design of supports under
both sides.
(4) The relationships between speed, degree of curve, centrifugal force and a superelevation which is 3 inches (75
mm) less than that required for zero resultant flange pressure between wheel and rail are expressed by the
formulas:
C = 0.00117 S2D EQ 2-1
C = 0.000452 S2D EQ 2-1M
E = 0.0007 S2D – 3 EQ 2-2

E = 0.0068 S2D – 75 EQ 2-2M
E+3
S = --------------------- EQ 2-3
0.0007D
S =
E + 75
--------------------- EQ 2-3M
0.0068D
where:
C = Centrifugal force in percentage of the live load

D = Degree of curve (Degrees based on 100 foot (30 m) chord)

E = Actual superelevation in inches (mm)

S = Permissible speed in miles per hour (km/hr)
f. Earth Pressure. Earth pressure forces to be applied to the structure shall be determined in accordance with the
provisions of Part 5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers.
g. Buoyancy. Buoyancy shall be considered as it affects the design of either substructure, including piling, or the
superstructure.
h. Wind Load on Structure. The base wind load acting on the structure is assumed to be 45 lb per square foot (2160 Pa) on
the vertical projection of the structure applied at the center of gravity of the vertical projection in any horizontal
direction. A base wind velocity of 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) was used to determine the base wind load. If an
increase in the design wind velocity is made, the design wind velocity and design wind load shall be shown on the
plans.
For Group II and Group V loadings, when a design wind velocity greater than 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) is
advisable the base wind load may be increased by the ratio of the square of the design wind velocity to the square of the
base wind velocity. This increase shall not apply to Group III and Group VI Loadings.
i. Wind Load on Live Load. A wind load of 300 lb per linear foot (4.4 kN/m) on the train shall be applied 8 feet (2450
mm) above the top of rail in a horizontal direction perpendicular to the centerline of the track.
j. Longitudinal Force.1
1
(1) The longitudinal force for E-80 (EM-360) loading shall be taken as the larger of:
– Force due to braking, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 8 feet (2450 mm) above top of rail.
Longitudinal braking force (kips) = 45 + 1.2L

(Longitudinal braking force (kN) = 200 + 17.5L) 3
– Force due to traction, as prescribed by the following equation, acting 3 feet (900 mm) above top of rail.
Longitudinal traction force (kips) = 25 L
(Longitudinal traction force (kN) = 200 L ) 4

For design of superstructure elements, L shall be taken as the length in feet (meters) of the span under consideration.
For design of substructure elements, L shall be as follows:
– Where rail is continuous across the bridge, or where load transfer devices that are approved by the Engineer
are employed at discontinuities in the rail, L shall be the total bridge length in feet (meters). Longitudinal
force shall be distributed to individual substructure units as described in Article 2.2.3(j)(2) below.
– Where rail is not continuous across the bridge, and approved load transfer devices are not employed, L shall
be taken as the length in feet (meters) of each bridge segment with rail continuity. The substructure units for
each segment shall be evaluated and the longitudinal force computed for that segment shall be distributed to
individual substructure units as described in Article 2.2.3(j)(2) below.
1
See Commentary

– For design loads other than E-80 (EM-360), these forces shall be scaled proportionally. The points of force
application shall not be changed.
(2) The effective longitudinal force shall be distributed to the various components of the supporting structure, taking
into account their relative stiffness. The resistance of the backfill behind the abutments shall be utilized where
applicable. The mechanisms (rail, bearings, load transfer devices, etc.) available to transfer the force to the
various components shall also be considered.
(3) The longitudinal deflection of the superstructure due to longitudinal force computed in (1) above shall not exceed
1 inch (25 mm) for E-80 (EM 360) loading. For design loads other than E-80 (EM 360), the maximum allowable
longitudinal deflection shall be scaled proportionally. In no case, however, shall the longitudinal deflection exceed
1-1/2 inches (38 mm).
k. Longitudinal Force Due to Friction or Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings. Provisions shall be made to
accommodate forces due to friction or shear resistance due to expansion bearings.
l. Earthquake. In regions where earthquakes may be anticipated, structures may be designed to resist earthquake motions
by considering the relationship of the site to active faults, the seismic response of the soils at the site, and the dynamic
response characteristics of the total structure. Refer to Chapter 9 Seismic Design for Railway Structures for additional
guidance.
m. Stream Flow Pressure. All piers and other portions of structures which are subject to the force of flowing water or drift
shall be designed to resist the maximum stresses induced thereby.
(1) Stream Pressure
The effect of flowing water on piers and drift build up, assuming a second-degree parabolic velocity distribution
and thus a triangular pressure distribution, shall be calculated by the formula:
Pavg = K(Vavg)2 EQ 2-4
where:
Pavg = average stream pressure, in pounds per square foot, (Pa)

Vavg = average velocity of water in feet per second, (m/s) computed by dividing the flow rate by the
flow area,
K = a constant, being 1.4 (or 725 for metric) for all piers subjected to drift build up and square-ended
piers, 0.7 (or 360 for metric) for circular piers, and 0.5 (or 260 for metric) for angle-ended piers
where the angle is 30 degrees or less.
The maximum stream flow pressure, Pmax, shall be equal to twice the average stream flow pressure, Pavg,
computed by EQ 2-4. Stream flow pressure shall be a triangular distribution with Pmax located at the top of water
elevation and a zero pressure located at the flow line.
(2) The stream flow forces shall be computed by the product of the stream flow pressure, taking into account the
pressure distribution, and the exposed pier area. In cases where the corresponding top of water elevation is above
the low beam elevation, stream flow loading on the superstructure shall be investigated. The stream flow pressure
acting on the superstructure may be taken as Pmax with a uniform distribution.
(3) Pressure Components

When the direction of stream flow is other than normal to the exposed surface area, or when bank migration or a
change of stream bed meander is anticipated, the effects of the directional components of stream flow pressure
shall be investigated.
(4) Drift Lodge Against Pier
Where a significant amount of drift lodge against a pier is anticipated, the effects of this drift build up shall be
considered in the design of the bridge opening and the bridge components. The overall dimensions of the drift
build up shall reflect the selected pier locations, site conditions, and known drift supply upstream. When it is
anticipated that the flow area will be significantly blocked by drift build up, increases in high water elevations,
stream velocities, stream flow pressures, and the potential increases in scour depths shall be investigated.
n. Ice Pressure. The effects of ice pressure, both static and dynamic, shall be accounted for in the design of piers and
other portions of the structure where, in the judgment of the Engineer, conditions so warrant.
(1) General. Ice forces on piers shall be selected having regard to site conditions and the mode of ice action to be
expected. Consideration shall be given to the following modes:
(a) dynamic ice pressure due to moving ice sheets and floes carried by streamflow, wind or currents;
(b) static ice pressure due to thermal movements of continuous stationary ice sheets onlarge bodies of water;
(c) static pressure resulting from ice jams;
(d) static uplift or vertical loads resulting from adhering ice in waters of fluctuating level.
1
The expected thickness of ice, the direction of its movement, and the height at which it acts shall be determined by
field investigations, published records, aerial photography and other means. Consideration shall be given to the
worst expected combination of height, thickness and pressure, to the possibility of unusual thicknesses resulting
from special circumstances or operations, and to the natural variability of ice conditions from year to year.
3
(2) Dynamic Ice Pressure. Horizontal forces resulting from the pressure of moving ice are to be calculated by the
formula:
F = Cnptw EQ 2-5
where:
4
F = horizontal ice force on pier; pounds (N)
Cn = coefficient for nose inclination from Table 8-2-1;
p = ice pressure as indicated below; psi (MPa)
t = thickness of ice in contact withpier; inches (mm)
w = width of pier or diameter of circular-shaft pier at the level of ice action; inches (mm)
Table 8-2-1. Coefficient for Nose Inclination
Inclination of Nose to Vertical Cn

0 degrees to 15 degrees 1.00

(3) The ice pressure “p” shall normally be taken in the range of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) to 400 psi (2.8 MPa) on the
assumption that crushing or splitting of the ice takes place on contact with the pier. The value used shall be based
on an assessment of the probable condition of the ice at time of movement, on previous local experience, and on
assessment of existing structure performance. Relevant ice conditions include the expected temperature of the ice
at time of movement, the size of moving sheets and floes and the velocity at contact. Due consideration shall be
given to probability of extreme rather than average conditions at the site in question.
NOTE: The following values of ice pressure appropriate to various situations may be used as a
guide:
(a) In the order of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) where break-up occurs at melting temperatures and where the ice runs as
small “cakes” and is substantially disintegrated in its structure;
(b) In the order of 200 psi (1.4 MPa) where break-up occurs at melting temperatures, but the ice moves in large
pieces and is internally sound;
(c) In the order of 300 psi (2.1 MPa) where at break-up there is an initial movement of the ice sheet as a whole or
where large sheets of sound ice may strike the piers;
(d) In the order of 400 psi (2.8 MPa) where break-up or major ice movement may occur with ice temperature
significantly below the melting point.
(4) The ice pressure values listed above apply to piers of substantal mass and dimensions. The values shall be
modified as necessary for variations inpier width or pile diameter, and design ice thickness by multiplying by the
appropriate coefficient obtained from Table 8-2-2.
Table 8-2-2. Coefficient for Design Ice Thickness
b/t Coefficient
0.5 1.8
1.0 1.3
1.5 1.1
2.0 1.0
3.0 0.9
4.0 or greater 0.8
where:
b = width of pier or diameter of pile;

t = design ice thickness.
(5) Piers should be placed with their longitudinal axes parallel to the principal direction of ice action. The force
calculated by the formula shall then be taken to act along the direction of the long axis. A force transverse to the
longitudinal axis and amounting to not less than 15% of the longitudinal force shall be considered to act
simultaneously.
(6) Where the longitudinal axis of a pier cannot be placed parallel to the principal direction of ice action, or where the
direction of ice action may shift, the total force on the pier shall be figured by the formula and resolved into vector
components. In such conditions, forces transverse to the longitudinal axis of the pier shall in no case be taken as
less than 20% of the total force.

(7) In the case of slender and flexible piers, consideration should be given to the vibrating nature of dynamic ice
forces and to the possibility of high momentary pressures and structural resonance.
(8) Ice pressure on piers frozen into ice sheets on large bodies of water shall receive special consideration where there
is reason to believe that the ice sheets are subject to significant thermal movements relative to the piers.
o. Other Forces (Rib Shortening, Shrinkage, Temperature and/or Settlement of Supports).
(1) The structure shall be designed to resist the forces caused by rib shortening, shrinkage, temperature rise and/or
drop and the anticipated settlement of supports.
(2) The range of temperature shall generally be as shown in Table 8-2-3.
Table 8-2-3. Temperature Ranges
Climate Temperature Rise Temperature Fall

Moderate 30 degrees F (17 degrees C) 40 degrees F (22 degrees C)
Cold 35 degrees F (20 degrees C) 45 degrees F (25 degrees C)
2.2.4 LOADING COMBINATIONS (2005)
a. General. The following groups represent various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be
subjected. Each component of the structure, or the foundation on which it rests, shall be proportioned for the group of 1
loads that produce the most critical design condition.
b. Service Load Design.
(1) The group loading combinations for SERVICE LOAD DESIGN are as shown in Table 8-2-4.
Table 8-2-4. Group Loading Combinations – Service Load Design 3
Allowable Percentage
Group Item
of Basic Unit Stress
I D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF 100
II D + E + B + SF + W 125
4
III Group I + 0.5W + WL + LF + F 125
IV Group I + OF 125
V Group II + OF 140
VI Group III + OF 140
VII Group I + ICE 140
VIII Group II + ICE 150
(2) No increase in allowable unit stresses shall be permitted for members or connections carrying wind load only. If
predictability of service load conditions is different from the specifications, this difference should be accounted for
in the appropriate service load analyses or in the unit stress increase percentages.
c. Load Factor Design.

(1) The group loading combinations for LOAD FACTOR DESIGN are as shown in Table 8-2-5.
Table 8-2-5. Group Loading Combinations – Load Factor Design
Group Item
I 1.4 (D + 5/3 (L + I) + CF + E + B + SF)
IA 1.8 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF)
II 1.4 (D + E + B + SF + W)
III 1.4 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + LF + F)
IV 1.4 (D + L + I + CF + E + B + SF + OF)
V Group II + 1.4 (OF)
VI Group III + 1.4 (OF)
VII 1.0 (D + E + B + EQ)
VIII 1.4 (D + L + I + E + B + SF + ICE)
IX 1.2 (D + E + B + SF + W + ICE)
(2) The load factors given are only intended for designing structural members by the load factor concept. The actual
loads should not be increased by these factors when designing for foundations (soil pressure, pile loads, etc.). The
load factors are not intended to be used when checking for foundation stability (safety factors against overturning,
sliding, etc.) of a structure. The load factors given above represent usual conditions and should be increased if, in
the Engineer’s judgment, the predictability of loads is different than anticipated by the specifications.
SECTION 2.3 MATERIALS
2.3.1 CONCRETE (1992)
a. Compressive strength of concrete f ′c for which each part of the structure is designed, shall be shown on the plans.
b. Specified compressive strength of concrete f ′c shall be the basis for acceptance. Requirements for f ′c shall be based on
tests of cylinders made and tested in accordance with the methods as prescribed in Part 1 Materials, Tests and
Construction Requirements.
a. Yield strength or grade of reinforcement used in design shall be shown on the plans.
b. Reinforcement to be welded shall be indicated on the plans and the welding procedure to be used shall be specified.
ASTM steel specifications, except for ASTM A706, shall be supplemented to require a report of material properties
(chemical analysis) necessary to conform to welding procedures specified in “Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing
Steel” (AWS D 1.4) of the American Welding Society. If coated bars are to be welded, the Engineer should specify any
additional requirements to those contained in AWS D 1.4, such as removal of zinc or epoxy coating for welding and
field application of new coatings in the weld region if protection is required.
c. Designs shall not be based on a yield strength fy in excess of 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
d. Only deformed reinforcement shall be used except that plain bars or smooth wire may be used as spirals.

e. Reinforcement shall conform to the specifications listed in Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements,
except that, for reinforcing bars, the yield strength shall correspond to that determined by tests on full-size bars.
DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 2.4 HOOKS AND BENDS
2.4.1 STANDARD HOOKS (2005)
The term “standard hook” as used herein, shall mean one of the following:
a. 180-degree bend plus 4db extension, but not less than 2-1/2 inches (60 mm) at free end of bar.
b. 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar.
c. For stirrup and tie hooks:
(1) #5 (#16) bar and smaller, 90-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar, or
1
(2) #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, #25) bar, 90-degree bend plus 12db extension at free end of bar, or
(3) #8 (#25) bar and smaller, 135-degree bend plus 6db extension at free end of bar.
2.4.2 MINIMUM BEND DIAMETER (2005)
a. Diameter of bend measured on the inside of the bar, other than for stirrups and ties in sizes #3 (#10) through #5 (#16),
3
shall not be less than the values in Table 8-2-6.
Table 8-2-6. Minimum Diameter of Bend
Bar Size Minimum Diameter

#3 through #8 (#10 through #25) 6 bar diameters 4
#9, #10 and #11 (#29, #32 and #36) 8 bar diameters
#14 and #18 (#43 and #57) 10 bar diameters
b. Inside diameter of bends for stirrups and ties shall not be less than 4db for #5 (#16) bar and smaller. For bars larger than
#5 (#16), diameter of bend shall be in accordance with Table 8-2-6.
c. Inside diameter of bend in welded wire fabric, smooth or deformed, for stirrups and ties shall not be less than four wire
diameters for deformed wire larger than D6 and two wire diameters for all other wires. Bends with inside diameter of
less than eight wire diameters shall not be less than four wire diameters from the nearest welded intersection.

SECTION 2.5 SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. For cast-in-place concrete the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer shall not be less than one and one-half
times the diameter of the bars, two times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nor 1-1/2 inches (40 mm).
b. For precast concrete (manufactured under plant control conditions) the clear distance between parallel bars in a layer
shall be not less than the diameter of the bars, one and one-third times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate, nor 1
inch (25 mm).
c. Where positive or negative reinforcement is placed in two or more layers, bars in the upper layers shall be placed
directly above those in the bottom layer with the clear distance between layers not less than 1 inch (25 mm).
d. Clear distance limitation between bars shall also apply to the clear distance between a contact lap splice and adjacent
splices or bars.
e. Groups of parallel reinforcing bars bundled in contact to act as a unit shall be limited to four in any one bundle. Bars
larger than #11 (#36) shall not be bundled in beams. Bundled bars shall be located within stirrups or ties. Individual
bars in a bundle cut off within the span of a member shall terminate at different points with at least 40 bar diameters
stagger. Where spacing limitations are based on bar size, a unit of bundled bars shall be treated as a single bar of a
diameter derived from the equivalent total area.
f. In walls and slabs the principal reinforcement shall be spaced not farther apart than one and one-half times the wall or
slab thickness, nor more than 18 inches (450 mm).
SECTION 2.6 CONCRETE PROTECTION FOR REINFORCEMENT
2.6.1 MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER (2005)
Table 8-2-7 defines the minimum concrete cover that shall be provided for reinforcement.
Table 8-2-7. Minimum Concrete Cover
Minimum Cover Minimum Cover

Condition of Concrete
(Inches) (mm)
Concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth 3 75
Concrete exposed to earth or weather
Principal reinforcement 2 50
Stirrups, ties and spirals 1-1/2 40
Concrete bridge slabs
Top reinforcement 2 50
Bottom reinforcement 1-1/2 40
Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground
Principal reinforcement 1-1/2 40
Stirrups, ties and spirals 1 25
2.6.2 CONCRETE COVER FOR BAR BUNDLES (2005)
For bar bundles, minimum concrete cover shall be equal to the lesser of the equivalent diameter of the bundle or 2 inches (50
mm), but not less than that given in Article 2.6.1.

2.6.3 CONCRETE COVER FOR CORROSIVE AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS (1992)
In corrosive or marine environments or other severe exposure conditions, the amount of concrete protection shall be suitably
increased, and the denseness and nonporosity of the protecting concrete shall be considered, or other protection shall be
provided.
2.6.4 CORROSION PROTECTION (1992)
Exposed reinforcing bars, inserts, and plates intended for bonding with future extensions shall be protected from corrosion.
SECTION 2.7 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992)
a. At any section of a flexural member where tension reinforcement is required by analysis, the reinforcement provided
shall be adequate to develop a design moment strength ΦMn at least 1.2 times the cracking moment calculated on the
basis of the modulus of rupture for normal weight concrete specified in Article 2.26.1a.
b. The requirements of Section 2.7a may be waived if the area of reinforcement provided at the section under
consideration is at least one-third greater than that required by analysis based on the load factors specified in
Article 2.2.4c.
SECTION 2.8 DISTRIBUTION OF REINFORCEMENT IN FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2005)
a. Flexural tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension.
3
(1) For T-girder and box-girder flanges, tension reinforcement shall be distributed over an effective tension flange
width equal to 1/10 the girder span length, or a width as defined in Article 2.23.10b, whichever is smaller. If the
actual slab width, center-to-center of girder webs, exceeds the effective tension flange width, and for excess
portions of deck slab overhang, additional longitudinal reinforcement having a total area at least equal to 0.4% of
excess slab area shall be provided in the outer portions of the slab.
(2) For integral bent caps of T-girder and box girder construction, tension reinforcement shall not be placed outside 4
the bent cap web farther than an overhanging slab width on each side of the bent cap equal to 1/4 the average
spacing of intersecting girder webs or a width as defined in Article 2.23.10b for integral bent caps, whichever is
smaller.
b. If the depth of web exceeds 3 feet (900 mm), longitudinal skin reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed along both
side faces of the member for a distance d/2 nearest the flexural tension reinforcement. The area of skin reinforcement
Ask per foot (m) of height on each side face shall be ≥0.012(d-30) (or Ask ≥ 0.3 (d-750) in metric). The maximum
spacing of the skin reinforcement shall be the smaller of d/6 or 12 inches (300 mm). Such reinforcement may be
included in strength computations if a strain compatibility analysis is made to determine stresses in the individual bars
or wires. The total area of longitudinal skin reinforcement in both faces need not exceed one-half of the required
flexural tensile reinforcement.
c. For LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, the distribution of flexural reinforcement requirements of Article 2.39 shall also apply.

SECTION 2.9 LATERAL REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2005)
a. Compression reinforcement used to increase the strength of flexural members shall be enclosed by ties or stirrups, at
least #3 (#10) in size for longitudinal bars #10 (#32) or smaller, and at least #4 (#13) in size for #11, #14, #18 (#36,
#43, #57) and bundled longitudinal bars, or by welded wire fabric of equivalent area. Spacing of the ties shall not
exceed 16 longitudinal bar diameters. Such stirrups or ties shall be provided throughout the distance where the
compression reinforcement is required.
b. Torsion reinforcement, where required, shall consist of closed stirrups, closed ties, or spirals, combined with
longitudinal bars.
c. Closed stirrups or ties may be formed in one piece by overlapping standard stirrup or tie end hooks around a
longitudinal bar, or formed in one or two pieces lap spliced with a Class C splice (lap of 1.7ld).
d. In seismic areas, where an earthquake of such magnitude as to cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate strength and
ductility to resist anticipated seismic movements.
SECTION 2.10 SHEAR REINFORCEMENT – GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
2.10.1 MINIMUM SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided in all flexural members, except slabs, footings, and shallow
beams, where the design shear stress is greater than one-half the permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete. Beams
where total depth does not exceed either 10 inches (250 mm), 2-1/2 times the thickness of the flange, or one-half the
width of the web shall be considered shallow beams.
b. Where shear reinforcement is required by Article 2.10.1a, or by analysis, the area provided shall not be less than
Av = 60 bws/fy EQ 2-6
Av = 0.42 bws/fy EQ 2-6M
where:
bw = inches (mm)
s = inches (mm)
c. Minimum shear reinforcement requirements may be waived if it is shown by test that the required ultimate flexural and
shear strength can be developed when shear reinforcement is omitted.
2.10.2 TYPES OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (1992)
a. Shear reinforcement may consist of:
(1) Stirrups perpendicular to axis of member or making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the longitudinal tension
reinforcement.
(2) Welded wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to axis of member.

(3) Longitudinal bars with a bent portion making an angle of 30 degrees or more with the longitudinal tension bars.
(4) Combinations of stirrups and bent bars.
(5) Spirals.
b. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends in accordance with requirements of Section 2.21.
2.10.3 SPACING OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
Where shear reinforcement is required and is placed perpendicular to axis of member, it shall be spaced not further apart than
0.50d, but not more than 24 inches (600 mm). Inclined stirrups and bent bars shall be so spaced that every 45 degree line,
extending toward the reaction from the mid-depth of the member, 0.50d, to the longitudinal tension bars, shall be crossed by at
least one line of shear reinforcement.
SECTION 2.11 LIMITS FOR REINFORCEMENT OF COMPRESSION MEMBERS
2.11.1 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Longitudinal reinforcement for compression members shall not be less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08 times the gross
area of Ag of the section. The minimum number of longitudinal reinforcing bars shall be six for bars in a circular 1
arrangement and four for bars in a rectangular arrangement. The minimum size of bar shall be #5 (#16).
b. When the cross section is larger than that required by consideration of loading, a reduced effective area may be used.
The reduced effective concrete area shall not be less than that which would require 1% of longitudinal reinforcement to
carry the loading.
3
2.11.2 LATERAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Spirals. Spiral reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
(1) Spirals shall consist of evenly spaced continuous bar or wire, with a minimum diameter of 3/8 inch (10 mm).
(2) Ratio of spiral reinforcement ρs shall not be less than the value given by: 4
A f′
ρ s = 0.45 ⎛ ------g – 1⎞ -----c- EQ 2-7
⎝A ⎠f
c y
where:
fy = the specified yield strength of spiral reinforcement but not more than 60,000 psi (420 MPa)
(3) Clear spacing between spirals shall not exceed 3 inches (75 mm) nor be less than 1-1/2 inches (40 mm) or 2 times
the maximum size of coarse aggregate used.
(4) Anchorage of spiral reinforcement shall be provided by 1-1/2 extra turns of spiral bar or wire at each end of a
spiral unit.

(5) Spirals shall extend from top of footing or other support to level of lowest horizontal reinforcement in members
supported above.
(6) Splices in spiral reinforcement shall be welded splices, or they shall be lap splices not less than the larger of
12 inches (300 mm) and the length indicated in one of (a) through (e) below:
(a) deformed uncoated bar or wire......................................................................................................48db
(b) plain uncoated bar or wire.............................................................................................................72db
(c) epoxy-coated deformed bar or wire...............................................................................................72db
(d) plain uncoated bar or wire with a standard stirrup or tie hook in accordance with Article 2.4.1c at ends of
lapped spiral reinforcement. The hooks shall be embedded within the core confined by the spiral
reinforcement................................................................................................................48db
(e) epoxy-coated deformed bar or wire with a standard stirrup or tie hook in accordance with Article 2.4.1c at
ends of lapped spiral reinforcement. The hooks shall be embedded within the core confined by the spiral
reinforcement....................................................................................48db
(7) Spirals shall be of such size and so assembled to permit handling and placing without distortion from designed
dimensions.
(8) Spirals shall be held firmly in place and true to line by vertical spacers. For spiral bar or wire smaller than 5/8 inch
(16 mm) diameter, a minimum of two spacers shall be used for spirals less than 20 inches (500 mm) in diameter,
three spacers for spirals 20 to 30 inches (500 to 750 mm) in diameter, and four spacers for spirals greater than 30
inches (750 mm) in diameter. For spiral bar or wire 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter or larger, a minimum of three
spacers shall be used for spirals 24 inches (600 mm) or less in diameter, and four spacers for spirals greater than 24
inches (600 mm) in diameter.
b. Ties. Tie reinforcement for compression members shall conform to the following:
(1) All bars shall be enclosed by lateral ties, at least #3 (#10) in size for longitudinal bars #10 (#32) or smaller, and at
least #4 (#13) in size for #11, #14, #18 (#36, #43, #57), and bundled longitudinal bars. Deformed wire or welded
wire fabric of equivalent area may be used.
(2) Vertical spacing of ties shall not exceed the least dimension of the compression member or 12 inches (300 mm).
When bars larger than #10 (#32) are bundled more than two in any one bundle, tie spacing shall be one-half that
specified above.
(3) Ties shall be located vertically not more than half a tie spacing above the footing or other support and shall be
spaced as provided herein to not more than half a tie spacing below the lowest horizontal reinforcement in
members supported above.
(4) At each tie location, the lateral ties shall be so arranged that no longitudinal bar is farther than 2 feet (600mm) on
either side along the tie from a bar with lateral support provided by the corner of a tie having an included angle of
not more than 135 degrees. Where longitudinal bars are located around the perimeter of a circle, a complete
circular tie may be used.
c. In a compression member which has a larger cross section than required by conditions of loading, the lateral
reinforcement requirements may be waived where structural analysis or tests show adequate strength feasibility of
construction.

d. In seismic areas, where an earthquake of such magnitude as to cause major damage to construction has a high
probability of occurrence, lateral reinforcement for column piers shall be designed and detailed to provide adequate
strength and ductility to resist anticipated seismic movements.
SECTION 2.12 SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE REINFORCEMENT (2005)
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature stresses shall be provided near exposed surfaces of walls and slabs not otherwise
reinforced. The total area of reinforcement provided shall be at least 0.25 in2/ft (530 mm2/m) measured in the direction
perpendicular to the direction of the reinforcement and be spaced not farther apart than three times the wall or slab thickness,
nor 18 inches (450 mm).
DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
SECTION 2.13 DEVELOPMENT REQUIREMENTS

1
2.13.1 GENERAL (2005)
a. The calculated tension or compression in the reinforcement at each section shall be developed on each side of that
section by embedment length or end anchorage or a combination thereof. For bars in tension, hooks may be used in
developing the bars.
3
b. Tension reinforcement may be anchored by bending it across the web and making it continuous with the reinforcement
on the opposite face of the member, or anchoring it there.
c. Critical sections for development of reinforcement in flexural members are at points of maximum stress and at points
within the span where adjacent reinforcement terminates, or is bent. The provisions of Article 2.13.2c must also be
satisfied.
4
d. Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist flexure for a distance equal to
the effective depth of the member, 15 bar diameters, or 1/20 of the clear span, whichever is greater, except at supports
of simple spans and at the free end of cantilevers.
e. Continuing reinforcement shall have an embedment length not less than the development length ld beyond the point
where bent or terminated tension reinforcement is no longer required to resist flexure.
f. Flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength shall not be
terminated in a tension zone unless one of the following conditions is satisfied.
(1) Shear at the cutoff point does not exceed one-half of the design shear strength, ΦVn, including the shear strength
of furnished shear reinforcement.
(2) Stirrup area in excess of that required for shear is provided along each terminated bar over a distance from the
termination point equal to three-fourths the effective depth of the member. The excess stirrups shall be

proportioned such that their (Av/bws)fy is not less than 60 psi (0.42 MPa). The resulting spacings shall not exceed
d/(8βb) where βb is the ratio of the area of bars cut off to the total area of bars at the section.
(3) For #11 (#36) and smaller bars, the continuing bars provide double the area required for flexure at the cutoff point
and shear does not exceed three-fourths of the design shear strength, ΦVn.
2.13.2 POSITIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. At least one-half the positive moment reinforcement in simple members and one-fourth the positive moment
reinforcement in continuous members shall extend along the same face of the member into the support. In beams, such
reinforcement shall extend into the support a distance of 12 or more bar diameters, or shall be extended as far as
possible into the support and terminated in standard hooks or other adequate anchorage.
b. When a flexural member is part of the lateral load resisting system, the positive reinforcement required to be extended
into the support by Article 2.13.2a shall be anchored to develop the full fy in tension at the face of the support.
c. At simple supports and at points of inflection, positive moment tension reinforcement shall be limited to a diameter
such that ld computed for fy by Section 2.14 satisfies EQ 2-8; except EQ 2-8 need not be satisfied for reinforcement
terminating beyond centerline of simple supports by a standard hook, or a mechanical anchorage at least equivalent to
a standard hook.
ld ≤M
----- + la EQ 2-8
V
where:
M = the computed moment capacity assuming all positive moment tension reinforcement at the section to be
fully stressed
V = the maximum applied design shear at the section
la = the embedment length beyond center of support or point of inflection
la at a point of inflection shall be limited to the effective depth of the member 12d b , whichever is greater. The value of
M/V in the development length limitation may be increased 30% when the ends of the reinforcement are confined by a
compressive reaction.
2.13.3 NEGATIVE MOMENT REINFORCEMENT (1994)
a. Tension reinforcement in a continuous, restrained, or cantilever member, or in any member of a rigid frame, shall be
anchored in or through the supporting member by embedment length, hooks, or mechanical anchorage.
b. Negative moment reinforcement shall have an embedment length into the span as required by Article 2.13.1a and
Article 2.13.1d.
c. At least one-third the total reinforcement provided for negative moment at the support shall have an embedment length
beyond the point of inflection not less than the effective depth of the member, 12 bar diameters, or one-sixteenth of the
clear span, whichever is greater.

2.13.4 SPECIAL MEMBERS (1994)
Adequate end anchorage shall be provided for tension reinforcement in flexural members where reinforcement stress is not
directly proportional to moment, such as: sloped, stepped, or tapered footings; brackets; deep beams; or members in which the
tension reinforcement is not parallel to the compression face.
SECTION 2.14 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED WIRE

IN TENSION (2005)
Development length ld, in inches (mm), of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall be computed as the product of the
basic development length of Section 2.14a and the applicable modification factor or factors of Section 2.14b through
Section 2.14e, but ld shall be not less than that specified in Section 2.14f.
a. The basic development length is shown in Table 8-2-8.
Table 8-2-8. Development Length for Deformed Bars and Wire
Type Development Length

For #11 or smaller bars 0.04A b f y 1
----------------------- (Note 1)
f′ c
but not less than:
0.0004dbfy (Note 2)
For #14 bars 0.085f y
------------------- (Note 3)
f′ c 3
For #18 bars 0.11f y
---------------- (Note 3)
f′ c
For deformed wire 0.03d b f y

----------------------
f′ c 4
Note 1: The constant carries the unit of 1/inch.
Note 2: The constant carries the unit of inch2/lb.
Note 3: The constant carries the unit of inch.
b. The basic development length shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.4 for top reinforcement.
NOTE: Top reinforcement is horizontal reinforcement so placed that more than 12 inches (300 mm) of concrete is
cast in the member below the bar.
c. When lightweight aggregate concrete is used, the basic development lengths in Section 2.14a shall be multiplied by
1.18, or the basic development length may be multiplied by 6.7 f′ c ⁄ f ct (or 0.56 f′ c ⁄ f ct in metric), but not
less than 1.0, when fct is specified. The factors of Section 2.14b and Section 2.14d shall also be applied.

d. The basic development length may be multiplied by the applicable factor or factors for:
Reinforcement being developed in length under consideration and spaced laterally at least 6 inches
(150 mm) on center with at least 3 inches (75 mm) clear from face of member to edge bar,
measured in the direction of the spacing (Figure 8-2-2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
Bars enclosed within a spiral which is not less than 1/4 inch (6 mm) diameter and not more than 4
inch (100 mm) pitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.75
e. The basic development length for bars coated with epoxy with cover less than 3 bar diameters or clear spacing between
bars less than 6 bar diameters shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.5. The basic development length for all other epoxy
coated bars shall be multiplied by a factor of 1.15. The product obtained when combining the factor for top
reinforcement with the applicable factor for epoxy coated reinforcement need not be taken greater than 1.7.
f. The development length ld shall be taken as not less than 12 inches (300 mm) except in the computation of lap splices
by Article 2.22.3 and anchorage of shear reinforcement by Section 2.21.
Figure 8-2-2. Reinforcement Spacing
SECTION 2.15 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION (2005)
The development length ld for bars in compression shall be computed as 0.02f y d b ⁄ ( f ′c) (or f y d b ⁄ 4 ( f ′c) in metric),
but shall not be less than 0.0003 fydb or 8 inches [or (0.04 dbfy) or 200 mm in metric]. Where excess bar area is provided the ld
length may be reduced by the ratio of required area to area provided. The development length may be reduced 25% when the
reinforcement is enclosed by spirals not less than 1/4 inch (6 mm) in diameter and not more than 4 inch (100 mm) pitch.
SECTION 2.16 DEVELOPMENT LENGTH OF BUNDLED BARS (1990)
The development length of each bar of bundled bars shall be that for the individual bar, increased by 20% for a three-bar
bundle, and 33% for a four-bar bundle.

SECTION 2.17 DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD HOOKS IN TENSION (2005)
a. Development length ldh, in inches (mm), for deformed bars in tension terminating in a standard hook (Article 2.4.1)
shall be computed as the product of the basic development length lhb of Section 2.17b and the applicable modification
factor or factors of Section 2.17c but ldh shall not be less than 8db or 6 inches (150 mm), whichever is greater.
b. Basic development length lhb for a hooked bar with fy equal to 60,000 psi (420 MPa) shall be 1200d b ⁄ ( f ′c) (or
100d b ⁄ ( f ′c) in metric).
c. Basic development length lhb shall be multiplied by applicable modification factor or factors for:
(1) Bar yield strength
Bars with fy other than 60,000 psi (420 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . fy/60,000

(fy/420)
(2) Concrete cover
For #11 (#36) bar and smaller, side cover (normal to plane of hook) not less than 2-1/2 inches (60
mm), and for 90 degree hook, cover on bar extension beyond hook not less than 2 inches (50 mm). 0.7
(3) Ties or stirrups

1
For #11 (#36) bar and smaller, hook enclosed vertically or horizontally within ties or
stirrup-ties spaced along full development length ldh not greater than 3db, where db is diameter of
hooked bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.8
(4) Excess reinforcement
Where anchorage or development for fy is not specifically required, ( A s required )

3
reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ---------------------------------
-
( A s provided )
(5) Lightweight aggregate concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
d. For bars being developed by a standard hook at discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and top (or 4
bottom) cover over hook less than 2-1/2 inches (60 mm), hooked bar shall be enclosed within ties or stirrups spaced
along full development length ldh not greater than 3db, where db is diameter of hooked bar (Figure 8-2-3). For this case,
factor of Section 2.17c(3) shall not apply.
e. Hooks shall not be considered effective in developing bars in compression.

Figure 8-2-3. Standard Hook Bars
SECTION 2.18 COMBINATION DEVELOPMENT LENGTH
Information deleted in 1990 revision.
SECTION 2.19 DEVELOPMENT OF WELDED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION
2.19.1 DEFORMED WIRE FABRIC (2005)
a. Development length ld, in inches (mm), of welded deformed wire fabric measured from point of critical section to end
of wire shall be computed as the product of the basic development length of Article 2.19.1b or Article 2.19.1c and
applicable modification factor or factors of Section 2.14b, Section 2.14c and Section 2.14d; but ld shall not be less than
8 inches (200 mm) except in computation of lap splices by Article 2.22.6 and development of shear reinforcement by
Section 2.21.
b. Basic development length of welded deformed wire fabric, with at least one cross wire within the development length
not less than 2 inches (50 mm) from point of critical section, shall be
0.03d b ( f y – 20, 000 ) ⁄ f ′c NOTE: The 20,000 has units of psi. EQ 2-9
0.36d b ( f y – 140 ) ⁄ f ′c NOTE: The 140 has units of MPa. EQ 2-9M
but not less than

0.20A w ⎛ f y ⎞
------------------ ⎜ ----------⎟ EQ 2-10
s w ⎝ f′ ⎠
c
c. Basic development length of welded deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the development length, shall be
determined as for deformed wire.
2.19.2 SMOOTH WIRE FABRIC (2005)
Yield strength of welded smooth wire fabric shall be considered developed by embedment of two cross wires with the closer
cross wire not less than 2 inches (50 mm) from point of critical section. However, development length ld measured from point
of critical section to outermost cross wire shall not be less than
0.27A w ⎛ f y ⎞
------------------ ⎜ ----------⎟ EQ 2-11
s w ⎝ f′ ⎠
c
3.3A w ⎛ f y ⎞
--------------- ⎜ ----------⎟ EQ 2-11M
s w ⎝ f′ ⎠
c
modified by a factor of Section 2.14c for lightweight aggregate concrete, but ld shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm) except
in computation of lap splices by Article 2.22.7.
1
SECTION 2.20 MECHANICAL ANCHORAGE (1992)
a. Any mechanical device shown by tests to be capable of developing the strength of reinforcement without damage to 3
concrete may be used as anchorage.
b. Development of reinforcement may consist of a combination of mechanical anchorage plus additional embedment
length of reinforcement between point of maximum bar stress and the mechanical anchorage.
SECTION 2.21 ANCHORAGE OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Shear reinforcement shall extend to a distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall be carried as close to the
compression and tension surfaces of the member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement
permit. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design yield strength.
b. The ends of single leg, single U-, or multiple U-stirrups shall be anchored by one of the following means:
(1) For #5 (#16) bar and D31 wire, and smaller, and for #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, and #25) bars with fy of 40,000 psi
(280 MPa) or less, a standard hook around longitudinal reinforcement.

(2) See Figure 8-2-4. For #6, #7, and #8 (#19, #22, and #25) stirrups with fy greater than 40,000 psi (280 MPa), a
standard hook around a longitudinal bar plus an embedment between mid-height of the member and the outside
end of the hook equal to or greater than 0.014d b f y ⁄ f ′c ( 0.17d b f y ⁄ f ′c in metric).
(3) For each leg of welded plain wire fabric forming single U-stirrups, either:
(a) Two longitudinal wires spaced at 2 inch (50 mm) spacing along the beam at the top of the U.
(b) One longitudinal wire located not more than d/4 from the compression face and a second wire closer to the
compression face and spaced at least 2 inches (50 mm) from the first wire. The second wire may be located
beyond a bend or on a bend which has an inside diameter of at least 8 wire diameters.
c. Pairs of U-stirrups or ties so placed as to form a closed unit shall be considered properly spliced when the laps are 1.7
ld.
d. Between the anchored ends, each bend in the continuous portion of a transverse single U- or multiple U-stirrup shall
enclose a longitudinal bar.
e. Longitudinal bars bent to act as shear reinforcement shall, in a region of tension, be continuous with the longitudinal
reinforcement and in a compression zone shall be anchored, above or below the mid-depth d/2 as specified for
development length in Section 2.14 for that part of the stress in the reinforcement needed to satisfy EQ 2-21 or EQ 2-
52.
Figure 8-2-4. #6, 7, or 8 Stirrups (fy > 40,000 psi) (#19, 22, or 25) (fy > 280 MPa)

SECTION 2.22 SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT
Splices of reinforcement shall be made only as shown on design drawings, or as specified, or as authorized by the Engineer.
2.22.1 LAP SPLICES (2005)
a. Lap splices shall not be used for bars larger than #11 (#36).
b. Lap splices of bundled bars shall be based on the lap splice length required for individual bars within a bundle,
increased 20% for a 3-bar bundle and 33% for a 4-bar bundle. Individual bar splices within a bundle shall not overlap.
c. Bars spliced by noncontact lap splices in flexural members shall not be spaced transversely farther apart than 1/5 the
required lap splice length, nor 6 inches (150 mm).
2.22.2 WELDED SPLICES AND MECHANICAL CONNECTIONS (2005)
a. Welded splices and other mechanical connections may be used. Except as provided herein, all welding shall conform to
“Structural Welding Code–Reinforcing Steel” (AWS D1.4).
b. A full welded splice shall have bars butted and welded to develop in tension at least 125% of specified yield strength fy
of the bar.
c. A full mechanical connection shall develop in tension or compression, as required, at least 125% of specified yield
strength fy of the bar. 1
d. Welded splices and mechanical connections not meeting requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c may be
used in accordance with Article 2.22.3d.
2.22.3 SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS AND DEFORMED WIRE IN TENSION (2005)

3
a. Minimum length of lap for tension lap splices shall be as required for Class A, B, or C splice, but not less than 12
inches (300 mm),
where:
Class A splice = 1.0ld

Class B splice = 1.3ld 4
Class C splice = 1.7ld
where:
ld = the tensile development length for the specified yield strength fy in accordance with
Section 2.14.
b. Lap splices of deformed bars and deformed wire in tension shall conform to Table 8-2-9.
c. Welded splices or mechanical connections used where area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required
by analysis shall meet requirements of Article 2.22.2b or Article 2.22.2c.
d. Welded splices or mechanical connections used where area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by
analysis shall meet the following:

Table 8-2-9. Tension Lap Splices
(As Provided/As Required) Maximum Percent of As Spliced within Required Lap Length
(Note 1) 50 75 100
Equal to or greater than 2 Class A Class A Class B
Less than 2 Class B Class C Class C
Note 1: Ratio of area of reinforcement provided to area of reinforcement required by analysis at splice location.
(1) Splices shall be staggered at least 24 inches (600 mm) and in such manner as to develop at every section at least
twice the calculated tensile force at that section but not less than 20,000 psi (140 MPa) for total area of
reinforcement provided.
(2) In computing tensile force developed at each section, spliced reinforcement may be rated at the specified splice
strength. Unspliced reinforcement shall be rated at that fraction of fy defined by the ratio of the shorter actual
development length to ld required to develop the specified yield strength fy .
e. Splices in “tension tie members” shall be made with a full welded splice or full mechanical connection and splices in
adjacent bars shall be staggered at least 30 inches (750 mm).
2.22.4 SPLICES OF DEFORMED BARS IN COMPRESSION (2005)
a. Minimum length of lap for compression lap splices shall be 0.0005fydb, in inches (or 0.07fydb in millimeters), but not
less than 12 inches (300 mm). For f ′c less than 3000 psi (20 MPa), length of lap shall be increased by 1/3.
b. In tied reinforced compression members, where ties throughout the lap splice length have an effective area not less
than 0.0015hs, lap splice length may be multiplied by 0.83, but lap length shall not be less than 12 inches (300 mm).
Tie legs perpendicular to dimension h shall be used in determining effective area.
c. In spirally reinforced compression members, lap splice length of bars within a spiral may be multiplied by 0.75, but lap
length shall not be less than 12 inches (300 mm).
d. Welded splices or mechanical connections used in compression shall meet requirements of Article 2.22.2b or
Article 2.22.2c.
2.22.5 END BEARING SPLICES (1992)
In bars required for compression only, compressive stress may be transmitted by bearing of square cut ends held in concentric
contact by a suitable device. Bar ends shall terminate in flat surfaces within 1-1/2 degrees of a right angle to the axis of the bars
and shall be fitted within 3 degrees of full bearing after assembly. End bearing splices shall be used only in members
containing closed ties, closed stirrups, or spirals.
2.22.6 SPLICES OF WELDED DEFORMED WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION (2005)
a. Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric measured between the end of each fabric sheet
shall not be less than 1.7ld nor 8 inches (200 mm), and the overlap measured between outermost cross wires of each
fabric sheet shall not be less than 2 inches (50 mm). ld shall be the development length for the specified yield strength
fy, in accordance with Article 2.19.1.
b. Lap splices of welded deformed wire fabric, with no cross wires within the lap splice length, shall be determined as for
deformed wire.

2.22.7 SPLICES OF WELDED SMOOTH WIRE FABRIC IN TENSION (2005)
Minimum length of lap for lap splices of welded smooth wire fabric shall be in accordance with the following:
a. When area of reinforcement provided is less than twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of overlap
measured between outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than one spacing of cross wire plus 2
inches (50 mm), nor less than 1.5ld nor 6 inches (150 mm). ld shall be the development length for the specified yield
strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.2.
b. When area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by analysis at splice location, length of overlap
measured between outermost cross wires of each fabric sheet shall not be less than 1.5ld nor 2 inches (50 mm). ld shall
be the development length for the specified yield strength fy in accordance with Article 2.19.2.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN – GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
1
SECTION 2.23 ANALYSIS METHODS
2.23.1 GENERAL (1992)
a. All members of continuous and rigid frame structures shall be designed for the maximum effects of the loads specified
in Article 2.2.3 as determined by the theory of elastic analysis.
3
b. Consideration shall be given to the effects of forces due to shrinkage, temperature changes, creep, and unequal
settlement of supports.
2.23.2 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION (2005)

4
a. In general, provision for temperature changes shall be made in simple spans when the span length exceeds 40 feet (12
m).
b. In continuous bridges, provision shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced or means shall be
provided for movement caused by temperature changes.
c. Movements not otherwise provided for shall be provided by rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads or other means.
2.23.3 STIFFNESS (1992)
a. Any reasonable assumptions may be adopted for computing the relative flexural and torsional stiffnesses of continuous
and rigid frame members. The assumptions made shall be consistent throughout the analysis.
b. Effect of haunches shall be considered both in determining moments and in design of members.

2.23.4 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (2005)
1.5 1.5
a. Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as w c 33 f ′c , in psi (or w c 0.043 f ′c in MPa), for values of
wc between 90 and 155 pcf (1500 and 2500 kg/m3). For normal weight concrete (wc = 145 pcf, wc = 2300 kg/m3), Ec
may be considered as 57, 000 f ′c (or 4700 f ′c in metric).
b. Modulus of elasticity of nonprestressed steel reinforcement may be taken as 29,000,000 psi (200 GPa).
2.23.5 THERMAL AND SHRINKAGE COEFFICIENTS (2005)
a. Thermal coefficient for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.000006 per degree F (or 0.0000105 per degree C).
b. Shrinkage coefficient for normal weight concrete may be taken as 0.0002.
c. Thermal and shrinkage coefficients for lightweight concrete shall be determined for the type of lightweight aggregate
used.
2.23.6 SPAN LENGTH (1992)

a. Span length of members not built integrally with supports shall be considered the clear span plus depth of member, but
need not exceed distance between centers of supports.
b. In analysis of continuous and rigid frame members, center-to-center distances shall be used in the determination of
moments. Moments at faces of support may be used for member design. When fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or
more with the axis of a continuous or restrained member are built monolithic with the member and support, face of
support shall be considered at a section where the combined depth of the member and fillet is at least one and one-half
times the thickness of the member. No portion of a fillet shall be considered as adding to the effective depth.
c. Effective span length of slabs shall be as follows:
(1) Slabs monolithic with beams or walls (without haunches), S = clear span.
(2) Slabs supported on steel stringers, S = distance between edges of flanges plus 1/2 the stringer flange width.
2.23.7 COMPUTATION OF DEFLECTIONS (2005)

a. Where deflections are to be computed, they shall be based on the cross-sectional properties of the entire superstructure
section except railings, curbs, sidewalks or any element not placed monolithically with the superstructure section
before falsework removal. Deflections of composite members shall take into account shoring during erection,
differential shrinkage of the elements and the magnitude and duration of load prior to the beginning of effective
composite action.
b. Computation of live load deflection may be based on the assumption that the superstructure flexural members act
together and have equal deflection. The live loading shall consist of all tracks loaded as specified in Article 2.2.3c. The
live loading shall be considered uniformly distributed to all longitudinal flexural members.
c. Computation of Immediate Deflection.
(1) Deflections that occur immediately on application of load shall be computed by the usual methods of formulas for
elastic deflections. Unless values are obtained by a more comprehensive analysis, deflections shall be computed

taking the modulus of elasticity for concrete as specified in Article 2.23.4a for normal weight or lightweight
concrete and taking the effective moment of inertia as follows, but not greater than Ig.
M cr⎞ 3 M cr⎞ 3
I c = ⎛ --------- I g + 1 – ⎛ --------- I EQ 2-12
⎝M ⎠ ⎝ M ⎠ cr
a a
where:
f r Ig
Mcr= --------
- EQ 2-13
yt
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete specified in Article 2.26.1a
(2) For continuous spans, the effective moment of inertia may be taken as the average of the values obtained from EQ
2-12 for the critical positive and negative moment sections.
2.23.7.1 Computation of Long-time Deflection
Unless values are obtained by more comprehensive analysis, the additional long-term deflection for both normal weight and
lightweight concrete flexural members shall be obtained by multiplying the immediate deflection caused by the sustained load
considered, computed in accordance with Article 2.23.7c, by the factor
1
⎛ 2 – 1.2 A′
--------s⎞ ≥ 0.6
⎝ A ⎠s
2.23.8 BEARINGS (2005)
Bearing devices shall be designed in accordance with Part 18 Elastomeric Bridge Bearings and Chapter 15, Part 10 and 3
Part 11. Bearing stresses in concrete shall not exceed the values given in Section 2.26 or Section 2.36.
2.23.9 COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992)
a. Application. Composite flexural members consist of concrete elements constructed in separate placements but so
interconnected that the elements respond to loads as a unit.
4
b. General Considerations.
(1) The total depth of the composite member or portions thereof may be used in resisting the shear and the bending
moment. The individual elements shall be investigated for all critical stages of loading.
(2) If the specified strength, unit weight, or other properties of the various components are different, the properties of
the individual components, or the most critical values, shall be used in design.
(3) In calculating the flexural strength of a composite member by load factor design, no distinction shall be made
between shored and unshored members.
(4) All elements shall be designed to support all loads introduced prior to the full development of the design strength
of the composite member.
(5) Reinforcement shall be provided as necessary to control cracking and to prevent separation of the components.

c. Shoring. When used, shoring shall not be removed until the supported elements have developed the design properties
required to support all loads and limit deflections and cracking at the time of shoring removal.
d. Vertical Shear.
(1) When the total depth of the composite member is assumed to resist the vertical shear, the design shall be in
accordance with the requirements of Section 2.29 or Section 2.35 as for a monolithically cast member of the same
cross-sectional shape.
(2) Shear reinforcement shall be fully anchored in accordance with Section 2.21. Extended and anchored shear
reinforcement may be included as ties for horizontal shear.
e. Horizontal Shear. In a composite member, full transfer of the shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the
separate components. Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.29.5 or
Article 2.35.5.
2.23.10 T-GIRDER CONSTRUCTION (1992)
a. In T-girder construction, the girder web and slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively bonded together. Full
transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interface of web and slab. Where applicable, the design requirements of
Article 2.23.9 for composite concrete members shall apply.
b. Compression Flange Width.
(1) The effective slab width acting as a T-girder flange shall not exceed one-fourth of the span length of the girder, and
its overhanging width on either side of the girder shall not exceed six times the thickness of the slab or one-half the
clear distance to the next girder.
(2) For girders having a slab on one side only, the effective overhanging flange width shall not exceed 1/12 of the span
length of the girder, nor 6 times the thickness of the slab, nor one-half the clear distance to the next girder.
(3) Isolated T-girders in which the flange is used to provide additional compression area shall have a flange thickness
not less than one-half the width of the girder web and a total flange width not more than four times the width of the
girder web.
(4) For integral bent caps, the effective overhanging slab width on each side of a bent cap web shall not exceed six
times the least slab thickness, nor 1/10 the span length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span length
shall be taken as two times the length of cantilever span.
c. Diaphragms. Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the
judgment of the Engineer.
2.23.11 BOX GIRDER CONSTRUCTION (2005)
a. In box girder construction, the girder web and top and bottom slab shall be built integrally or otherwise effectively
bonded together. Full transfer of shear forces shall be assured at the interfaces of the girder web with the top and
bottom slab. Design shall be in accordance with the requirements of Article 2.23.9. When required by design, changes
in girder web thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness.
b. Compression Flange Width.
(1) For box girder flanges, the entire slab width shall be assumed effective for compression.

(2) For integral bent caps, the effective overhanging slab width on each side of a bent cap web shall not exceed six
times the least slab thickness, nor 1/10 the span length of the bent cap. For cantilevered bent caps, the span length
shall be taken as two times the length of cantilever span.
c. Top and Bottom Slab Thickness.
(1) The thickness of the top slab shall be designed for loads specified in Article 2.2.3c, but shall be not less than the
minimum specified in Table 8-2-10.
Table 8-2-10. Recommended Minimum Thickness For Constant Depth Members

(Note 1)
Minimum Thickness Minimum Thickness

Superstructure Type
In Feet (Note 2) In Meters (Note 2)
1
Bridge slabs with main reinforcement S + 10 S + 3-
--------------- -----------
parallel or perpendicular to traffic 20 20
but not less than 0.75 but not less than 0.23
T-Girders S+9 S + 2.75
------------ --------------------
15 15
Box Girders S + 10
3
--------------- S+3
------------
17 17
Note 1: When variable depth members are used, table values may be adjusted to account for change in relative stiffness
of positive and negative moment sections.
Note 2: Recommended values for simple spans; continuous spans may be about 90% of thickness given. S = span
length as defined in Article 2.23.6, in feet (meters).
4
(2) The thickness of the bottom slab shall be not less than 1/16 of the clear span between girder webs or 6 inches (150
mm), whichever is greater, except that the thickness need not be greater than the top slab unless required by
design.
d. Top and Bottom Slab Reinforcement.
(1) Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.4% of the flange area shall be placed in the bottom slab parallel to the
girder span. A single layer of reinforcement may be provided. The spacing of such reinforcement shall not exceed
18 inches (450 mm).
(2) Minimum distributed reinforcement of 0.5% of the cross-sectional area of the slab, based on the least slab
thickness, shall be placed in the bottom slab transverse to the girder span. Such reinforcement shall be distributed
over both surfaces with a maximum spacing of 18 inches (450 mm). All transverse reinforcement in the bottom
slab shall extend to the exterior face of the outside girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90
degree hook.

(3) At least 1/3 of the bottom layer of the transverse reinforcement in the top slab shall extend to the exterior face of
the outside girder web in each group and be anchored by a standard 90 degree hook. If the slab extends beyond the
last girder web, such reinforcement shall extend into the slab overhang and shall have an anchorage beyond the
exterior face of the girder web not less than that provided by a standard hook.
e. Diaphragms. Diaphragms shall be used at span ends. Intermediate diaphragms shall be used where required in the
judgment of the Engineer. Diaphragm spacing for curved girders shall be given special consideration.
SECTION 2.24 DESIGN METHODS (1992)
The design methods to be used, SERVICE LOAD DESIGN or LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, shall be as directed by the
Engineer.
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN
(APPLICABLE TO Section 2.25 THROUGH Section 2.29)
SECTION 2.25 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (1992)
a. For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to service loads and allowable stresses, the service load
stresses shall not exceed the values given in Section 2.26.
b. Development and splices of reinforcement shall be as required under Development and Splices of Reinforcement.
SECTION 2.26 ALLOWABLE SERVICE LOAD STRESSES
2.26.1 CONCRETE (2005)
For service load design, stresses in concrete shall not exceed the following:
a. Flexure:
Extreme fiber stress in compression fc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.40 f ′c

Extreme fiber stress in tension for plain concrete, ft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.21 fr
Modulus of rupture f r , from tests, or if data are not available:
Normal weight concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 f ′c
0.62 f ′c (metric)

Lightweight concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 f ′c
b. Shear:
NOTE: For more detailed analysis of permissible shear stress vc carried by concrete, and shear values for
lightweight aggregate concrete – see Article 2.29.2.
Beams and one-way slabs and footings:
Shear carried by concrete vc, but not to exceed 95 psi (0.66 MPa) 0.95 f ′c
Maximum shear carried by concrete plus shear reinforcement v c + 4 f ′c
v c + 0.33 f ′c (metric)
Two-way slabs and footings:

(If shear reinforcement is provided see Article 2.29.6d)
2⎞
⎛ 0.8 + ----
Shear carried by concrete vc - f ′c
⎝ β⎠ c 1
⎛ 0.066 + 0.17
----------⎞ f ′c (metric)
⎝ β ⎠ c
but not greater than 1.8 f ′c
0.15 f ′c (metric) 3
c. Bearing on loaded area fb, but not to exceed 1050 psi (7.2 MPa) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.30 f ′c
Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 inches (150 mm).
2.26.2 REINFORCEMENT (2005) 4
a. For service load design, tensile stress in reinforcement fs shall not exceed the following:
Grade 40 (Grade 280) reinforcement . 20,000 psi (140 MPa)

Grade 60 (Grade 420) reinforcement . 24,000 psi (170 MPa)
b. Fatigue Stress Limit.
(1) The range between a maximum tensile stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load
plus impact shall not exceed the value obtained from:
ff = 21 – 0.33fmin + 8 (r / h)
ff = 145 – 0.33fmin + 55 (r / h) (metric)

where:
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa).

fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi (MPa).
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; when the actual value is not
known, use 0.3.
(2) Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range.
SECTION 2.27 FLEXURE (2005)
For investigation of service load stresses, the straight-line theory of stress and strain in flexure shall be used and the following
assumptions shall be made:
a. A section plane before bending remains plane after bending; strains vary as the distance from the neutral axis.
b. Stress-strain relation of concrete is a straight line under service loads within the allowable service load stresses.
Stresses vary as the distance from the neutral axis except, for deep flexural members with overall depth-clear-span
ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a nonlinear distribution of stress should be
considered.
c. Steel takes all the tension due to flexure.
d. Modular ratio n = Es/Ec may be taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6). Except in calculations for
deflections, the value of n for lightweight concrete shall be assumed to be the same as for normal weight concrete of
the same strength.
e. In doubly reinforced flexural members, an effective modular ratio of 2Es/Ec shall be used to transform the compression
reinforcement for stress computations. The compressive stress in such reinforcement shall not be greater than the
allowable tensile stress.
SECTION 2.28 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE (1992)
The combined axial load and moment capacity of compression members shall be taken as 35% of that computed in accordance
with the provisions of Section 2.33. Slenderness effects shall be included according to the requirements of Section 2.34. The
term Pu in Article 2.33.1b shall be replaced by 2.85 times the design axial load. In using the provisions of Section 2.33 and
Section 2.34, Φ shall be taken as 1.0.

SECTION 2.29 SHEAR
2.29.1 SHEAR STRESS (2005)
a. Design shear stress v shall be computed by:
V- EQ 2-14
v = ---------
bw d
where:
bw = the width of web

d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement.
For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter and d shall be taken as 0.8 times the diameter of the section.
b. When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member,
sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support may be designed for the same shear v as that
computed at a distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated loads are imposed between that point and the
face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support shall be designed for V at distance d plus the major
concentrated loads.
1
c. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.29.2. When v exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.29.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall be added.
d. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
2.29.2 PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESS (2005)

3
NOTE: The value of f ′c used in computing vc in this paragraph shall not be taken greater than 100 psi (0.69
MPa).
a. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 0.95 f ′c (or 0.079 f ′c in metric) unless a more detailed
analysis is made in accordance with Article 2.29.2b or Article 2.29.2c. For members subject to axial tension, vc shall 4
not exceed the value given in Article 2.29.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of Article 2.29.2f shall apply.
b. Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:
Vd
v c = 0.9 f ′c + 1100ρ w ------- EQ 2-15
M
Vd
v c = 0.075 f ′c + 7.58ρ w ------- EQ 2-15M
M
Vd
but vc shall not exceed 1.6 f c′ (or 0.13 f c′ in metric). The quantity ------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where
M
M is the design moment occurring simultaneously with V at the section considered.

c. For members subject to axial compression, vc may be computed by:
0.0006N
v c = 0.9 ⎛ 1 + ---------------------⎞ f ′c EQ 2-16
⎝ Ag ⎠
0.0006N
v c = 10.8 ⎛ 0.0069 + ---------------------⎞ f ′c EQ 2-16M
⎝ Ag ⎠
N
The quantity ------ shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
d. For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a
more detailed analysis is made using:
0.004N
v c = 0.9 ⎛ 1 + ------------------⎞ f′c EQ 2-17
⎝ Ag ⎠
0.004N
v c = 10.8 ⎛ 0.0069 + ------------------⎞ f′c EQ 2-17M
⎝ Ag ⎠
where:
N = negative for tension
N shall be expressed in psi (MPa).

The quantity ------
Ag
e. Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill, shear stress vc
may be computed by:
Vd
vc = f′ c + 2200ρ ------- EQ 2-18
M
v c = 0.083 f′ c + 15.2ρ Vd
------- EQ 2-18M
M
but vc shall not exceed 1.8 f′ c (or 0.15 f′ c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less
than 1.4 f′ c (or 0.12 f′ c in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 1.2 f′ c (or 0.10 f′ c in metric) for slabs
simply supported. The quantity of Vd

------- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where M is moment occurring
M
simultaneously with V at section considered.
f. The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:
(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8 fct in metric) for f′ c but the
value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8 fct in metric) used shall not exceed f′ c .

(2) When fct is not specified, shear stress vc shall be multiplied by 0.85.
2.29.3 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:
( v – v c )b w s
A v = ---------------------------- EQ 2-19
fs
b. When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:
(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:
( v – v c )b w s
A v = ---------------------------------------- EQ 2-20
f s ( sin α + cos α )
(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:
( v – v c )b w d
A v = ----------------------------
f s sin α
- EQ 2-21 1
in which (v – vc) shall not exceed 1.5 f′ c (or 0.12 f′ c in metric).
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
different distances from the support, required area shall be computed by Article 2.29.3b(1).
3
(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered
effective for shear reinforcement.
c. Where more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, required area
shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of the total shear
resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.
4
d. When (v – vc) exceed 2 f′ c (or 0.17 f′ c in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be reduced by
one-half.
e. The value of (v – vc) shall not exceed 4 f′ c (or 0.33 f′ c in metric).
f. When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is terminated in
a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1f.
2.29.4 SHEAR-FRICTION (2005)
a. Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane,
such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two concretes
cast at different times.

b. A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf
across the shear plane may be designed using either Article 2.29.4c or any other shear transfer design methods that
result in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of
Article 2.29.4d through Article 2.29.4h shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.
c. Shear-friction design method.
(1) Shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be
computed by:
V-
A vf = ------- EQ 2-22
f sμ
where:
μ = the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.29.4c(3).
(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shear-
friction reinforcement, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
V
A vf = ------------------------------------------------- EQ 2-23
f s ( μ sin α f + cos α f )
where:
αf = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane.
(3) Coefficient of friction μ in EQ 2-22 and EQ 2-23 shall be
concrete placed monolithically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4λ

concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface intentionally roughened as
specified in Article 2.29.4g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0λ
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6λ
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by reinforcing bars
(see Article 2.29.4h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7λ
where:
λ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for lightweight concrete.
d. Shear stress v on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.09 f ′c nor 360 psi (2.5 MPa).
e. Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear
plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement A v f f s , when calculating required A vf .
f. Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the
specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.

g. For the purpose of Article 2.29.4, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear
transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If μ is assumed equal to 1.0λ, interface shall be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately 0.25 inches (6 mm).
h. When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel
shall be clean and free of paint.
2.29.5 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL

MEMBERS (2005)
a. In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected
elements.
b. Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.29.5c or
Article 2.29.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement
with results of comprehensive tests.
c. Design horizontal shear stress vdh at any cross section may be computed by:
V-
v dh = --------- EQ 2-24
bw d
where: 1
V = design shear force at section considered
d = depth of entire composite section
Horizontal shear vdh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:
3
(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi
(0.25 MPa).
(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.29.5e, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 36 psi (0.25 MPa).
(3) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.29.5e, and contact surface is clean, free of laitance, 4
and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress vh shall not exceed
160 psi (1.1 MPa).
(4) For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess of the minimum required by
Article 2.29.5e, permissible vh may be increased by 72fy /40,000 psi (or 72fy /280 MPa in metric).
d. Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual
change in compressive or tensile force, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear between
interconnected elements. Horizontal shear shall not exceed the permissible horizontal shear stress vh in accordance
with Article 2.29.5c.
e. Ties for horizontal shear.
(1) A minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area shall not be less
than 50bws/fy (or 0.35bws/fy in metric), and tie spacing ‘s’ shall not exceed 4 times the least web width of support
element, nor 24 inches (600 mm).

(2) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire
fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or
hooks.
(3) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be
used in satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.
2.29.6 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS (2005)
a. Shear capacity of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more
severe of two conditions:
(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.29.1 through Article 2.29.3.
(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so
that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.29.6b and
Article 2.29.6c.
(3) At footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be
considered as producing shear on that section.
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be considered as
producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing shear
on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section and
zero value at dp/2 inside the section.
b. Design shear stress for two-way action shall be computed by:
V-
v = -------- EQ 2-25
bo d
where:
V and bo = are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.29.6a(2).
c. Design shear v shall not exceed the smallest vc given by EQ 2-26 or EQ 2-27 unless shear reinforcement is provided in
accordance with Article 2.29.6d.
2
v c = ⎛ 0.8 + -----⎞ f′ c ; f’c in psi EQ 2-26
⎝ β⎠c
v c = ⎛ 0.066 + 0.17
----------⎞ f′ c ; f’c in MPa EQ 2-26M
⎝ β ⎠c

or
α s d⎞
v c = ⎛ 0.8 + --------
- f′ c ; f’c in psi EQ 2-27
⎝ b ⎠o
α s d⎞ f′ c
v c = ⎛ 0.8 + --------
- ---------- ; f’c in MPa EQ 2-27M
⎝ b ⎠ 12
o
but not greater than 1.8 f′ (or 0.15 f′ in metric). βc is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or
c c
reaction area. αs is 20 for interior concentrated loads or reaction areas, 15 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas
and 10 for corner concentrated loads or reaction areas.
d. If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.29.3, vc at any section shall
not exceed 0.9 f′ c (or 0.075 f′ c in metric) and v shall not exceed 3 f′ c (or 0.25 f′ c in metric). Shear stresses
shall be investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.29.6a(2) and at successive sections more distant from
the support.
2.29.7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BRACKETS AND CORBELS (2005)
a. The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio av/d not greater than 1
unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nc not larger than V. Distance d shall be measured at face of support.
b. Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.
c. Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear V, a moment

[Vav + Nc(h-d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nc.
3
(1) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear V shall be in accordance with Article 2.29.4. For normal
weight concrete, shear stress v shall not exceed 0.09f ′c nor 360 psi (2.5 MPa). For “sand-lightweight” concrete,
shear stress v shall not exceed (0.09 – 0.03av/d)f ′c nor (360 – 126av/d) psi (or 2.5 – 0.09av/d) MPa in metric).
(2) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vav + Nc(h-d)] shall be computed in accordance with Section 2.26 and
Section 2.27.
4
(3) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nc shall be computed by An = Nc /fs. Tensile force Nc shall not be taken
less than 0.2V unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces.
(4) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2Av f / 3 + An).
d. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area Ah not less than 0.5 (As – An), shall be uniformly distributed
within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.
e. Ratio ρ = As/bd shall not be taken less than 0.04 (f ′c /fy).
f. At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy
of As bars;

(2) bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontal loop, or
(3) some other means of positive anchorage.
g. Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As, nor
project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN
(APPLICABLE TO Section 2.30 THROUGH Section 2.39)
SECTION 2.30 STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
2.30.1 REQUIRED STRENGTH (2005)
Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the required
strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations as stipulated in Article 2.2.4c, which represent
various combinations of loads and forces to which a structure may be subjected. Each part of such structure shall be
proportioned for the group loads that are applicable, and the maximum design required shall be used. Members shall also
follow all other requirements of this Chapter to ensure adequate performance at service load levels.
2.30.2 DESIGN STRENGTH (1992)
a. For reinforced concrete members designed with reference to load factors and strengths, the design strength provided by
a member, its connections to other members, and its cross sections, in terms of flexure, axial load, and shear, shall be
taken as the nominal strength calculated in accordance with the requirements and assumptions of LOAD FACTOR
DESIGN, multiplied by a strength reduction factor φ.
b. Strength reduction factor φ shall be taken as follows:
For flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.90

For shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.85
For spirally reinforced compression members, with or
without flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.75
For tied reinforced compression members with or without flexure. . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.70

NOTE: The value of φ may be increased linearly from the value for compression
members to the value for flexure as the axial load strength Pn decreases
from Pb to zero.
For bearing on concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . φ = 0.70
NOTE: Development and splices of reinforcement specified in Section 2.13 through Section 2.22 do not require a φ
factor.
SECTION 2.31 DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS
2.31.1 STRENGTH DESIGN (2005)
Strength design of members for flexure and axial loads shall be based on the assumptions given in this article, and on
satisfaction of the applicable conditions of equilibrium and compatibility of strains.
a. Strain in the reinforcing steel and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
b. Maximum usable strain at the extreme concrete compression fiber shall be assumed equal to 0.003.
c. Stress in reinforcement below the specified yield strength fy for the grade of steel used shall be taken as Es times the 1
steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy the stress in the reinforcement shall be considered
independent of strain and equal to fy .
d. Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in flexural calculations of reinforced concrete.
e. The relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be assumed to be a
rectangle, trapezoid, parabola, or any other shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with 3
the results of comprehensive tests.
f. The requirements of Article 2.31.1e may be considered satisfied by an equivalent rectangular concrete stress
distribution defined as follows: A concrete stress of 0.85 f′c shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent
compression zone bounded by the edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral axis at a
distance (a = β1c) from the fiber of maximum compressive strain. The distance c from the fiber of maximum strain to
the neutral axis is measured in a direction perpendicular to that axis. The factor β1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete 4
strength f′c up to and including 4000 psi (28 MPa). For strengths above 4000 psi (28 MPa) β1 shall be reduced
continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi (7 MPa) of strength in excess of 4000 psi (28 MPa), but β1 shall not be
taken less than 0.65.
SECTION 2.32 FLEXURE
2.32.1 MAXIMUM REINFORCEMENT OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS (1992)
a. For flexural members, the reinforcement ρ provided shall not exceed 0.75 of that ratio ρb which would produce
balanced strain conditions for the section under flexure.

For flexural members with compression reinforcement, the portion of ρb balanced by compression reinforcement need
not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
b. Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when the tension reinforcement reaches its specified yield strength fy
just as the concrete in compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
2.32.2 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT ONLY (2005)
a. For rectangular sections, when ρ ≤ 0.75 ρb the design moment strength ΦMn may be computed by:
0.6ρf
ΦM n = Φ A s f y d ⎛ 1 – ---------------y-⎞ EQ 2-28
⎝ f′ c ⎠
a
= Φ A s f y ⎛ d – ---⎞ EQ 2-29
⎝ 2⎠
where:
As f y
a = --------------------
0.85f′ c b
b. The balanced reinforcement ratio ρb for rectangular sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:
0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞

ρ b = ----------------------
- ----------------------------- EQ 2-30
fy ⎝ 87, 000 + f ⎠
y
0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 600 ⎞
ρ b = ----------------------
- -------------------- EQ 2-30M
fy ⎝ 600 + f ⎠
y
2.32.3 I- AND T-SECTIONS WITH TENSION REINFORCEMENT ONLY (2005)
a. When the compression flange thickness is equal to or greater than the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block a
and ρ ≤ 0.75 ρb, the design moment strength ΦMn may be computed by the equations given in Article 2.32.2.
b. When the compression flange thickness is less than a, the design moment strength ΦMn may be computed by:
ΦM n = Φ ( A s – A sf )f y ⎛ d – --a-⎞ + A sf f y ( d – 0.5h f ) EQ 2-31

⎝ 2⎠
where:
h
Asf = 0.85f′ c ( b – b w ) ----f-
fy

( A s – A sf )f y
a = -------------------------------
0.85f′ c b w
c. The balanced reinforcement ratio ρb for I- and T-sections with tension reinforcement only is given by:
b 0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞

ρ b = -----w- ----------------------
- ----------------------------- + ρ f EQ 2-32
b fy ⎝ 87, 000 + f ⎠
y
b 0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 600 ⎞
ρ b = -----w- ----------------------
- -------------------- + ρ f EQ 2-32M
b fy ⎝ 600 + f ⎠
y
where:
A sf
ρ f = ---------
-
bw d
d. When the compression flange thickness is greater than a, the design moment strength, ΦMn, may be computed by
using the equations in Article 2.32.2.
e. For T-girder and box-girder construction defined by Article 2.23.10 and Article 2.23.11, the width of the compression 1
face b shall be equal to the effective slab width.
2.32.4 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS WITH COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. For rectangular sections when ρ ≤ 0.75 ρb, the design moment strength ΦMn may be computed by:
3
ΦM n = Φ ( A s – A′ s )f y ⎛ d – --a-⎞ + A′ s f y ( d – d′ ) EQ 2-33
⎝ 2⎠
where:
( A s – A′ s )f y
a = ------------------------------
-
4
0.85f′ c b
and the following condition shall be satisfied:
A s – A′ s 0.85β 1 f′ c d ′ ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞

-------------------- ≥ ---------------------------- ----------------------------- EQ 2-34
bd f yd ⎝ 87, 000 – f ⎠
y
A s – A′ s 0.85β 1 f′ c d ′ ⎛ 600 ⎞
-------------------- ≥ ---------------------------- -------------------- EQ 2-34M
bd f yd ⎝ 600 – f ⎠
y
b. When the value of (As – A′s)/bd is less than the value given by EQ 2-34, so that the stress in the compression
reinforcement is less than the yield strength fy or when effects of compression reinforcement are neglected, the

moment strength may be computed by the equations in Article 2.32.2, except when a general analysis is made based on
stress and strain compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31.
c. The balanced reinforcement ratio ρb for rectangular section with compression reinforcement is given by:
0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 87, 000 ⎞ ρ′f′ sb

ρ b = ----------------------
- ----------------------------- + -------------- EQ 2-35
fy ⎝ 87, 000 + f ⎠ fy
y
0.85β 1 f′ c ⎛ 600 ⎞ ρ′f′ sb

ρ b = ----------------------
- -------------------- + -------------- EQ 2-35M
fy ⎝ 600 + f ⎠ fy
y
where:
f ′sb is stress in compression reinforcement at balanced strain conditions
f ′sb = d′
87, 000 – ---- ( 87, 000 + f y ) ≤ f y
d
f ′sb = d′
600 – ---- ( 600 + f y ) ≤ f y (metric)
d
2.32.5 OTHER CROSS SECTIONS (1992)
For other cross sections the design moment strength ΦMn shall be computed by a general analysis based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. The requirements of Article 2.32.1 shall also be satisfied.
SECTION 2.33 COMPRESSION MEMBERS WITH OR WITHOUT FLEXURE
2.33.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (2005)
a. Design of cross sections subject to axial load or to combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain
compatibility using the assumptions given in Section 2.31. Slenderness effects shall be included in accordance with
Section 2.34.
b. Members subject to compressive axial load shall be designed for the maximum moment that can accompany the axial
load. The factored axial load Pu at given eccentricity shall not exceed that given in Article 2.33.1c. The maximum
factored moment Mu shall be magnified for slenderness effects in accordance with Section 2.34.
c. Design axial load strength ΦPa of compression members shall not be taken greater than the following:
(1) For members with spiral reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2a:
ΦP a (max) = 0.85Φ [ 0.85f′ c ( A g – A st ) + f y A st ] EQ 2-36
(2) For members with tie reinforcement conforming to Article 2.11.2b:

ΦP a (max) = 0.80Φ [ 0.85f′ c ( A g – A st ) + f y A st ] EQ 2-37
2.33.2 COMPRESSION MEMBER STRENGTHS (2005)
The following provisions may be used as a guide to define the range of the load-moment interaction relationship for members
subjected to combined flexure and axial load.
a. Pure Compression.
(1) The design axial load strength at zero eccentricity ΦPo may be computed by:
ΦP o = Φ [ 0.85f′ c ( A g – A st ) + A st f y ] EQ 2-38
(2) For design, pure compression strength is a hypothetical loading condition since Article 2.33.1c limits the axial
load strength of compression members to 85% and 80% of the design axial load strength at zero eccentricity.
b. Pure Flexure. The assumptions given in Section 2.31, or the applicable equations for flexure given in Section 2.32 may
be used to compute the design moment strength ΦMn in pure flexure.
c. Balanced Strain Conditions. Balanced strain conditions for a cross section are defined in Article 2.32.1b. For a
rectangular section with reinforcement in one or two faces and located at approximately the same distance from the
axis of bending, the balanced load strength ΦPb and balanced moment strength ΦMb may be computed by:
1
ΦP b = Φ [ 0.85f′ c ba b + A′ s f′ sb – A s f y ] EQ 2-39
and
a
ΦM b = Φ 0.85f′ c ba b ⎛ d – d″ – ----b-⎞ + A′ s f′ sb ( d – d′ – d″ ) + A s f y d″ EQ 2-40
⎝ 2⎠ 3
where:
87, 000 -⎞ β d
ab = ⎛⎝ ----------------------------
87, 000 + f y⎠
1
4
600
ab = ⎛⎝ --------------------⎞⎠ β 1 d (metric)
600 + f y
f ′sb = d′
87, 000 – ---- ( 87, 000 + f y ) ≤ f y
d
f ′sb = 600 – d′
---- ( 600 + f y ) ≤ f y (metric)
d
d. Combined Flexure and Axial Load.
(1) The design strength under combined flexure and axial load shall be based on stress and strain compatibility using
the assumptions given in Section 2.31. The strength of a cross section is controlled by tension when the nominal
axial load strength Pn is less than Pb. The strength of a cross section is controlled by compression when the
nominal axial load strength Pn is greater than Pb.

(2) The nominal values of axial load strength Pn and moment strength Mn must both be multiplied by the appropriate
strength reduction factor Φ for spirally reinforced or tied compression members as given in Article 2.30.2. The
value of Φ may be increased linearly from the value for compression members to the value for flexure as the
design axial load strength ΦPn decreases from 0.10f ′c A g or ΦPb whichever is smaller, to zero.
2.33.3 BIAXIAL LOADING (1992)
In lieu of a general section analysis based on stress and strain compatibility for a loading condition of biaxial bending, the
strength of non-circular members subject to biaxial bending may be computed by the following approximate expressions:
1 EQ 2-41
P nxy = ----------------------------------------------------
⎛ -------
1 -⎞ + ⎛ ------- 1 -⎞ – ⎛ ----- 1⎞
⎝P ⎠ ⎝P ⎠ ⎝P ⎠
nx ny o
where the factored axial load,
P u ≥ 0.1f′ c A g
or
M ux M uy
-------------- -≤1
- + -------------- EQ 2-42
ΦM nx ΦM ny
when the factored axial load,
P u < 0.1f′ c A g
SECTION 2.34 SLENDERNESS EFFECTS IN COMPRESSION MEMBERS
a. Design of compression members shall be based on forces and moments determined from an analysis of the structure.
Such an analysis shall take into account the influence of axial loads and variable moment of inertia on member stiffness
and fixed-end moments, the effect of deflections on the moments and forces, and the effects of the duration of the
loads.
b. In lieu of the procedure described in Article 2.34.1a, the design of compression members may be based on the
approximate procedure given in Article 2.34.2.
2.34.2 APPROXIMATE EVALUATION OF SLENDERNESS EFFECTS (2005)
a. Unsupported length lu of a compression member shall be taken as the clear distance between slabs, girders, or other
members capable of providing lateral support for the compression member. When haunches are present, the
unsupported length shall be measured to the lower extremity of the haunch in the plane considered.

b. Radius of gyration r may be taken equal to 0.30 times the overall dimension in the direction in which stability is being
considered for rectangular compression members, and 0.25 times the diameter for circular compression members. For
other shapes, r may be computed from the gross concrete section.
c. For compression members braced against sidesway, the effective length factor k shall be taken as 1.0, unless an
analysis shows that a lower value may be used. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effective
length factor k shall be determined with due consideration of cracking and reinforcement on relative stiffness, and shall
be greater than 1.0.
d. For compression members braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected when klu/r is less than
34 – 12M1b/M2b. For compression members not braced against sidesway, the effects of slenderness may be neglected
when klu/r is less than 22. For all compression members with klu/r greater than 100, an analysis as defined in
Article 2.34.1a shall be made. M1b = value of smaller end moment on compression member calculated from a
conventional elastic analysis, positive if member is bent in single curvature, negative if bent in double curvature, M2b =
value of larger end moment on compression member calculated from a conventional elastic analysis, always positive.
e. Compression members shall be designed using the factored axial load Pu from a conventional frame analysis and a
magnified factored moment Mc defined by EQ 2-43. For members braced against sidesway, δs shall be taken as 1.0.
For members not braced against sidesway, δb shall be evaluated as for a braced member and δs as for an unbraced
member.
M c = δ b M 2b + δ s M 2s EQ 2-43
where: 1
Cm
- ≥ 1.0
-----------------
δb = Pu
1 – ---------
φP c
1 - ≥ 1.0
3
---------------------
δs = ΣP u
1 – ------------ -
φΣP c
and
4
2
Pc = π EI-
--------------
2
( kl u )
In lieu of a more precise calculation, EI may be taken either as
Ec Ig
----------- + E s I s
5
EI = ---------------------------
1 + βd
or conservatively

Ec Ig
-----------
2.5 -
EI = --------------
1 + βd
For members braced against sidesway and without transverse loads between supports, Cm may be taken as:
M 1b
C m = 0.6 + 0.4 ---------
- but not less than 0.4. EQ 2-44
M 2b
For all other cases Cm shall be taken as 1.0.
f. When a group of compression members on one level composes a bent, or when they are connected integrally to the
same superstructure, and all collectively resist the sidesway of the structure, the value of δs shall be computed for the
member group with ΣPu and ΣPc equal to the summations for all compression members in the group.
g. If computations show that there is no moment at both ends of a compression member or that computed end
eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm); M2b in EQ 2-43 shall be based on a minimum
eccentricity of (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm) about each principal axis separately. Ratio M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44
shall be determined by either of the following:
(1) When computed end eccentricities are less than (0.6 + 0.03h) inches ((15 + 0.03h)mm), computed end moments
may be used to evaluate M1b /M2b in EQ 2-44.
(2) If computations show that there is essentially no moment at both ends of a compression member, the ratio
M1b/M2b shall be taken equal to one.
h. When compression members are subject to bending about both principal axes, the moment about each axis shall be
amplified by δ computed from the corresponding conditions of restraint about that axis.
i. In structures which are not braced against sidesway, the flexural members shall be designed for the total magnified end
moments of the compression members at the joint.
SECTION 2.35 SHEAR
2.35.1 SHEAR STRENGTH (2005)
a. Factored shear stress vu shall be computed by:
Vu
v u = --------------
- EQ 2-45
Φb w d
where:
bw = the width of web

d = the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement
For a circular section, bw shall be taken as the diameter, and d need not be taken less than the distance from the extreme
compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal reinforcement in the opposite half of the member.

b. When the reaction in the direction of the applied shear introduces compression into the end region of the member and
loads are applied at or near the top of the member, sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support
may be designed for the same shear vu as that computed at a distance d. An exception occurs when major concentrated
loads are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support shall be
designed for Vu at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
c. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall be calculated according to Article 2.35.2. When vu exceeds vc, shear
reinforcement shall be provided according to Article 2.35.3. Whenever applicable, the effects of torsion shall be added.
NOTE: The design criteria for combined shear and torsion given in “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
Concrete – ACI318-02” may be used.
d. For tapered webs, bw shall be the average width or 1.2 times the minimum width, whichever is smaller.
2.35.2 PERMISSIBLE SHEAR STRESS (2010)
NOTE: The value f’c used in computing vc shall not be taken greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).
a. Shear stress carried by concrete vc shall not exceed 2 f′ c (or 0.17 f′ c in metric) unless a more detailed analysis is
made in accordance with Article 2.35.2b or Article 2.35.2c. For members subject to axial tension, vc shall not exceed
the value given in Article 2.35.2d. For lightweight concrete, the provisions of Article 2.35.2f shall apply.
b. Shear stress carried by concrete vc, for members subject to shear and flexure only, may be computed by:
1
Vu d
v c = 1.9 f′ c + 2500ρ w ---------
- EQ 2-46
Mu
Vu d
v c = 0.16 f′ c + 17ρ w ---------
- EQ 2-46M
Mu
3
Vu d
but vc shall not exceed 3.5 f′ c (or 0.29 f′ c in metric). The quantity ---------
- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where
Mu
Mu is the factored moment occurring simultaneously with Vu at the section considered.
c. For members subject to axial compression, vc may be computed by: 4
N
v c = 2 ⎛ 1 + 0.0005 ------u-⎞ f′ c EQ 2-47
⎝ A g⎠
N
v c = 0.17 ⎛ 1 + 0.072 ------u-⎞ f′ c EQ 2-47M
⎝ A g⎠
N
The quantity ------u- shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
d. For members subject to significant axial tension, shear reinforcement shall be designed to carry the total shear, unless a
more detailed analysis is made using

N
v c = 2 ⎛ 1 + 0.002 ------u-⎞ f′ c EQ 2-48
⎝ A g⎠
N
v c = 0.17 ⎛ 1 + 0.29 ------u-⎞ f′ c EQ 2-48M
⎝ A g⎠
where:
Nu is negative for tension
N
the quantity ------u- shall be expressed in psi (MPa).
Ag
e. Special provisions for slabs of box culverts. For slabs of box culverts under 2 feet (600 mm) or more fill, shear stress vc
may be computed by:
Vu d
v c = 2.14 f′ c + 4600ρ ---------
- EQ 2-49
Mu
Vu d
v c = 0.18 f′ c + 32ρ ---------
- EQ 2-49M
Mu
but vc shall not exceed 4 f′ c (or 1--- f′ c in metric). For single cell box culverts only, vc need not be taken less than
3
f′ 5
3 f′ c (or ----------c in metric) for slabs monolithic with walls or 2.5 f′ c (or ------ f′ c in metric) for slabs simply
4 24
Vu d
supported. The quantity ---------
- shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where Mu is factored moment occurring
Mu
simultaneously with Vu at section considered.
f. The provisions for shear stress vc carried by concrete apply to normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate
concretes are used, one of the following modifications shall apply:
(1) When fct is specified, shear stress vc shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) for f′ c , but the
value of fct/6.7 (or 1.8fct in metric) used shall not exceed f′ c .
(2) When fct is not specified, shear stress vc shall be multiplied by 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
2.35.3 DESIGN OF SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Shear reinforcement shall conform to the general requirements of Section 2.10. When shear reinforcement
perpendicular to the axis of the member is used, required area shall be computed by:

( v u – v c )b w s
A v = ------------------------------
- EQ 2-50
fy
b. When inclined stirrups or bent bars are used as shear reinforcement the following provisions apply:
(1) When inclined stirrups are used, required area shall be computed by:
( v u – v c )b w s
A v = ----------------------------------------
- EQ 2-51
f y ( sin α + cos α )
(2) When shear reinforcement consists of a single bar or a single group of parallel bars, all bent up at the same
distance from the support, required area shall be computed by:
( v u – v c )b w d
A v = -------------------------------
- EQ 2-52
f y sin α
f′
in which (vu – vc) shall not exceed 3 f′ c (or ---------c- in metric).
4
(3) When shear reinforcement consists of a series of parallel bent-up bars or groups of parallel bent-up bars at
different distances from the support, required area shall be computed using Article 2.35.3b(1).
(4) Only the center three-fourths of the inclined portion of any one longitudinal bar that is bent shall be considered 1
effective for shear reinforcement.
c. When more than one type of shear reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion of the member, required area
shall be computed as the sum for the various types separately. No one type shall resist more than 2/3 of the total shear
resisted by reinforcement. In such computations, vc shall be included only once.
3
f′
d. When (vu – vc) exceeds 4 f′ c (or ----------c in metric), maximum spacings given in Article 2.10.3 shall be reduced by
3
one-half.
2 f′
e. The value of (vu – vc) shall not exceed 8 f′ c (or -------------c in metric). 4
3
f. When flexural reinforcement located within the width of a member used to compute the shear strength is terminated in
a tension zone, shear reinforcement shall be provided in accordance with Article 2.13.1f.
2.35.4 SHEAR-FRICTION (2005)
a. Provisions for shear-friction are to be applied where it is appropriate to consider shear transfer across a given plane,
such as: an existing or potential crack, an interface between dissimilar materials, or an interface between two concretes
cast at different times.
b. A crack shall be assumed to occur along the shear plane considered. Required area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf
across the shear plane may be designed using either Article 2.35.4c or any other shear transfer design method that
results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests. Provisions of
Article 2.35.4d through Article 2.35.4h shall apply for all calculations of shear transfer strength.

c. Shear-friction design method.
(1) When shear-friction reinforcement is perpendicular to shear plane, area of shear-friction reinforcement Avf shall be
computed by:
Vu
A vf = -----------
- EQ 2-53
φf y μ
where:
μ = the coefficient of friction in accordance with Article 2.35.4c(3).
(2) When shear-friction reinforcement is inclined to shear plane such that the shear force produces tension in shear-
friction reinforcement, area of shear friction reinforcement Avf shall be computed by:
Vu
A vf = ----------------------------------------------------
- EQ 2-54
φf y ( μ sin α f + cos α f )
where:
αf = angle between shear-friction reinforcement and shear plane
(3) Coefficient of friction μ in EQ 2-53 and EQ 2-54 shall be:
concrete placed monolithically. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4λ

concrete placed against hardened concrete with surface
intentionally roughened as specified in Article 2.35.4g. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.0λ
concrete placed against hardened concrete not intentionally roughened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.6λ
concrete anchored to as-rolled structural steel by headed studs or by
reinforcing bars (see Article 2.35.4h) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.7λ
where λ = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.
d. Shear stress vu on area of concrete section resisting shear transfer shall not exceed 0.2f ′c nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa).
e. Net tension across shear plane shall be resisted by additional reinforcement. Permanent net compression across shear
plane may be taken as additive to the force in the shear-friction reinforcement A v f f y , when calculating required A vf .
f. Shear-friction reinforcement shall be appropriately placed along the shear plane and shall be anchored to develop the
specified yield strength on both sides by embedment, hooks, or welding to special devices.
g. For the purpose of this paragraph, when concrete is placed against previously hardened concrete, the interface for shear
transfer shall be clean and free of laitance. If μ is assumed equal to 1.0λ, interface shall be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately 1/4 inch (6 mm).
h. When shear is transferred between as-rolled steel and concrete using headed studs or welded reinforcing bars, steel
shall be clean and free of paint.

2.35.5 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN FOR COMPOSITE CONCRETE FLEXURAL

MEMBERS (2005)
a. In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact surfaces of interconnected
elements.
b. Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of Article 2.35.5c or
Article 2.35.5d, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of strength in substantial agreement
with results of comprehensive tests.
c. Design horizontal shear stress vuh at any cross section may be computed by
Vu
v uh = -----------
- EQ 2-55
φb v d
where:
Vu = factored shear force at section considered

d = depth of entire composite section
Horizontal shear vuh shall not exceed permissible horizontal shear vh in accordance with the following:
1
(1) When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi
(0.55 MPa).
(2) When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear stress vh shall not exceed 80 psi (0.55 MPa).
(3) When ties are provided in accordance with Article 2.35.5e and contact surfaces are clean, free of laitance and 3
intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of 1/4 inch (6 mm), shear stress, vh, shall be taken equal to (260 +
0.6ρvfy)λ in psi [(1.8 + 0.6ρvfy)λ in MPa]; but not greater than 500 psi (3.5 MPa).
(4) When factored shear stress, vu, at section considered exceeds φ 500 psi (φ 3.5 in MPa), design for horizontal shear
shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4.
d. Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of the span, the actual 4
change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer that force as horizontal shear
between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear stress shall not exceed the horizontal shear strength
vuh in accordance with Article 2.35.5c, except that length of segment considered shall be substituted for d.
e. Ties for horizontal shear.
(1) A minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area shall not be less
than 50bws/fy (or 0.35bws/fy in metric), and tie spacing s shall not exceed 4 times the least web width of support
element, nor 24 inches (600 mm).
(2) Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire
fabric (smooth or deformed). All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or
hooks.
(3) All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be
used in satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.

2.35.6 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR SLABS AND FOOTINGS (2005)
a. Shear strength of slabs and footings in the vicinity of concentrated loads or reactions shall be governed by the more
severe of the following conditions:
(1) The slab or footing acting as a wide beam, with a critical section extending in a plane across the entire width and
located at a distance d from the face of the concentrated load or reaction area. For this condition, the slab or
footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.1 through Article 2.35.3.
(2) Two-way action for the slab or footing, with a critical section perpendicular to the plane of the slab and located so
that its perimeter is a minimum and approaches no closer than d/2 to the perimeter of the concentrated load or
reaction area. For this condition, the slab or footing shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.35.6b and
Article 2.35.6c.
(3) For footings supported on piles the shear on the critical section shall be determined in accordance with:
(a) Entire reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more outside the critical section shall be
considered as producing shear on that section.
(b) Reaction from any pile whose center is located dp/2 or more inside the critical section shall be considered as
producing no shear on that section.
(c) For intermediate positions of pile center, the portion of the pile reaction to be considered as producing shear
on the critical section shall be based on linear interpolation between full value at dp/2 outside the section and
zero value at dp/2 inside the section.
b. Factored shear stress for two-way action shall be computed by:
Vu
v u = ------------- EQ 2-56
Φb o d
where:
Vu and bo = are taken at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2).
c. Factored shear stress vu shall not exceed vu given by EQ 2-57, EQ 2-58, or EQ 2-59 unless shear reinforcement is
provided in accordance with Article 2.35.6d.
αs d
v c = ⎛ --------
- + 2⎞ f′ c EQ 2-57
⎝b ⎠
o
αs d f′
v c = ⎛ --------
- + 2⎞ ----------c EQ 2-57M
⎝b ⎠ 12
o
v c = ⎛ 2 + ----
4-⎞ f′ EQ 2-58
⎝ β⎠
c
c
2 f′
v c = ⎛ 1 + -----⎞ ----------c EQ 2-58M
⎝ β ⎠ 6
c

v c = 4 f′ c EQ 2-59
1
v c = --- f′ c EQ 2-59M
3
βc is the ratio of long side to short side of concentrated load or reaction area. αs is 40 for interior concentrated loads or
reaction areas, 30 for edge concentrated loads or reaction areas, and 20 for corner concentrated loads or reaction areas.
d. If shear reinforcement consisting of bars or wires is provided in accordance with Article 2.35.3, vc at any section shall
1 1
not exceed 2 f′ c (or --- f′ c in metric) and vu shall not exceed 6 f′ c (or --- f′ c in metric). Shear stresses shall be
6 2
investigated at the critical section defined in Article 2.35.6a(2) and at successive sections more distant from the
support.
2.35.7 SPECIAL PROVISIONS FOR BRACKETS AND CORBELS (2005)
a. The following provisions shall apply to brackets and corbels with a shear span-to-depth ratio and av/d not greater than
unity, and subject to a horizontal tensile force Nuc not larger than Vu. Distance d shall be measured at face of support.
b. Depth at outside edge of bearing area shall not be less than 0.5d.
c. Section at face of support shall be designed to resist simultaneously a shear Vu, a moment 1
[Vuav + Nuc(h – d)], and a horizontal tensile force Nuc .
(1) In all design calculations in accordance with this paragraph, strength reduction factor φ shall be taken equal to
0.85.
(2) Design of shear-friction reinforcement Avf to resist shear Vu shall be in accordance with Article 2.35.4. For normal
weight concrete, shear stress vu shall not exceed 0.2 f ′c nor 800 psi (5.5 MPa). For “sand-lightweight” concrete, 3
shear stress vu shall not exceed (0.2 – 0.07a v /d) f ′c nor (800 – 280a v /d) psi (5.5 – 1.9a v /d MPa).
(3) Reinforcement Af to resist moment [Vuav + Nuc(h – d)] shall be computed in accordance with Section 2.31 and
Section 2.32.
(4) Reinforcement An to resist tensile force Nuc shall be computed by An = Nuc/φfy . Tensile force Nuc shall not be
taken less than 0.2Vu unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces. 4
(5) Area of primary tension reinforcement As shall be made equal to the greater of (Af + An), or
(2A v f /3 + An).
d. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to As, with a total area of Ah not less than 0.5(As – An), shall be uniformly distributed
within two-thirds of the effective depth adjacent to As.
e. Ratio ρ = As/bd shall not be taken less than 0.04 (f ′c /fy).
f. At front face of bracket or corbel, primary tension reinforcement As shall be anchored by one of the following:
(1) a structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size; weld to be designed to develop specified yield strength fy
of As bars;
(2) bending primary tension bars As back to form a horizontal loop, or

(3) some other means of positive anchorage.
g. Bearing area of load on bracket or corbel shall not project beyond straight portion of primary tension bars As, nor
project beyond interior face of transverse anchor bar (if one is provided).
SECTION 2.36 PERMISSIBLE BEARING STRESS (2005)
Design bearing stress shall not exceed φ (0.85f ′c), except when the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded
area, then the design bearing stress on the loaded area shall be permitted to be multiplied by A 2 ⁄ A 1 , but not more than 2,
where:
A1 = load area
A2 = the area of the lower base of the largest frustrum of a pyramid, cone, or tapered wedge
contained wholly within the support and having for its upper base the loaded area, and having
side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
Minimum distance from edge of bearing to edge of supporting concrete shall be 6 inches (150 mm).
SECTION 2.37 SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS
For flexural members designed with reference to load factors and strengths by LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, stresses at service
load shall be limited to satisfy the requirements for fatigue in Section 2.38, and the requirements for distribution of
reinforcement in Section 2.39. The requirements for deflection control in Section 2.40 shall also apply.
2.37.2 SERVICE LOAD STRESSES (1992)
For investigation of service load stresses to satisfy the requirements of Section 2.38 and Section 2.39, the straight-line theory
of stress and strain in flexure shall be used, and the assumptions given in Section 2.27 shall apply.
SECTION 2.38 FATIGUE STRESS LIMIT FOR REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. The range between a maximum tension stress and minimum stress in straight reinforcement caused by live load plus
impact at service load shall not exceed:
ff = 21 – 0.33fmin + 8(r/h)
ff = 145 – 0.33fmin + 55(r/h) (metric)

where:
ff = stress range in steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa)

fmin = algebraic minimum stress level, tension positive, compression negative, ksi (MPa)
r/h = ratio of base radius to height of rolled-on transverse deformations; when the actual value is not known,
use 0.3
b. Bends in primary reinforcement shall be avoided in regions of high stress range.
SECTION 2.39 DISTRIBUTION OF FLEXURAL REINFORCEMENT (2005)
a. Tension reinforcement shall be well distributed in the zones of maximum tension. When the design yield strength fy for
tension reinforcement exceeds 40,000 psi (280 MPa), cross sections of maximum positive and negative moment shall
be so proportioned that the calculated stress in the reinforcement at service load fs in ksi (MPa), does not exceed the
value computed by:
Z
f s = -------------- but fs shall not be greater than 0.5 fy EQ 2-60
3 d A
c
1
where:
A = effective tension area of concrete surrounding the main tension reinforcing bars and having the same
centroid as that reinforcement, divided by the number of bars, square inches (mm2). When the main
reinforcement consists of several bar sizes the number of bars shall be computed as the total steel area
divided by the area of the largest bar used 3
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured from extreme tension fiber to center of bar located closest thereto,
inches (mm), but dc shall not exceed (2 inches + 1/2 db) (or (50 mm + 1/2 db) in metric).
b. The quantity Z in EQ 2-60 shall not exceed 170 kips per inch (30 kN/mm) for members in moderate exposure
conditions and 130 kips per inch (23 kN/mm) for members in severe exposure conditions. Where members are exposed
to very aggressive exposure or corrosive environments, such as deicer chemicals, the denseness and nonporosity of the 4
protecting concrete should be considered, or other protection, such as a waterproof protecting system, should be
provided in addition to satisfying EQ 2-60.
SECTION 2.40 CONTROL OF DEFLECTIONS
2.40.1 GENERAL (1992)
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or any deformations
which may adversely affect the strength or serviceability of the structure at service load.

2.40.2 SUPERSTRUCTURE DEPTH LIMITATIONS (1992)
The minimum thicknesses stipulated in Table 8-2-10 are recommended unless computation of deflection indicates that lesser
thickness may be used without adverse effects.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design. In
the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/paragraph being explained.
C - SECTION 2.1 GENERAL
C - 2.1.5 PIER PROTECTION (2005)
C - 2.1.5.1 Adjacent to Railroad Tracks
a. The provisions of this section are not intended to create a structure that will resist the full impact of a direct collision by
a loaded train at high speed. Rather, the intent is to reduce the damage caused by shifted loads or derailed equipment.
This is accomplished by: deflecting or redirecting the force from the pier; providing a smooth face; providing resisting
mass; and distributing the collisions forces over several columns.
b. Research by the National Transportation Safety Board found no clear break point in the distribution of the distance
traveled from the centerline of the track by derailed equipment. It was therefore decided to retain the existing 25 feet
(7600 mm) distance within which collision protection is required. In addition, it is recognized that the distance traveled
by equipment in a derailment is related to the speed of the train, the weight of the equipment, whether the side slopes
tend to restrain or distribute the equipment and the alignment of the track. In cases where these factors would cause the
equipment to travel farther than normal in a derailment, the required distance should be increased. Structures not
otherwise requiring protection under this section along the railroad right-of-way may also warrant protection by using
crash walls or earthen berms.
c. Where the risk of serious damage to the overhead structure is estimated to be higher than normal in case of an impact,
this distance should also be increased. Among the factors to be considered in this evaluation are: the height of the pier,
bearing type, redundancy of the structure, length of the span and consequences of loss of use of the structure.
d. Examples of crash walls and pier protection for tracks on one side of piers are shown in Figure C-8-2-1. Where tracks
are on both sides of the pier the wall shall protect both sides.
C - 2.1.6 SUPERSTRUCTURE PROTECTION (2010)
C - 2.1.6.1 General Requirements
a. The purpose for this guideline stems from the fact that many existing railroad bridge superstructures have been struck
by trucks and other over-height loads and vehicles. Many of these bridges play a pivotal role in the day-to-day
operations of the railroads and the transportation of goods. Railway networks are less extensive than those of other
modes of transportation to the extend that unplanned shutdowns can have an adverse impact on railroad operations,
particularly along core routes of a railway network. Protection of railroad bridge superstructures to abate impacts to
daily railroad operations is critical and should be evaluated.
Parameters that affect railroad operational requirements include:

(1) The availability of other routes between linked markets
(2) The freight tonnage hauled over the route relative to the rest of the rail network
(3) The types of commodity handled on the line
(4) Future growth of freight or passenger traffic between the served markets or terminals
(5) The density of passenger traffic on the line
Roadway functional classification, which is influenced by traffic volume and type of service it provides for the
community, determines:
(1) Vehicular design speed
(2) Vertical and horizontal alignment of the roadway
(3) Cross section of the roadway
1
C - 2.1.7 SKEWED CONCRETE BRIDGES (2005)
b. There is no supporting documentation for the maximum recommended skew angles given. The information was
compiled from a questionnaire that was sent to several Chief Bridge Engineers of Class I railroad companies. The
skew angle recommendations resulted from the Chief Engineers’ past experience. The preference to use cast-in-place
concrete for skewed bridges is due to the high torsional stiffness of concrete bridges and the flexibility of forming the 3
concrete to fit the bearing area. The maximum recommended skew angle is reduced for precast slabs and box beams
since the bearing area of precast box beams and slabs is longer. This longer bearing area can result in warping of the
section during precasting due to the varying cambers.
c. The placement of interior diaphragms perpendicular to the webs is recommended since they allow for easier
construction or installation of transverse post-tensioning.
4
d. On skewed abutments, the end of the haunch in the backwall of the abutment or the end of the approach slab is set
perpendicular to the centerline of track to ensure adequate stiffness for the last tie off the bridge.
e. The ends of concrete slabs and concrete box girders with flanges 5’-0” wide and wider may be skewed to reduce the
width of pier cap or abutment seat.
C - 2.2.3 DESIGN LOADS (2008)
C - 2.2.3 (d.) IMPACT LOAD
Previously, different impact formulas were included in the Manual for reinforced concrete in Part 2 and prestressed concrete in
Part 17. It was known however that impact values should be similar for both types of structures (ref. 1). In order to resolve
this discrepancy, a new impact formula was developed based on work in Europe (ref. 1) and Canada (ref. 6, 7). The resulting
impact is generally lower than that recommended previously for reinforced concrete, particularly for longer spans. It is

Figure C-8-2-1. Pier Protection: Minimum Crash Wall Requirements (Not To Scale)

generally higher than that recommended previously for prestressed concrete, particularly for shorter spans. This is illustrated in Figure C-8-2-2.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Figure C-8-2-2. Comparison of Impact Formulas
8-2-73
According to the ORE report (ref. 1) the impact can be expressed as:
I = 0.65 x K / (1 - K + K2) where K = V/(2/Lf)
V = speed of train in feet/second (meters/second)

L = span length in feet (meters)
f = natural frequency of the loaded bridge in hertz
In order to get the impact value as a percentage, this formula is multiplied by 100
I = 65 x K / (1 - K + K2)
For simply supported undamped beams, the natural frequency of the bridge can be estimated (see ref. 5) as:
f = 3.5 ⁄ ( δ ) where δ is the deflection due to dead and live load in inches or;
f = 5.6 ⁄ ( δ ) where δ is in centimeters.
NOTE: Limited data exist for impact on continuous structures. The ORE has done one test on such structures which
suggests that impact values do not normally exceed those for simple spans. Article 2.2.3d(2) recommends
using for the entire continuous structure the impact value calculated for the shortest of the continuous spans.
Assuming the deflection under dead and live load is equal to L/750 (where L is the span length) and the speed is 100 miles per
hour (160 kilometers per hour) and transforming to consistent units we get:
K = V/(2Lf) = 2.64/ L where L is the span length in feet or;
K = V/(2Lf) = 1.47/ L where L is in meters
Replacing this value for K in the ORE impact formula and considering the fact that the denominator is practically a constant
for the range of span lengths where the formula is applicable, the impact formula is simplified to:
I = 225/ L where L is the span length in feet or;
I = 125/ L where L is in meters
This formula was validated by the ORE with tests on 37 reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and steel bridges, small
scale models and theoretical calculations. It was found that the formula gave a good representation of the mean impact values
for European railway bridges. For North American bridges, the formula had to be adjusted for higher impacts due to different
track and equipment maintenance standards. It was decided to address this issue by using in the ORE formula a design speed
of 100 mph (160 km/h) which is higher than the actual speed for North American freight operations. Therefore, for bridge
rating purposes, one should not attempt to input actual train speeds in the ORE formula. Impact reduction for bridge rating
purposes is given in Part 19. The different safety factors given in the Manual for impact loading will cover the cases where the
impact would be higher than the mean value.
For piers and abutments, where the weight of the substructure is much greater than the live load, the effects of impact will
generally be minimal and therefore can be neglected in the design.
When the substructure and superstructure are rigidly connected together, the superstructure will undergo additional rotation
due to the impact loading at the point where it is connected to the substructure. In order to maintain compatibility of
deformations, the substructure will experience the same additional rotations. Therefore, impact must be used in this case for
the design of the substructure.

Particular attention should be given to short structural members spanning in the direction perpendicular to the track and
located next to the bridge approach. These members will be subjected to higher impacts due to the transition in stiffness of the
riding surface between the bridge and the approach. Members such as concrete deck slabs and flanges of precast concrete
beams are known to experience higher impacts. However, very limited test data is available to evaluate accurately the level of
impact experienced by these members. Some Railways design these members for impacts as high as 100 percent.
It should be noted that direct fixation can result in much higher impacts than reflected by the formula. This formula is
intended for ballasted deck spans and substructure elements as required. For bridges with direct fixation, refer to Part 27
Concrete Slab Track.
The Association of American Railroads (AAR) conducted a series of tests on nine prestressed concrete bridges in the late
1950s and early- to mid-1960s from which impact data was gathered. Spans varied from 18 feet to 70 feet in length. This data
is summarized in the Committee 30 report found in AREA Bulletin 597, January 1966. The highest impacts measured were 45
percent in a 30 foot span. Other spans tested all had impacts less than 30 percent.
The AAR performed further testing on three prestressed concrete bridges in the early 1990s [ref. 3 & 4]. Tests included cars
equipped with flat wheels or out-of-round wheels near the condemning limit. Impacts up to 51 percent were measured on an
18-foot span.
References
(1) Office de Recherche et d’Essais (ORE), ORE Committee D23 - Report No. 17 Final Report, Utrecht, April 1970.
(2) Skaberna, S., “A Review of Studies of Impact in Concrete Railway Bridges”, Railway Track & Structures,
November 1988, pp. 23-25.
1
(3) Sharma, V., Gamble, W.G., and Choros, J., Impact Factor Measurements for Three Precast Pretensioned Concrete
Railway Bridges, Association of American Railroads, Report No. R-824, January 1993.
(4) Sharma, Vinaya, Flat Wheel Impacts and TLV Tests on a Prestressed Concrete Bridge, Technology Digest TD 94-
016, Association of American Railroads, September 1994. 3
(5) Fryba, Ladislav, “Dynamics of Railway Bridges”, Thomas Telford Services, London, P. 92, 1996.
(6) Skaberna, S. AREA correspondence, April 24 1986.
(7) Skaberna, S. AREA correspondence, January 18 1988.

4
C - 2.2.3 (j.) LONGITUDINAL LOAD. (2008) (References 34, 35, 36, 46, 52, 55, 66, 67, 68, 69, and
105)
a. Longitudinal loads due to train traffic can vary tremendously from train to train. These loads are dependent on train
handling and operating practices. The greatest longitudinal loads result from starting or stopping a train, or moving a
train up or down a grade. The longitudinal loads applied to a bridge from normal train operations could be small in
comparison to the design loads.
b. Maximum adhesion between wheel and rail for train braking is about 15 percent. This level of adhesion would
typically be reached with an emergency application of the train air brakes. The equation for train braking is derived
using 15 percent of the Cooper E-80 (EM 360) live loading.
c. Longitudinal load due to braking acts at the center of gravity of the live load. Center of gravity height is taken as 8 feet
(2450 mm) above top of rail. This load is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a
vertical force couple transmitted through the wheels.

d. Locomotive traction can be applied at levels of adhesion approaching 50 percent, particularly with locomotives using
AC traction motors. Locomotive tractive effort is generally limited by drawbar and coupler capacity to less than about
500 kips (2200 kN), depending on equipment. Large applications of dynamic braking effort (which generate tractive
forces) are also possible. The greatest locomotive tractive efforts are generally reached at speeds below 25 mph (40
km/h). Above this speed, locomotive horsepower generally governs, and available tractive effort drops.
e. Longitudinal load due to locomotive traction acts at the drawbar. Drawbar height is taken as 3 feet (900 mm) above top
of rail. As with braking, this force is transferred from vehicle to rail as a horizontal force at the top of rail and a vertical
force couple transmitted through the wheels.
f. The equation for longitudinal load due to locomotive traction is based on maximum values from AAR measurements
on bridges tested with AC locomotives. The equipment used in the tests was approximately equivalent to a Cooper E-
60 (EM 270) loading on the spans tested. The formula has been scaled to be consistent with the E-80 (EM 360) design
loading.
g. Longitudinal deflection limits are required to increase serviceability of the structure. They can also potentially reduce
track problems (buckling, ballast degradation, etc.) on or just beyond the ends of the bridge.
h. The longitudinal deflection is computed assuming the entire bridge acts as a unit. The stiffness of individual
substructure components must be considered. Stiffer components deflect the same amount as more flexible
components; the stiffer components resist more load.
i. For the case where longitudinal deflection controls the design of fairly tall flexible pile bents, the designer should
consider adding longitudinal bracing to some of the double bents to stiffen them above the ground line, and thus reduce
longitudinal deflection. Battering or increasing the batter of piles, and/or adding more piles can also reduce deflection.

8
Part 3
Spread Footing Foundations1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2

3.1.1 Scope (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-2
3.1.2 Classification (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3 1

3.2.1 Field Survey (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-3
3.2.2 Controlling Dimensions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4
3.2.3 Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4
3.2.4 Character of Subsurface Materials (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-5
3.3 Depth of Base of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6 3

3.3.1 Selection of Tentative Depths (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-6
3.3.2 Revision of Depths of Footings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4 Sizing of Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7

3.4.1 Definitions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4.2 Safety Factors (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-7
3.4.3 Footings on Granular Material (Cohesion = 0) (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-8
3.4.4 Footings on Saturated Clay (φ = 0) (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-10
3.4.5 Footings on Unsaturated Silts and Clays (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-11
3.4.6 Footings on Non-Homogeneous Deposits (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-11
3.4.7 Footings on Soils with Cohesion and Friction (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5 Footings with Eccentric Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12

3.5.1 Loads Eccentric in One Direction (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5.2 Loads Eccentric in Two Directions (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-12
3.5.3 Sizing Footings with Eccentric Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-13
3.6 Footing Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

3.6.1 Pressure Distribution (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
1
References, Vol. 58, 1957, pp. 633, 1182; Vol. 59, 1958, pp. 676, 1188; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 438, 860; Vol. 74, 1973, p. 138; Vol. 76, 1975, p. 206; Vol. 78,
1977, p. 108; Vol. 90, 1989, pp. 53, 56; Vol. 96, p. 59.

3.7 Field Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14

3.7.1 Modification of Design (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.2 Reinforcement (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.3 Footings at Varying Levels (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.4 Drainage (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.5 Treatment of Bottom of Excavation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-14
3.7.6 Stresses (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.7.7 Information on Drawings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.8 Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15

3.8.1 Uses and Types (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
3.8.2 Allowable Soil Pressures (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
3.8.3 Column Loads (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
3.8.4 Sizing Combined Footings (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-16
LIST OF FIGURES
8-3-1 Bulbs of Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-4

8-3-2 Extreme Frost Penetration, in Inches, Based upon State Averages. Source: U.S. National Weather Records Center
................................................................................... 8-3-6
8-3-3 Relationship Among φ, N, and Bearing Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-9
8-3-4 Types of Combined Footings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-15
SECTION 3.1 GENERAL
3.1.1 SCOPE (2013)1
a. This part of the Manual covers investigation, design and construction of rectangular or square spread footings.
b. In general for the purposes of this part, spread footings will be considered to be of rectangular or square shape of
dimensions (B) x (L) where B (width of the footing) is less than or equal to L (length of the footing).
c. A spread footing is a structural unit which transfers and distributes load to the underlying soil at a pressure consistent
with the requirements of the structure and the supporting capacity of the soil. The general approach to sizing footings
on soil is to assure that the maximum contact pressure defined in Article 3.4.1 is equal to or less than the allowable soil
pressure defined in the same article.
d. Sizing of footings on rock is not covered in this part.
1
See C - Commentary

Spread Footing Foundations
3.1.2 CLASSIFICATION (2013)
a. Spread footings may be classified according to their depth and dimensions:
(1) Spread footings may be classified as shallow footings when the depth of foundation, Df, defined as the minimum
vertical distance from the base of the footing to the surface of the surrounding ground or floor, does not exceed the
least width, B, of the footing. See Figure 8-3-1.
(2) Deep footings, for which the depth, Df, is greater than the width, B, (see Figure 8-3-1) are described in Part 4, Pile
Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
b. Spread footings may be classified according to the structural elements they support:
(1) An individual column footing which supports a single column or isolated load
(2) A continuous footing which supports a wall or abutment
(3) A combined footing which supports more than one column
(4) A raft or mat footing, which is not covered in this part, supports all the columns in a structure or a large portion
thereof
c. Spread footings may be classified with respect to the subsurface material from which they derive their support:
1
(1) Footings on granular, non-cohesive soils
(2) Footings on saturated clay or plastic silt
(3) Footings on unsaturated clay or silt
(4) Footings on nonhomogeneous deposits 3

(5) Footings on preconsolidated clay
(6) Footings on rock
4
SECTION 3.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
3.2.1 FIELD SURVEY (2013)
a. All available information shall be furnished in the form of a topographic map, in order to adapt the structural
requirements to the field conditions. The locations and dimensions of underground and above ground utilities, existing
foundations, roads, tracks, or other structures shall be indicated. In connection with footings for river crossings, the
records of normal high water, low water, floodwater level, depth of scour, stream flow direction and velocities, and
alignment of the stream shall be provided.
b. All available information concerning the nature of the foundations of neighboring structures, the nature of the
underlying materials, and of the settlement and behavior of these foundations shall be assembled and condensed as a
guide to the judgment of the engineer in the design of the new structure.

(kPa)
NO REDUCTION IN ALLOWABLE
SETTLEMENT PRESSURE IS
REQUIRED WHEN WATER
TABLE IS BELOW THIS
ELEVATION - SEE ARTICLE
3.4.3.3b
Reduction in allowable pressure under footing on granular material
Figure 8-3-1. Bulbs of Pressure

(Factors affected by depth)
3.2.2 CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS (2013)
Information shall be assembled concerning the proposed arrangement of the columns, piers, abutments or equipment to be
supported; the depths of basements, tunnels, and other excavations; the surface elevation of fill areas; and all other factors that
may affect or be affected by the proposed construction.
3.2.3 LOADS (2013)
a. The loads to be supported by the foundations shall be subdivided into the following categories:
(1) Dead load
(2) Live load without impact1
(3) Longitudinal and lateral forces
(4) Snow load
(5) Ice load
1
See C - Commentary

(6) Earthquake load
(7) Wind load
(8) Loads from pore water pressures including buoyancy and seepage forces
(9) Area load, defined as any load transmitted to the supporting soil by the addition of fill or adjacent structures
(10) Vibratory loads to footings on granular material shall be considered.
b. An estimate shall be made of the duration of each loading, because the settlement of some types of subsurface
materials depends upon the proportion of the total time the loads are active.
c. The character, frequency, and amplitude of any vibratory loads including earthquakes shall be noted for additional
analysis. If such loads are an important consideration, the foundation design shall be referred to a geotechnical
engineer with expertise in soil dynamics.
d. Footings shall be designed to resist the following loads:
(1) Primary Loads: Dead + Live + Centrifugal Force + Earth Pressure + Pore Water Pressures + Area Load + Special
Vibratory Loads
(2) Secondary Loads: Longitudinal Force + Wind + Ice and Stream Flow Pressures + Earthquake Forces.
1
3.2.4 CHARACTER OF SUBSURFACE MATERIALS (2013)
3.2.4.1 General
a. Pertinent supplementary data with respect to local geological or foundation conditions, including aerial photographs,
river morphology, scour reports and soil maps, shall be assembled if available. Data concerning changes in
groundwater level shall also be investigated. 3
b. The data concerning subsurface materials shall be assembled in suitable graphical form, such as cross sections through
the various deposits, showing the probable arrangement and sequence of lenses or strata, the pertinent physical
properties of each element of the deposit including liquefaction potential, and the location of the groundwater table.
3.2.4.2 Field Investigation

4
a. The nature and extent of the various formations of soil and rock beneath the site and the depth to groundwater shall be
determined by means of test borings or probes and physical tests of a type and to an extent appropriate to the character
and importance of the structure and the nature of the subsurface materials. The borings shall be made in accordance
with Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
b. Borings should extend at least to a depth equal to two times the least footing width plus the depth of the footing from
the ground surface. At least one boring should, if practical, extend into bedrock. For structures on cohesive soils,
undisturbed samples should generally be recovered for laboratory testing. The recovery of undisturbed samples in
granular soil has not proven satisfactory. In-situ tests may provide useful data for foundation design. These tests
include standard penetration test, vane shear test, Dutch cone penetration test (static penetration test), pressuremeter
test, and other tests as described in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.

3.2.4.3 Depth of Frost and Volume Change
a. The maximum depth of frost penetration shall be determined, usually on the basis of local experience and records.
Figure 8-3-2 is a map showing the depths of frost penetration in the contiguous 48 states. Similarly, in regions of
excessively swelling or shrinking soils, the depth to which significant volume changes occur as a result of seasonal
variations in moisture content shall be determined.
b. Permafrost, or permanently frozen ground, exists in the northern hemisphere in arctic and subarctic regions. Although
the southern boundary of permafrost is irregular, it may extend as far south as the 50th parallel. Foundations for
structures, in areas of permafrost, should be designed in such a way as to not disturb the permanently frozen ground; or
if this is not practical, the influence of the foundation on the permafrost should be predicted so the effect of the changes
can be accommodated in the design. A geotechnical engineer with experience in these ground conditions should be
consulted for design of foundations to be placed on permafrost.
Figure 8-3-2. Extreme Frost Penetration, in Inches, Based upon State Averages. Source:
U.S. National Weather Records Center
SECTION 3.3 DEPTH OF BASE OF FOOTINGS
3.3.1 SELECTION OF TENTATIVE DEPTHS (2013)
On the basis of the data concerning the subsurface materials, tentative elevations for the bases of the footings shall be selected.
Unless special provisions are made, the depth shall not be less than the depth of frost penetration, scour, or in expansive clay

subsoils, less than the thickness of the zone of significant volume change of the subsoil due to seasonal moisture variations.
Footings shall be founded below disturbed shallow soils, uncontrolled fills, soils susceptible to collapse, and organic soils.
3.3.2 REVISION OF DEPTHS OF FOOTINGS (2013)
After the preliminary depths have been selected, the allowable soil pressure shall be determined and the sizes of the footings
proportioned to the pressures. If the resulting design is not feasible or economical, similar studies shall be made of footings
established at other depths until the most suitable and economical arrangement is determined. In considering the relative
economy of footings at various levels, the cost and difficulty of excavation below groundwater level in pervious soils shall be
taken into account. The economy and suitability of other types of foundations, such as piles or drilled shafts, shall also be
considered. For deep foundations, the designer should refer to Part 4, Pile Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
SECTION 3.4 SIZING OF FOOTINGS
The following definitions will be used in the design procedures described below. The pressures used in this Section are net
pressures; that is, they represent pressures at the base level of the footing in excess of pressures at the same level due to the
weight of the surrounding soil immediately adjacent to the footing.
• Net Ultimate Bearing Capacity. The ultimate pressure at which the supporting material will fail in shear beneath 1
the footing, less the pressure due to the weight of the soil at that depth.
• Allowable Bearing Capacity. The net ultimate bearing pressure divided by an appropriate factor of safety.
• Allowable Settlement Pressure. The maximum pressure to which the footings may be subjected without
producing excessive settlement or excessive differential settlement of the structure. This settlement consists of two
stages: 3
– Initial Settlement or Elastic Settlement - occurs shortly after loading.
– Consolidation - occurs over an extended time period.
• Allowable Soil Capacity. The smaller of the allowable bearing pressure and the allowable settlement pressure.
4
• Maximum Contact Pressure. The maximum pressure applied by the combined effects of vertical and moment
loads for eccentrically loaded footings as described in this Part, Section 3.5, Footings with Eccentric Loads.
3.4.2 SAFETY FACTORS1 (2013)
The safety factor for Primary Loads shall not be less than 3; for Primary + Secondary Loads the safety factor shall not be less
than 2. Consideration shall be taken of load duration in relation to foundation soil and groundwater conditions when selecting
a safety factor.
1
See C - Commentary

3.4.3 FOOTINGS ON GRANULAR MATERIAL (COHESION = 0) (2013)
3.4.3.1 General
a. The allowable soil pressure for a footing on granular material depends on the width of the footing, B; the shape of the
footing; the depth of foundation, Df, the SPT1 Blow Count or N-value of the foundation material; the unit weight of the
foundation material, γ ; and the depth of the groundwater table.
b. The depth of the present and/or future groundwater level will noticeably affect the bearing capacity and allowable
settlement pressure of the footing. Consideration shall be given to the future groundwater level - See Figure 8-3-1.
c. Vibrational loads can cause severe settlement of a footing founded on very loose to medium dense granular soils. If
future construction in the adjacent area will require pile driving, vibratory compaction of subsoil, or other vibrations,
then consideration should be given to a more extensive vibratory analysis and a geotechnical engineer knowledgeable
in soil dynamics shall be consulted.
3.4.3.2 Net Bearing Capacity of a Footing on Granular Material
a. The net ultimate bearing capacity of a footing on granular material can be calculated from the following equations:
(1) For a continuous footing:
Q u = 0.5γBN γ + D f γ ( N q – 1 )
(2) For a square footing:
Q u = 0.4γBN γ + D f γ ( N q – 1 )
(3) For a circular footing:
Q u = 0.3γBN γ + D f γ ( N q – 1 )
where:
Qu = the net ultimate bearing capacity in lb/square foot (kPa)

B = the footing width in feet (m)
Df = the footing depth in feet (m)
γ = the unit weight of the granular material in lb/cubic foot (kN/m3)
Nγ and Nq = dimensionless bearing capacity factors which are a function of the internal angle of friction, φ.
The standard penetration blow count, N, is typically utilized to correlate to the internal angle
of friction.
The standard penetration blow count is described in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation. The relationship
among φ, N, and the bearing capacity factors are shown in Figure 8-3-3 as proposed by Peck, Hanson and Thornburn.
b. For saturated sands the buoyant unit weight should be used in the equations above.
1
See C - Commentary

Figure 8-3-3. Relationship Among φ, N, and Bearing Capacity
3.4.3.3 Allowable Settlement Pressure for Granular Material
a. An empirical equation by Meyerhof may be used to estimate the allowable settlement pressure, Qs.

(1) For B ≤ 4 feet (1220 mm):
Ns-
Q s = ------
8
Q s = 0.471sN (metric)
(2) For B > 4 feet (1220 mm):
Ns ( B + 1 )
Q s = ⎛ -------⎞ ------------------
⎝ 12 ⎠ B
( B + 305 )
Q s = ( 0.314sN ) ------------------------ (metric)
B
where:
Qs is in tons/square foot (kPa)

N = the standard penetration blow count
B = the footing width in feet (millimeters)
s = the allowable settlement in inches (millimeters)
(3) The presence of a water table will have the effect of reducing the allowable settlement pressure as the effective
stress is lowered. Therefore the allowable settlement pressure shall be reduced 50% if the water table is at the base
of the footing and 0% if the water table is at a depth greater than B. The reduction for intermediate depths can be
interpolated, see Figure 8-3-1. Fluctuations in water table elevation shall be considered.
3.4.3.4 Sizing Footings on Granular Material
A trial footing size is used to determine the net bearing capacity from Article 3.4.3.2 and the allowable bearing pressure
described in Article 3.4.1 is calculated by dividing the net ultimate bearing capacity by the appropriate safety factor from
Article 3.4.2. The trial footing size is used to determine the allowable settlement pressure defined in Article 3.4.3.3. The loads
defined in Article 3.2.3 are divided by the trial footing area to give the maximum contact pressure defined in Article 3.4.1. If
the maximum contact pressure is greater than either the allowable bearing capacity or the allowable settlement pressure, the
footing size must be increased until the maximum contact pressure is less than the allowable soil pressure defined in
Article 3.4.1.
3.4.4 FOOTINGS ON SATURATED CLAY (φ = 0) (2013)
3.4.4.1 General
The net ultimate bearing capacity of spread footings on saturated clays or clayey soils depends on the footing width, B; the
footing length, L; the depth of the footing below the surface, Df, and on the unconfined compressive strength of the clay, qu.
3.4.4.2 Net Bearing Capacity
a. The net ultimate bearing capacity for a footing may be determined by means of the following equations:
(1) For a continuous footing:

Qu = 2.7qu
(2) For a square or rectangular footing:
Qu = 2.7qu (1 + 0.3 B/L)
(3) For a circular footing:
Qu = 3.5qu
b. In these equations, Qu and qu are expressed in tons/square foot. The value of qu shall be taken as the average
unconfined compressive strength of the clay within a depth B below the base of the footing; provided, however, that
the strength of the clay does not decrease significantly with increasing depth below the footing. In the event that
weaker material underlies stronger material, a special investigation of the bearing capacity shall be undertaken.
3.4.4.3 Sizing Footings on Clay
The appropriate factor of safety as indicated in Article 3.4.2 shall be used in order to obtain an allowable bearing capacity. The
required footing area is determined by dividing the column or wall load by the allowable bearing capacity.
3.4.4.4 Settlement Characteristics
a. For footings located on or above clays with qu below 2.0 tons per square foot (0.19 MPa), a settlement analysis should
generally be undertaken using the footing size and contact pressure determined in Article 3.4.11. If the estimated 1
settlement is greater than the allowable settlement, the footing design shall be reevaluated to bring the estimated
settlement below the allowable limit or a deep foundation shall be used.
b. The potential effect of subsidence due to drainage of the soil shall be considered in the design of the structure.
3.4.5 FOOTINGS ON UNSATURATED SILTS AND CLAYS (2013)

3
a. Laboratory testing is required for accurate determination of the allowable bearing capacity. Due to the existence of
tension cracks in the soil and unknown pore pressures, an extensive field investigation may be required. Similar
structures will not necessarily have the same solution. Careful evaluation is necessary in order to arrive at a satisfactory
footing design. A rise in the groundwater table will reduce the allowable bearing capacity and complicate the analysis.
b. Where loadings on footings are light, due consideration to swelling of a clay soil shall be given. This may be especially 4
important if the percent of soil with particle diameters less than 0.001 mm is greater than 15%.
3.4.6 FOOTINGS ON NON-HOMOGENEOUS DEPOSITS (2013)
a. Footings established above stratified or other non-homogeneous formations shall be proportioned on the assumption
that the most unfavorable condition disclosed by the subsurface exploration may be present under the most heavily
loaded footings, unless detailed information is obtained concerning the actual conditions beneath each footing.
b. Subsoil of this type requires extensive knowledge and investigation in order to obtain a suitable solution. However, in
many cases using the above assumption in order to simplify the solution is satisfactory.
1
See C - Commentary

3.4.7 FOOTINGS ON SOILS WITH COHESION AND FRICTION (2013)
a. Many soils, including preconsolidated clays, fit this category and an accurate analysis can be carried out. The
investigation must be undertaken without the use of the simplifying assumptions made for granular or cohesive soils,
and more extensive laboratory information is required. Triaxial shear tests are required for this analysis.
b. At times, it will be satisfactory to assume the soil alternately only granular or cohesive and use the lower value for
allowable pressure.
SECTION 3.5 FOOTINGS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS
3.5.1 LOADS ECCENTRIC IN ONE DIRECTION (2013)

a. When a footing is subjected to overturning moments in addition to total vertical loads, the line of action of the resultant
force is located some distance from the centroid of the footing. This distance, called eccentricity, e, is calculated by the
equation
e = M
-----
P
where:
M = the moment
P = total vertical load
The eccentricity shall have a maximum value of B/6.
b. The contact pressure distribution beneath a footing subjected to overturning moment will be non-uniform and the
maximum contact pressure, qmax and minimum contact pressure, qmin, can be calculated from:
P - + ---------
6M-
q max = -------
BL B 2 L
P - – ---------
6M-
q min = -------
BL B 2 L
where:
B = footing width
L = footing length
M = moment
P = total vertical load
3.5.2 LOADS ECCENTRIC IN TWO DIRECTIONS (2013)
a. When a footing is subjected to overturning moments in two directions, the total vertical load, P, is calculated, the
horizontal loads and their lines of action in each direction are determined, and the moments in the two directions are
computed by multiplying the force times the moment arm for each load. The eccentricity in each direction is computed
by dividing the moment in each direction by the vertical load as follows:

M M
e x = -------x and e y = -------y
P P
where:
ex and ey = the eccentricities in the two directions

Mx and My = the moments in the respective directions (i.e. Mx is the moment about the
y axis and My is the moment about the x axis)
B is the footing dimension parallel to the x direction and L is parallel to the
y direction, and all other terms are as previously defined.
The eccentricities ex and ey shall have a maximum value of B/6 and L/6, respectively.
b. The contact pressure distribution beneath a footing subjected to overturning moments in two directions will be non-
uniform, and the maximum contact pressure, qmax, and the minimum contact pressure, qmin, can be calculated from:
P 6M 6M
q max = -------- + ----------x- + ----------y-
BL B 2 L BL 2
P 6M 6M
q min = -------- – ----------x- – ----------y- 1
BL B 2 L BL 2
3.5.3 SIZING FOOTINGS WITH ECCENTRIC LOADS (2013)
a. Footings shall be initially sized using Primary Loads with the required factor of safety and verified by using Primary +
Secondary Loads with their required factor of safety. Both design criteria must be met.
3
b. Select trial footing dimensions B and L. Using these dimensions, the previously determined eccentricities, and the total
vertical load, calculate the maximum and minimum contact pressures beneath the footing according to Article 3.5.1.b
for loads eccentric in one direction or Article 3.5.2.b for loads eccentric in two directions. The maximum contact
pressure is then compared with the allowable soil pressure determined from either Article 3.4.3 for granular material,
or Article 3.4.4 for clays. If the maximum contact pressure exceeds the allowable soil pressures or if the settlement is
excessive, the footing size shall be increased in order to decrease maximum contact pressure and settlement. If the
resulting footing size is too large to be practical, deep foundations, such as piles as described in Part 4, Pile 4
Foundations or drilled shafts as described in Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations, shall be considered.
c. If qmin is negative, the corner of the footing is in tension and larger footing dimensions shall be tried. The computations
of maximum and minimum contact pressures are repeated with new trial dimensions until qmin becomes positive. This
indicates that the soil under the entire footing is in compression and the entire footing area will contribute to the
footing’s load carrying capacity.
d. If a footing is subject to eccentric loading, then it must be sized such that the safety factor of overturning is 2 or greater
and the safety factor of sliding is 1.5 or greater. These safety factors are calculated as follows:
FSoverturning = Σ Resisting Moments ⁄ Σ Overturning Moments
FSsliding = Σ Sliding Resistance ⁄ Σ Driving Horizontal Forces

SECTION 3.6 FOOTING STRESSES
3.6.1 PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION (2013)
a. The pressure distribution on the footing itself is eqivalent to the reaction of the soil to the contact pressure.
b. It is desirable, if possible, to proportion the footing for a uniform pressure distribution.
c. A more detailed study may be required for a flexible footing and for a mat footing. In actual practice, the pressure
distribution may vary materially from this ideal distribution. The distribution of the reaction is dependent upon the
rigidity of the structural system, distribution of the loading and characteristics of the soil.
SECTION 3.7 FIELD CONDITIONS
3.7.1 MODIFICATION OF DESIGN (2013)

If excavation discloses soils or soil conditions different from those upon which the design of the footings has been based, the
design shall be altered as necessary.

Wherever the concrete of a reinforced footing is cast against the soil, steel reinforcement shall be provided with a cover of not
less than 3 inches (76 mm). If the concrete is cast against a seal coat or against steel sheeting that is to remain in place, the
cover shall be not less than 2 inches (51 mm).
3.7.3 FOOTINGS AT VARYING LEVELS (2013)

If the footings for two adjacent parts of a structure are established at different elevations, the difference in elevation of the
bases of adjacent footings, divided by the least horizontal clear distance between the footings, shall not exceed a value
appropriate to the characteristics of the subsoil, and in general should not exceed 1.0. An increased load on the lower footing
will result otherwise.
3.7.4 DRAINAGE (2013)

Unless underwater construction is specified, surface water or groundwater shall not be permitted to accumulate in excavations
for footings. Such water shall be conducted to sumps located outside the boundaries of the footings and removed. If the water
cannot be handled by this procedure, groundwater lowering should be accomplished by well points, a tremie seal course, or
other appropriate means.
3.7.5 TREATMENT OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (2013)

a. Care should be exercised to prevent disturbance of the materials at the bottom of the excavation by equipment or
workers. The bottom 3 inches (76 mm) of concrete in the footings shall be neglected for strength calculations.
b. On soft clayey or silty soils a working platform or mud coat of lean concrete, from 2 inches (51 mm) to 3 inches (76
mm) in thickness, is recommended if disturbance is probable. Otherwise, final excavation of the last 3 inches (76 mm)
to 6 inches (152 mm) above grade should be deferred until immediately before placement of the reinforcement. The
concrete in a working platform or mud slab shall not be considered as contributing to the strength of the footing.

c. If a tremie seal is to be placed to permit dewatering of the cofferdam, the thickness of the seal, in addition to other
factors, shall be adequate to withstand the upward pressure of the water beneath the seal at the time of dewatering. This
uplift force shall be determined by a rational analysis1.
3.7.6 STRESSES (2013)

Concrete and reinforcing steel stresses/strength shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
3.7.7 INFORMATION ON DRAWINGS (2013)

Design drawings shall indicate the allowable soil pressure, type of soil, grade of the reinforcing steel, strength of concrete, and
other pertinent data.
SECTION 3.8 COMBINED FOOTINGS
3.8.1 USES AND TYPES (2013)
a. Combined footings support more than one column and are used for reasons such as:
(1) Property line or other obstructions make it undesirable to use a single column on an independent single footing.
(2) Allowable soil pressures are so low or column loads so large that individual footings would overlap. 1
b. Examples of combined footing types are illustrated in Figure 8-3-4 and include: rectangular, trapezoidal, and strap
footings.
Figure 8-3-4. Types of Combined Footings
1
See C - Commentary

3.8.2 ALLOWABLE SOIL PRESSURES (2013)
a. Allowable soil pressures defined in Article 3.4.1 are determined from Article 3.4.3 for granular material or
Article 3.4.4 for clays. For combined footings, the minimum safety factor is 3 for all load cases.
b. A combined footing is ideally proportioned such that the centroid of the contact area lies on the line of action of the
resultant of column loads, thereby producing a uniform pressure distribution. In situations where it is impossible to
produce a uniform pressure distribution, the pressure distribution is computed and the footing sized according to the
principles outlined in Section 3.5, Footings with Eccentric Loads. The dimensions of the footing are selected so that the
allowable soil pressure is not exceeded.
3.8.3 COLUMN LOADS (2013)
Combined footings should be proportioned for uniform soil pressure under dead load plus the amount of live load that is likely
to govern settlement as recommended in Article 3.2.3. The centroid of the footing should lie on the line of action of the
resultant column loads consisting of dead load plus a fraction of live load required by the specifications or building code, as
applicable.
3.8.4 SIZING COMBINED FOOTINGS (2013)
3.8.4.1 Rectangular Footings
A rectangular footing is used if the rectangle can extend beyond each column the distance necessary to make the centroid of
the rectangle coincide with the point where the resultant of the column loads intersects the base.
3.8.4.2 Trapezoidal Footings
A trapezoidal footing is used if a rectangular footing cannot project the required distance beyond one or multiple columns.
3.8.4.3 Strap Footings
The strap footing is considered as two individual footings connected by a beam.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish an explanation of various articles in Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations. In the
numbering of articles of this Section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - 3.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
The designer should be aware that the approaches presented here are for the least complicated situation; and where unusual
geology or loadings are expected, geotechnical engineering specialists should be consulted.

C - SECTION 3.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
C - 3.2.3 LOADS (2013)
a. (2) Impact is not considered in the design of a footing except for special circumstances. Normal live load, defined as
the live load that is likely to be transmitted to the foundation throughout the greater portion of the useful lifetime of the
structure, is commonly used when the foundation soil is saturated clay.
Maximum live load, defined as the greatest live load that may be anticipated at any time during the lifetime of the
structure, is commonly used when the foundation soil is freely draining granular material.
C - SECTION 3.4 SIZING OF FOOTINGS
C - 3.4.2 SAFETY FACTORS (2013)
A factor of safety of 3.0 for Primary Loads should be applied when the bearing capacity of a footing is calculated using the
bearing capacity equations of Articles 3.4.3.2 or 3.4.4.2. However, a reduced factor of safety for Primary Loads may be
considered in cases where detailed site-specific soils investigations have been performed and advanced testing and analytical
methods have been applied to evaluate the load vs. settlement relationship of the footing system. In such cases the footing
may be sized to limit footing settlement to within tolerable limits under Primary and Secondary loading conditions. However,
in no case should the bearing capacity factor of safety be less than 2.0.
C - 3.4.3 FOOTINGS ON GRANULAR MATERIAL (COHESION = 0) (2013) 1

C - 3.4.3.1 General
a. Investigation. Penetration testing is a most useful method to determine the soil condition underlying a site. The
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) is the most popular and economical means to obtain this subsurface data. The method
is standardized by ASTM D1586 as “Standard Method for Penetration Test and Split-Barrel Sampling of Soil” and is
commonly called the Standard Penetration Test. For detailed procedure, see Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface 3
Investigation.
C - 3.4.4 FOOTINGS ON SATURATED CLAY (Φ = 0) (2013)
C - 3.4.4.4 Settlement Characteristics

4
a. In certain cases, large settlements will occur by consolidation of an underlying layer under very small additional loads.
If any doubt exists concerning the consolidation characteristics of the soil, one or more consolidation tests should be
undertaken. Settlement by “consolidation” of underlying clay layers can be many times the initial “elastic settlement.”
Both the consolidation and elastic settlements can be estimated by using data obtained from laboratory analysis.
C - SECTION 3.7 FIELD CONDITIONS
C - 3.7.5 TREATMENT OF BOTTOM OF EXCAVATION (2013)
c. In determining uplift forces and required seal concrete depth in cofferdams, factors such as floods, extreme high tides,
and upstream power generation that raise the normal pool elevation should be considered. The final design pool
elevation shall be clearly noted on the plans, monitored and not exceeded during construction while the cofferdam is
dewatered.


8www.nbm.
Part 4
Pile Foundations1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2

4.1.1 Scope (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.1.2 Pile Types (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-2
4.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4 1

4.2.1 Subsurface Investigation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.2.2 Loads (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-4
4.2.3 Loads on Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-5
4.3 Pile Length Determination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7

4.3.1 General (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7 3
4.3.2 Estimated Tip Elevation and Estimated Length (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-7
4.3.3 Minimum Tip Elevation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.4 Wave Equation (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.5 Pile Driving Formulas (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.6 Plan Tip Elevations (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-8
4.3.7 Estimated Pile Length (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-9
4.3.8 Pile Driving and Loading Tests (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-9
4.4 Pile Structural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10

4.4.1 Timber Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.4.2 Steel Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-10
4.4.3 Precast Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-11
4.4.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-12
4.4.5 Augered Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-13
4.4.6 Micropiles (2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-14
4.5 Installation of Piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15

4.5.1 Driven Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-15
4.5.2 Augered Cast-in-Place Concrete Piles (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-17
1
References, Vol. 40, 1939, pp. 418, 764; Vol. 41, 1940, pp. 369, 843; Vol. 49, 1948, p. 254; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 311, 758; Vol. 52, 1951, pp. 382, 861; Vol. 63,
1962, pp. 276, 687; Vol. 64, 1963, pp. 226, 624; Vol. 80, 1979, p. 136; Vol. 91, 1990, pp. 63, 74; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 99.

4.6 Inspection of Pile Driving. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-18
LIST OF TABLES
8-4-1 Recommended Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Pile Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-14
SECTION 4.1 GENERAL
4.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
a. This Part covers the design and construction of pile foundations.
b. For the purpose of this Part, a pile shall be considered as a slender structural member continuously driven, augered, or
drilled into the earth. Drilled shafts consisting of concrete placed in pre-drilled holes are addressed in Part 24, Drilled
Shaft Foundations.
c. In this Part, factors of safety are suggested. Where information on loads or soil conditions is limited, more conservative
factors of safety should be considered.
4.1.2 PILE TYPES (2013)
4.1.2.1 General
There are numerous types of piles used in pile foundations. The choice of pile type depends on the soil and environmental
conditions, the presence or absence of ground and surface water, the function of the pile (i.e., whether compression, uplift or
lateral loads are to be resisted), the headroom available to install the piles, the desired speed of construction, potential
construction impacts to adjacent structures or facilities and economics. The ability of the pile type to withstand attack by
aggressive substances or organisms in the ground or in the surrounding water must also be considered.
4.1.2.2 Pile Categories1
Piles are generally categorized by:
a. Principal materials of which the piles are made:
(1) Timber
(2) Steel
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
(3) Concrete or Reinforced Concrete
(4) Metal shell cast-in-place concrete with or without reinforcement
(5) High strength drill casing and grout
b. Amount of displacement of soil:
(1) Displacement piles: these include all solid piles, including timber, precast concrete and steel pipe piles closed at
the end by a shoe, conical point or plug.
(2) Small displacement piles: these include rolled steel sections, open-ended pipe and hollow sections if soil enters
freely during driving, and screw piles.
(3) Non-displacement piles: these are formed by drilling or augering. The drill hole may be lined with steel casing that
is either left in place or extracted as the hole is filled with concrete or grout.
c. Method of installation:
(1) Driven
(2) Augered and cast -in-place
(3) Drilled and cast-in-place

1
d. Load Transfer Mechanism:
(1) End-bearing pile: a pile which passes through overburden soil having low to moderate frictional resistance, and
has its tip bearing on relatively impenetrable strata such as rock, hard pan, or other material that offers rapidly
increasing resistance to further penetration.
3
(2) Friction pile: a pile that derives its support principally from the surrounding soil through the development of
frictional resistance between the pile and the soil.
(3) Combination of end-bearing and friction pile.
4.1.2.3 Pile Type Selection1

4
Selection of the type of foundation pile for a particular structure should be based on the following criteria:
a. Design load per pile or pile group
b. Type of foundation material to be penetrated
c. Relative costs of the piles and pile installation
d. Equipment available for installing piles
e. Availability of desired pile type
f. Special considerations based on specific project conditions, including, but not limited to:
1
See C - Commentary

(1) Restricted space both laterally and overhead for pile installation. Space can be restricted laterally by existing
and/or abandoned piles or other obstructions.
(2) Possible damage to existing structures
(3) Exposure to seawater
(4) Possible damage from marine organisms
(5) Chemical attack
(6) Noise level during driving
(7) Underwater vibration
g. Full length piles shall be used wherever possible. If splices cannot be avoided, an approved method of splicing shall be
used which will develop the full strength of the pile. Piles shall not be spliced except by permission of the Engineer,
who must also approve all splice locations and details.
SECTION 4.2 DESIGN
4.2.1 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (2013)
a. Test borings shall be made at locations and to a sufficient depth below the anticipated tip elevation of the piles to
adequately determine the character of the material through which the piles are to be driven and of the materials
underlying the pile tips. The results of the borings and soil tests, taken into consideration with the function of the piles
in service, will assist in determining the type, spacing, and length of piles that should be used and whether the piles will
be end bearing, friction or a combination of both types.
b. The subsurface investigation should be made in accordance with provisions outlined in Part 22, Geotechnical
Subsurface Investigation.
4.2.2 LOADS (2013)
4.2.2.1 General1
a. Pile foundations shall be designed to resist the entire superimposed load, including the weight of the footing and
overlying loads supported by the footing.
b. Pile foundations shall be designed for the combination of loads and forces in Articles 4.2.2.2 and 4.2.2.3 which
produce maximum load and in accordance with Article 4.2.3, Loads on Piles.
4.2.2.2 Primary Loads and Forces2
a. Dead
b. Live - Vertical
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
c. Live - Horizontal due to surcharge or fluid pressure
d. Centrifugal force
e. Earth pressure
f. Buoyancy
g. Negative skin friction
NOTE: Live Load Impact shall be considered only in Case A of Article 4.2.3 for steel or concrete piles
extended above the ground line where they are rigidly connected to the member supporting the
superstructure.
4.2.2.3 Secondary Loads and Forces
a. Wind and other lateral forces
b. Ice and Stream flow
c. Longitudinal forces
d. Seismic forces
e. Vessel impact in waterways1

1
4.2.3 LOADS ON PILES (2013)2
a. Pile foundations shall be designed using the most restrictive of the following load capacity cases:
(1) Case A: The capacity of an individual pile as a structural member 3

(2) Case B: The ability of the pile to transfer its load to the ground
(3) Case C: The capacity of the ground to support the load from the pile or pile group
b. When pile foundations are designed for primary and secondary loads in combination as defined in Part 2, the allowable
loads may be increased 25% for Load Cases A, B, and C. The number of piles shall not be less than is required for 4
primary forces alone with no increases in allowable stress for Case A. The minimum factor of safety shall be 2.0 for
Cases B and C. For group friction piles, the factor of safety for Case C shall not fall below 2.0 for primary and
secondary load combinations.
c. If the pile design capacity is not determined by geotechnical investigations, known positive contact with bedrock, or
field testing of the pile, the Factor of Safety shall be increased to at least 2.5 times the required design load, and the
Engineer shall be notified.
4.2.3.1 Eccentricity of Loads
The maximum design pile load under eccentric loading shall not exceed the allowable load as determined under Section 4.4,
Pile Structural Design, with the appropriate factors of safety stipulated in Article 4.2.3. The piles shall be so spaced that the
1
For references see C-23.3.2 Sources of Information, Part 23, Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams
2
See C - Commentary

eccentric load on the piles, due to primary loads and forces, will be distributed as equally as practicable to the piles in the
group. Pile loads due to combinations of primary and secondary loads and forces shall not exceed that permitted by
Article 4.2.3.
4.2.3.2 Uplift on Piles
a. In special cases when piles or pile groups are subjected to uplift, and sufficient bond and anchorage are provided
between the pile, pile cap and the supported structure, the uplift shall be considered in the design of the pile foundation.
The pile foundation shall be designed for uplift considering load capacity Cases A, B, and C of Article 4.2.3. The
factor of safety for Cases B and C shall be a minimum of 2.0 for combinations of primary and secondary loads and
forces, and a minimum of 3.0 for combinations of secondary loads and forces with dead load alone. The capacity of the
pile as a structural member (Case A) shall be based on allowable stresses established in the applicable Parts of the
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering: Chapter 7, Timber Structures; Chapter 8, Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design; or Chapter 15, Steel Structures. The allowable stresses may be increased 25% for combinations of primary and
secondary loads and forces.
b. The ultimate uplift capacity of an individual pile shall be determined by jacking test piles of identical type and
dimension to that used in the design, and measuring the pull required per square foot of embedded surface area to raise
the pile. When a tension pile group is involved, a group analysis shall also be undertaken. The maximum capacity of a
tension pile group shall be considered to be the smaller of (1) the capacity of a single pile multiplied by the number of
piles in the group, or (2) the weight of the block of soil contained within the perimeter of the groups, each with a
minimum safety factor of 2.0, except as noted in paragraph a.
4.2.3.3 Spacing of Piles
a. Piles shall be spaced to nearly equalize their load consistent with economical design of the footings. The spacing of
piles shall depend upon: the type of pile, that is whether friction or end bearing, the pile's structural and crushing
strength, and the type of material resisting the pile. Generally, piles should be spaced, center-to-center, at least three
times the minimum butt width of the pile. Piles should be spaced far enough apart, or other suitable means used, to
prevent heaving or uplifting of adjacent piles during driving.
b. In small groups, the piles may be battered to enlarge the area sustaining the group, thereby increasing the load-carrying
capacity of the group without unreasonably increasing the size of the foundation. End-bearing piles may be spaced in
accordance with the capacity of the pile and the end-bearing stratum that will carry the design load. When closely
spaced friction piles are contemplated, their total group capacity shall be verified by an acceptable geotechnical
method which considers the capacity of the engaged soil mass to support the applied pile loads.
c. When determining spacing of piles in granular soils, consideration should be given to the increased difficulty of
driving due to the increased soil density that will occur because of soil compaction (packing) or consolidation within
the pile group.
4.2.3.4 Batter Piles1
a. Piles may be battered to help resist horizontal forces. Primary horizontal forces on pile foundations shall be resisted by
batter piles where practicable. Such piles shall be designed to carry horizontal forces combined with their share of the
vertical loads. In general, batter should not exceed 3 (horizontal) to 12 (vertical).
b. Secondary horizontal forces on pile foundations may be resisted by the shear and flexural capacity of the vertical piles
in conjunction with the development of passive soil pressure, or friction between the soil/foundation interface where
these resisting forces can be determined to exist for a particular foundation system. Where these resisting forces are not
expected to be reliable over the service life of the structure, batter piles or other dependable means of resisting these
forces shall be implemented.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
c. Where large pile groups are involved, where clearance problems limit the pile foundation area, where secondary
horizontal loads are small or in areas of the country where earthquake loading makes use of batter piles undesirable, the
foundation shall be specially designed to include the horizontal forces as acting on the vertical piles. In such a case, the
piles shall be designed to resist all loads, and the structure designed for the horizontal movement to be encountered
subjected to the limitations defined in Part 2.
4.2.3.5 Scour
a. The possible effects of scour on pile foundations located in or adjacent to water should be reviewed as part of the total
pile foundation design.
b. When there is a possibility that the upper portion of the soil formations may be removed by scour, the piles or pile
group shall be designed to have adequate bearing capacity and lateral support below the projected depth of scour. The
free-standing portions of the exposed piles shall be designed as columns.
c. Determination of the estimated depth of scour at a given location should be based on past records of streambed erosion
or wave action in the area, and their influence on existing structures. It is suggested, however, to perform an analysis1
of probable scour depths with consideration of stream flow parameters, streambed material properties, channel
characteristics and bridge configuration. Such an analysis should be used in conjunction with historical records as a
basis for design.
4.2.3.6 Lateral Support
a. A fully embedded pile can generally be considered laterally supported. A pile that is, or may be as a result of scour, in
air or water, or which may be in muck, peat, fluid material or liquefiable soils, shall be investigated for the allowable
1
capacity by the methods given in the Report of ACI Committee 543 "Recommendations for Design, Manufacture, and
Installation of Concrete Piles" or other acceptable method approved by the Engineer.
b. The lateral loads on piles can be taken into account by using recognized structural analysis methods.
SECTION 4.3 PILE LENGTH DETERMINATION
4.3.1 GENERAL (2013)
The determination of the most satisfactory and economical length of piles is one of the key factors in designing an adequate 4
pile foundation. In addition to information that can be obtained from soil borings, pile driving tests, pile load tests, and pile
driving formulas, the use of the one-dimensional wave equation can be a valuable tool on large or difficult foundations, and is
recommended for design and field control purposes2. Pile driving records of nearby adjacent piles may also be used in
determining pile length if definite correlation between the existing and proposed piles as to type, loading, and use can be
determined as well as the accuracy of the previous pile driving record.
4.3.2 ESTIMATED TIP ELEVATION AND ESTIMATED LENGTH (2013)
a. At each boring location, using recognized geotechnical methods, the theoretical length of piles shall be computed
considering contributions from both allowable bearing capacity and frictional resistance. Piles in very deep deposits
are likely to receive support primarily through friction, whereas relatively shallow hardpan or rock conditions are
1
See C - Commentary
2
See Reference 71

likely to provide support primarily through end bearing. Many foundation conditions will provide both allowable
bearing capacity and frictional resistance.
b. At each substructure unit, an estimated tip elevation and an estimated pile length shall be selected and tabulated based
on the design cutoff elevation.
4.3.3 MINIMUM TIP ELEVATION (2013)1
At each boring location, a tip elevation shall be computed, above which no structural piles will be permitted to stop. The
minimum tip elevation reflects the design intent of the pile foundation design and is determined by an experienced foundation
engineer's review of the estimated tip elevations, recognizing practical aspects of foundation construction practice. As an
example, if geotechnical calculations demonstrate that piles should penetrate into a hardpan layer at varying depths, the
minimum tip elevation will be shown at the top of this layer. In certain cases, field conditions during driving may modify this
elevation.
4.3.4 WAVE EQUATION (2013)2
a. The use of the one-dimensional wave equation for driven piles will greatly assist the Engineer and Contractor in
determining the pile foundation adequacy and the construction of the project as planned.
b. By the use of this equation, several values will be obtained:
(1) The ability of the soil-hammer cushion-pile system to obtain the required pile capacity
(2) The estimated blows per foot (300 mm) needed to obtain the required pile capacity at the estimated depth
(3) The means whereby the required blows per foot (300 mm) at other depths can be evaluated
(4) The means of evaluating the required blows per foot (300 mm) when the hammer fails to produce the
manufacturer’s rated energy
c. When this procedure is followed, the Contractor’s hammer selection is evaluated and the Engineer can have the
opportunity to modify the design before construction is started.
4.3.5 PILE DRIVING FORMULAS (2013)3
Many dynamic pile driving formulas have been developed as an aid in determining pile capacities. While such formulas serve
a useful purpose, particularly on smaller projects, greater accuracy, and economy can usually be obtained by use of the wave
equation method as described in Article 4.3.4. If pile driving formulas are proposed for use, formulas that take into account the
relationship between the weight of the pile and the weight of the pile hammer striking parts should be used.
4.3.6 PLAN TIP ELEVATIONS (2013)
4.3.6.1 Friction Piles
For those piles which can be considered to act as true friction piles, i.e. no end-bearing stratum is in evidence within
reasonable depths, only an estimated tip elevation is required. In uniform soils, where a complete soil investigation has
determined the tip elevation, no further driving criteria are required, except the statement that the piles must be driven to the
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
estimated tip elevation. A variation in the expected rate of penetration at the estimated tip elevation would indicate a variable
soil layer, and a reappraisal of the tip elevation will be required.
4.3.6.2 Combined Bearing and Friction Piles, or Bearing Piles
Plans and specifications should require that all piles be driven at least down to the minimum tip elevation shown on the plans.
Driving shall be continued until the required resistance is achieved, as determined by load tests, a wave equation analysis, or a
pile driving formula specified by the Engineer. This will accommodate variations in the consistency and depth of the bearing
layer. An important judgment factor is selection of required hammer energy, hammer type, and cushion. This decision can best
be achieved by a wave equation analysis.
4.3.7 ESTIMATED PILE LENGTH (2013)
The plans should show estimated lengths which have been used for calculation of the Engineer's estimate, and will provide the
bidders with a reasonable basis for pricing the pile foundations.
4.3.8 PILE DRIVING AND LOADING TESTS (2013)
4.3.8.1 Driving Tests1
a. The following procedure is suggested for variable soil conditions. A few of the structural piles should be selected,
including at least one from each substructure unit of the bridge or structure, and they should be driven first before other
service piles are ordered. Their installations should be designated as Pile Driving Tests. A separate pay item should be
provided, to cover piles installed in the Pile Driving Tests. 1
b. Where practical, piles installed by driving tests should have their tips carried five (1520 mm) to ten feet (3040 mm)
below the tip elevation estimated according to Article 4.3.3 for the service piles at each particular location. Pile driving
shall be carefully monitored to avoid damage to the pile. Driving records for each foot (300 mm) of driving of each pile
shall be kept and plotted in the field to provide exploratory information. The plot should be on a log containing the
generalized information from the nearest geotechnical boring. This record will provide an immediate correlation of
driving resistance and subsurface conditions for the pile, hammer and cushion arrangement being used. The record will 3
also provide information on where to select suitable locations for future load tests if required.
c. Driving of test piles is recommended. The driving tests are of particular importance where load tests are not
contemplated, because in that case, they provide the only correlation between soil boring data and driving data.
d. If possible, piles installed by driving tests should be placed in a position where they can serve as production piles in the
completed structure.
4
4.3.8.2 Static Pile Load Testing2
a. Static pile load testing is considered essential for large or important projects, or in subsurface conditions where there is
little precedent for major construction. To date, they give the best knowledge of the probable capacity of an individual
pile.
b. It is preferred that load tests be carried to failure to determine the true factor of safety for the proposed design. If the
margin of safety is higher or lower than desired, driving and elevation criteria can be modified. If, due to very high
loads, tests to failure are not practicable, testing should be carried to not less than twice the design load. Test loads
should not exceed the ultimate capacity of the pile as a structural member, or the capacity of the jack frame.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

c. The test apparatus and procedure shall be in accordance with the current ASTM D1143/D1143M-07 "Standard Test
Methods for Deep Foundations Under Static Axial Compressive Load."
d. By analyzing and interpreting the load tests with the driving test data and subsoil information, it will be possible to
affirm the adequacy of the design and the installation criteria and introduce field modifications as may be necessary.
4.3.8.3 Dynamic Pile Load Testing1
a. Dynamic pile load testing is a testing method that utilizes strain and acceleration measurements obtained from small
gauges attached to the head of a pile as it is driven with a pile driving hammer. This testing can be performed during
both initial driving of the pile and during a subsequent restrike. The restrike is critical to account for possible relaxation
of the supporting soils, or “set-up” which is an increase in pile capacity over time as excess pore pressures built up
during driving are released, particularly in fine-grained soils. Restrikes are typically performed 24 hours after the initial
drive, but longer periods such as one week could be important in obtaining the true long-term pile capacity for finer-
grained soils.
b. Procedures and equipment for use in dynamic pile testing are detailed in ASTM D4945 “Standard Test Method for
High Strain Dynamic Testing of Piles.”
SECTION 4.4 PILE STRUCTURAL DESIGN
4.4.1 TIMBER PILES (2013)
a. Timber piles shall conform to the AREMA specifications for wood piles, Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 1, Material
Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and
Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood and Part 4, Construction and Maintenance of
Timber Structures. If treatment is required, it shall conform to AREMA specifications for wood preservation – Chapter
30, Ties, Section 3.6, Wood Preserving.
b. For a timber pile which is primarily a friction pile, the maximum allowable load in pounds (kN) shall be computed by
multiplying the tip area (small end) in square inches (mm2) by the value 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa); the maximum load thus
being equivalent to 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa) acting at the tip.
c. For a timber pile that is primarily an end-bearing pile, the maximum allowable load shall be computed as above, but
using the value 800 psi (5.52 MPa) instead of 1,200 psi (8.27 MPa).
d. Timber piles shall be of a length which will allow driving to the specified tip elevation and which also will allow the
complete removal of timber damaged by driving.
4.4.2 STEEL PILES (2013)
4.4.2.1 Types
This type of piling shall include all steel H-section piles and steel pipe piles.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.4.2.2 Material
All steel used for piles shall conform to the current ASTM designations as specified by the Engineer. Special steels may be
used for corrosion protection or other purposes, but where welding is required the ability of the material to be welded must be
determined prior to installation.
4.4.2.3 Size
a. The minimum depth of a steel H-section shall be 8 inches (200 mm). The minimum thickness of the flange or web shall
be 3/8 inch (10 mm). The flange width shall be not less than 85% of the depth of the section.
b. The minimum outside diameter of pipe piles shall be 8-5/8 inches (220 mm). The minimum wall thickness shall be 3/8
inch (10 mm).
4.4.2.4 Pile Cap Plates
In general, steel bearing cap plates are not required on steel H-piles or pipe piles embedded at least 1 foot (300 mm) in
concrete, provided the footing reinforcement is adequately designed to transmit the imposed loads.
4.4.2.5 Protection Against Corrosion1
a. Steel piles that will be exposed to corrosive environments shall be protected by concrete encasement or other suitable
means; such as specially formulated epoxy or bituminous coatings, or additional steel thickness. Protection shall be
provided at least 1 foot (300 mm) above ground surfaces or normal water lines and shall extend at least 3 feet (910
mm) below the ground surface or low-water line. Concrete protection, where provided shall have a minimum thickness
1
of 4 inches (100 mm) and shall contain nominal steel reinforcement.
b. Structural steel piles shall not be used through active corrosion-inducing material or where electrolysis may occur,
without adequate provision for the protection of such piles.
4.4.2.6 Allowable Stresses2 3

The design load per pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The steel pile section shall be selected so that
the unit stresses due to axial load shall not exceed 12,600 psi (87 MPa). Due allowance shall be made for any bending stresses
caused by horizontal or eccentric loads. Combined axial and bending stress shall be limited to 0.55 Fy. Consideration shall be
given to any column action of a pile that is not fully laterally supported.
4.4.2.7 Pile Tip Reinforcement 4

Pile tip reinforcement may be required to prevent damage to piles when driving through dense gravel, boulders, or formations
known to contain obstructions, or when driving end-bearing piles. Heavy cast steel tips are recommended for this purpose.
4.4.3 PRECAST CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.4.3.1 General
a. This type of piling includes both conventionally reinforced concrete piles and prestressed concrete piles. Both types
can be formed by either casting, centrifugal casting, or extrusion methods. They are made in various cross section
shapes such as square, octagonal, and round. Such piles may be cast with a hollow core. The piles are usually of
constant cross section but may have a tapered tip.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

b. Precast concrete piles must be designed and manufactured to withstand handling and driving stresses in addition to
service loads. The workmanship, material, and proportioning shall conform to the requirements specified in Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
4.4.3.2 Design
The minimum acceptable diameter or side dimension for driven piles is usually 8 inches (200 mm). This may be satisfactory
for short piles which are lightly loaded, however, as a general rule, it is recommended that the minimum average dimension be
10 inches (250 mm), except that the pile tip may be 8 inches (200 mm). Piles may be pointed if directed by the Engineer.
4.4.3.3 Manufacture
The manufacture of the various types of precast concrete piles shall be in accordance with the current Chapter 4 of American
Concrete Institute (ACI) Committee 543R-00 report titled "Recommendations for Design, Manufacture, and Installation of
Concrete Piles."
4.4.3.4 Cut-Off
Precast piles shall be driven to or cut off within 2 inches (50 mm) of the elevation shown on the plans, but in all cases, the
cutoff shall be below any indication of fracture. If piles are cut off or driven below the required elevation, they shall be built-
up to the cutoff line as determined by the Engineer. Standard details are to be shown on the plans.
4.4.3.5 Allowable Stresses
The design load per pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The cross-section of the precast pile shall be
selected so that the concrete unit stresses shall not exceed 0.3 f 'c with a maximum of 1,600 psi (11 MPa). Other stresses shall
conform to the requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
4.4.4 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)1
4.4.4.1 Types
Cast-in-place piles shall be cast in driven metal casings or shells which shall remain permanently in place and may or may not
serve in the design strength of the pile. They may be tapered or cylindrical, or a combination of tapered and cylindrical shapes.
4.4.4.2 Tapered Piles
Tapered piles shall not be less than 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter at the tip and shall be uniformly tapered at the rate of not
more than 1 inch in 8 feet (10 mm in 1000 mm), or step tapered, at the same average rate.
4.4.4.3 Cylindrical Piles
Cylindrical piles shall have a minimum diameter of 8 inches (200 mm).
4.4.4.4 Pipe Casings and Shells2
a. Pipe casings driven without a mandrel shall be formed of steel conforming to the current ASTM A252 requirements, or
equivalent. Metal shells driven with a mandrel shall have a thickness of not less than No. 16 USMSG which is 0.0625
inches (1.6 mm) or equivalent and minimum yield strength of 30,000 psi (210 MPa). Casings shall be in one integral
piece or adequately spliced to develop the full strength of the shell.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
b. All piles shall be equipped with approved watertight flat plates or conical points welded to the tip end of the casing.
The end closures approved for cylindrical piles shall not project beyond the diameter of the pile casing.
4.4.4.5 Placing Concrete
a. Casings or shells shall be inspected and approved by the Engineer immediately before any concrete is placed. A
suitable light shall be used to inspect the entire length. Any accumulated foreign matter or water shall be removed
before the concrete is placed. Any broken or otherwise defective shells shall be corrected by removal and replacement,
or by driving an additional pile, as directed by the Engineer. Concrete having a minimum compressive strength of at
least 3,000 psi (21 MPa) at 28 days shall be used to fill the shell. The placing of the concrete shall be carried out as a
continuous operation from the tip to the cutoff elevation, and shall be performed in such a manner as to minimize
segregation and insure complete filling of the casing or shell.
b. No pile shall be driven within 15 feet (4570 mm) of a pile that has been filled with concrete for more than 2 hours and
less than 24 hours. The driving procedure for any particular project shall be approved by the engineer in charge, before
commencing work.
The design strength of the pile shall be determined as specified in Section 4.2, Design. The pile section shall be designed so
that the unit stresses in the pile shall not exceed the following:
a. Concrete: 0.3 of the compressive strength of the concrete used (f 'c), but not to exceed 1,600 psi (11 MPa)
b. Steel: The unit stresses shall not exceed 12,600 psi (87 MPa)
1
4.4.4.7 Protection Against Corrosion
a. When the steel casing is used in computing the design strength of the pile and the piles will be exposed, they shall be
protected from corrosion as specified in Article 4.4.2.5.
3
b. If the strength of the steel is considered in computing the design strength of the pile, the pile shall not be used through
active corrosion-inducing material or where electrolysis may occur without adequate provision for the protection of
such pile.
4.4.4.8 Reinforcement
Cast-in-place piles may be reinforced to provide needed flexural strength, or for uplift anchorage. When used, the reinforcing 4
steel should be pre-assembled into cages and accurately placed in accordance with the plans. The reinforcement shall be clean
of foreign material that could affect bond, and securely positioned before concrete fill is placed.
4.4.5 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.4.5.1 General
Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Piles are primarily used as friction piles. They are installed by rotating a continuous hollow-
shaft flight auger into the ground to a predetermined pile depth. High-strength grout is pumped with sufficient pressure to fill
the resultant hole as the auger is withdrawn, preventing hole collapse and causing the lateral penetration of the grout into soft
or porous zones of the surrounding soil. Above the injection point, a grout head of at least several feet (several hundred
millimeters) is carried around the perimeter of the auger at all times during the withdrawal of the auger so that the high-
strength grout causes a displacing action, removing any loose material from the hole and ensuring consistent pile diameter.

4.4.5.2 Design1
The length of pile will be determined from the examination of soil borings using the shear strength of the soil, and preferably,
verified by static pile load tests as described in Article 4.3.8.2. Recommended pile loads for varying pile diameters, depending
on soil strengths, are given in Table 8-4-1.
Table 8-4-1. Recommended Augered Cast-In-Place Concrete Pile Loads
Nominal Normal Required Compression

Normal Loadings Range
Diameter of Pile Strength of Grout
Tons (kN)
Inches (mm) psi (MPa)
12 (300) 10-40 (90-355) 3,000 (21)
14 (350) 40-75 (355-670) 3,000 (21)
16 (400) 75-100 (670-890) 3,000-4,000 (21-28)
4.4.5.3 Materials
a. The material used to fill the holes shall consist of a mixture of Portland Cement, concrete sand, fluidifier and water
proportioned and mixed as to provide a grout capable of maintaining the solids in suspension without appreciable
water gain and which will laterally penetrate and fill any voids in the foundation material. Portland Cement shall
conform to Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.2, Cement. The fine aggregate shall
conform to Section 1.4, Aggregates, with a fineness modulus between 1.40 and 3.40. Fluidifier shall meet the
requirements of the current ASTM Designation C937.
b. The grout shall be so proportioned as to have a minimum ultimate compressive strength of 3,000 psi (21 MPa) at 28
days. A set of 6 grout cubes shall be made each day and tested in accordance with the current ASTM Designation
C109, with the exception that the grout should be restrained from expansion by a top plate.
4.4.5.4 Tension Piles
Augered cast-in-place piles should be considered for resisting uplift (tension) loads only when steel reinforcement is added,
and such loading conditions are temporary, of short duration, and with the approval of the Engineer.
4.4.6 MICROPILES (2013)2
4.4.6.1 General
Micropiles (also known as pin piles or minipiles) are usually defined as piles of less than 12 inches (300 mm) in diameter. Very
high vertical compression and tension capacities can be achieved. They are generally used for specialized applications,
particularly where there is restricted accessibility, restricted work area and/or headroom available and difficult subsurface
condition. Micropile installation is accomplished by using drilling techniques and grouting technology together to penetrate
the subsurface. Pile lengths of several hundred feet (m) have been achieved. Micropiles may be reinforced with steel
reinforcing.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.4.6.2 Design
Because micropiles are usually used in specialty applications, their design should be performed by engineers experienced in
the design and installation of those piles. Materials and material specifications can be selected as suitable for the particular
application.
SECTION 4.5 INSTALLATION OF PILES
4.5.1 DRIVEN PILES (2013)1
Piles shall be driven with steam, air, diesel or hydraulic impact hammers. Size of the type of hammer used should be
determined by guidelines noted in Article 4.5.1.1. The hammer shall be operated at all times at pressures and speeds
recommended by the manufacturer.
Vibratory hammers shall not be used unless authorization and specific instructions are provided by the Engineer. Use of a
gravity drop hammer for driving piles should be limited to foundations where uniform pile capacity is not critical and as
directed by the Engineer.
4.5.1.1 Selection of Hammer Cushion Combination2
a. Preliminary selection of the hammer cushion combination for driving piles can be made with the following guide: 1
(1) Steel Piles – Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) Minimum size: 170 ft-lb (230 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load. Stiff or hard hammer cushion.
(b) Desired size: 250-340 ft-lb (340 J-460 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load.
3
(c) Pile Cushion: None
(d) Hammer Cushion: Use standard (stiff) hammer cushion
(e) Diesel Hammers: - Use 100 to 135% of size determined for air or steam hammers.
(2) Mandrel-Driven Piles - Same as Steel. 4
(3) Precast or Prestressed Concrete Piles - Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) Desired size: 250 ft-lb (340 J) of rated energy per ton of pile service load. The weight of the ram shall
generally not be less than one-fourth of the weight of the pile being driven.
(b) Hammer Cushion:
1 Design by one-dimensional wave theory, or by experience.
2 Use manufacturer’s standard (stiff) cushion material.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary

(c) Diesel Hammers: Use 100 to 135% of size determined for air or steam hammers.
(d) Pile Cushion: Design by one-dimensional wave theory, or by experience. Usually, a number of layers of
softwood or plywood cushioning are required.
(4) Timber Piles – Air, Steam, or Hydraulic Hammers.
(a) For normal capacity piles, up to 30 tons service load (270 kN) excluding abnormally large timbers or
fabricated sections use 15,000 ft-lb (20 kJ) maximum rated energy with a wood hammer cushion.
(b) Diesel hammers may be rated up to 20,000 ft-lb (27 kJ) with standard (stiff) internal cushions.
b. The foregoing preliminary selection of hammer and cushion combinations should preferably be confirmed by a wave
equation analysis of pile driving indicating that the pile shall not be damaged during driving and that the desired
capacity can be achieved.
4.5.1.2 Pile Leads
Pile drivers shall have firmly supported leads extending from the highest point to the lowest point that the hammer must travel.
The leads should be supported independently of the pile and constructed to guide and stay the pile during driving.
4.5.1.3 Splicing1
If additional length of pile is required, it shall be supplied by splicing in such a way as to develop the full strength of the
section of the pile. The splice shall be made a sufficient distance, but not less than 1 foot (300 mm), above the ground or water
surface so that the splice can be observed during subsequent driving.
4.5.1.4 Jetting
Piles may be jetted, when permitted by the Engineer, either by use of water jets alone or in combination with the hammer
except where jetting would be performed in soil required to develop friction capacity. The volume and pressure of the water at
the jet nozzles shall be sufficient to freely erode the material adjacent to the pile. Before the desired penetration is reached,
jetting shall be discontinued at the elevation specified by the Engineer and the piles driven to required penetration or
resistance.
4.5.1.5 Preboring
Where piles must be installed through strata offering high resistance to driving, or where jetting would cause damage, to
prevent excessive heaving of cohesive soils, to potentially reduce vibration on adjacent structures or facilities or for other
valid reasons, the Engineer may require or permit holes to be bored with an auger or other equipment especially designed for
the purpose. Depending upon the reasons for preboring, the diameter and depth of the hole shall be as directed by the Engineer
to obtain the proper pile penetration and carrying capacity. The pile shall be inserted into the hole immediately after boring and
be driven to required penetration or resistance.
4.5.1.6 Improperly Driven and Damaged Piles
Piles shall be driven within 3 inches (75 mm) of the plan location. Small variations of more than 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm per
1 meter) from the vertical, or from the batter line when batter piles are required, may be subject to rejection by the Engineer.
Any pile so out of line or out of plumb as to impair its usefulness shall be pulled and/or an additional pile(s) driven, as required
by the Engineer. Any pile so damaged in driving or handling as to impair its structural capacity as a pile under conditions of
use shall be replaced by a new pile, or the damaged part shall be replaced by splicing or other remedial measures, all as
directed by the Engineer.
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
4.5.1.7 Redriving of Heaved Piles
Previously driven piles shall be carefully checked during the driving of adjacent piles, and if any uplift occurs, they shall be
redriven to the required penetration or resistance as directed by the Engineer.
4.5.1.8 Underwater Driving
While it is possible to drive piles underwater by use of a follower between the pile and hammer, or by use of a submersible pile
hammer, such driving methods should be avoided when it is necessary to drive piles to obtain a predetermined bearing
capacity, unless such capacity is determined by a pile load test under similar conditions.
4.5.1.9 Interrupted Driving
When driving is interrupted or the rate of blows retarded for any reason, an accurate record shall be kept of the extent of the
incident. Any significant change in the penetration per blow immediately following such stoppage shall be cause to suspect the
interpretation of the preceding and following blows per foot.
4.5.2 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
4.5.2.1 Augering Equipment
a. The hole through which the high-strength grout is pumped during the placement of the pile shall be located at the
bottom of the auger head below the bar containing the cutting teeth.
1
b. The auger flighting shall be continuous from the auger head to the top of auger with no gaps or other breaks. The pitch
of the auger flighting shall not exceed 9 inches (230 mm).
c. Augers over 40 feet (12200 mm) in length shall contain a middle guide. The piling leads should be prevented from
rotating by a stabilizing arm.
4.5.2.2 Mixing and Pumping of High-Strength Cement Grout 3

a. Only approved pumping, continuous mixing, and agitating equipment shall be used in the preparation and handling of
the grout. All oil or other rust inhibitors shall be removed from mixing drums and grout pumps. If ready-mix grout is
used, an agitating storage tank of sufficient size shall be used between the ready-mix truck and the grout pump to
insure a homogeneous mix and continuity in the pumping operations. All materials shall be such as to produce a
homogeneous grout of the desired consistency. If there is a lapse in the operation, the grout shall be recirculated
through the pump. 4
b. The grout pump shall be a positive displacement piston type pump capable of developing displacing pressures at the
pump of up to 350 psi (2.4 MPa).
4.5.2.3 Pile Top Encasement
Metal sleeves or casing of the proper diameter and at least 18 inches (460 mm) in length shall be placed around the pile tops.
(Special conditions may require metal sleeves of additional length.) Where the pile top elevation is above the existing grade,
the casing shall extend from the top of the pile to a minimum of 12 inches (300 mm) below the existing grade.

SECTION 4.6 INSPECTION OF PILE DRIVING1
Pile driving and augering operations shall be inspected and documented completely as directed by the Engineer.
Recommended techniques of inspection and records to be compiled can be found in the publication titled “The Performance of
Pile Driving Systems: Inspection Manual”, U.S. Department of Transportation, Report No. FHWA – 86/160, Springfield,
Virginia, 1978 (Reference 109).
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish an explanation of various articles in Part 4, Pile Foundations. In the numbering of articles
of this Section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - 4.1.1 SCOPE (2013)
a. Many texts and foundation reference sources consider drilled shafts as cast-in-place concrete piles. In view of the
special techniques required for the installation of drilled shafts as opposed to driven or augered piles, they have been
treated separately in Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations.
b. Since it is not often practical to obtain definitive geotechnical information for every part of a pile foundation system,
engineering judgment and experience should be used to increase stated factors of safety where warranted by local
conditions.
c. The selection of foundation pile material must take into account many different factors as described in Article 4.1.2.1,
General. However there are additional issues that the designer must remain aware of when selecting a type of
foundation pile. Local conditions may warrant the selection of different pile material types. Events such as floods, fire,
debris flow, freeze and thaw cycles, avalanches and other similar natural occurrences should be considered at each
structure location. The effect of natural organisms such as marine organisms, insects and other wildlife need
consideration as these may vary at each location. Manmade issues such as traffic (vehicular and water), contaminated
soils, pollution and vandalism should also be given attention.
C - 4.1.2.2 Pile Categories
End-bearing piles: The capacity of end-bearing piles depends on the bearing capacity of soil or rock material underlying the
piles, and upon the structural capacity of the pile. The dynamic characteristics of the soil-hammer cushion-pile system coupled
with the installation technique will determine the ability of the pile to penetrate overlaying strata to reach the bearing stratum.
Allowable stresses for pile materials are given elsewhere in this part. When end-bearing piles pass through unconsolidated
material, consideration should be given in design to the additional load (negative skin friction) that may be imposed on the pile
as the material above the bearing stratum consolidates. The bearing stratum must be of sufficient thickness and strength to
support the entire pile group loading. The design load shall preferably be determined by pile load tests. In addition, an analysis
of the group of piles must show that the allowable load on the soil or rock supporting material is not exceeded.
Friction Piles: The capacity of friction piles depends upon the ability of the soil to support the load distributed by the piles
within the limits of settlement that can be safely tolerated by the structure.
a. The design capacity shall preferably be determined by loading test piles in accordance with the provisions of
Article 4.3.8.2. Where groups of piles are driven into plastic materials, consideration should be given not only to the
allowable load per pile, but also to the total load that can be safely assigned to the group. The design load shall be
1
See C - Commentary

Pile Foundations
determined by loading a group of piles or by making an allowance for the difference between the capacity of a single
pile and a group of piles by means of a block analysis. A single row of piles need not be considered as a group,
provided the piles are spaced at least three times their butt width.
b. In many cases, a study of the borings and the estimation of approximate soil properties will determine the ability of the
soil to support the applied loads. In foundations involving cohesive soils, the load-settlement relationship should be
investigated by recognized geotechnical methods and procedures.
C - 4.1.2.3 Pile Type Selection
f. If the possibility of damage to adjacent structures from vibration, impact or soil movement exists, all viable
alternatives with regards to type of pile and method of installation should be investigated in order to minimize or
eliminate this hazard. A survey of the adjacent structures that documents before and after conditions should be
considered.
C - SECTION 4.2 DESIGN
C - 4.2.2 LOADS (2013)
C - 4.2.2.1 General
It is not possible to accurately predict the behavior of a combined pile and soil bearing footing. In most cases, because of the
pile supporting system, little load, including that of the footing, will be transferred to the material directly under the footing
after it has been cast. Therefore, in analysis, the pile system will be considered as supporting all loads. 1
C - 4.2.2.2 Primary Loads and Forces
Live loads are separated into two cases, vertical, and horizontal due to surcharge, to ensure that these loads are considered
separately and in combination to determine the governing load combination.
C - 4.2.2.3 Secondary Loads and Forces1 3
The effect of seismic events on pile foundations may not be limited in all cases to the additional loads imposed on the piles. In
certain types of water-bearing sands, a phenomenon referred to as soil liquefaction may be precipitated by the vibrations
induced by a seismic event or other source. When this occurs, soil shear strength is eliminated and support for piles, both
vertically and laterally, is diminished. In geographical areas susceptible to seismic events, the potential for liquefaction should
be evaluated through a competent geotechnical investigation and measures to ensure the stability of foundations should be
employed. Further discussion on methods to predict the occurrence and extent of liquefaction may be found in the
4
Bibliography reference.
C - 4.2.3 LOADS ON PILES (2013)
Cases A, B, and C are listed to ensure that complete consideration is given to the possible failure modes of a pile foundation. A
safety factor of 2.0 is prescribed for Cases B and C for all primary loads or possible primary load combinations. An increase of
25% in allowable stresses or allowable load capacity is allowed for individual piles in a foundation system for combinations of
secondary loads and primary loads except for Case C for group friction pile effect. No increase is specified for this case due to
greater relative uncertainty that is associated with its analysis when compared to individual bearing pile analysis.
1
See Reference 89

C - 4.2.3.4 Batter Piles1
a. It is intended that battered piles be used to resist lateral foundation loads due to primary forces. Where this is not
practical, the lateral resistance of vertical piles can be utilized to resist horizontal forces. The Engineer should make a
careful evaluation of the pile foundation system to ascertain its lateral resistance capacity. Much research has been
done concerning the lateral resistance of vertical piles. The FHWA Manual on Design of Piles and Drilled Shafts
Under Lateral Load DP-66-1, 1986 should be consulted for the design of such pile foundations.
b. Cases A, B and C of Article 4.2.3 should be evaluated for lateral loads on vertical piles. Recent research has indicated
that under certain conditions that may be encountered during a seismic event, battered piles should not be used. The
designer should consult the AASHTO "Standard Specifications for Seismic Design" for guidance.
C - 4.2.3.5 Scour2
Research is continuing into the prediction of the occurrence and extent of scour. The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars
Evaluating Scour at Bridges (HEC-18), Stream Stability at Highway Bridges (HEC-20), Bridge Scour and Stream
Countermeasures (HEC-23) and the Countermeasurers to Protect Bridge Piers from Scour (NCHRP report 593) provide
references for scour analysis.
C - SECTION 4.3 PILE LENGTH DETERMINATION
C - 4.3.3 MINIMUM TIP ELEVATION (2013)
Piles should be monitored closely during driving to avoid damage by overdriving. Damage by overdriving may lead to
splintered piles or broomed tips in the case of timber piles which may not be readily apparent when they are being driven. For
steel H-piles, overdriving may result in separation of the flanges from the web, buckling of the pile tip, redirection of the tip
when striking a hard rock surface at an angle, and in some instances distorting the pile into a “U” or “J” configuration if
driving is continued. Concrete piles may also be crushed at the tip or cracked through overdriving. In each of these instances
the ultimate capacity of the pile may be significantly reduced. If a PDA is not employed for monitoring the driving operation
an expected rate of penetration of the pile per depth of penetration should be developed based on the stratigraphy of the
material into which it is driven or founded and the type of equipment employed. Should the actual driving of the pile differ
significantly from the expected rate of penetration, the pile driving operation should be stopped until further investigation and
the cause of the deviant driving is ascertained. The suspected pile to be relocated or replaced with a new pile at the discretion
the Engineer.
C - 4.3.4 WAVE EQUATION (2013)3
The Wave Equation method of analyzing pile capacity and pile length was developed by Smith (1960). For a detailed
explanation of the Wave Equation methodology, the designer may consult FHWA documentation of the WEAP program.
C - 4.3.5 PILE DRIVING FORMULAS (2013)
Historically, pile driving formulas which make use of the relationship between the hammer energy and the pile movement
when driven have been used to approximate safe pile loads. Most notably, the Engineering News Formula has been used
extensively for this purpose. Tests have shown that these formulas do not give consistent results whereby excessive pile
lengths may be dictated in some instances while in others insufficient factors of safety may result from their use. For these
reasons, the use of these formulas should be limited to projects whose size and importance may justify their use in lieu of the
more elaborate Wave Equation method. When these formulas are to be used, their application should be guided by engineering
1
See References 79 and 96
2
See References 31, 32 and 38
3 See Reference 93

Pile Foundations
judgment and experience. Careful evaluation of the actual hammer energy applied to the pile through the hammer cushion-pile
cushion systems is also required.
C - 4.3.8 PILE DRIVING AND LOADING TESTS (2013)
C - 4.3.8.1 Driving Tests
Load tests should be applied only to standard service piles, not to piles installed by pile driving tests. This is because piles
installed by pile driving tests are deliberately driven to a higher nominal capacity and, therefore, are not typical of the service
piles. Test piles driven with a PDA are typically driven to allowable capacity.
C - 4.3.8.2 Static Pile Load Testing
Alternate methods for determining pile capacity are continually being developed and implemented and static pile load testing
is becoming less common. However these tests are still relevant for certain projects and pile types. Generally projects that do
not have traffic or schedule impacts are best suited for static load pile testing. It is at the Engineer’s discretion and
professional judgment to use static pile load testing to determine the probable capacity of a pile.
C - 4.3.8.3 Dynamic Pile Load Testing
Dynamic pile load testing has been utilized in the evaluation of driven piling for public and commercial projects in the US
since the early 1970s. The test method, originally developed through FHWA funding at Case Western Reserve University,
utilizes strain and acceleration measurements obtained from small gauges attached to the head of a pile as it is driven with a
pile driving hammer. Dynamic pile load testing evaluates the static pile capacity, the performance of the driving system, pile 1
driving stresses, and pile integrity. Due to tremendous advancements in the technology and with years of experience, dynamic
pile testing rivals static pile load tests in adequately determining the capacity of a driven pile.
The Pile Driving Analyzer (PDA) represents the field component of the Dynamic Testing in which the attached gauges send
signals during driving to a specialized collection unit. Real time data manipulation and reporting is possible for examining pile
stresses, integrity, drive system energy and capacity. Case Western Reserve University developed the Case Pile Wave Analysis
Program (CAPWAP) numerical modeling technique that refines the PDA data to more accurately match a static load test and 3
provides accurate soil resistance distribution and soil quake and damping parameters for use with the wave equation analysis
program (WEAP).
C - SECTION 4.4 PILE STRUCTURAL DESIGN
C - 4.4.2 STEEL PILES (2013) 4

C - 4.4.2.5 Protection Against Corrosion
Corrosion of steel foundation piles and the reinforcing steel in concrete piles is known to be related to the characteristic of the
steel and the environment in which the piles are embedded. Corrosion can be avoided or mitigated by adding additional
thickness of steel to the pile, or by coating the piles with a corrosion resistant material, by installing a cathodic protection
system or most simply using concrete piles or concrete-filled steel pipe piles in marine and corrosive environments.
C - 4.4.2.6 Allowable Stresses
The compressive stress at the tip of steel H-piles has been limited to 12,600 psi (87 MPa) for design loads. It should be
recognized that stresses during driving may considerably exceed this stress. The Wave Equation formula can predict these
driving stresses. In general, driving stresses should be limited to 0.8 of the yield strength of the pile steel.

C - 4.4.4 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
Cast-in-place concrete pile types include: uniform tapered, step tapered, constant section and a combination of type pile. Piles
are constructed by placing concrete into a hole or cast into a form which consists of a thin shell or thin pipe left in the ground.
The shell or casing shall provide adequate resistance against earth pressure prior to the placement of concrete. Due to
increased stresses encountered during driving, thin shells may be required to be supported internally by a mandrel. Examples
of thin-shell mandrel driven concrete piles include: step taper mandrel-driven pile, core-driven thin-walled pipe pile with end
closed by precast concrete point, and corrugated cylindrical thin-walled pile driven by mandrel when expanded against shell
by compressed air.
C - 4.4.4.4 Pipe Casings and Shells
Where the pipe casing or shell is to serve only as a form for the cast-in-place concrete piles, the steel thickness need only be
sufficient to withstand soil pressures and driving stresses subject to the stated minimum thickness and strength for mandrel
driven piles. If the casing or shell is to be used to compute the structural capacity of the pile, the plans must show the steel
thickness to be used and also splicing details and the grade of steel to be used.
C - 4.4.5 AUGERED CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE PILES (2013)
C - 4.4.5.2 Design
3,000 psi (21 MPa) grout is considered to be the commonly provided grout.
C - 4.4.6 MICROPILES (2013)
Micropiles can withstand axial (compression and tension) and/or lateral loads. Proper installation minimizes disturbance to
adjacent soil, structures and environment. They can be installed vertically or at a batter. Installation equipment is similar to that
for soil and rock anchors.
References for micropiles:
• Federal Highway Administration, Drilled and Grouted Micropiles State-of-the-Practice Review, 4 volumes,
FHWA/RD-96-016/017/018/019, Washington, DC, 1996.
• Federal Highway Administration, Micropile Design and Construction Guidelines, FHWA-SA-97-070, Washington,
DC, 2000.
• Deep Foundations Institute/International Association of Foundation Drilling, “Guide to Drafting a Specification for
Micropiles” Hawthorne, NJ/ Dallas, TX, First Edition, 2004.
• Federal Highway Administration, Micropile Design and Construction Reference Manual, FHWA-NHI-05-039,
2005.
C - SECTION 4.5 INSTALLATION OF PILES
C - 4.5.1 DRIVEN PILES (2013)
Impact pile hammers are generally classified as external or internal combustion. Recently, hydraulic hammers have been
developed to join air and steam in the external combustion category. All require separate power plants and hydraulic hammers
require an additional control apparatus. However, due to the control and sensing features of hydraulic hammers, energy can be
controlled to a greater degree and in some units an accurate measurement of energy delivered to the pile-cushion system is
available.

Pile Foundations
Research has recently been conducted to determine the vertical load bearing capacity of steel piling driven by vibratory
hammers. However, no widely accepted design procedures or capacity verification from installation are available. Thus, piling
installed by vibratory methods should be verified by a load test program, or vibrated to an elevation higher than planned with
final driving to bearing or tip elevation by an impact hammer.
The term “friction” as used for friction piles implies friction between the pile and the soil as it is driven. This is true only if
driving an “end-bearing pile on rock” and it is considered necessary to eliminate the soil-pile friction component of pile
capacity from consideration of the load-bearing capacity of the pile.
If the pile is a “friction” pile, where all or most of the pile capacity is friction between the pile wall and the soil, then friction is
not a loss.
C - 4.5.1.1 Selection of Hammer Cushion Combination
Evaluating the rated energy of hammers must be done with care as no widely accepted standard is available. Manufacturers
generally publish rated energy as the maximum without considering efficiency. Energy losses and the resulting efficiency
should be evaluated in two ways: mechanical and system.
A mechanical efficiency accounts for the energy lost within the hammer and is the ratio of the energy delivered to the pile
cushion system to the initial theoretical energy produced. This is relatively easy in single acting external hammers where
combustion energy is available at impact. When based on the manufacturer’s rated energy, diesel hammers tend to show lower
mechanical efficiencies than external combustion hammers.
System efficiency is the ratio of the energy consumed in driving the pile to the initial theoretical energy produced. System
efficiency is always lower than mechanical efficiency as it includes, in addition to the internal energy losses in the hammer,
1
losses in the cushion systems and losses due to ground quake, friction, and soil displacement. In selecting a hammer, the
characteristics of the hammer-cushion-pile-soil system should be considered. The one-dimensional wave equation has the
capability to include the interaction of these properties.
C - 4.5.1.3 Splicing
3
Piles may be spliced in a variety of methods to fully develop the strength of the pile section. The following methods may be
used:
• Steel Piles - the method of splicing shall be shown on the plans or as approved by the Engineer. Piles may be spliced
by full penetration butt welds, by the addition of welded splice plates, by a combination of these methods or by other
means approved by the Engineer which fully maintains the strength of the pile section.
4
• Concrete Piles - concrete piles shall preferably not be spliced, unless specifically provided for by the plans, special
provisions or the Engineer. Short extensions may be added to tops of reinforced concrete piles after completion of
driving when the required capacity is not attained at the planned top of pile elevation. These extensions shall be
made by exposing the pile reinforcing steel a sufficient distance to provide a full strength lap splice with the
extension segment steel. Concrete for the extension shall be of the same quality and strength of the pile concrete and
shall be placed in forms of the same shape and dimensions as the driven pile. Prior to placement of the new concrete,
the top of the driven pile shall be cleaned and coated with neat cement or an approved bonding agent. Concrete
extension is valid only for standard, conventionally reinforced concrete piles and not for prestressed piles.
C - SECTION 4.6 INSPECTION OF PILE DRIVING1
Other useful documents to aid in inspection of the pile driving may be found in:
1
See Reference 108

• The Performance of Pile Driving Systems: Inspection Manual, FHWA RD-86-160.
• Inspectors Manual for Driven Pile Foundations,1997, and A Pile Inspector's Guide to Hammers, 1995, published
by
Deep Foundation Institute

326 Lafayette Avenue
Hawthorne, NJ 07506
http://www.dfi.org

8
Part 5
Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
5.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2

5.1.1 Types of Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-2
5.1.2 Scour (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-3

5.2.1 Field Survey (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.2 Subsurface Exploration (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.3 Controlling Dimensions (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.4 Loads (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.5 Type of Backfill (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-4
5.2.6 Character of Foundation (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5 3
5.3 Computation of Applied Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.3.1 Loads Exclusive of Earth Pressure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5
5.3.2 Computation of Backfill Pressure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-6
5.4 Stability Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7

5.4.1 Point of Intersection of Resultant Force and Base (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.2 Resistance Against Sliding (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.3 Soil Pressure (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-7
5.4.4 Settlement and Tilting (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.5 Design of Backfill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8

5.5.1 Drainage (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.5.2 Compaction (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-8
5.6 Designing Bridges to Resist Scour. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9

5.6.1 Design Philosophy and Concepts (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.6.2 Design Considerations (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.6.3 Design Procedure (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-9
5.7 Details of Design and Construction for Abutments and Retaining Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.7.1 General (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.7.2 Cantilever Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11

5.7.3 Counterfort and Buttress Walls (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-11
5.8 Details of Design and Construction for Bridge Piers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12

5.8.1 Pier Spacing, Orientation and Type (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.2 Pier Shafts (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.3 Caissons (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.4 Bearings and Anchorage (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-12
5.8.5 Piers in Navigable Streams (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-13
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-13
LIST OF FIGURES
C-8-5-1 Cases 1, 2 and 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-15

C-8-5-2 Cases 4, 5 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-16
C-8-5-3 Cases 7, 8 and 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-17
C-8-5-4 Earth Pressure Computation – Walls with Heels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-20
C-8-5-5 Earth Pressure Computation – Walls without Heels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-21
C-8-5-6 Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-25
LIST OF TABLES
8-5-1 Types of Backfill for Retaining Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-5

8-5-2 Properties of Backfill Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-6
SECTION 5.1 DEFINITIONS
5.1.1 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS, ABUTMENTS AND PIERS (2002)
a. A retaining wall is a structure used to provide lateral support for a mass of soil which, in turn, may provide vertical
support for loads acting on or within the soil mass.
b. The principal types of retaining walls are as follows:
(1) The gravity wall, which is so proportioned that no reinforcement other than temperature steel is required.
(2) The semi-gravity wall, which is so proportioned that some steel reinforcement is required along the back and along
the lower side of the toe.
© 2013,
2012, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

(3) The cantilever wall, which has a cross section resembling an L or an inverted T, and which requires extensive steel
reinforcement.
(4) The counterfort wall, which consists of a reinforced vertical face slab supported laterally at intervals by vertical
reinforced counterforts extending into the backfill and supported by a reinforced base slab which usually projects
in front of the face slab to form a toe.
(5) The buttress wall, which is similar to the counterfort wall except that the vertical members, called buttresses, are
exposed on the face of the wall rather than buried in the backfill.
(6) The crib wall, which consists of an earth-filled assembly of individual structural units, and which relies for its
stability on the weight and strength of the earth fill. The design of such walls is treated in Part 6, Crib Walls.
(7) Mechanically Stabilized Embankments (MSE) are covered by Part 7, Mechanically Stabilized Embankment of this
Chapter.
c. An abutment commonly consists of a retaining wall that incorporates a bridge seat in its face. It may also be of the
spill-through type in which the bridge seat rests on horizontal beams supported by piles or columns between which the
fill is permitted to extend. Preferably, abutments shall be of the gravity or semi-gravity type.
d. A pier is an intermediate support for the superstructure. The principal pier types are:
(1) Solid wall, reinforced for strength and temperature.
(2) Rigid frame, consisting of multiple columns with a cap reinforced to act as a frame.
1
(3) Bents, consisting of multiple piles extended to a cap.
(4) Hammerhead, consisting of a column supporting a cap which cantilevers beyond the column.
(5) Drilled shafts, consisting of poured concrete columns extending to a cap. 3

5.1.2 SCOUR (2002)1
Scour is the result of the erosive action of flowing water excavating and carrying away material from the bed and banks of
waterways. There are three types of scour all of which are likely to be present at a structure.
a. Aggradation and Degradation. These are long term streambed elevation changes due to natural or man induced causes 4
within the reach of the river over which the bridge is located. Aggradation involves the deposition of material eroded
from other sections of a stream reach, whereas degradation involves the lowering or scouring of the bed of a stream.
b. Contraction Scour.2 Contraction scour in a natural channel involves the removal of material from the bed and banks
across all or most of the channel width. This component of scour results from a contraction of the flow, such as a
change in downstream control of the water surface elevation. Increased velocities and a resulting increase in bed shear
stresses cause scour. Contraction of the flow by bridge approach embankments encroaching onto the floodplain and/or
into the main channel is the most common cause of contraction scour.
c. Local scour.3 Local scour involves removal of material from around piers, abutments, spurs, and embankments. It is
caused by an acceleration of flow and resulting vortices induced by flow obstructions.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association
and Maintenance-of-Way Association

5.2.1 FIELD SURVEY (2002)
a. Sufficient information shall be furnished, in the form of a profile and cross-sections or a topographic map, to determine
the structural requirements. Present grades and alignments of tracks and roads shall be indicated, together with the
records of high water, low water, and depth of scour, the location of underground utilities, change in channel location
characteristics, site history from local sources, and information concerning the structures that may affect or be affected
by this construction.
b. For bridge construction at a new location, a complete survey is required as detailed in Part 3, Spread Footing
Foundations, Article 3.2.1.
5.2.2 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION (2002)
a. Sufficient borings shall be made along the length of the structure to determine, with a reasonable degree of certainty,
the subsurface conditions. Irregularities found during the initial soil boring program may dictate that additional
borings be taken.
b. The subsurface investigation shall be made in accordance with the provisions of Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface
Investigation.
5.2.3 CONTROLLING DIMENSIONS (1989)

Information shall be assembled concerning clearances, proposed grades of tracks and roads, and all other factors that may
influence the limiting dimensions of the proposed structure.
5.2.4 LOADS (2002)

Loads to be superimposed on piers, retaining walls, abutments, or on backfill, shall be determined and indicated on the plans.
See Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Chapter 9 for seismic loading.
5.2.5 TYPE OF BACKFILL (2002)1

a. Backfill is defined as all material behind the wall, whether undisturbed ground or fill, that contributes to the pressure
against the wall.
b. The backfill shall be investigated and classified with reference to the soil types described in
Table 8-5-1.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

Table 8-5-1. Types of Backfill for Retaining Walls
Backfill
Backfill Description
Type
1 Coarse-grained soil without admixture of fine soil particles, very free-draining (sand,
gravel or broken stone).
2 Coarse-grained soil of low permeability due to admixture of particles of silt size.
3 Fine silty sand; granular materials with conspicuous clay content; or residual soil with
stones.
4 Soft or very soft clay, organic silt; or soft silty clay.
5 Medium or stiff clay that may be placed in such a way that a negligible amount of water
will enter the spaces between the chunks during floods or heavy rains.
c. Types 4 and 5 backfill shall be used only with the permission of the Engineer. In all cases the wall design shall be
based on the type of backfill used.
5.2.6 CHARACTER OF FOUNDATION (2002)
The character of the foundation material shall be investigated as specified under Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations of
Article 3.2.4. Where pile supported foundations are required, the provisions of Article 4.3.1 of Part 4, Pile Foundations, shall
be followed for the necessary subsurface investigation.
SECTION 5.3 COMPUTATION OF APPLIED FORCES
5.3.1 LOADS EXCLUSIVE OF EARTH PRESSURE (2002)

3
a. In the analysis of piers, retaining walls and abutments, due account shall be taken of all superimposed loads carried
directly on them, such as building walls, columns, or bridge structures; and of all loads from surcharges caused by
railroad tracks, highways, building foundations, or other loads supported on the backfill. Piers must also be designed
for stream flow pressures as well as ice flow pressures and collision forces where applicable.
b. In calculating the surcharge due to track loading on an abutment and on wingwalls that are in line with the abutment
backwalls, the entire load shall be taken as distributed uniformly on the surface of the ballast immediately below the 4
tie, over a width equal to the length of the tie. With increased depth, the width for distribution can be increased on
slopes of 1 horizontal to 2 vertical, with surcharge loads from the adjacent tracks not being permitted to overlap.
c. To account for variability in backfilling and the dynamic effects of axle loads, abutment backwalls above bridge seats
shall be designed for earth pressures and live load surcharge increased by 100%. This does not apply to the portion of
the abutment below the bridge seat nor the stability of the abutment.
d. In calculating the surcharge due to track loading above a wall and parallel, or roughly parallel, to the wall, the entire
load shall be taken as distributed uniformly over a width equal to the length of the tie.
e. The stability of the abutment or wall as a whole unit, regardless of the distribution of the loads and surcharges, shall
always be checked and shall conform to the requirement of Section 5.4, Stability Computation.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

f. Live load impact shall not be considered in the design of an abutment or pier unless the bridge bearings are supported
by a structural beam, such as the seat of a spill-through abutment or a pier cap supported by individual columns, piles,
or shafts. In such a case, the impact shall be applied to the beam only, and not to footings, or piles.
g. For the design of abutments and piers, consideration must be given to all forces transmitted from the superstructure to
the substructure, depending on the bearing fixity conditions.
5.3.2 COMPUTATION OF BACKFILL PRESSURE (2002)1
a. Values of the unit weight, cohesion, and angle of internal friction of the backfill material shall be determined directly
by means of soil tests or, if the expense of such tests is not justifiable, by means of Table 8-5-2 referring to the soil
types defined in Table 8-5-1. Unless the minimum cohesive strength of the backfill material can be evaluated reliably,
the cohesion shall be neglected and only the internal friction considered. See Part 20, Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads,
Table 8-20-3.
Table 8-5-2. Properties of Backfill Materials
Type of Unit Weight Cohesion Angle of Internal

Backfill Lb. Per Cu. Ft. “c” Friction
1 105 0 33° 42′ (38° for broken stone)
2 110 0 30°
3 125 0 28°
4 100 0 0°
5 120 240 0°
b. The magnitude, direction and point of application of the backfill pressure shall be computed on the basis of appropriate
values of the unit weight, cohesion and internal friction.
c. When the backfill is assumed to be cohesionless and when 1) the surcharge load, if any, on the backfill can be
converted into an equivalent uniform load or when 2) the surcharge can be converted into an equivalent uniform earth
surcharge, Rankine’s or Coulomb’s formulas may be used under the conditions to which each applies. Formulas and
charts given in the Commentary and the trial wedge methods given in the Commentary are both applicable.
d. When the backfill cannot be considered cohesionless, when the surcharge on the backfill is irregular, or when the
surcharge cannot be converted to an equivalent uniform earth surcharge, the trial wedge methods illustrated in the
Commentary are preferable.
e. If the wall or abutment is not more than 20 ft. high and if the backfill has been classified according to Table 8-5-1, the
charts given in the Commentary may be used.
f. If the surcharge is of a lesser width than the height of the wall, a more satisfactory design can be obtained by the use of
trial wedge methods given in the Commentary.
g. If the wall or abutment is prevented from deflecting freely at its crest, as in a rigid frame bridge, some types of U-
shaped abutments, or in laterally braced or anchored walls, the computed backfill pressure shall be increased 25%.
h. In spill-through abutments, the increase of pressure against the columns due to the shearing strength of the backfill
shall not be overlooked. If the space between columns is not greater than twice the width across the back of the
columns, no reduction in backfill pressure shall be made on account of the openings. No more than the active earth
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

pressure shall be considered as the resistance offered by the fill in front of the abutment. In computing the active earth
pressure of this fill, the negative or descending slope of the surface shall be taken into consideration.
i. The backfilled areas behind a wall or abutment shall be designed to dissipate water pressures by the use of free-
draining backfill material in conjunction with drains. It is preferable that the free-draining backfill material be used
within a wedge behind the wall, bounded by a plane rising at 60 degrees to the horizontal.
j. If local conditions do not permit the construction of drains and, consequently, water may accumulate behind the wall,
the resulting additional pressure shall be taken into account. Consideration should also be given to the eventual
plugging of the drains due to infiltration of soil.
SECTION 5.4 STABILITY COMPUTATION
5.4.1 POINT OF INTERSECTION OF RESULTANT FORCE AND BASE (2002)
The resultant force on the base of a wall or abutment shall fall within the middle third of the structure if founded on soil, and
within the middle half if founded on rock or piles. The resultant force on any horizontal section above the base of a solid
gravity wall should intersect this section within its middle half. If these requirements are satisfied, safety against overturning
need not be investigated.
5.4.2 RESISTANCE AGAINST SLIDING (2002) 1

a. The factor of safety against sliding at the base of the structure is defined as the sum of the forces at or above base level
available to resist horizontal movement of the structure divided by the sum of the forces at or above the same level
tending to produce horizontal movement. The numerical value of this factor of safety shall be at least 1.5. If the factor
of safety is inadequate, it shall be increased by increasing the width of the base, by the use of a key, or by the use of
batter piles.
3
b. In computing the resistance against sliding, the passive earth pressure of the soil in contact with the face of the wall
shall be neglected. The frictional resistance between the wall and a non-cohesive subsoil may be taken as the normal
force on the base times the coefficient of friction f of mass concrete on soil. For coarse-grained soil without silt, f may
be taken as 0.55; for coarse-grained soil with silt, 0.45; for silt, 0.35.
c. If the wall rests upon clay, the resistance against sliding shall be based upon the cohesion of the clay, which may be 4
taken as one-half the unconfined compressive strength. If the clay is very stiff or hard the surface of the ground shall be
roughened before the concrete is placed.
d. If the wall rests upon rock, consideration shall be given to such features of the rock structure as may constitute surfaces
of weakness. For concrete on clean sound rock the coefficient of friction may be taken as 0.60.
e. The factor of safety against sliding on other horizontal surfaces below the base shall be investigated and shall not be
less than 1.5.
5.4.3 SOIL PRESSURE (1989)
The allowable soil pressure beneath the footing shall be determined in accordance with Part 3, Spread Footing Foundations.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

5.4.4 SETTLEMENT AND TILTING (2002)1
a. The soil pressure determined in accordance with Article 5.4.3 provide for adequate safety against failure of the soil
beneath the structure. If the subsoil consists of soft clay or silt, or if a layer of such material lies beneath the subsoil and
is within the pressure zone of influence generated by the base pressure, it is necessary to determine the compressibility
of the soil and to estimate the amount of settlement.
b. If the compressibility of the subsoil would lead to excessive settlement or tilting, the movement can be reduced by
designing the wall so that the resultant of the forces acting at the base of the wall intersects the base near its midpoint.
Otherwise, pile foundations shall be considered.
SECTION 5.5 DESIGN OF BACKFILL
5.5.1 DRAINAGE (2002)
a. The material immediately adjacent to the wall should be noncohesive and free draining. Cinders shall not be used. If a
special back drain is installed, the pore size within the drain shall be coarse enough to permit free flow of water, but not
so coarse that the fill material may ultimately move into it and clog it. Water from the free-draining materials shall be
removed, preferably by horizontal drain pipes or by weep holes. Horizontal drain pipes, if used, shall be installed in
such a position that they will function properly. Such drains shall be accessible for cleaning. Weep holes are considered
less satisfactory than horizontal drains. If used, they shall have diameters not less than 6 inches and shall be spaced not
over
10 feet.
b. Geocomposite and/or geotextile materials in conjunction with free draining backfill may be used as approved by the
Engineer.
5.5.2 COMPACTION (2002)
a. The backfill shall preferably be placed in loose layers not to exceed 12 inches in thickness. Each layer shall be
compacted before placing the next, but overcompaction shall be avoided.2
b. It is recommended that backfill be compacted to no less than 95% of maximum dry density per ASTM D698 and at a
moisture content within 2% of optimum.
c. No dumping of backfill material shall be permitted in such a way that the successive layers slope downward toward the
wall. The layers shall be horizontal or shall slope downward away from the wall.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 5.6 DESIGNING BRIDGES TO RESIST SCOUR
5.6.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS (2002)1
Bridges shall be designed through careful evaluation of the hydraulic, structural, and geotechnical aspects of the bridge
foundation to withstand the effects of scour from the design flood.
5.6.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2002)
5.6.2.1 General
a. Scour types are additive. The design shall provide for the total of all scour types at a location. Local scour holes at
piers and abutments may overlap one another. If scour holes do overlap, the local scour shall be the total depth from
both.2
b. For pile and drilled shaft designs subject to scour, consideration shall be given to using a lesser number of longer piles
or shafts as compared with a greater number of shorter piles or shafts to develop bearing loads. This approach will
provide a greater factor of safety against pile failure due to scour.
5.6.2.2 Piers
a. Pier foundations not in the exisiting channel shall be designed in the same manner as the pier foundations in the stream
channel if there is likelihood that the channel will shift its location to include such piers.
1
b. Consideration shall be given to changes in the flow direction during floods when determining shape and orientation of
piers.3
c. The effects of ice and debris build-up shall be evaluated when considering use of piers in stream channels. Use ice and
debris deflectors where appropriate.4
5.6.2.3 Abutments
3
a. Relief openings, spur dikes, and river channelization should be used where needed to minimize the effects of adverse
flow conditions at abutments.
b. Utilize riprap or other protection devices where needed to protect abutments.

4
c. Where ice build-up is likely to be a problem, set the toe of spill-through slopes or vertical abutment walls some
distance from the edge of the channel bank to facilitate passage of the ice.
5.6.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE (2002)5
The design procedure for scour outlined in the following steps is recommended for bridge substructure units:
(1) Select the design flood event(s). Also check the overtopping flood (if less than the design flood) and other flood
events if there is evidence that such events would create deeper scour than the design flood or overtopping floods.6
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3
See Commentary
4
See Commentary
5
See Commentary
6
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(2) Develop water surface profiles for the flood flows in Step 1, taking care to evaluate the range of potential tailwater
conditions below the bridge which could occur during these floods.
(3) Estimate total scour for the worst condition from Steps 1 and 2 above.
(4) Plot the total scour depths obtained in Step 3 on a cross section of the stream channel and flood plain at the bridge
site.
(5) Evaluate the scour depths obtained in Steps 3 and 4 for reasonableness.1
(6) Evaluate the bridge on the basis of the scour analysis performed in Steps 3-5. Modify the design as necessary.2
(7) Analyze the bridge foundation on the basis that all stream bed material in the scour prism above the total scour line
(Step 4) has been removed and is not available for bearing or lateral support. In the case of a pile foundation, the
piling shall be designed for reduced lateral restraint and column action because of the increase in unsupported pile
length after scour. In areas where the local scour is confined to the proximity of the footing, the lateral ground
stresses on the pile length that remains embedded may not be significantly reduced from the pre-local scour
conditions. The depth of local scour and volume of soil removed from above the pile group shall be considered
when computing pile embedment to sustain vertical load.
(a) Spread Footings on Soil.
Place the top of the footing below the design scour line.
The bottom of the footing shall be at least 6.0 feet below the streambed.
(b) Spread Footings on Rock Highly Resistant to Scour.3
The bottom of the footing shall be placed directly on the cleaned rock surface for massive rock formations (such as
granite) that are highly resistant to scour.
(c) Spread Footings on Erodible Rock.
Carefully assess weathered or other potentially erodible rock formations for scour prior to determining footing
elevation.
(d) Spread Footings Placed on Tremie Seals and Supported on Soil.
The tremie base shall be placed at least three feet below the scour line if the tremie is structurally capable of
sustaining the imposed structural load without lateral soil support.
(e) Deep Foundations (Piling or Drilled Shafts) with Footings.4
Preferably place the top of the footing or pile cap below the streambed a depth equal to the estimated contraction
scour depth to minimize obstruction to flood flows and resulting local scour.
(8) For certain locations and conditions it may be necessary to calculate the scour for a superflood. See the
Commentary for further discussion of superfloods.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See
Commentary
4 See
Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 5.7 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR ABUTMENTS AND

RETAINING WALLS
5.7.1 GENERAL (2002)
a. The principles of design and permissible unit stresses for walls and abutments shall conform to Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, with the modifications or additions in the following Articles:
b. The width of the stem of a semi-gravity wall, at the level of the top of the footing shall be at least one-fourth of its
height.
c. The base of a retaining wall, or abutment supported on soil shall be located below frost line, and in no case at a depth
less than 3 ft. below the surface of the ground in front of the toe. The base shall be located below the anticipated
maximum depth of scour. Where this is not practicable the base shall be supported by piles or other suitable means.
d. To reduce temperature and shrinkage cracks in exposed surfaces, reinforcement shall be provided as specified in Part 2
of this Chapter, irrespective of the type of structure.
e. The backs of retaining walls and abutments shall be damp-proofed by an approved material. Particular attention shall
be given to protection of the joint where the bottom of stem meets the top of heel.
f. At horizontal joints between the bases and stems of piers and retaining walls, raised keys should be used. In lieu of
raised shear keys, shear friction may be used.
1
g. Vertical keyed expansion joints shall be placed not over 60 ft. apart to take care of temperature changes. They shall be
protected by membrane waterproofing or noncorrosive water stops.
h. The walls above the footings shall be cast as units between expansion joints, unless construction joints are formed in
accordance with the provisions of these specifications.
3
5.7.2 CANTILEVER WALLS (2002)
a. The unsupported toe and heel of the base slab shall each be considered as a cantilever beam fixed at the edge of the
support.
b. The vertical section shall be considered as a cantilever beam fixed at the top of the base.
4
5.7.3 COUNTERFORT AND BUTTRESS WALLS (2002)
a. The face walls of counterfort and buttress walls and parts of base slabs supported by the counterforts or buttresses shall
be designed in accordance with the requirements of a continuous slab, Part 2 of this Chapter. Due allowance shall be
made for the effect of the toe moment on shears and bending moments in the heel slabs of counterfort walls.
b. Counterforts may be designed in accordance with the requirements of T-beams. As T-beams, reinforcement or stirrups
shall be provided to anchor the face slabs and the heel slabs to the counterforts. Reinforcement shall be proportioned to
carry the end shears of the slabs. Stirrups shall be anchored as near to the outside face of the face walls and as near to
the bottom of the base slab as the requirements for the protective covering permit. It is desirable to run reinforcing bars
through the loops of U-shaped stirrups.
c. Buttresses shall be designed in accordance with the requirements for rectangular beams.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 5.8 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR BRIDGE PIERS
5.8.1 PIER SPACING, ORIENTATION AND TYPE (2002)
5.8.1.1 Grade Separation Structures
a. Piers shall be located to provide the required horizontal and vertical clearances for traffic (highway, railway or other),
to accommodate underground utilities and structures, and to permit the maintenance of surface drainage and other
surface facilities.1
b. Piers supporting bridges over railways and located less than 25 feet clear from centerline of the near railroad track shall
be provided with pier protection conforming with the requirements of Part 2, this Chapter.
5.8.1.2 Structures over Waterways
a. Where possible, the bridge pier axis should be parallel to the direction of the flow. When this is not feasible, special
consideration must be given to additional loads placed on the substructure by the non-parallel flow. Consideration
shall also be given to scour effects.
b. Where piers are exposed to heavy flows, or ice and debris collisions, consideration should be given to longer span
lengths, the use of nose guards, starlings, or other systems to protect against damage to the structures.
5.8.2 PIER SHAFTS (2002)
a. Design of concrete piers shall be in accordanc with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Piers consisting of piles or
drilled shafts shall be in accordance with Part 4, Pile Foundations and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations of this
Chapter.
b. The bridge seat/pier cap shall be of sufficient size to keep bearing stresses within allowances and provide adequate
edge distances.2
c. The depths of a pier footing shall not be less than the depth of frost penetration in that part of the country (see Part 3,
Spread Footing Foundations of this Chapter) and not less than 3 feet below grade unless founded on solid, nonerodible
rock.
5.8.3 CAISSONS (2002)
Caisson design shall meet all of the design requirements for transferring the loads from the substructure element being
supported to the soil without exceeding allowable stresses and soil pressures. In addition, caissons shall be designed for (1)
stresses during sinking, including, but not limited to, lateral soil pressures and unequal hydrostatic pressure; (2) adequate
weight or other means of overcoming skin friction of the soil; and (3) means of support during the tremie sealing operation.
5.8.4 BEARINGS AND ANCHORAGE (2002)
The design of bearings and anchorage for steel spans shall be in accordance with Chapter 15 and Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design. Any uplift forces caused by buoyancy or the use of continuous spans shall be considered in the design of a pier and its
components with particular emphasis on anchorage of the superstructure. Anchorage that is subject to uplift forces shall be
designed to develop a minimum of one and one-half times the calculated force.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

5.8.5 PIERS IN NAVIGABLE STREAMS (2002)1
a. Consideration shall be given to collision damage. Piers shall be of sufficient size and mass to withstand a reasonable
anticipated collision or be protected in accordance with Part 23, Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable
Streams.
b. Unprotected piers shall be solid structures capable of resisting collision impacts in all directions including torsion.
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 5, Retaining Walls, Abutments and
Piers. In the numbering of articles in this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained.
C - SECTION 5.1 DEFINITIONS
C - 5.1.2 SCOUR (2002)
Different materials scour at different rates. Loose granular soils are rapidly eroded by flowing water, while cohesive or
cemented soils are more scour resistant. However, ultimate scour in cohesive or cemented soils can be as deep as scour in
sandbed streams. Scour will reach its maximum depth in sand and gravel bed material in hours; cohesive bed material in days;
glacial tills, sandstones and shales in months; limestones in years and dense granites in centuries. Massive rock formations
with few discontinuities are highly resistant to scour during the lifetime of a typical bridge. Scour holes may not be visible
during low water stages.
1
b. Contraction scour occurs when the flow area of a stream at flood stage is decreased from the normal, either by a natural
constriction or by a bridge. With the decrease in flow area there is an increase in average velocity and bed shear stress.
Hence, there is an increase in stream power at the contraction and more bed material is transported from the contracted
reach than is transported into the reach. This increase in the transport of bed material lowers the bed elevation.
3
Contraction scour is typically cyclic. That is, the bed scours during the rising stage of a runoff event, and fills on the falling
stage.
Other factors that can cause contraction scour are: (1) a natural stream constriction, (2) long embankment approaches over the
flood plain to the bridge, (3) ice formation or jams, (4) a natural berm forming along the banks due to sediment deposits, (5)
island or bar formations upstream or downstream of the bridge opening, (6) debris, and (7) the growth of vegetation in the
channel or flood plain. 4
In a natural channel, the depth of flow is always greater on the outside of a bend. In fact, there may well be deposition on the
inner portion of the bend. If a bridge is located on or close to a bend, the contraction scour will be concentrated on the outer
part of the bend.
C - 5.1.2 (c) Local Scour
Local scour is caused by the formation of vortices at the base of an abutment or pier. The formation of these vortices results
from the pileup of water on the upstream face and the acceleration of the flow around the pier or abutment. The action of the
vortex removes bed material from the area around the base of the pier. As the depth of the resulting scour hole increases, the
strength of the vortex decreases and equilibrium is eventually reached.
Factors affecting local scour are:
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

a. Pier width has a direct influence on depth of local scour. As width of the pier perpendicular to the flow increases, there
is an increase in scour depth.
b. Projected length of an abutment into the stream affects the depth of local scour. An increase in the projected length of
an abutment into the flow increases scour. However, there is a limit on the increase in scour depth with an increase in
length. This limit is reached when the ratio of projected length into the flow to the depth of the approach flow is 25.
c. Pier length has no appreciable effect on local scour depth as long as the pier is aligned with the flow. When the pier is
skewed to the flow, the length has a significant effect; i.e., with the same angle of attack, doubling the length of the pier
increases scour depth 33 percent.
d. Flow depth has an effect on the depth of local scour. An increase in flow depth can increase scour depth by a factor of
2 or greater for piers. With abutments the increase is from 1.1 to 2.15 depending on the shape of the abutment.
e. The approach flow velocity affects scour depth-the greater the velocity, the deeper the scour.
f. Bed material characteristics such as grain size, gradation, and cohesion can affect local scour. Variation in bed material
within the sand size range has no effect on local scour depth. Larger size bed material that can be moved by the flow or
by the vortices and turbulence created by the pier or abutment will not affect the maximum scour depth but only the
time it takes to attain it. Very large particles in the bed material, such as cobbles or boulders, may armor the scour hole.
Fine bed material (silts and clays) will have scour depths as deep as sand bed streams. This is true even if bonded
together by cohesion. The effect of cohesion is to influence the time it takes to reach the maximum scour. With sand
bed material, the maximum depth of scour is reached in hours and can result from a single flood event. With cohesive
bed materials it may take days, months, or even years to reach the maximum scour depth, the result of many flood
events.
g. The angle of attack of the flow to the pier or abutment has a significant effect on local scour, as was pointed out in the
discussion of pier length. Abutment scour is reduced when embankments are angled downstream and increased when
embankments are angled upstream.
h. Shape of the nose of a pier or an abutment has a significant effect on scour. Streamlining the front end of a pier reduces
the strength of the horseshoe vortex, thereby reducing scour depth. Streamlining the downstream end of piers reduces
the strength of the wake vortices. A square-nose pier will have maximum scour depths about 20 percent greater than a
sharp-nose pier and 10 percent greater than either a cylindrical or round nose pier.
i. Full retaining abutments with vertical walls on the streamside (parallel to the flow) will produce scour depths about
double that of spill-through abutments.
j. Ice and debris accumulations potentially increase the effective width of the piers, change the shape of piers and
abutments, increase the projected length of an abutment, and cause the flow to plunge downward against the bed. This
can increase both the local and contraction scour. The magnitude of the increase is still largely undetermined. Debris
can be taken into account in the scour equations by estimating how much debris will increase the width of the pier or
length of an abutment. Debris and ice effects on contraction scour can also be accounted for by estimating the amount
of flow blockage (decrease in width of the bridge opening) in the equations for contraction scour.
C - SECTION 5.2 INFORMATION REQUIRED
C - 5.2.5 TYPE OF BACKFILL (2002)
Type 1 backfill shall be used where feasible. Types 2 and 3, in declining order of preference, may be used due to economic or
other considerations.
© 2013,

C - SECTION 5.3 COMPUTATION OF APPLIED FORCES
C - 5.3.2 COMPUTATION OF BACKFILL PRESSURE (2002)
I. EARTH PRESSURE FORMULAS FROM RANKINE-COULOMB THEORIES
a. The following formulas are applicable only to materials that may be considered cohesionless.
(1) Cases 1 to 3 are for vertical walls without heels. The pressure P is the same as the pressure on a vertical plane in
the backfill (Figure C-8-5-1). Vertical walls with heels come under Cases 4 to 6.
Figure C-8-5-1. Cases 1, 2 and 3
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(2) Cases 4 to 6 are for walls with heels (Figure C-8-5-2). The wall may be vertical or may lean forward, or may lean
backward as long as the upper edge of the back of the wall is in front of the vertical plane through the edge of the
heel.
© 2013,

(3) Cases 7 to 9 are for walls without heels, leaning backward (Figure C-8-5-3). Walls with heels come under Cases 4
to 6 as long as the upper edge of the back of the wall is in front of the vertical plane through the edge of the heel; if
the upper edge of the back of the wall extends back to the vertical plane through the edge of the heel, the problem
can be solved by combining the solutions of Cases 4 to 6 and 7 to 9.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. For walls leaning forward or walls with the heel extending into the backfill, the pressure of the backfill on a vertical
plane through the back of the heel of the wall is to be combined with the weight of backfill contained between this
vertical plane and the back of the wall.
c. For walls leaning toward the backfill the resultant pressure P will be horizontal for a wall without surcharge, or for a
wall with uniform surcharge, if the surface of the backfill is horizontal; and will make an angle λ with the horizontal
for a wall with a sloping surcharge. The values of λ will vary from δ, where the wall is vertical, to zero, where
Rankine’s theory shows that the resultant pressure is horizontal. Values of λ and values of K, where P = 1/2 wh2K, are
given in Figure C-8-5-3.
II. TRIAL WEDGE METHOD OF EARTH PRESSURE COMPUTATION
A. Scope
The trial wedge method is applicable for backfills of soils possessing cohesion, internal friction, or both; for backfills having
any configuration of ground surface; and for surcharges located at any position on the backfill. The procedure, illustrated in
Figure C-8-5-4 and Figure C-8-5-5, is outlined in the following Articles.
B. Computation of Total Pressure
(1) Make scale drawing of the wall with backfill and any surcharge loads.
(2) Locate surface AB against which earth pressure is to be computed. For walls with heels use vertical section as
shown in Figure C-8-5-4. For walls without heels use back of wall as shown in Figure C-8-5-5.
(3) Establish direction of earth pressure with respect to line AB, by the procedure described below under “Direction of
Pressure P”.
(4) Compute depth ho of tension cracks if soil has cohesion.
(5) Draw boundaries of trial wedges BC1, BD2, etc., wherein BC, BD, etc., are assumed plane surfaces of sliding.
(6) Compute weights of successive wedges ABC 1, ABD 2, etc., including any surcharge acting on the ground surface
within the limits of each wedge.
(7) Lay off weight vectors for successive wedges.
(8) Compute total cohesion on each surface of sliding BC, BD, etc.
(9) Lay off cohesion vectors from lower ends of weight vectors, each parallel to the surface of sliding on which it acts.
(10) From end of each cohesion vector draw line parallel to earth pressure P.
(11) From point B in force diagram lay off of radial lines BC, BD, etc., each making an angle φ with the normal to its
respective surface of sliding (as force R on surface BF).
(12) Locate intersections of vectors R with corresponding lines drawn in paragraph 10 and connect intersections with
smooth curve. This is the earth pressure locus.
(13) Determine maximum distance between the TT′ and the earth pressure locus, measured parallel to line of action of
P. This distance represents the active earth pressure P.
© 2013,

C. Direction of Pressure P
(1) For walls with heels, the following procedure is applicable:
– Determine height h of wall, measured from point a.
– Locate point b on the surface of the backfill at the distance 2h measured horizontally from a.
– Draw line ab.
– Take direction of resultant earth pressure P as parallel to line ab.
(2) For walls without heels, where AB is the back of wall, take angle φ equal to 2/3 φ.
D. Point of Application Process
(1) The point of application of the resultant pressure P can be obtained by determining the approximate pressure-
distribution diagram (Figure C-8-5-4). The procedure is as follows:
– Subdivide the line BB′ into about 4 equal parts h1 below the depth h0 of tension cracking.
– Compute the active earth pressures, P1, P2, P3, etc., as if each of the points C′, D′, E′, etc., were at the base of the
wall. The trial wedge method is used for each computation.
– Determine the average pressures P1, P2, etc., over each distance B′C′, C′D′, etc., as indicated in Figure C-8-5-4.
1
– Determine the elevation of the centroid of this approximate pressure diagram. This is the approximate elevation
of the point of application of the resultant earth pressure P.
(2) If the backfill may be considered cohesionless, the point of application of pressure may be obtained as follows:
3
– Determine the center of gravity of the earth and ballast in the wedge between the plane of rupture and the vertical
plane passing through the heel of the wall (Figure C-8-5-4) or the back of the wall (Figure C-8-5-5).
– Assume the center of gravity of the surcharge loads to be located at the surface of the backfill.
– Determine the center of gravity of the combined loads and draw a line from this point parallel to the plane of
rupture to a point of intersection with the vertical plane through the heel of the wall (Figure C-8-5-4) or the back 4
of the wall (Figure C-8-5-5).
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure C-8-5-4. Earth Pressure Computation – Walls with Heels
© 2013,

Figure C-8-5-5. Earth Pressure Computation – Walls without Heels
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - SECTION 5.4 STABILITY COMPUTATION
C - 5.4.4 SETTLEMENT AND TILTING (2002)
If the pressure on a subsoil containing fairly thick layers of soft clay or peat is increased by the weight of the backfill, the wall
may tilt backward because of the compression of the clay or peat. The tilt may be estimated on the basis of a knowledge of the
compressibility of the subsoil. If the tilt is likely to be excessive, it is advisable to use backfill of lightweight material, to
replace the backfill by a structure, or otherwise to change the type of construction so as to avoid overloading the subsoil.
Progressive Creep or Movement
If the weight of the backfill is greater than one-half the ultimate bearing capacity of a clay subsoil, progressive movement of
the wall or abutment is likely to occur, irrespective of the use of a key or batter piles. In such case, it is advisable to use
backfill of lightweight material, to replace the backfill by a structure, or otherwise to change the construction so as to avoid
overloading the subsoil.
C - SECTION 5.5 DESIGN OF BACKFILL
C - 5.5.2 COMPACTION (2002)
a. For backfill type 4 and 5 a minimum number of passes is required if the moisture content is near optimum (OCM).
When the water content of clayey soil is too high, lamination sometimes occurs as the number of passes increases.
This phenomenon is harmful, so it is advisable to break up layers where this has happened.
C - SECTION 5.6 DESIGNING BRIDGES TO RESIST SCOUR
C - 5.6.1 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS (2002)
The principles of economic analysis and experience with actual flood damage indicate that it is almost always cost-effective to
provide a foundation that will not fail, even from a very large flood event.
C - 5.6.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2002)
C - 5.6.2.1 General
a. The top width of a local scour hole is about 2.75 times the depth of scour.
C - 5.6.2.2 Piers
b. Assess the hydraulic advantages of various pier shapes where there are complex flow patterns during flood events.
c. Streamline pier shapes to decrease scour and minimize potential for build-up of ice and debris. Where ice and debris
build-up is an obvious problem, design mulitiple pile bents as though they were a solid pier for purposes of estimating
scour. Consider various pier types and span arrangements to minimize scour effects.
C - 5.6.3 DESIGN PROCEDURE (2002)
Design measures incorporated in the original construction are almost always less costly than retrofitting scour
countermeasures.
© 2013,

The method used to calculate the support for a spread footing foundation on weathered or potentially erodable rock should be
based on an analysis of intact rock cores including rock quality designations and local geology, as well as hydraulic data and
anticipated structure life. An important consideration may be the existence of a high quality rock formation below a thin
weathered zone. For deep deposits of weathered rock, the potential scour depth should be estimated and the footing base
placed below that depth. Excavation into weathered rock should be made with care. If blasting is required, light, closely
spaced charges should be used to minimize overbreak beneath the footing level. Loose rock pieces should be removed and the
zone filled with lean concrete. In any event, the final footing should be poured in contact with the sides of the excavation for
the full design footing thickness to minimize water intrusion below footing level. The excavation above the top of the spread
footing should be filled with riprap sized to withstand flood flow velocities.
(1) The FHWA microcomputer software WSPRO, “Bridge Waterways Analysis Model” (21), the Corps of Engineers
HEC 2, and other current software programs are available for this task.
(5) Consider the limitations in the accuracy of the model and of the scour estimating procedures.
(6) Visualize the overall flood flow pattern at the bridge site for the design conditions. Use this mental picture to
identify those bridge elements most vulnerable to flood flows and resulting scour.
Consider any other factors that may affect scour such as prop wash, etc.
The extent of protection to be provided should be determined by:
– The degree of uncertainty in the scour prediction method.
– The potential for and consequences of failure.

1
– The added cost of making the bridge less vulnerable to scour.
(7b) Spread Footings on Rock Highly Resistant to Scour.
Small embedments (keying) should be avoided since blasting to achieve keying frequently damages the sub- 3
footing rock structure and makes it more susceptible to scour. If footings on smooth massive rock surfaces require
lateral constraint, steel dowels should be drilled and grouted into the rock below the footing level.
(7e) Deep Foundations (Piling or Drilled Shafts) with Footings.
Even lower footing elevations may be desirable for pile supported footings when the piles could be damaged by
erosion from exposure to river currents and corrosion from the elements. 4
C - SECTION 5.8 DETAILS OF DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION FOR BRIDGE PIERS
C - 5.8.1 PIER SPACING, ORIENTATION AND TYPE (2002)
C - 5.8.1.1 Grade Separation Structures
a. “Highway Clearances for Bridges” and “Highway Clearances for Underpasses” of the Specifications of the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and local and state clearance requirements are referred to
for appropriate highway clearance requirements.
C - 5.8.2 PIER SHAFTS (2002)
b. Consideration shall be given to providing a large enough seat to allow for jacking and blocking of the proposed
superstructure.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 5.8.5 PIERS IN NAVIGABLE STREAMS (2002)
The more massive the bridge pier, the less damage it will suffer in a collision.
The compressive and ultimate bending capacity of concrete piles can be significantly increased by increasing the confining
reinforcement. Battered exterior piles will improve the stability of the substructure as long as there is no seismic activity.
Vertical bar splices in pier shafts are subject to bond failure during impact. For this reason, increased development lengths or
mechnical splices are recommended. Splices should be staggered as far above the pier base as practical.
Laps should be tied at both ends to prevent initiating compression failure due to high bearing under the ends of bars.
Increasing the vertical steel reinforcement in pier shafts at the junction with the base and the cap can significantly increase
ductility as well as ultimate moment capacity, especially if combined with increased lateral reinforcement.
The use of redudant structural systems may allow for local failures without structure collapse.
Tension ties should be considered between the pile and the pier footing. Consideration should be given to designing the pier
footing block to develop the ultimate capacity of the piles without punching shear failure.
The following methods should be considered to increase the capacity of pier shafts to withstand collisions:
(1) Splice vertical bars at different elevations and double the development length for overlap or use mechanical
splices, certified to develop full strength of the bars under impact load.
(2) Tie bar laps at both ends.
(3) Provide confining spirals or ties, in an amount similar to that required for seismic design for columns. Hooks of
ties should be turned in and anchored in compressive zones.
(4) Increase the vertical steel reinforcement near the junction with the base and the cap.
(5) Design multiple shaft piers so that with the rupture of one shaft, the cap is so connected to the remaining shafts
that it can carry the dead load of the span as a cantilever without collapse.
(6) Provide shear walls between two or more shafts.
(7) Utilize keys and dowels for piers founded on firm foundation soil or rock.
© 2013,

3
The charts may be used for estimating the backfill pressure if the backfill material has been classified in accordance with Table 8-5-1.
NOTE: Numerals on Curves indicate soil types as described inTable 8-5-1.
For materials of Type 5 computations should be based on value of H four feet less than actual value.
4
Figure C-8-5-6. Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High
(Sheet 1 of 2)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure C-8-5-6. Earth Pressure Charts for Walls Less than 20 Feet High
(Sheet 2 of 2)
© 2013,

8
Part 6
Crib Walls1
— 1997 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2

6.1.1 Scope (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.1.2 Definitions (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2
6.2 Design of Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2

6.2.1 General (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-2 1
6.3 Requirements for Reinforced Concrete Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3

6.3.1 General (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3
6.3.2 Manufacture (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-3
6.3.3 Installation (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-4
3
6.4 Requirements for Metal Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.4.1 General (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.4.2 Manufacture (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.4.3 Installation (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-5
6.5 Requirements for Timber Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6

6.5.1 General (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
6.5.2 Materials (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
6.5.3 Installation (1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-6
LIST OF FIGURES
8-6-1 Typical Sections through Walls of Timber Cribbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-7

8-6-2 Walls of Open-Face Timber Cribbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-7
8-6-3 Walls of Closed-Face Timber Cribbing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-7
1
References, Vol. 49, 1948, p. 244; Vol. 50, 1949, pp. 290, 757; Vol. 62, 1961, p. 438, 861; Vol. 70, 1969, p. 223; Vol. 71, 1970, p. 231; Vol. 88, 1987, p 62.

SECTION 6.1 GENERAL
6.1.1 SCOPE (1997)
This part of the Manual covers the design, manufacture and installation of crib walls as defined hereinafter.
6.1.2.1 Crib Wall
a. A “Crib Wall” is an earth-retaining structure, made up of rigid members that are fabricated in the shape of open
squares, open rectangles or other open shapes, or are assembled in the shape of square or rectangular cells, or cells of
other shapes. The cells are filled with granular material. The structure of cells and granular infill all act together as a
gravity structure, obtaining its safety and stability from the proper proportioning of its shape and weight.
b. Crib wall members can be of concrete, metal, or timber. They can form cells with solid-surfaced walls (known as
“closed face” walls) or with slotted openings (known as “open face” walls). The members should interlock with each
other, or otherwise be connected in such a way as to resist the pressures of the granular fill and the retained earth
material. Crib walls can be a traditional cribbing as described in Article 6.1.2.2, or of other units that behave in
accordance with this definition.
6.1.2.2 Cribbing
“Cribbing” defines a traditional assembly of headers and stretchers, used to form the most common kind of crib wall.
SECTION 6.2 DESIGN OF CRIB WALLS
6.2.1 GENERAL (1997)
a. Crib walls shall be assumed to act as a unit and shall be designed to resist the overturning and sliding forces specified
in Part 5, Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers.
b. The wall section resisting overturning shall be taken as a rectangle having a height equal to the total height of the crib
structure and a depth, normal to the front surface, equal to the distance between the front and rear outside faces of the
crib structure.
c. The unit weight of the crib wall section within the above limits, including the weight of the crib members, may be
assumed to be equal to that of the compacted filling material.
d. In general, crib walls shall have a batter of 2:12 on the face, except that low walls, 1.8 meters (6 ft) high and under,
may be made with a plumb face. For walls over 3.6 meters (12 ft) high, supplemental crib units may be added to
provide stability in order to meet design requirements. Crib walls shall generally not exceed 7.2 meters (24 ft) in
height. Higher walls shall receive special engineering considerations.
e. The wall shall be so located that no track tie will bear directly on any crib member.
f. Crib wall foundations shall be designed not to exceed safe soil pressures specified in Part 3, Spread Footing
Foundations, Section 3.4, Sizing of Footings. The possibility of a deep shear failure of the embankment shall be
considered similar to the failure illustrated in Part 20, Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads.
© 2013,

Crib Walls
g. All structural crib units, including stretchers, headers, or other units, shall be so designed that they will resist the
tensile, bending and shearing stresses imposed on them and shall provide adequate bearing at all contact surfaces. For
walls of cribbing, stretchers at the rear of the cells shall have the same bearing area as those at the front in the same
courses.
h. The headers and stretchers or other units shall be so designed that when assembled in a wall, they form a cellular
structure that will be flexible enough to withstand a reasonable amount of differential settlement. These flexibility
requirements will generally depend on the use of the wall and on the designer’s judgement. However, any crib wall cell
will be expected to withstand a differential deflection of at least 0.015L without damage, where L is the length of the
cell as measured along the face of the wall.
i. The vertical openings within the front face of the assembly shall be small enough to retain the fill material, placed as
described in Article 6.3.3.3, Article 6.4.3.3, or Article 6.5.3.5.
j. Crib walls shall be designed in sections usually not to exceed 30 meters (100 ft) in length. If the soil conditions vary
considerably along this length, it may be necessary to build the crib wall in sections that are shorter than 30 meters (100
ft).
k. Provision shall be made for drainage, if necessary, behind or within cells by means of French drains or other approved
methods, and potential hydrostatic pressure shall be taken into consideration in the wall design.
SECTION 6.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE CRIB WALLS

1
6.3.1 GENERAL (1997)
a. Crib wall units defined as cribbing shall be rectangular in cross section with all exposed edges beveled. Each cribbing
unit shall be reinforced with deformed bars or with welded wire fabric, proportioned in accordance with Part 2,
Reinforced Concrete Design. However, the area of reinforcement for each unit shall be not less than 0.9 percent of its 3
gross cross-sectional area.
b. Members shall be provided with effective locking devices. They shall be of a type which will permit a slight movement
in the wall without damage to the crib units.
c. The headers and stretchers shall be so designed that when assembled in a wall they will bear at two points only, with
bearing points for other kinds of units subject to the engineer’s approval. The arrangement must form a cellular 4
structure flexible enough to withstand a reasonable amount of settlement.
6.3.2 MANUFACTURE (1997)
6.3.2.1 General
The materials, proportioning and workmanship shall conform to Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, with
the following modifications:
a. Aggregates. The maximum size of the coarse aggregate shall not be more than 25 mm (1 in).
b. Class of Concrete. Air-entrained concrete as specified in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, shall
be used, having a minimum compressive strength of 28 MPa (4,250 psi) at 28 days.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

c. Workability and Placement. The concrete mixture shall be of a workable consistency and placed to prevent
honeycombing. Vibrating equipment shall be used in the manufacturing process.
d. Curing. Curing shall be started as soon as possible after completion of placement of the concrete and shall comply with
the Articles on curing in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
6.3.2.2 Defects
All members shall be true to size, and free of depressions and of spalled, patched or plastered surfaces or other defects that
may impair strength or durability.
6.3.2.3 Handling
Members shall be handled carefully. Dropping or severe jarring shall be avoided. Any cracked or otherwise defective members
will be rejected.
6.3.3 INSTALLATION (1997)
6.3.3.1 Preparing Base
a. The foundation or bed for the crib wall shall be firm and as uniform as possible, and shall be approved by the Engineer
before any members are placed. If any members are located directly above rock, a cushion of sand or gravel not less
than 200 mm (8 in) thick shall be provided.
b. The foundation shall be sloped at a right angle to the batter on the face of the finished crib wall.
6.3.3.2 Placing
a. Stretchers or equivalent members shall be used to provide adequate support of the lowest course, front and back.
b. Crib members shall be carefully handled and installed in such a manner as to avoid any damage due to shock or impact.
Any member which becomes cracked or otherwise damaged during erection shall be removed and replaced.
6.3.3.3 Filling
a. The filling of the interior of the crib wall shall follow closely the erection of the successive tiers of units, and at no time
shall the wall be laid up higher than 1 meter (3 ft) above the backfilled portion.
b. Approved fill material shall be pervious, free draining, preferably crushed stone, gravel, or other coarse granular
material, well graded from a maximum size of 100 mm (4 in) down, and shall be placed compacted in the cells and for
600 mm (2 ft) immediately behind the cell in such a manner as to provide a minimum of voids. All organic matter shall
be excluded from the fill materials. The fill and backfill material shall not contain any element detrimental to concrete.
6.3.3.4 Drainage
See Article 6.2.1k, for any special conditions.
© 2013,

Crib Walls
SECTION 6.4 REQUIREMENTS FOR METAL CRIB WALLS
6.4.1 GENERAL (1997)

a. The sheets from which all members are manufactured shall be made of a base metal meeting the requirements for
chemical composition and zinc coating as specified by the Engineer in conformity with Chapter 1, Roadway and
Ballast, Part 4, Culverts.
b. Aluminum materials may only be used with the engineer’s specific approval.
6.4.2 MANUFACTURE (1997)

a. All members shall be prefabricated in the manufacturer’s plant prior to shipment to the site. If specified by the
Engineer, the crib members shall be specially coated.
b. Headers and stretchers and other members shall interlock or be joined together by means of flexible bolted
connections. Bolts shall be of proper length, made of steel, and galvanized.
c. The various members shall be constructed of a base metal of the gage shown on the plans and not less than 1.5 mm
(16 ga) for walls up to 10 feet in height and of heavier gage for higher walls.
d. The members shall be so fabricated that units of the same nominal depth and length shall be fully interchangeable. All
members shall be straight and true before assembly, and the galvanizing or other coating shall not be damaged. Any
bent or otherwise defective members will be rejected.
1
before any members are placed. If any members are located directly above rock, a cushion of sand or gravel not less
than 200 mm (8 in) thick shall be provided.
3
6.4.3.2 Placing
Crib members shall be carefully handled and installed in such a manner as to avoid damage. Any member which becomes bent
or otherwise damaged during erection shall be removed and replaced.
4
6.4.3.3 Filling
b. Approved fill material shall be pervious, free draining, preferably crushed stone, gravel, or other coarse granular
material, well graded from a maximum size of 100 mm (4 in) down, and shall be placed and compacted in the cells and
for 600 mm (2 ft) immediately behind the cell in such a manner as to provide a minimum of voids. All organic matter
shall be excluded from the filling materials. The fill and backfill material shall not contain any element detrimental to
metal.
6.4.3.4 Drainage
See Article 6.2.1k, for any drainage requirements.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 6.5 REQUIREMENTS FOR TIMBER CRIB WALLS
6.5.1 GENERAL (1997)
Timber crib walls are made of timber cribbing, as defined in Article 6.1.2.2 and no other kinds of timber units are considered
or included herein. Each crib unit shall be rectangular in cross section.
6.5.2 MATERIALS (1997)
a. Timber used for cribbing shall be sawn, and new timber shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 7, Timber
Structures, Part 1, Material Specifications for Lumber, Piles, Glued Laminated Timber and Fasteners for the grade and
species specified. Timber shall be treated in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 30, Ties.
b. All cutting and framing indicated on the plans shall be completed before treatment. All framing shall be done in a
workmanlike manner, true to line and angle. When any field framing, boring, and cutting of treated material is
required, all such framing and cuts shall receive a thorough coating of approved preservative before assembly.
before any cribbing is placed.
6.5.3.2 Mud Sills
When mud sills are used, they shall be set at right angles to the face of the crib wall and bear firmly and evenly on the
foundation material (see Figure 8-6-1). Mud sills shall be leveled to fit the base tier of face timbers resting directly on
them.
6.5.3.3 Timbers
a. The timber in the base tier and in alternate tiers above the base shall be as long as practicable. Preferably they shall
have a minimum length of 2.5 meters (8 ft). Joints in each tier shall stagger with joints in adjacent tiers. Crib wall faces
shall be laid closed or open as indicated on the plans.
b. Care shall be exercised in the installation of crib walls to produce a true and even face built to the line and grade shown
on the plans. All face timber shall be set horizontally (See Figure 8-6-2 and Figure 8-6-3).
c. Headers shall be spaced not more than 2.5 meters (8 ft) center to center in any horizontal tier if staggered with the
headers in tiers above and below. If headers are not staggered, they shall be spaced not more than 1.8 meters (6 ft)
center to center. The vertical spacing between headers in the same vertical plane shall not exceed 900 mm (3 ft).
6.5.3.4 Fastenings
a. Each successive tier of closed-face cribbing shall be drift bolted to the one upon which it rests by drift bolts not less
than 19 mm (3/4 in) in diameter and of sufficient length to extend through two tiers and not less than 100 mm (4 in)
into the third tier. Drift bolts shall be staggered and not more than 2.5 meters (8 ft) center to center in each tier.
b. All end joints and splices shall be lapped and drift bolted at the center; headers shall be drift bolted to face timbers in
like manner (see Figure 8-6-3).
© 2013,

Crib Walls
Figure 8-6-1. Typical Sections through Walls of Timber Cribbing
3
TIES STAGGERED TIES IN LINE
Figure 8-6-2. Walls of Open-Face Timber Cribbing
Figure 8-6-3. Walls of Closed-Face Timber Cribbing
c. Each tier of open-face cribbing shall be drift bolted to the tiers beneath at each header using 19 mm (3/4 in) drift bolts
at each intersection where no splice occurs or at lap joints, and two 19 mm (3/4 in) inch drift bolts at butt joints. Drift
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

bolts shall be long enough to extend through one tier and at least three-quarters of the distance into the next tier. Drift
bolts shall be staggered from tier to tier (see Figure 8-6-2).
d. In treated timber cribbing, the hardware shall be galvanized.
6.5.3.5 Filling
b. Approved fill material of pervious, free draining, preferably crushed stone, gravel or other coarse granular material,
well graded from a maximum size of 100 mm (4 in) down, shall be placed in the cells in such a manner as to provide a
minimum of voids. Larger stones may be included if carefully embedded. All organic matter shall be excluded from the
filling material. Clay or material having a large percentage of clay shall not be used as fill.
6.5.3.6 Drainage
See Article 6.2.1k, for drainage requirements.
© 2013,

8
Part 7
Mechanically Stabilized Embankment
— 1997 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2

7.1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.2 Design of Mechanically Stabilized Embankments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2

7.2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2
7.2.2 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-2 1
7.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-3

7.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-3

SECTION 7.1 GENERAL
7.1.1 DEFINITIONS
a. A “Mechanically Stabilized Embankment (MSE)” is an embankment that has its strength increased by the inclusion of
horizontal tensile members within the soil mass. The composite embankment material exhibits improved shear strength
and compressive strength relative to unreinforced material. The MSE will always consist of at least two elements: 1)
earth, and 2) tensile reinforcement; and may have facing elements to provide a vertical or nearly vertical face.
b. “Reinforcing Elements” are horizontal elements placed within the soil mass between successive layers of compacted
soil which are designed to provide tensile reinforcement to restrain soil deformation in the direction of the
reinforcement; and which are placed between successive layers of compacted earth.
c. “Inextensible Reinforcing Elements” are those elements within the soil mass that do not elongate sufficiently under the
design load to allow soil deformations to develop the “active state” on the potential failure surface within the soil mass.
Inextensible reinforcing elements are generally metallic.
d. “Extensible Reinforcing Elements” are those elements within the soil mass that do elongate sufficiently under the
design load to allow soil deformations to develop the “active state” along the potential failure surface within the soil
mass. Extensible reinforcing elements are generally high strength polymer geogrids and other geosynthetic materials.
e. “Facing Elements” are those elements of an MSE that are placed to prevent localized sloughing and erosion of the
embankment face. Facing elements can consist of precast concrete panels, metal panels, polymer panels, wire mesh,
timber, or the polymer reinforcing materials themselves.
SECTION 7.2 DESIGN OF MECHANICALLY STABILIZED EMBANKMENTS
7.2.1 GENERAL
a. Use of any MSE must be approved by the controlling railroad.
b. Design of MSE shall be in accordance with the current AASHTO STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY
BRIDGES, except as modified by other provisions of this part of this chapter.
c. The factor of safety against pullout of reinforcing elements shall be 1.75 to account for rail traffic induced vibrations.
d. Surcharge live loads applied in the design of MSE shall be those in Part 20.3.2.3 of this chapter.
e. Design live loadings shall be, as given in Part 2.2.3(c) of this chapter, subject to change at the discretion of the railroad.
7.2.2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
a. Where the use of MSE is proposed on electric traction railroads utilizing direct current, an engineer specializing in
corrosion protection/prevention shall investigate and make site-specific recommendations for special design
considerations.
b. Consideration shall be given to the potential for accelerated corrosion or deterioration of structural elements of MSE
due to the relatively high permeability of railroad roadbeds and the potential for precipitation and other potentially
© 2013,

Mechanically Stabilized Embankment
corrosive substances infiltrating the roadbed. The use of an impermeable geomembrane connected to lateral drains
below the sub-ballast, but above the top level of reinforcements should be considered.
c. Consideration should be given to placing the first level of reinforcing elements below the depth of excavation that
would be reached in the placement of utilities within the R.O.W. Alternately, conduits for utilities can be placed during
the MSE construction.
d. Excavation to, or below, the top level of reinforcing elements shall not be allowed following the construction of the
MSE.
SECTION 7.3 CONSTRUCTION
7.3.1 GENERAL
a. Construction of MSE shall be in conformance with the provisions of the current edition of the AASHTO STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAY BRIDGES, DIVISION II - CONSTRUCTION, unless modified for application
to the specific MSE.
b. Special contract provisions shall be provided as necessary for proper construction of the specific MSE.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 10
Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe1
— 2003 —
Reaffirmed without changes.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2

10.1.1 Scope (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
10.1.2 Definitions (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-2
1
10.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3

10.2.1 Pipe (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3
10.2.2 Manholes (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3
10.2.3 Rubber Gaskets (1989). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-3
10.2.4 Acid Resistant Coatings (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4 3
10.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.3.1 General (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.3.2 References (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.3.3 Loads (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-4
10.3.4 Bedding Factors (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
10.3.5 Minimum Pipe Strength (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.3.6 Factor of Safety (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.3.7 Alternate Design Procedure (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.3.8 Pipe Strength (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.4 Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12

10.4.1 Preparation of Subgrade (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-12
10.4.2 Pipe Installation (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-13
10.4.3 Backfill and Embankment (1989) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-14
1
References, Vol. 81, 1980, p. 235; Vol 90, 1989, pp. 53, 67. Revised 1989.

LIST OF FIGURES
8-10-1 Track Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-5

8-10-2 Embankment Beddings – Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-7
8-10-3 Embankment Beddings – Horizontal Elliptical, Arch, and Vertical Elliptical Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-8
8-10-4 Trench Beddings – Circular Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-9
8-10-5 Trench Beddings – Horizontal Elliptical, Arch, and Vertical Elliptical Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-10
8-10-6 Induced and Alternate Induced Trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-11
LIST OF TABLES
8-10-1 Bedding Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-6
SECTION 10.1 GENERAL
10.1.1 SCOPE (1989)
This part of the Manual covers the design and installation of reinforced concrete pipe for railway culverts.
10.1.2.1 Pipe Installation Conditions
a. Trench Installation. The pipe is installed in a relatively narrow trench excavated in undisturbed soil and then covered
with backfill extending to the ground surface.
b. Positive Projecting Embankment Installation. The pipe is installed on original ground or compacted fill with the top of
the pipe above the ground, or compacted fill and then covered by embankment.
c. Negative Projecting Embankment Installation. The pipe is installed within a relatively narrow trench with the top of the
pipe below the natural ground, or compacted fill and then covered with embankment.
d. Induced Trench Installation. The pipe is installed in a trench, backfilled with compressible material over the pipe, and
then covered by a high embankment.
e. Jacked or Tunneled Installation. The pipe is installed without removal of the ground above the pipe. Grouting of the
exterior annular space around the pipe may be required to ensure full contact with the soil around the pipe. If existing
soil conditions require an oversized tunnel, or if anticipated service conditions require access to the pipeline, a carrier
pipe may be installed within the tunnel or casing pipe.
© 2013,

Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe
10.1.2.2 Symbols
Bc = Outside width of the pipe in the in-place condition (ft)

Bd = Width of the pipe trench (ft)
Bf = Bedding factor is defined as the ratio between the supporting strength of buried pipe to the strength of the pipe
determined in the three-edge bearing test obtained according to the requirements of ASTM Designation C497.
D = Inside span (or horizontal width) of the pipe (ft)
D-Load = The supporting strength of a pipe loaded under the three-edge bearing test conditions expressed in pounds per
linear foot per foot of inside diameter or horizontal span.
FS = Factor of Safety (normally taken as 1.0)
H = Height of cover over the top of the pipe (ft)
p = Projection Ratio is defined as the vertical distance between the top of the pipe and the top of the trench divided by
the trench width (negative projecting), or the height of the induced trench divided by the outside horizontal span
of the pipe (induced trench).
w = Unit weight of the backfill material (lb per cubic foot)
WL = Live Load including Impact transmitted to the pipe (lb per square foot)
WE = Earth loads transmitted to the pipe (lb per linear foot)
Ws = Other loads transmitted to the pipe (lb per square foot)
10.2.1 PIPE (1989)

3
Pipe shall conform to the following ASTM Standards for type, size, shape, manufacturing, testing, and strength requirements
as specified by the Engineer:
a. ASTM Designation C76, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain and Sewer Pipe.
b. ASTM Designation C506, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Arch Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
4
c. ASTM Designation C507, Specification for Reinforced Concrete Elliptical Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
d. ASTM Designation C655, Specification for Reinforced Concrete D-Load Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe.
10.2.2 MANHOLES (1989)
Precast concrete manholes, if required, shall conform to ASTM Designation C478, Specification for Precast Concrete
Manhole Sections.
10.2.3 RUBBER GASKETS (1989)
Rubber gaskets, if required, shall conform to ASTM Designation C443, Specification for Joints for Circular Concrete Sewer
and Culvert Pipe.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

10.2.4 ACID RESISTANT COATINGS (1989)
These coatings shall be specified by the Engineer for the particular condition required.
SECTION 10.3 DESIGN
10.3.1 GENERAL (1989)
The design of reinforced concrete pipe culverts must take into account the type of installation and bedding, the soil constants
of the natural ground and backfill, the relative settlements of the pipe, pipe foundation, bedding, backfill and natural ground,
acidity of the flow, the physical measurements such as depth of cover and width of cut, determination of earth load, live load,
impact, and any additional loading.
10.3.2 REFERENCES (1989)
Satisfactory design methods, utilizing more exact design procedures, are referenced for the use of the Engineer:
a. United States Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service Engineering Division Technical Release No. 5.
b. American Concrete Pipe Association Concrete Pipe Design Manual.
c. American Concrete Pipe Association Concrete Pipe Handbook.
10.3.3 LOADS (1989)
a. Design loading on the pipe shall include Earth Load, Cooper E 80 Live Load, Impact, and any other surcharge loads.
b. Earth load tables from the references given in Article 10.3.2 may be used to calculate the weight of earth on the pipe.
The earth load carried by the pipe is generally more than Bc × H × w.
c. The Engineer may use the equations below in order to determine the earth load transmitted to the pipe. Other
acceptable methods of analysis are given in Article 10.3.2.
(1) Trench Installation:
WE = 0.85 × Bd × H × w
(2) Positive Projecting Embankment Condition:
WE = 2.00 × Bc × H × w
© 2013,

(3) Negative Projecting Embankment Condition:
WE = 1.00 × Bd × H × w
d. Track Loading to be supported by the pipe is shown in Figure 8-10-1 of these specifications. The indicated loading
includes a variable Impact Load of 40% at 0 feet, and 0% at 10 feet.
e. Any surface surcharges, other than track load, shall be converted to additional height of fill to determine their loading
on the pipe.
f. Loading on a carrier pipe, that is within a casing pipe, shall be taken as the full Dead + Live + Impact Load without
consideration of the presence of the casing, unless the casing pipe is permanently protected from corrosion using such
means as providing extra pipe thickness or a resistant coating.
Figure 8-10-1. Track Loading
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

g. The design trench width shall be indicated on the construction drawings as a maximum width of trench, or the Engineer
shall design the pipe for the maximum effective trench width (transition width) as indicated in the Concrete Pipe
Association Design Manual. The minimum width of the trench shall be Bc+2 feet or 1.5 Bc whichever is greater.
10.3.4 BEDDING FACTORS (1989)
Bedding factors to be used in the equation for determination of the D-Load shall be obtained from Table 8-10-1 or as permitted
within that table by more elaborate analysis.
Table 8-10-1. Bedding Factors
Bedding Class (Note 1)

Pipe Installation Methods
A B C D Tunnel
Trench 2.8 1.9 1.5 1.0 –
(Note 2)
Positive Projecting Embankment 2.8 2.0 1.7 1.0 –
(Note 2) (Note 2) (Note 2)
Negative Projecting Embankment 2.8 1.9 1.5 1.0 –
Induced Trench 2.8 2.0 1.7 1.0 –
Jacked or Tunneled
Carrier Pipe 2.8 1.9 1.5 – –
Casing Pipe – – – – 3.0
Any Pipe with less than 3′-0″ of cover between 1.5 1.5 1.5 – –
bottom of tie and the top of the pipe
Note 1: See Figure 8-10-2, Figure 8-10-3, Figure 8-10-4, Figure 8-10-5, and Figure 8-10-6.
Note 2: More elaborate analysis, using the procedures referenced in Article 10.3.2, can result in a more economical
design with greater load factors.
© 2013,

Figure 8-10-2. Embankment Beddings – Circular Pipe
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

FOR CLASS D BEDDING

SEE FIGURE 8-10-2
Figure 8-10-3. Embankment Beddings – Horizontal Elliptical, Arch, and Vertical Elliptical Pipe
© 2013,

Figure 8-10-4. Trench Beddings – Circular Pipe
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

For Class D bedding see Figure 8-10-4.
Figure 8-10-5. Trench Beddings – Horizontal Elliptical, Arch, and Vertical Elliptical Pipe
© 2013,

Figure 8-10-6. Induced and Alternate Induced Trench
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

10.3.5 MINIMUM PIPE STRENGTH (1989)
Pipe subjected to track loads shall have a minimum strength of D = 1350 (Class III) even if analysis indicates that a lower D-
Load is satisfactory.
10.3.6 FACTOR OF SAFETY (1989)
The standard Factor of Safety of 1.0 against a 0.01 inch crack should be used for design unless the Engineer indicates that a
higher Factor of Safety is required.
10.3.7 ALTERNATE DESIGN PROCEDURE (1989)
a. In lieu of carrying out the complete design analysis required by these specifications, the Designer may use Class V
RCP for all sizes up to a height of cover of 14 feet; for greater heights of cover, the designer must make an analysis. For
Elliptical or Arch Pipe where D = 3000 RCP is not available, a design analysis shall be made.
b. The Engineer may specify the use of Class V RCP if he feels that the conditions of the site, or construction procedures,
require this strength of pipe.
10.3.8 PIPE STRENGTH (1989)
The required D-Load of the pipe shall be determined by the following equation:
( W L × B c + W E + W s × B c ) × FS
D-Load = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
Bf × D
SECTION 10.4 INSTALLATION
10.4.1 PREPARATION OF SUBGRADE (1989)
10.4.1.1 Excavation
a. Trenches shall be excavated in accordance with the bank stability requirements to a width sufficient to allow for proper
jointing of the pipe and thorough compaction of the bedding and backfill material under and around the pipe. Where
feasible, trench walls shall be vertical. A maximum trench width in conformance with the design assumptions, should
be specified on the construction plans. Wide trenches generally require the use of stronger pipe, and require a more
complete design analysis. The completed trench bottom shall be firm and cleaned for its full length and width.
b. Where specifically requested the pipe trench bottom may be cambered longitudinally to provide for expected
settlement. If camber of the pipe trench is required, the indicated camber must be shown on the plans.
c. Where specified on the plans, the excavation for a pipe to be placed within embankment fill shall be made after the
embankment has been completed to a specified height above the top of the pipe.
© 2013,

10.4.1.2 Foundation
a. If the foundation is incapable of supporting the pipe loads, an adequate support shall be supplied by excavating the
unstable soil and backfilling with compacted material, or by such other means as may be specified or approved by the
Engineer.
b. If the foundation is muck, or similar yielding material, the pipe shall be supported by piling, or by other such means as
may be specified or approved by the Engineer.
c. For Class B or Class C Beddings, the subgrade should be undercut and replaced with compacted granular material, if
necessary, so that a firm foundation free of protruding rocks is provided. Special care may be necessary with Class A or
other unyielding foundation to cushion the pipe from shock when blasting can be anticipated in the area.
10.4.2 PIPE INSTALLATION (1989)
10.4.2.1 Laying Pipe
a. Pipe laying shall begin at the downstream end of the culvert. The bell or groove end of the pipe shall be placed
upstream. No culvert shall be put into service until a suitable outlet is provided for the water.
b. Elliptical pipe shall be placed with the vertical axis within 5 degrees of a vertical plane through the longitudinal axis of
the culvert.
10.4.2.2 Bedding 1
a. Pipe bedding and placement shall be specified to conform to one of the Bedding Classes illustrated in Figure 8-10-2,
Figure 8-10-3, Figure 8-10-4, Figure 8-10-5, and Figure 8-10-6.
b. When pipe cannot be placed on a prepared surface but must instead be placed on an unprepared surface, the bedding
shall be considered to be Class D Bedding. Class D Bedding should only be used for emergency work, and is not
permitted for permanent installations unless authorized by the Engineer. For typical Class D Bedding see Figure 8-10- 3
2 and Figure 8-10-4.
10.4.2.3 Joining Pipe
a. Pipe may be either bell and spigot, or tongue and groove design unless otherwise specified. When bell pipe is used, a
shallow excavation shall be made underneath the bell of sufficient depth so that the bell does not rest on the bedding
material. 4
b. Pipe sections shall be joined so that the ends are fully entered and the inner surfaces are reasonably flush and even.
c. Joints shall be made with either mortar, grout, rubber gaskets, plastic mastic compounds, or other combination of these
types as approved and specified by the Engineer. Mortar joints in pipe that is jacked into place shall not be sealed with
mortar until the culvert jacking is complete.
d. In areas where a tendency exists for pipe sections to separate, suitable ties shall be fabricated and installed to prevent
this separation.
e. Endwalls or headwalls should be used for culverts under tracks and designed to resist pipe separation as well as to
retain the embankment.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

10.4.2.4 Water Tightness
If water tightness is a problem, rubber gasketed pipe is recommended. When such joints are specified the pipe should be tested
for infiltration or exfiltration as stipulated by the Engineer. The maximum rate of leakage shall conform to the following
accepted requirements, or to other standards set forth by the Engineer:
• Infiltration – 0.6 gallons per inch of diameter per 100 feet of pipe per hour.
• Exfiltration – 0.6 gallons per inch of diameter per 100 feet of pipe per hour when subjected to an internal head of 2
feet, and increased by 10% for each additional 2 feet of head.
10.4.2.5 Culverts Carrying High Acid Fluids
Where the PH of the conducted fluid is less than 4.5, the internal surfaces of the culvert should be protected from acid attack
by a special permanent coating. The Engineer shall specify the type of coating and the means of application.
10.4.3 BACKFILL AND EMBANKMENT (1989)
10.4.3.1 General
a. The backfill around the culvert shall be placed in accordance with the bedding requirements illustrated in Figure 8-10-
2, Figure 8-10-3, Figure 8-10-4, Figure 8-10-5, and Figure 8-10-6, and other requirements of these specifications.
b. All culverts that are to carry track load shall have the backfill thoroughly compacted to a minimum density of 95% as
determined by ASTM D698, and as specified elsewhere in the project specifications for adjacent embankment.
c. Where the pipe is placed on a shaped subgrade, see Figure 8-10-2 and Figure 8-10-4, extreme care shall be taken not to
overexcavate the shaped surface so that point loading shall not occur on the pipe bottom.
10.4.3.2 Embankment Bedding (See Figure 8-10-2 and Figure 8-10-3).
a. Where rock or noncompressible foundation material is encountered, the hard unyielding material should be excavated
below the elevation of the concrete cradle (Class A) or the bottom of the pipe or pipe bell (Class B and C Beddings) for
a depth of at least 6 inches or 1/2 inch for each foot of fill over the top of the pipe whichever is greater, but not more
than 3/4 inch of the diameter (or horizontal span) of the pipe.
b. For the Negative Projecting Embankment Condition, the width of the excavation, Bd, should be at least 1.5 × Bc and
with a minimum of 2 feet greater than the outside diameter of the pipe for thorough filling and compaction of the void
space under the pipe haunch.
10.4.3.3 Trench Bedding (See Figure 8-10-4 and Figure 8-10-5)
a. Materials for backfill on each side of the pipe for the full width of the trench and to an elevation of 1 foot above the top
of the pipe shall be fine, readily compacted soil or granular material, and shall not contain frozen lumps, stones that
would be retained on a 2 inches sieve, chunks, highly plastic clay, or other objectionable material. Granular backfill
material shall have 100% passing a 3/4 inch sieve, not less than 95% passing a 1/2 inch sieve, and not less than 95%
retained on a No. 16 sieve. Oversized material shall be removed at the source of the material, except as directed by the
Engineer.
b. When the top of the pipe is even with or below the top of the trench, backfill material shall be placed at or near the
optimum moisture content and compacted in layers not exceeding 6 inches (compacted) on both sides of the pipe for
the full required length.
© 2013,

c. Backfill material shall be placed and compacted for the full depth of the trench, unless induced trench installation is
used.
d. When the top of the pipe is above the top of the trench, backfill shall be placed at or near optimum moisture content
and compacted in layers not exceeding 6 inches (compacted) and shall be brought up evenly on both sides of the pipe
for its full length to an elevation 1 foot above the top of the pipe. The width of backfill on each side of the pipe for the
portion above the top of the trench shall be equal to twice the diameter of the pipe or 12 feet whichever is less. The
backfill material used in the trench section and the portion above the top of the trench for a distance on each side of the
pipe equal to the horizontal diameter and to 1 foot above the top of the pipe shall conform to the requirements for
backfill in paragraph a. The remainder of the backfill shall meet the requirements for embankment construction.
e. The width of the trench, Bd, shall be 1.5 × Bc but not less than 2 feet greater than the outside diameter of the pipe in
order to completely fill the void.
10.4.3.4 Induced Trench Bedding (See Figure 8-10-6)
a. The Induced Trench method shall not be used when the pipe is subjected to track loading without making a complete
investigation of the settlements involved.
b. When the Induced Trench method is used, the embankment shall be completed as required in Article 10.4.3.3 and as
illustrated in Figure 8-10-6, to a height above the pipe equal to the vertical outside diameter of the pipe plus 1 foot. A
trench equal in width to the outside horizontal diameter of the pipe, in depth equal to the vertical outside diameter of
the pipe, and to the length shown on the plans shall then be excavated to within 1 foot of the top of the pipe, trench
walls being as nearly vertical as possible. This trench shall be loosely filled with highly compressible material.
Construction of the embankment above the pipe shall then proceed in a normal manner using regular fill material.
1
c. The length of the Induced Trench method shall be determined by the designer in keeping with the design assumptions
and the pipe strength being used.
d. When the Alternate Induced Trench method is used, the embankment shall be constructed in a normal manner to a
height above the culvert bedding elevation equal to twice the outside diameter of the pipe. A trench as required shall 3
then be excavated with the walls as nearly vertical as possible, and the pipe bedded and backfilled to 1 foot above the
pipe as called for in Article 10.4.3.3. The remaining portion of the trench shall then be loosely filled with highly
compressible material. Construction of embankment shall then proceed in a normal manner.
e. In no case shall the length of compressible material extend to the ends of the culvert.
f. Rock fill shall not be dumped over the culvert without a sufficient cushion of earth to prevent breakage of the pipe. 4
10.4.3.5 Jacking Pipe
a. Pipe used for jacking through fills shall be tongue and groove design. The tongue shall preferably be at the downstream
end. Jacking frames shall be so constructed as to avoid breaking the pipe or forcing it out of alignment. The pipe shall
preferably be jacked upgrade in order to provide drainage at the heading during excavation. Satisfactory means shall be
provided for maintaining the lead pipe at the correct line and grade.
b. The pipe shall be installed according to specially prepared plans and specifications. The contractor shall set forth the
construction procedure, extra pipe reinforcement and jack shield (if required), jacking pit location and shoring, and
other special features for the safe and satisfactory completion of the work. Plans prepared by the contractor giving the
construction details shall be submitted for review by the Engineer.
c. Straw filler shall be inserted into voids created by excavation during jacking operations. Locations shall be recorded
and after mining is completed, grout holes are to be drilled through the pipe and the voids filled with grout.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

d. A survey crew must continually monitor elevation and alignment of the railroad track above during the jacking
procedures. Jacking must be stopped and any problems corrected if track movement is detected.
10.4.3.6 Constructing Pipe in Tunnels
When it is necessary to place culvert pipe by tunneling, plans and specifications for the completed structure shall be prepared
by the Engineer. The contractor shall set forth the construction procedures and other necessary details and submit them for
review by the Engineer.
© 2013,

8
Part 11
Lining Railway Tunnels1
— 2012 –
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2

11.1.1 Scope (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2

11.2.1 Interior Dimensions (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2 1
11.2.2 Preliminary Data (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2.3 Floors (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-2
11.2.4 Sidewalls and Arch (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-3
11.2.5 Construction and Expansion Joints (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-3
11.2.6 Drains (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.2.7 Refuge Niches (Bays) (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7 3
11.2.8 Conduit and Inserts (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3 Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7

11.3.1 General (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.2 Filling of Forms (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.3 Removal of Forms (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-7
11.3.4 Inspection Doors (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4 Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8

11.4.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.2 Order of Placing (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.3 Consolidation (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.4 Laitance and Bonding (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.5 Drainage During Placing (2004) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
11.4.6 Shotcrete (2004) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-8
1
References Vol. 37, 1936, pp. 645, 1042; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 309, 878; Vol. 54, 1953, pp. 814, 1343; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 445, 861; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 277, 687;
Vol. 74, 1973, p. 140; Vol. 89, 1988, p. 108. Rewritten 1988.

LIST OF FIGURES
8-11-1 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Rock Section Single Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-4
8-11-2 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Single Track Temporary Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-5
8-11-3 Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Double Track . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-6
11.1.1 SCOPE (2004) R(2012)
This recommended practice covers the lining of new tunnels in rock and those portions of old tunnels in rock which involve no
extraordinary side pressure or special features. The recommended practice covers linings of cast-in-place concrete and
shotcrete with steel sets.
SECTION 11.2 DESIGN
11.2.1 INTERIOR DIMENSIONS (2004) R(2012)
a. The interior dimensions of the clear space provided for single and double-track tunnels should not at any point be less
than tunnel clearances recommended by the AREMA Manual. Where legal requirements provide clearances greater
than AREMA, such legal requirements shall govern.
b. On curved track, the lateral clearance should be increased in conformance with Chapter 28, Clearances, Part 1,
Clearance Diagrams – Fixed Obstructions. The superelevation of the outer rail should be in accordance with the
recommended practice of Chapter 5, Track.
c. To provide for drainage, minimum side clearance of 10 feet (3 m) from centerline of track should be used in tunnels
likely to be wet. Where ventilation is required, the height of single-track tunnel should be increased 1 foot (300 mm)
minimum.
11.2.2 PRELIMINARY DATA (2004) R(2012)
Information shall be obtained for design of new tunnels, consisting of field surveys showing geological formations,
groundwater conditions, environmental conditions, adjacent structures, locations of faults, core borings, hardness and
condition of rock to be encountered, together with any special features and data on existing tunnels through similar formations.
Where a new tunnel is driven adjacent to an existing tunnel, records shall be searched for data as to groundwater conditions,
fault zones, and other special features. Consideration should be given to taking core borings from existing adjacent tunnels.
11.2.3 FLOORS (2004) R(2012)
Floors should, if practical, be paved and may have a ballasted track section, direct fixation to the concrete floor, or other
suitable track design. Paved floors shall be designed for the track section to be used.
© 2013,

Lining Railway Tunnels
11.2.4 SIDEWALLS AND ARCH (2004) R(2012)
a. The depth of sidewalls in sound rock shall be at least 6 inches (150 mm) below the bottom of the gutter and at least 6
inches (150 mm) below the intersection of the floor surface with the sidewalls. In unsound rock, the sidewalls shall be
carried down to provide a stable foundation. At portals and vicinity, sidewalls shall extend at least 6 inches (150 mm)
below the frost line.
b. The minimum thickness of the cast-in-place sidewalls and arch shall be:
(1) Where temporary supports for excavation are not required:
• Single track – See Figure 8-11-1.

• Double track – See Figure 8-11-3.
(2) Where temporary supports are required for face of excavation see Figure 8-11-2 or Figure 8-11-3.
c. Encased timber sets are subject to decay and are not recommended. Exposed timber sets create a fire hazard and also
are not recommended.
d. Steel sets are spaced at least 8 inches (200 mm) apart, and in general not greater than 4 feet (1.2 m) apart. Solid liners
may also be considered.
e. Lagging may be wood, steel lags, steel liner plates, or steel water-diverting lagging. Where the nature of the rock and
water conditions permit, lagging shall be spaced to allow a clearance of 4 inches (100 mm) or more between lags to 1
permit free access of concrete to the face of the tunnel excavation. Prior to concreting, remove as many lags as is
possible. Where it is necessary to solid-lag for protection during excavation and where it is impractical to open up the
lagging just prior to concreting, the space between the lagging and face of excavation shall be packed with lean
concrete, crushed stone, coarse gravel, or pea gravel placed pneumatically. Consolidation grouting shall be used to fill
any voids behind lining. Where timber lagging is used, or where existing packing consists of timber, special care must
be exercised in torch cutting or welding of steel ribs or other components to eliminate the risk of fire.
3
f. Rock bolts may be considered as part of a support system.
11.2.5 CONSTRUCTION AND EXPANSION JOINTS (2004) R(2012)
a. Properly placed and consolidated construction joints do not require keyways. Waterstops shall be provided as
necessary. Monoliths shall be as long as practical to minimize the number of construction joints. 4
b. Construction joints shall not be formed at such locations where they might reduce the effectiveness of the lining to
resist pressure from surrounding earth or rock.
c. Where construction joints are provided, expansion joints are not required.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
Engineering and
Maintenance-of-Way Association

Figure 8-11-1. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Rock Section Single Track
© 2013,

4
Figure 8-11-2. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Single Track Temporary Supports
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
Engineering and

Figure 8-11-3. Plain Concrete Tunnel Lining – Double Track
© 2013,

11.2.6 DRAINS (2004) R(2012)

a. Wherever groundwater is encountered or anticipated, vertical and diagonal openings, trench drains, PVC or iron pipe
drains shall be installed between the concrete lining and rock. Adequate outlets shall be provided through sidewalls
with the outer end of the outlets not less than 12 inches (300 mm) above the bottom of the gutter. Subdrains shall be
provided under the concrete floor wherever groundwater is found. Drains shall be provided through curb to drain
ballast section.
b. Where hydrostatic pressure below the floor may be present, consideration should be given to designing the floor to
withstand the pressure.
c. Wherever groundwater drains are installed, they shall be attached to the rock so as to prevent being clogged when
concrete is poured.
d. Drain type selection should take into consideration an analysis of groundwater constituents and effects of water
aeration to discourage formation of precipitates or adverse chemical reaction which may plug or damage the drainage
system.
11.2.7 REFUGE NICHES (BAYS) (2004) R(2012)

Refuge niches shall be provided as shown on the example figures at approximate intervals of 200 feet (60 m) and staggered
with opposite sides so that spacing of niches shall be approximately 100 feet (30 m). Width of niches should accommodate the
number of people and the equipment to be protected. Bottom of niches shall be at elevation of bottom of track ties for
ballasted track sections and at elevation of intersection of invert and walls for solid track sections. For long tunnels, larger
refuge niches should be considered at appropriate intervals to accommodate equipment. 1
11.2.8 CONDUIT AND INSERTS (2004) R(2012)
Where required, provisions shall be made in the lining for conduit or hangers for cables, wires, and lights.
3
SECTION 11.3 FORMS
11.3.1 GENERAL (2004) R(2012)

a. Forms shall conform to requirements as outlined in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, together
with additional provisions given herewith.
4
b. The length of forms between construction joints shall be as long as possible to limit number of joints. Waterproofing at
joints should be considered where appropriate.
11.3.2 FILLING OF FORMS (2004) R(2012)

The space between the face of the form and face of excavation or tight lagging shall be entirely filled with concrete, except for
drainage openings, and except that large cavities back of the normal face of excavation may be packed as outlined in
Paragraph 11.2.4(e).
11.3.3 REMOVAL OF FORMS (2004) R(2012)

Forms shall not be removed until concrete has reached strength sufficient to prevent distortion and sustain the applied load.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
Engineering and

11.3.4 INSPECTION DOORS (2004) R(2012)

Forms shall be provided with inspection doors in the arch and walls so that the concrete can be thoroughly vibrated and
inspected during the placing.
SECTION 11.4 CONCRETE
11.4.1 GENERAL (2012)
Concrete for lining shall be proportioned and placed in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements, together with the additional provisions given herewith. Placement of reinforcement shall be in accordance with
Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
11.4.2 ORDER OF PLACING (2004) R(2012)
A section of the wall and footing may be placed separately from the rest of the wall, but a construction joint shall not be more
than 2 feet (600 mm) above the top of ballast curb elevation. The remainder of the wall and arch shall be placed
monolithically. The floor ballast retainers shall preferably be placed in one operation.
11.4.3 CONSOLIDATION (2004) R(2012)
All concrete shall be consolidated during and immediately after placing by means of internal vibration applied in the mass of
concrete and external vibration applied to the forms.
11.4.4 LAITANCE AND BONDING (2004) R(2012)
a. Concrete surfaces receiving new concrete shall be roughened and cleaned of all laitance, dirt, and water before fresh
concrete is placed. The consistency of the concrete and method of placement shall be such that laitance seams are not
formed. If such seams are formed, they shall be completely removed before additional concrete is placed.
b. All loose or unsound rock shall be removed behind walls and below floors before concrete is placed. Where the type of
rock makes this impractical, the floor and foundations for the walls shall be reinforced.
11.4.5 DRAINAGE DURING PLACING (2004) R(2012)
Concrete shall not be placed in moving water. Separate and distinct provisions shall be provided to drain any area receiving
fresh concrete. Effective weeps and drains shall be provided to prevent any hydrostatic pressure against the lining. Temporary
drains shall be grouted after concrete liner has attained design strength.
11.4.6 SHOTCRETE (2004) R(2012)
Shotcrete and reinforcement for shotcrete for lining shall be proportioned in accordance with Part 14, Repair and
Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures.
© 2013,

8
Part 12
Cantilever Poles1
— 2003 —
Reaffirmed without changes.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
12.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2

12.1.1 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.1.2 Introduction (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
1
12.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.2.1 Pole (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2

12.3.1 Installation (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-2
12.4 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-3

3
12.4.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-3
LIST OF FIGURES
8-12-1 Pole Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-4

8-12-2 Bearing Capacity Factors vs. Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-7
8-12-3 Granular Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-8
LIST OF TABLES
8-12-1 Recommended Value of “nh” for Sands lb/in3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-5

8-12-2 Recommended Value of “K” for Clays for qu>1 tsf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-6
8-12-3 Constants Used in Calculations and their Variances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-8
1
References, Vol. 71, 1970, p. 232; Vol. 93, 1992, p. 78, 98.

12.1.1 SCOPE (1992)

a. This part of the Manual covers the design of the required embedment for poles in cohesive and granular soils that are
subjected to vertical and horizontal forces.
b. Loading on the poles is not considered in this Manual and the loads shall be determined by the applicable sections of
this Manual.
12.1.2 INTRODUCTION (1992)

a. In certain types of construction, poles are subjected to overturning forces. The most common usage of these types of
construction are transmission lines and sign poles. Under certain conditions, piles such as soldier piles for the
protection of excavations, capped pile abutments where the piling acts as a backwall, and stabilization piles for
embankment slopes can be analyzed as poles. This Manual is intended to offer a design procedure which will
determine the required pole embedment.
b. Several factors which will affect the design of cantilever embedded poles and that should be taken into account during
analysis and final design are: cyclical nature of the loads which may leave a void around the pole and allow infiltration
of water, plumbness of the pole, variations in the soil strata, variation of the soil at different locations, and the
indeterminate nature of the loading conditions.
12.2.1 POLE (1992)

The type, size, shape, manufacture, and construction shall be as specified by the Engineer, and shall conform to the following
sections of the Manual:
a. Concrete – Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations, Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
b. Steel – Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 1, Design and Part 3, Fabrication.
c. Timber – Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 1, Material Specifications for Lumber, Piles, Glued Laminated Timber and
Fasteners.

12.3.1.1 Driven Poles
Poles can be installed by pile driving methods, in which case the installation requirements shall be governed by Chapter 8,
Concrete Structures and Foundations, Part 4, Pile Foundations.
12.3.1.2 Set Poles
a. After the location of the poles has been selected, an oversized hole shall be augered to the design depth, the pole
inserted to the bottom of the hole, and the annular space filled with either compacted soil or concrete.
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
b. The size of the hole and the method of backfill shall be determined by the use of the pole, and the assumptions made
for design. If the full diameter of the hole is to be used in the structural analysis, concrete backfill shall be used to fill
the annular space between the pole and the surrounding earth. The need for reinforcement of the concrete shall be
determined by analysis.
c. Soil backfill of the annular space shall completely fill the voids, and be compacted to the density of the surrounding
soil.
d. The pole shall be held plumb in such a manner that transverse and vertical loads are not restrained by the ground
around the pole until the backfilling is complete and able to withstand the imposed loads.
e. If concrete backfill is intended to enlarge the diameter of the pole embedment, then suitable bracing shall remain in
place until the concrete has attained the strength set forth on the drawings.
SECTION 12.4 DESIGN
12.4.1 GENERAL (1992)
a. The design of the particular installation will be determined by many different factors. In all cases, the requirements can
be reduced to:
(1) External Loads. The vertical loads and their eccentricity; the magnitude, direction, and location of the horizontal
loads, and the frequency and cyclical nature of the loads shall be included in the design loads.
1
(2) Soil Characteristics. The soil type, unit weight, angle of internal friction for granular soils, cohesion of the soil,
location of the water table, and any variation in the soil. Soil strength values given here are not for soil below the
water table. Soil investigation shall be made in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 8, Concrete
Structures and Foundations, Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, taking into account the value and use
of the pole.
3
b. When a pole set directly into the earth is dependent upon the horizontal resistance (horizontal subgrade reaction) of the
supporting soil for its stability, and has not been permanently stayed by external supports, the following procedure is
recommended to determine the required embedment of the pole.
(1) The design of the proper pole diameter and depth of embedment is obtained by a trial and error solution. The
design is considered to be complete when the size of the pole (and/or its encasement), depth of embedment,
bending moments, shears, and deflection of the pole have been determined. 4
(2) Upon completion of the given design, the Engineer shall verify that the pole (and its structural encasement if used)
is capable of withstanding the previously determined moments and shears. The structural design for steel poles
shall conform to the requirements of Chapter 15, Steel Structures, concrete poles according to Chapter 8, Concrete
Structures and Foundations, and timber poles should conform to Chapter 7, Timber Structures.
c. The equations found in Article 12.4.1.1, Article 12.4.1.2 and Figure 8-12-1 may be used to determine the required
depth of embedment and width of the pole.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

pa
pb
Figure 8-12-1. Pole Design
Nomenclature
P= Vertical load on the pole acting at an eccentricity e and a distance h above grade.
Q= Resultant of all horizontal loads acting on the pole at a height H above grade.
D= Depth of embedment.
Do = Distance below the ground surface to a point where the horizontal deflection is zero.
B= Width of the pole and/or encasement resisting the horizontal load at the point under consideration.
M= Net overturning moment at the ground surface.
EI = Average flexural stiffness of the pole and/or encasement below grade.
pa = Maximum positive subgrade reaction.
pb = Maximum negative subgrade reaction.
nh = Soil modulus for granular soils.
K = Soil modulus for cohesive soils.
Pcr = Critical vertical load on the pole.
y= The lateral deflection of the pole at the groundline.
x= Distance from the ground surface, positive downward.
w= Unit weight of the soil.
c= Cohesion of the soil.
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
12.4.1.1 Granular Soils
M 3 a h-⎞
--------- + --- – ------ 36P ⎛ 1 + ---
Do QD 4 12 ⎝ D⎠
------ = ------------------------------- where a = ----------------------------- (See Table 8-12-1) EQ 12-1
D 3 M 3
--- --------- + 1 nh D
2 QD
Table 8-12-1. Recommended Value of “nh” for Sands lb/in3
Density Dry Submerged

Loose 10 5
Medium 30 20
Dense 75 45
3Q D 2
p a = ----------------------------- ------o- EQ 12-2
3D 2D
D ---------o- – 1
2D
1 D D
p a ≤ ----------- B ⎛ ------o⎞ w N q determine N q at x = ------o (See Figure 8-12-2) EQ 12-3
⎝ ⎠
F.S. 2 2 1
3Q D
p b = ----------------------------- ------o – 1 EQ 12-4
3D D
D ---------o- – 1
2D
1 3
p b ≤ – ----------- BDwN q determine N q at x = D (See Figure 8-12-2) EQ 12-5
F.S.
D EI 1⁄5
---- ≤ 3 where T = ------ (See Table 8-12-1) EQ 12-6
T nh
4
D 0.508
B.M. max = M + 0.89QD ------o – 0.667 EQ 12-7
D
P
P cr = ---
a
D
3Q ⎛ ------o⎞
⎝ D⎠
y = --------------------------------------
2 3D
n h D ---------o- – 1
2D
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

12.4.1.2 Cohesive Soils
M- + 0.683 – --------- b-
--------
Do QD 6.78
------ = --------------------------------------------- EQ 12-8
D 1.87M
---------------- + 1
QD
h
14.6P ⎛ 1 + ----⎞
⎝ D ⎠
where b = --------------------------------- (See Table 8-12-2)
2
KD
Table 8-12-2. Recommended Value of “K” for Clays for qu>1 tsf
qu tsf “K” psi

1–2 700
2–4 1400
over 4 2800
qu is the unconfined compressive
strength of the clay.
1.377Q D 1.15
p a = ------------------------------------- ------o EQ 12-9
D D
D 1.87 ------o – 1
D
1
p a ≤ ---------BcN c determine Nc at x = 0.13 Do (See Figure 8-12-2) EQ 12-10
F.S.
2.15Q D
p b = ------------------------------------- ------o – 1 EQ 12-11
D D
D 1.87 ------o – 1
D
1 -BcN
p b ≤ -------- c determine Nc at x = D (See Figure 8-12-2) EQ 12-12
F.S.
D 1⁄4
---- ≤ 3 where R = EI
------ (See Table 8-12-2) EQ 12-13
R K
D 0.823
B.M. max = M + 0.80QD ------o – 0.535 EQ 12-14
D
P
P cr = ---
b
D
2.15Q ⎛ ------o⎞
⎝ D⎠
y = -----------------------------------------
D
KD 1.87 ------o – 1
D
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
Figure 8-12-2. Bearing Capacity Factors vs. Depth
12.4.1.3 Procedure
a. Determine all loads acting on the pole and assume a desired pole and/or encasement diameter B. Estimate the depth D 3
as the maximum allowable for the assumed pole cross section, as determined by EQ 12-6 or EQ 12-13.
b. Figure 8-12-3 can be used to assist in the design for poles embedded in granular soils.
c. Use a factor of safety of three for permanent loads and two for temporary loads.
d. Carry through several trial designs until the depth chosen corresponds to the allowable soil stresses, as shown in
Article 12.4.1.4 and Article 12.4.1.5. (In EQ 12-2, EQ 12-4, EQ 12-9, and EQ 12-11 the fourth significant figure is 4
important in the denominator.)
e. Where the vertical load is large, the pole shall be investigated as a friction pile. In this investigation the top 2 feet of the
embedded portion of the pole shall be neglected unless the horizontal load is quite small and the eccentricity of the
vertical load is nominal.
f. Table 8-12-3 shows the constants used in the calculations and how to vary them.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

NOTE:Graph will determine approximate values only.
Check EQ 12-6 for limitation on pole embedment depth.
Figure 8-12-3. Granular Soils
Table 8-12-3. Constants Used in Calculations and their Variances
Existing Variations
Constant New Constant Change
B = 18 inches B = 24 inches Reduce obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
w = 70 pcf Increase obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
w = 100 pcf
w = 120 pcf No change in value
nh = 10 lb/in3 Increase obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
nh = 20 lb/in3
nh = 30 lb/in3 Reduce obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
F.S. = 2 F.S. = 3 Increase obtained value of “D” by 1 foot
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
12.4.1.4 Example A – Granular Soils
a. Soil:
• Granular and dry with φ = 35 degrees
• Unit weight = w = 110 lb/cubic feet
• Medium dense: n h = 75 + 30- = 52.5 lb/in2

-----------------
2
b. Loading:
• P = 5 kips, h = 20 feet, e = 12 inches
• Q = 2 kips, H = 25 feet
• Factor of Safety = F.S. = 3
c. Trial Design:
• It is desired to have a timber pole with a diameter of B = 18 inches

with a modulus of elasticity = E = 1.6 (10)6 psi
1
• M = 25 (2) + 1(5) = 55 kip-ft.
4
6 π ( 18 ) 9
• EI = 1.6 ( 10 ) ----------------- = 8.245 ( 10 )
64
d. Using EQ 12-6: 3
9 1⁄5
8.245 ( 10 )
T = --------------------------- = 44.0 and Dmax ≤ 3(44.0) = 132 inches
52.5
= 11 feet
Try D = 11 feet
4
e. Using EQ 12-1:
55 3 a
-------------- + --- – ------
Do 2 ( 11 ) 4 12
------ = ------------------------------------ = 0.685 neglect “a” for all trial solutions, and check only final design.
D 3 55
--- -------------- + 1
2 2 ( 11 )
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

f. Using EQ 12-2:
3 ( 2 ) - ( 0.3425 ) 2 = 2.327 kips/ft

p a = --------------------------
11 ( 0.0275 )
g. Using EQ 12-3:
Nq = 11.5 for x = 0.3425(11) = 3.77 feet
x 3.77
---- = ---------- = 2.5
B 1.50
1
p a ≤ --- ( 1.5 ) ( 3.77 ) ( 110 ) ( 11.5 ) ⁄ 1000
3
= 2.38 kips/ft
h. Using EQ 12-4:
3(2)
p b = --------------------------- ( 0.685 – 1.000 ) = – 6.25 kips/ft
11 ( 0.0275 )
i. Using EQ 12-5:
x
Nq = 16.5 for ---- = 7.33
B
1
p b ≤ – --- ( 1.5 ) ( 11 ) ( 110 ) ( 16.5 ) ⁄ 1000
3
= –9.88 kips/ft
NOTE: A check using the value of “a” in EQ 12-1 will give no change.
j. Using EQ 12-7:
B.M. max = 55.00 + 0.89 (0.685 - 0.677)0.508 (2)(11)

= 56.69 kip-ft
y = 3 (2000) (0.685)/52.5 (132) (132) (0.0275)
= 0.17 inches
Pcr = 5000/0.0044 = 1130 kips
20
36 ( 5000 ) ⎛ 1 + ------⎞
⎝ 11⎠ - = 0.0044
for a = ---------------------------------------------------------
( 52.5 ) ( 132 ) ( 132 ) ( 132 )
© 2013,

Cantilever Poles
12.4.1.5 Example B – Cohesive Soils
a. Soil:
• Cohesive and dry with φ = 0 degrees,
• qu = 2 tons/square foot
• Unit weight = 110 lb/cubic foot
• c = 1 ton/square foot and use K = 1400 psi (See Table 8-12-2)
b. Loading:
• Same as previous example
c. Trial Design. It is desired to use an 18-inch pole with
• E = 1.6(10)6 psi
• M = 55 kip-ft, and EI = 8.245(10)9
d. Using EQ 12-13:
9 1⁄4
1
8.245 ( 10 )
R = --------------------------- = 49.3
1400
Dmax = 3 (49.3) = 147.9 = 12.3 feet.
After several trials it was decided to try D = 7.5 feet.

3
e. Using EQ 12-8:
55
--------------- + 0.683
Do 2 ( 7.5 )
------ = ----------------------------------- = 0.554
D 1.87 ( 3.05 ) + 1
4
f. Using EQ 12-11:
2.15 ( 2 )
p b = -------------------------------------------------- ( – 0.446 ) = – 6.73 kips/ft
7.5 [ 1.87 ( 0.554 ) – 1 ]
g. Using EQ 12-12:
1
p b = --- ( 1.5 ) ( 2 ) ( 6.9 ) = – 6.90 kips/ft
3
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

h. Using EQ 12-9:
1.377 ( 2 ) - ( 0.554 ) 1.15 = 4.89 kips/ft

p a = -------------------------
7.5 ( 0.038 )
i. Using EQ 12-10:
1
p a ≤ --- ( 1.5 ) ( 2 ) ( 3.8 ) = 3.80 kips/ft
3
Not satisfied
for x = 0.13 (0.554) (7.5) = 0.53 feet.
Nc = 3.8 (See Figure 8-12-2)
Try D = 9 feet
j. Using EQ 12-8:
55 - + 0.683
----------
Do 2(9)
------ = ----------------------------------- = 0.556
D 1.87 ( 3.05 ) + 1
k. Using EQ 12-9:
1.377 ( 2 ) 1.15
p a = -------------------------- ( 0.556 ) = 3.80 kips/ft
9.0 ( 0.041 )
l. Using EQ 12-10:
1
p a ≤ --- ( 1.5 ) ( 2 ) ( 3.9 ) = 3.90 kips/ft
3
pb will obviously be satisfactory for this increased depth.
m. Using EQ 12-14:
B.M. max = 55.00 + 0.80 (9) (2) (0.021)0.823

= 55.60 kip-ft
y = 2.15 (2000) (0.556)/(1400) (108) (0.041)
= 0.39 inches
© 2013,

8
Part 14
Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures1
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
14.1 Scope (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.2 Determination of the Causes of Concrete Deterioration (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-3
14.3 Evaluation of the Effects of Deterioration and Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4 1

14.3.1 Methods of Evaluation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.3.2 Results of Evaluation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-4
14.3.3 Special Cases (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.3.4 Reevaluation (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4 Principal Materials Used in the Repair of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5 3

14.4.1 Cement (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.2 Admixtures (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.3 Aggregate (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.4 Reinforcement (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-5
14.4.5 Polymers in Concrete (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.6 Bonding Compounds (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.7 Epoxy Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.8 Non-shrink Grouts (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.4.9 Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP Composites) (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-6
14.5 Repair Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7

14.5.1 Surface Repairs Using Portland Cement Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-7
14.5.2 Surface Repairs Using Polymer Concretes and Polymer Portland Cement
Concretes (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-12
14.5.3 Tuckpointing (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-12
14.5.4 Arch Lining (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-12
14.5.5 Internal Structural Repairs (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-13
14.5.6 Non-Structural Crack Repair (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
14.5.7 Reinforcement Splices (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-20
1
References, Vol. 36, 1935, pp. 870, 1028; Vol. 42, 1941, pp. 297, 878; Vol. 43, 1942, pp. 336, 716; Vol. 51, 1950, pp. 365, 895; Vol. 53, 1952, p. 617; Vol.
54, 1953, pp. 819, 1343; Vol. 62, 1961, pp. 443, 444, 861; Vol. 63, 1962, pp. 277, 688; Vol. 65, 1964, pp. 362, 758; Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 357, 360, 657; Vol.
84, 1983, p. 93; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 98.

14.6 Repair Methods for Prestressed Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22

14.6.1 Cracks Exist with No Significant Section Loss and No Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6.2 There is Minor Section Loss, but No Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6.3 Shattered Concrete and/or Significant Section Loss, but No Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6.4 There is Section Loss and Tendon Damage (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-22
14.6.5 Member Is Damaged Beyond Reasonable Repair (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
14.6.6 Member Has Inadequate Strength (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
14.6.7 Summary (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-23
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-24
LIST OF FIGURES
8-14-1 Repair of Cracks by Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-17

8-14-2 Repair of Cracks by Pinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-18
8-14-3 External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-18
8-14-4 External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
8-14-5 Detail Copper Plate Joint Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-19
8-14-6 Detail PVC Pipe Joint Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-20
8-14-7 External Splice Sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-21
C-8-14-1Preloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-31
C-8-14-2External Post-Tensioning Section Between Corbels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-32
C-8-14-3Metal Splice Sleeve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-33
LIST OF TABLES
8-14-1 Supporting Loads for Expansion Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-8

8-14-2 Expansion Bolt Placement – Concrete 4 Inches or More in Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-8
© 2013,

Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures
SECTION 14.1 SCOPE (2006)1
a. This part applies to the repair and rehabilitation of concrete2 structures by the following methods: patching,
encasement with concrete, shotcrete, pressure grouting, injection grouting of preplaced aggregates, tremie placement,
bagged concrete, epoxy injection, external post-tensioning, splicing of damaged reinforcement and component
replacement. They are intended to provide means of accomplishing repairs both above and below water using a variety
of materials.
b. This part also identifies some of the major causes for the deterioration of concrete and the methods of protecting
against deterioration.
c. Repair of a structure usually consists of five basic steps:
(1) Identifying the deterioration.
(2) Determining the cause.
(3) Evaluating the strength of the existing structure.
(4) Evaluating the need for repair.
(5) Selecting and implementing a repair procedure.
SECTION 14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSES OF CONCRETE

DETERIORATION (2006)3
a. In order to select the proper repair procedure for concrete, the cause of the deterioration must first be established. One
or more of the following factors may contribute to the deterioration of the concrete:
3
(1) Lack of quality in the original concrete and/or its placement.
(2) Deficiency of reinforcement.
(3) Properties of surrounding environment. 4

(4) Inadequate structural capacity.
(5) Physical damage.
b. The investigation should try to determine the possible cause(s) and then select a repair procedure which will correct the
existing condition and prevent further deterioration by any and all of the suspect cause(s).
1
See Commentary
2
May be applicable to either concrete or masonry.
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 14.3 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF DETERIORATION AND DAMAGE
14.3.1 METHODS OF EVALUATION (2006)
14.3.1.1 Visual Inspection
Periodic inspections (see Part 21 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures) should be made to detect deterioration and
damage before the structure becomes irreparable. The engineer in charge of maintenance and inspection should be experienced
in determining the parts of structures in need of repair and the extent of deterioration or damage.
14.3.1.2 Analysis of Actual Stress Condition
This method involves a stress analysis of the structure in its existing condition.
14.3.1.3 Non-Destructive Tests1
There are several common test procedures available to determine the in-place condition of the structure. The most appropriate
test should be determined by the Engineer.
14.3.1.4 Sampling
This procedure consists of removing samples of material, usually by coring, in order to analyze physical and chemical
characteristics of concrete and reinforcing.
14.3.1.5 Load Test
a. This method involves the instrumenting of a structure to measure strains or deflections as a means of determining the
capability of the structure to sustain service loads. A prescribed test load is permitted to cross the structure at a given
speed. Often it is desirable to stop the test load on the structure at a predetermined position and take measurements
under static conditions.
b. The test should be monitored as the loading progresses to verify that the observed data compares favorably with the
theoretical calculations. If a significant difference is observed the test should be stopped and further evaluated before
proceeding.
c. This method should be used only if calculations indicate a reasonable margin of safety against collapse under the test
load. Loads considerably below the desired service load level may be used initially to make a preliminary evaluation
and to predict the reaction of the structure under a full test load.
14.3.2 RESULTS OF EVALUATION (2006)2
Based on the evaluation, one or more of the following determinations can be made regarding the present condition:
a. Requires no action.
b. Requires action to arrest or minimize deterioration.
c. Requires action to repair or strengthen the structure.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

d. Requires reconstruction or replacement of the structure.
e. Requires restricting traffic speed and/or weight or closing the structure to traffic.
14.3.3 SPECIAL CASES (2006)
In special cases (i.e. windstorm, flooding, scour, seismic activity, fire damage, etc.), the resulting damage to the structure may
not be apparent to the inspector in a visual examination of the surface. Care should be exercised in these cases to properly
evaluate all defects using, where necessary, special inspection and nondestructive testing techniques.
14.3.4 REEVALUATION (2006)
During repair or rehabilitation of a structure it may be found that the extent of the damage or deterioration is greater than
originally determined. This further damage should be reviewed for the effectiveness of the proposed repair under these
conditions.
SECTION 14.4 PRINCIPAL MATERIALS USED IN THE REPAIR OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
NOTE: The materials used should conform in physical properties to Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction 1
Requirements, or as hereinafter specified.
14.4.1 CEMENT (2006)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.2 Cement and Section 1.3 Other Cementitious Materials.
14.4.2 ADMIXTURES (2006) 3
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.7 Concrete Admixtures.
14.4.3 AGGREGATE (2006)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.4 Aggregates. 4
a. See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.6 Reinforcement.
b. Reinforcement may consist of one or more of the following materials: Deformed steel bars, prestressing tendons, wire
mesh or reinforcing fibers consisting of steel, glass, or plastic.
c. When increased protection from corrosion is required, coatings or cathodic protection of steel reinforcement may be
considered.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.4.5 POLYMERS IN CONCRETE (2006)
a. See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.9 Bonding (1993).
b. Polymer Concrete may be used as a patching material and where high strengths are needed in a short time.
c. Polymer Cement Concrete may be used as an overlay (an example of PCC is latex-modified concrete).
14.4.6 BONDING COMPOUNDS (2006)
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.7 Concrete Admixtures.
14.4.7 EPOXY MATERIALS (2006)
Epoxy materials are manufactured with a wide range of properties for various applications and should be chosen to provide for
the requirements (i.e. viscosity, strengths, flexibility, adhesion, etc.) of the specific repair. In addition, they should meet the
requirements of ASTM Specification C881, Type 1, Epoxy Resin Base Compounds for Concrete. Epoxy materials are used for
a variety of purposes including bonding new concrete to old, repair of cracks, sealing and patching. Selection is subject to
approval of the Engineer.
14.4.8 NON-SHRINK GROUTS (2006)1
a. Non-shrink grouts consist of either portland cement based grouts with an expanding agent added to counter the
shrinkage from the hydration of the portland cement grout or non-cementitious based grouts such as epoxy grouts.
b. Non-shrink grouts are generally used for setting and leveling bearings. Selection of the grout is subject to approval by
the Engineer.
c. Non-shrink grouts should conform to ASTM C1107. Design and use of portland cement non-shrink grouts should be in
conformance with ACI-223 – Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage Compensating Concrete.
14.4.9 FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS (FRP COMPOSITES) (2006)
a. Fiber reinforced polymers may be considered for strengthening or repairing existing reinforced or prestressed concrete.
b. Polymer resins are manufactured with a wide range of properties for various applications and should be chosen to
provide for the requirements of the specific repair. Selection is subject to the approval of the Engineer.
c. Reinforcement typically consists of carbon, glass or aramid fiber. Reinforcement is manufactured with a wide range of
properties for various applications and should be chosen to provide for the requirements of the specific repair.
Selection is subject to approval of the Engineer.
d. Fiber-reinforced polymers are typically applied in alternating layers of polymer resin and woven-fabric fiber
reinforcing. Concrete underlying repairs should be cleaned and checked for soundness prior to surface application.
e. Design and application for FRP repairs should conform to manufacturer’s recommendations and sound engineering
principles.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 14.5 REPAIR METHODS
14.5.1 SURFACE REPAIRS USING PORTLAND CEMENT MATERIALS (2006)
14.5.1.1 Scope
a. Repairs should consist of removal of soft, disintegrated, broken, or honeycombed concrete or stone; cleaning and
preparing the bonding surface and exposed reinforcement; placing of anchors and reinforcement; placing of concrete
by shotcreting, handpatching, forming and placing, tremieing, grouting of preplaced aggregate, or as specified. Such
concrete is to be finished to true line and surface as shown on the plans and properly cured.
b. Concrete in the repaired area below the neutral axis in prestressed members should be repaired under an externally
applied preload. Preload may be applied by means of jacks or a known load.1
14.5.1.2 Preparation2
a. All loose, soft, honeycombed and disintegrated concrete or stone should be removed from the areas to be repaired by
proper tools, to expose a bonding surface of sound material. Appropriately sized equipment should be used so as not to
damage sound underlying material.
b. Following the removal of all loose, disintegrated or otherwise defective concrete, the entire exposed surfaces of the
structure should be carefully inspected for locations of seepage, internal honeycombed areas, cracks or voids.
c. In prestressed concrete, extreme care should be taken to avoid any damage to prestressing strands. Exposed strands 1
should be chemically cleaned by an approved method.
d. Thin or feathered edges should be avoided and the boundaries of the areas to be repaired should be square cut or
slightly undercut to a depth of 1 inch. For shotcreting, the boundary edges should be 45-degree bevel cuts to a depth of
at least 1 inch. The maximum depth of removal shall be determined based on an analysis of the existing structure and
its condition.
3
e. The bonding surface should be rough, clean, sound concrete or stone. Oil or film of any sort that may reduce the bond
should not be permitted. Loose particles, dust and dirt, should be removed.
f. Sand and water blasting may require containment of dust and/or runoff water. Cracks are to be prepared as specified in
Article 14.5.5.
14.5.1.3 Anchorage 4
a. Concrete repairs applied less than 1-1/2 inches thick will not require anchorage, unless specified by the Engineer. A
bonding compound may be specified.
b. Where new concrete greater than 1-1/2 inches thick and less than 4 inches thick is to be placed, 1/4 inch diameter
galvanized expansion hook bolts should be spaced not more than 18 inches center to center on vertical surfaces and not
more than 12 inches center to center on overhead surfaces. Each bolt should have sufficient engagement in the sound
concrete to resist a pull of 150 pounds. When pried from the wall with a bar inserted under the bend of the bolt, the
bend should straighten out without pulling the bolt.
c. The specified spacing of expansion bolts should be based on supporting three times the total weight of suspended
concrete and two times the weight of concrete on vertical surfaces. Facilities should be provided for testing the
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

supporting value of the bolts. Each bolt should be set in sound concrete and should be capable of supporting, without
loosening, the suspended load indicated in Table 8-14-1.
Table 8-14-1. Supporting Loads for Expansion Bolts
Diameter of Expansion Bolt Load

in Inches in lb
1/4 150
3/8 400
1/2 750
5/8 1,200
3/4 1,750
d. Any expansion bolt failing to support such load should be reset and tested.
e. Where concrete 4 inches or more in thickness is to be placed, approved expansion bolts should be set where shown on
the plans, or in accordance with Table 8-14-2.
Table 8-14-2. Expansion Bolt Placement – Concrete 4 Inches or More in Thickness
Spacing in Each Direction

Thickness
of Concrete Suspended Concrete Vertical Surfaces Top Surfaces
(Inch) Inches Diameter Inches Diameter Inches Diameter
at Feet-Inch at Feet-Inch at Feet-Inch
4 3/8 @ 1-8 3/8 @ 2-0 3/8 @ 3-0
5 3/8 @ 1-5 3/8 @ 1-9 3/8 @ 3-0
6 3/8 @ 1-4 3/8 @ 1-8 3/8 @ 3-0
7 3/8 @ 1-2 3/8 @ 1-6 3/8 @ 3-0
8 1/2 @ 1-7 1/2 @ 1-11 1/2 @ 3-0
9 1/2 @ 1-6 1/2 @ 1-10 1/2 @ 3-0
10 1/2 @ 1-5 1/2 @ 1-9 1/2 @ 2-0
11 1/2 @ 1-4 1/2 @ 1-8 1/2 @ 2-0
12 1/2 @ 1-3 1/2 @ 1-6 1/2 @ 2-0
f. Where the thickness of concrete is more than 12 inches, the size, length, spacing and embedment of expansion bolts
should be determined or approved by the Engineer.
g. The exposed end of each expansion hook bolt should have a right angle, or greater, bend for engaging reinforcement.
h. No isolated area greater than 2 square feet should have fewer than 3 bolts.
i. Where only a single line of bolts is required, the maximum spacing should be 24 inches and the size should be
determined by the supported load shown in Table 8-14-1.
j. Dowels made of deformed steel bars, grouted in, may be used instead of expansion bolts. When dowels are used, the
size, spacing and bond capacity shall be the same as that required for expansion bolts. Horizontal dowel holes should
be drilled downward on a slope of approximately 1 inch per foot.
© 2013,

14.5.1.4 Placement of Reinforcement
14.5.1.4.1 General
Reinforcement should be securely wired to the anchors. The clear distance from the existing concrete to the first layer of
reinforcing should be 1-1/2 times the maximum aggregate size, but not less than 1/2 inch. Cover of reinforcement should meet
the requirements of Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.6.
14.5.1.4.2 Shotcrete
a. No reinforcement is required for shotcrete encasement less than 1-1/2 inches thick unless specified by the Engineer.
b. A layer of reinforcement for each 4 inches (3 inches for suspended encasement) thickness of encasement or fraction
thereof. Each layer should be 3″× 3″ – W 1.4 × W 1.4 welded wire reinforcing.
c. For encasement thicknesses in excess of 4 inches (3 inches suspended), an additional two-way system of No. 3
reinforcing bars spaced the same as the anchors in both directions should be provided. The last layer of wire mesh
should be secured by wiring to the bars.
d. Each layer of mesh must be completely encased in the shotcrete or concrete which has taken initial set before the
succeeding layer of mesh is applied.
e. Mesh extending around corners or reentrant angles should be bent to a template before securing to anchorage and not
sprung or forced into position. At corners, double reinforcing mesh should be provided and extended a minimum
distance of 6 inches beyond the intersection of the 2 planes.
1
f. When splicing wire mesh is necessary, a lap of 1-1/2 mesh spacings should be required, wired together at intervals of
not more than 18 inches.
g. Where special reinforcement is required for structural strength, engineering plans should be furnished.
3
14.5.1.4.3 Concrete
Reinforcement should meet the requirements of Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.12 Shrinkage and Temperature
Reinforcement (2005).
14.5.1.5 Bonding1
4
14.5.1.5.1 Slurry Bonding
After the bonding surfaces of the old concrete have been prepared as outlined in Article 14.5.1.2, the bonding surface should
be kept constantly wet for a minimum of 1 hour immediately prior to application of the bonding coat. In no case should fresh
material be applied to a dry surface. The bonding coat should be applied to the damp bonding surface and should be vigorously
brushed on to completely fill all surface pores immediately prior to placing the body of the new concrete. The bonding coat
should be composed of cement or one part cement to one part fine sand and sufficient water to make a creamy mixture. If
required by the Engineer, an approved shrinkage reducing material should be added. The bonding coat should not be troweled,
screeded, disturbed or allowed to dry before the next layer of new concrete is applied.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.5.1.5.2 Other Bonding Agent
At locations where positive bond is mandatory, an approved bonding compound should be specified. Since a large variety of
bonding products are available, surface preparation and compound application should be in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.1.6 Hand Patching
Immediately after the bonding coat has been applied, the entire cavity should be filled and finished to true line and surfaced
with an approved patching material suitable for hand patching vertically, horizontally or overhead. Application should be in
conformance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.1.7 Cast-in-Place
a. When restoration or encasement is accomplished by placing concrete in between forms and the old surface by gravity
or pressure placement, the forms should have sufficient strength to withstand the pressure of the new concrete without
yielding appreciably.
b. The concrete should be proportioned per Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
c. The new concrete should completely fill the space provided and present a surface comparable to the original.
d. Concrete is to be compacted per Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.6.
14.5.1.8 Shotcrete1
14.5.1.8.1 General
Shotcrete is a mixture of Portland cement, fine aggregate and water, shot into place by compressed air. There are two different
processes in use, namely the “dry mix” process and “wet mix” process.
14.5.1.8.2 Dry Mix Method
a. Shotcrete should be made of a mixture of portland cement and sand in the proportion of one bag of cement for every 4
cubic feet of sand by volume. The amount of sand should be based on dry, loose measurement with proper correction in
quantity for effect of bulking due to moisture content. The sand and cement should be thoroughly mixed dry, passed
through a 3/8 inch screen before being placed in the pneumatic apparatus, and placed by pneumatic pressure through
shotcrete equipment with proper amount of water applied in the mixing nozzle for the necessary placement
consistency. The screened sand and cement should be applied on the surface within one hour after combining them. To
avoid voids and reduce shrinkage cracks, shotcrete should be applied as dry as practicable. Suitable prepackaged
materials may be used as approved by the engineer.
b. Shrinkage reducing and/or bonding compounds are to be applied as specified by the manufacturer.
c. The air pressure in the pneumatic apparatus should be maintained uniform and not less than 35 psi while placing the
mixed material, with necessary increase in pressure for horizontal delivery distances of more than 100 feet or vertical
distances of more than 25 feet. The water pressure applied through the nozzle should be not less than 10 psi greater
than the air pressure in the shotcrete machine.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

14.5.1.8.3 Wet Mix Method
The wet mix method varies from the dry mix method only in that the materials are mixed in a vessel prior to pumping the mix
to the nozzle, whereas the mixing with water occurs at the nozzle in the Dry Mix Method. This method may therefore require
variations in pressure from those required for dry mixing.
14.5.1.8.4 Application
a. Shooting strips should be employed to ensure square corners, straight lines and a plane surface of shotcrete, except as
otherwise permitted by plans or approved by the Engineer. They should be so placed as to keep the trapping of rebound
at a minimum.
b. Where no separate bonding agent is used, the surface, particularly porous brick, to which shotcrete is to be applied
should be thoroughly wet, without free water, to facilitate bond.
c. At the end of each day’s work, or similar stopping periods requiring construction joints, the shotcrete should be sloped
off to a thin edge. No square joints will be allowed. In shooting vertical surfaces, care must be taken in general to begin
the shotcrete area at the bottom and complete at the top.
A sufficient number of coats should be applied to obtain the required thickness. The thickness of each coat should not
be greater than 1 inch, except as approved by the Engineer, and should be so placed that it will neither slough nor
decrease the bond of the preceding coat. Where a successive coat is applied on shotcrete, which has set more than two
hours, the surface should be cleaned and water blasted.
d. When placing shotcrete, the stream of flowing material from the nozzle should impinge as nearly as possible at right 1
angles to the surface being covered, and the nozzle should be held from 2 to 4 feet from the working surface.
e. Deposits of rebound from previous shooting, whether loose or cemented, should be removed and not covered up.
Should any such deposits be covered, they should be cut out and the area reshot.
f. The final surface of shotcrete should be given either:

3
(1) a thin finishing or flash coat;
(2) a screeded finish;
(3) a rubbed finish; or
(4) a brush finish, as specified. 4

14.5.1.9 Preplaced Aggregate Grouting
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.15.10d.
14.5.1.10 Tremie Placement
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.15.10a.
14.5.1.11 Pumping Concrete
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Article 1.14.5.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.5.1.12 Curing and Protection1
See Part 1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.18 Curing.
14.5.2 SURFACE REPAIRS USING POLYMER CONCRETES AND POLYMER PORTLAND

CEMENT CONCRETES (2006)2
14.5.2.1 Scope
a. Repair should consist of removal of soft, disintegrated or honeycombed concrete; cleaning and preparing the bonding
surface; placing the Polymer Concrete or Polymer Cement Concrete; and finishing to true lines and surface.
b. Preloading. Concrete in the repaired area below the neutral axis in prestressed members should be repaired under an
externally applied preload. Preload may be applied by means of jacks or a known load.
14.5.2.2 Surface Preparation, Materials and Application
Surface preparation materials and application should be in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
14.5.3 TUCKPOINTING (2006)
14.5.3.1 Scope
Repair should consist of the removal of soft, disintegrated or loose grout between masonry units, cleaning the joints and filling
the joints with mortar.
14.5.3.2 Preparation
All deteriorated mortar, dirt and loose particles should be removed from the masonry joints with hand tools followed by blast
cleaning with water or oil free air.
14.5.3.3 Materials
a. Mortar should consist of one part cement to three parts sand with sufficient water to produce a workable mixture.
b. Cement should be Portland cement C150, Type I or as specified by the Engineer.
c. Sand should be fine mason sand with a fineness modulus of not more than 2.0.
14.5.3.4 Procedure
a. Areas to be tuckpointed should be wet thoroughly to prevent absorption of water from the mortar.
b. All excess material should be removed and the joint tooled to a neat workmanlike appearance.
14.5.4 ARCH LINING (2006)
The lining of stone and brick masonry arches with steel liner plates is covered in Chapter 1 Roadway and Ballast, Part 8
Tunnels. Lining with cast-in-place concrete or shotcrete is covered in Chapter 8, Part 11 Lining Railway Tunnels.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

14.5.5 INTERNAL STRUCTURAL REPAIRS (2006)
14.5.5.1 Scope1
Internal structural repair of concrete consists of the filling of internal voids and/or restoring the cracked sections to meet
original strength with Portland cement grouts or epoxies and reinforcement where required.
14.5.5.2 Cement Grouts
14.5.5.2.1 Preparation
Before the grouting operation is started, all defective materials should be removed and the entire surface should be thoroughly
inspected for points of leakage and indications of voids. Inserts for grouting should be so located and set that the pressure grout
will reach all voids and paths of leakage. All defective exposed joints and cracks in the structure should be chipped out, then
thoroughly cleaned of all foreign materials by means of high pressure air or water. The joints, cracks and disintegrated areas
should be restored to the original surface with hand pointing or shotcrete.
14.5.5.2.2 Grout Holes in Stone
a. Before drilling of the grout holes is started, the test drillings should be made completely through the masonry to
determine the thickness of the masonry. From the test drillings, the proper depth of grout holes should be determined in
order that grout holes are not drilled completely through the masonry.
b. Grout holes should be drilled at regular intervals, staggered to include approximately 25 square feet of surface area per 1
hole or at such other locations as may be specified. In cases of arch rings, the holes should be drilled diagonally to
intercept the longitudinal joints (parallel to the barrel) and staggered at such intervals as to include approximately 12
square feet of surface area per hole. Holes should be 1-1/2 inches minimum diameter for Portland cement grout and
should be drilled to such a depth, and in such manner, as necessary to intercept joints and internal voids, to completely
consolidate the structure. Holes which have been drilled completely through the structure should not be used for
pressure grouting and these holes must be completely plugged before grouting begins.
3
c. On structures, or parts of structures, of one stone thickness, the grout holes should be drilled in such a manner as to
intercept the horizontal joints where possible; however, if, due to insufficient clearance, the holes cannot be drilled
through the horizontal joints, they should then be drilled so as to intercept the vertical joints. The holes in the courses
of masonry below ground line should be drilled diagonally downward at various angles to the natural foundation below
the masonry, so that the bottom courses and any underlying cavities, including cavities in or under timber grillages,
should be completely filled.
4
14.5.5.2.3 Grout Holes in Concrete
For Portland cement grout 1-1/2 inches diameter grout holes should be drilled to a depth and spacing as necessary to provide
maximum dissemination of the pressure grout throughout the repair areas. Prior to pressure grouting, the chipped areas should
be restored as previously specified, provisions being made to extend the grout holes through the replacement material for
grouting after the exposed surfaces are sealed.
14.5.5.2.4 Portland Cement Grout Mixture
a. For stone masonry the pressure grout mixture should consist of one part of cement, one-half part of sand and, if
required, an approved type of shrinkage reducing material. The amount of sand to be used in the grouting mixture
should be determined by starting the grouting operation with neat cement grout and adding sand in gradually
increasing proportions until the optimum ratio of sand to cement has been reached which will give a free flowing grout.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. If it is found through application of the above that the addition of sand retards the free flow of the grouting material, the
sand should be omitted.
c. For concrete, the pressure grout should consist of neat cement grout only, and, if required by the Engineer, an approved
type of shrinkage reducing materials.
d. Polymer grouts may be used for concrete or stone masonry, as specified by the Engineer.
e. Other suitable prepackaged materials may be used if approved by the Engineer.
14.5.5.2.5 Grouting Procedures for Portland Cement Grouts
a. Grout inserts should be set in drilled holes and the interior voids cleaned with water, prior to the application of the
pressure grout.
b. The grout should be pressure induced into the internal voids and joints of the structure to fill them completely.
c. Grout should be applied by pumping or gravity pressure.
d. Excessive pressure should be avoided to prevent damage to the structure.
e. Grouting should be started at the lowest row of holes and at the hole nearest the center line of structure.
f. If grout appears in adjacent holes at the same elevation, these holes should be temporarily plugged and grouting
continued in the original hole until grout appears at the next adjacent hole at the same elevation or at the next line of
holes above the one being grouted. When this condition occurs, grouting of the original hole should be discontinued
and the grout line moved to the last hole at the current elevation at which grout appeared, and the same procedure
followed until all holes in the current line have been grouted, at which time grouting should proceed in a like manner
along the next line of holes above, etc., until the entire structure has been completely filled.
g. During the course of all grouting operations, extreme care should be given to observing the surrounding ground, track
subgrade, ballast and the stream bed for the breaking out of grout, and when such breaking out occurs, the grout line
should be moved to some other part of structure. Grouting may be resumed in the original location after the elapse of
24 hours. In grouting foundations, pressure grout should be applied to the various holes in rotation. The above program
should be followed until the grout is brought up into the masonry.
h. When grouting foundations founded on rock, care should be taken to watch for movement of the track structure caused
by the lifting of all or a portion of the structure.
14.5.5.3 Epoxy Injection
14.5.5.3.1 General
a. Epoxy injection is generally applicable to cracks ranging in width from 0.003 inch to 0.25 inch. Injection of epoxy into
cracks wider than 0.25 inch should be approved by the Engineer.
b. Certain members, especially prestressed members, may require preloading during injection.
c. Cold weather epoxy injection may require special procedures and materials.
14.5.5.3.2 Preparation
a. The area surrounding the crack should be cleaned of efflorescence, deteriorated concrete and other contaminants that
may be detrimental to adhesion of the epoxy gel. If unsound or deteriorated concrete is located adjacent to the crack,
© 2013,

which could prevent the complete injection of the crack, the unsound or deteriorated concrete should be removed prior
to the injection.
b. Cracks should be flushed with water under pressure to remove debris and other contaminants.
14.5.5.3.3 Injection Ports
a. Install the injection ports at appropriate intervals to accomplish full penetration of the injection resin. The spacing of
the injection ports should be determined by the size of the crack and the depth of the concrete substrate.
b. Injection ports should be designed for the intended use and should be acceptable to the epoxy manufacturer.
c. Injection ports should have the capability of being positively capped and sealed following the injection work.
d. The injection ports should be installed using one or more of the following methods:
(1) Surface Mounted Injection Ports:
(a) Center the injection port over the crack and secure in place using the epoxy gel.
(b) Completely seal the exposed crack located between the injection ports and other area, as required to prevent
leaking of the resins, using epoxy gel.
(c) If the crack extends through the member, and is accessible, install telltale injection ports on the opposite side
and seal all exposed areas of the crack. Generally, the spacing of the telltale injection ports should be between
1
12 inches and 24 inches.
(2) Drilled-In Injection Ports:1
(a) The holes should be drilled a minimum of 5/8 inch deep. Exercise care so as not to drill beyond a crack which
may be running at an angle to the surface. 3
(b) The injection ports should be inserted into the drilled holes about 1/2 inch, allowing for a small reservoir
below the injection port. Secure the injection ports into position using epoxy gel. Seal the exposed crack using
the same procedures as described above.
(3) Injection Ports Mounted Against a Head of Water:

4
(a) For cracks that have water running from them, use an hydraulic cement (fast setting) to set the injection ports,
and seal the crack.
(b) After the hydraulic cement has cured, seal the cracks and injection ports by overlapping the hydraulic cement
about 1 inch on either side using epoxy gel.
14.5.5.3.4 Curing of Epoxy Crack Surface Sealer
Allow all bonded ports and sealed cracks to cure overnight at temperatures of 50 degrees F or above. Should temperatures
below 50 degrees F exist, additional cure time may be required. Under these circumstances, it will be necessary to consult the
manufacturer for proper cure times. In any event, pressure injection operations should not commence until the epoxy gel has
adequately cured and has been deemed capable of sustaining pressures of the injection process.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.5.5.3.5 Materials and Equipment
a. The following minimum properties should be required of all epoxy used in the repair of the damaged concrete:
(1) Epoxy injection material should meet requirements of ASTM C881, Type IV, Grade 1, Class A, B or C.
(2) Epoxy crack surface sealant gel (paste type) should meet the requirements of ASTM C881, Type 1, Grade 3, Class
A, B or C.
(3) It is recommended that the ratio of the components should be between 1:1 and 2:1 by volume, with similar
viscosities of components.1
(4) The colors of the components should be distinctly different, and when mixed in proper ratio yield a distinctly
different third color.
(5) All injected epoxies should be wet bonding agents.
b. Epoxy injection equipment should be the automatic mixing and dispensing type. The equipment should include
positive displacement pumps inline pressure gauges, pressure gauges on the mixed materials at the point of injection,
and positive connection to the injection ports. The unit should be capable of delivering 125 psi dynamic fluid pressure
at the point of injection at a minimum flow rate of 2 gpm. The equipment should indicate when the supply of one
component has been exhausted to prevent injection of only a single component.
14.5.5.3.6 Injection of Epoxy
a. After proper curing of epoxy bonded ports and crack surfaces, commence pressure injection operations.
b. Take ratio checks as follows: The mixing head of the injection equipment should be disconnected and the two adhesive
components should be pumped simultaneously into separate calibrated containers. The amounts discharged into the
calibrated containers simultaneously during the same time period should be compared to determine the mix ratio.
c. After the test has been completed at a 200 psi discharge pressure the procedure should be repeated for 0 psi discharge
pressure.
d. The ratio test should be run for each injection unit at the beginning of each day that unit is used.
e. Samples of the mixed epoxy should be taken before commencing work each day, at least once every hour during
injection work, and each time the mixing head is flushed with solvent. Time, dates and curing of the samples are to be
noted. The samples before work and after flushing should be from the injection nozzles. Samples during work should
be from injected ports.
f. Commence pumping at the lowest point possible, or first injection port in a line, whichever is applicable. Continue
pumping until the epoxy appears at one or more of the next ports in line. When this occurs, stop pumping, cap the port
through which liquids were being injected and move up to the next port in line from which liquids were observed to
flow. Repeat this operation until all cracks have been filled to refusal.
g. During installation pressures should normally be limited to a maximum of 100 psi.2
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

14.5.5.3.7 Cure
Allow injected epoxies to cure overnight, or in accordance with the manufacturer’s directions for those temperatures
prevailing during application. Generally, at temperatures above 50 degrees F, overnight cure is adequate.
14.5.5.3.8 Port Removal and Clean Up
After adequate curing of injection epoxy, all ports and the epoxy gel should be ground smooth to eliminate any sharp edges or
protrusions. No epoxy materials or injection ports should extend beyond the surface of the existing concrete.
14.5.5.3.9 Record Cores
Obtain record cores of sufficient diameter (2 inches to 4 inches), and length (10 inches to 30 inches) from each member to
determine the completeness of the injection and the bond. Each core should be identified. All core holes should be filled prior
to completion of the work at the structure. Location of the core should be at the discretion of the Engineer.
14.5.5.4 Reinforcement of Cracks1
14.5.5.4.1 Stitching
The integrity of a cracked concrete section can at times be restored by stitching. The process involves the application of steel
reinforcing bars (stitching dogs or staples) across a cracked section (see Figure 8-14-1) on the surface of the members. Where
surface appearance is a consideration, the stitches may be installed below the finished surface. The stitching dogs should be of
various lengths, spacing and orientation so that a single plane is not overstressed. Their spacing should decrease near the ends
of the crack to avoid stress concentration. The ends of the stitching dogs should be grouted with a non-shrink or expanding
mortar so that a proper anchorage is achieved. It should be realized that repairs of this type may cause the cracking to migrate
1
to another portion of the structure.
3
STAPLES
Figure 8-14-1. Repair of Cracks by Stitching
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

14.5.5.4.2 Pinning
Cracks may be immobilized by drilling holes through the concrete so as to intercept the crack and grouting reinforcing into
them as specified by the Engineer. (See Figure 8-14-2.)
Figure 8-14-2. Repair of Cracks by Pinning
14.5.5.4.3 External Reinforcing
a. Placing external reinforcing across the crack and extending for a substantial length can distribute the stresses causing
the crack. The stresses at the ends of such reinforcing should be considered to eliminate simply relocating the cracked
condition.
b. Tensile stress cracks can be arrested by removing the stresses by tensioning the external reinforcement, thereby
compressing the member. Cleaned cracks can be closed by inducing a compressive force sufficient to overcome the
tension and to provide a residual compression.
c. The principle is similar to stitching and the problem of crack migration must be considered in this process also.
d. Anchorage is required for the external post-tensioning. Some form of abutment is needed such as a strongback bolted
to the face of the concrete (see Figure 8-14-3 and Figure 8-14-4).
Figure 8-14-3. External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Slab
© 2013,

Figure 8-14-4. External Stressing to Correct Cracking of Beam
14.5.5.4.4 Banding
Members which are exposed around their perimeter may have steel members placed around them to arrest movement in the
crack. These bands should be anchored at regular intervals to the member.
14.5.6 NON-STRUCTURAL CRACK REPAIR (2006)

14.5.6.1 Sealing Cracks or Joints
a. Where there may be movement in the structure, by reason of expansion, contraction or vibration, structural joints
subject to leakage may be sealed by using a water stop such as a 10 inch, 16 ounce, cold-rolled copper expansion plate, 1
preformed along the longitudinal centerline of the copper to produce a modified “V”-shape as shown in Figure 8-14-5,
or a half round 2 inches diameter PVC pipe, secured in place with straps and anchors as shown in Figure 8-14-6, or
similar noncorrosive materials with the necessary flexibility as approved by the
Engineer.
Figure 8-14-5. Detail Copper Plate Joint Sealing
b. The concrete or stone should be chipped out sufficiently to provide space for installation of a watertight joint between
the water stop and concrete and also for a channel for water seepage, properly drained at the base of crack or joint, or as
otherwise specified by the Engineer.
c. The expansion joint between the finished surface and the water stop should be filled with a flexible joint sealing
material. The patch should be reinforced and placed as previously specified.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-14-6. Detail PVC Pipe Joint Sealing
d. Non-leaking cracks or joints where movement in the structure by reason of expansion, contraction or vibration is
apparent, may be sealed with a flexible joint sealing material. Where it has been determined that no movement exists, a
rigid compound can be used.
14.5.6.2 Surface Crack Repairs
Routing and sealing may be used to make surface crack repairs where surface appearance is not a consideration. This method
consists of enlarging the crack along its exposed face with a concrete saw or hand pneumatic tools to open the crack
sufficiently to receive the sealant. Minimum surface width should be 1/4 inch. The surface of the routed joint should be clean
and dry before placing the sealant. Sealant and installation should be according to the sealant manufacturer’s recommendation.
14.5.7 REINFORCEMENT SPLICES (2006)
14.5.7.1 Scope
Severely damaged reinforcing in members may be repaired by splicing. Where damaged reinforcement is spliced, the repairs
should be designed so that there is no change in stress due to the damage. Preloading of the member may be required to
achieve this, depending on the repair method used. The strength of the splice should meet the required ultimate strength of the
member.
14.5.7.2 Internal Splicing of Prestressing Tendons or Conventional Reinforcement
a. Strands or bars should be spliced by attaching a coupling device to the severed ends. The ends should be trimmed to
sound, undamaged material prior to splicing. The strand or bar should be stressed by tightening the coupling device
until the desired stress is reached.
b. Consideration should be given to fatigue and space limitations in selecting this method of repair for multiple strands or
bars.
c. Splices in conventional reinforcing may be accomplished by lap splices. Sufficient bar length must be exposed for
development of the splice and preloading may be required.
© 2013,

14.5.7.3 External Post Tensioning
a. External post tensioning should consist of threaded bars or prestress strands applied to the member. The applied post
tensioning force should be calculated based on the internal stresses required under live and dead loads. Location of the
anchorage for the post tensioning system should be based upon the stresses at the transfer of load into the original
member.
b. Anchorages typically consist of corbels attached to the concrete with expansion bolts and bonding agents. Care should
be taken to ensure that existing tendons or bars are not damaged in the placement of anchor bolts.
14.5.7.4 External Metal Splice Sleeves
a. Metal sleeve splices consist of bonding steel plates across the damaged area with sufficient bond length to develop both
the damaged reinforcing and the metal plates.
b. Concrete surfaces in the bond area must be clean. Metal plates are galvanized steel with the contact surface scored
vertically by wire brushing.
c. The plates are bonded to the concrete by pressure injection by epoxy resin. A 1/16 inch gap should be left between the
concrete and the steel. The gap should be maintained by use of metal spacers. The edges of the splice sleeve should be
bolted to the concrete taking care not to damage existing reinforcing. Sufficient mechanical fasteners should be used to
transfer the stresses from the concrete to the sleeve.
d. Damaged concrete areas within the splice area should be filled with concrete. See Figure 8-14-7.
1
Figure 8-14-7. External Splice Sleeve
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 14.6 REPAIR METHODS FOR PRESTRESSED MEMBERS
14.6.1 CRACKS EXIST WITH NO SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS AND NO TENDON

DAMAGE (2006)1
Cracks should be repaired by epoxy injection. Cracks in the precompression zone should be repaired under preload if live load
alone applied to the section produces a tensile stress exceeding the bond strength or the base concrete allowable tension.
14.6.2 THERE IS MINOR SECTION LOSS, BUT NO TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
14.6.2.1 Minor Concrete Nicks, Spalls, or Scrapes (Adequate cover remains and there was not significant
section loss)2
Clean and seal minor defects with penetrating sealer to prevent moisture intrusion.
14.6.2.2 Gouges Across Bottom Flange with Loss of Cover (No Significant Section Loss)3
a. Girder designed for zero tension in bottom flange concrete under live load. Clean and seal minor defects with
penetrating sealer to prevent moisture intrusion. Additional protection may be provided by patching with an acceptable
concrete patching material.
b. Girder designed for tension in bottom flange concrete under live load. Clean and seal minor defects with penetrating
sealer to prevent moisture intrusion. If patching is used to provide additional protection, the patch should be applied
under preload. If under preload it is found that a crack has propagated from the gouge either the cracked concrete
should be removed or the crack repaired by epoxy injection. The gouge should be patched with an approved concrete
patching mortar and the preload removed after the patch has reached adequate strength. (This applies to existing
girders that may have tension in the bottom flanges. Current standards do not allow this design).
14.6.3 SHATTERED CONCRETE AND/OR SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS, BUT NO

TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
a. Replacement of lost concrete should be executed under preload if the repaired section would be subject to tensile
stresses when live load is applied.
b. In preparation of the surface for placement of repair material and in removal of damaged concrete extreme care must be
taken to avoid any damage to prestressing tendons. Tendons should be chemically cleaned.
14.6.4 THERE IS SECTION LOSS AND TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
14.6.4.1 General4
Repairs should be designed so there is no change in stress due to the damage. Preloading the member may be required to
achieve this end. The ultimate strength of the splice should always meet or exceed the required ultimate strength. Splicing of
reinforcing is covered in Article 14.5.7 Reinforcement Splices (2006).
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
© 2013,

14.6.4.2 Few Tendons Are Damaged1
a. Tendons should be repaired by internal splicing. After tendons are repaired the concrete is repaired, usually under
preload.
b. Repair of more than 2-4 tendons by this method is usually difficult.
14.6.4.3 Several Tendons Are Damaged (6-8 Tendons)2
The span may be repaired with external post-tensioning. Due to the externally applied tensioning, preload may not be required.
The damaged concrete may be repaired utilizing appropriate patching methods. Protection of the post-tensioning system must
be considered.
14.6.4.4 Multiple Tendon Damage with Large Section Losses3
Repairs can be accomplished with metal splice sleeves. The damaged concrete areas within the splice area are filled with
concrete. Preloading is not required if the stresses at the top and the end of the sleeve are within the allowable.
14.6.5 MEMBER IS DAMAGED BEYOND REASONABLE REPAIR (2006)
Replacement of some severely damaged members may be the only solution.
14.6.6 MEMBER HAS INADEQUATE STRENGTH (2006)

1
External post-tensioning and metal sleeve splices may be used to increase the strength of members.
14.6.7 SUMMARY (2006)4
The type of repair must be determined by the extent and type of damage, the time the structure will be out of service, the repair
cost, durability, and the ultimate load capacity of the repair. Combinations of repairs such as internal splicing with external 3
post-tensioning should also be considered.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - COMMENTARY
-2006-
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 14 Repair and Rehabilitation of
Concrete Structures. In the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the
section/paragraph being explained.
C - SECTION 14.1 SCOPE (2006) (REFERENCES 5 AND 29)
a. The techniques and materials described in this chapter are applicable to cast-in-place and precast concrete, stone, and
concrete and brick masonry.
(1) UNDERWATER REPAIRS
General - Repairs to submerged concrete elements can generally be performed by divers working underwater or by
dewatering the work area and using conventional above water repair techniques. Most repairs can be satisfactorily
completed below water, if appropriate preparation and installation procedures are followed. Underwater repairs,
however, will generally take longer and be more expensive than comparable work done in the dry. Regardless,
underwater repairs are often more cost-effective in consideration of the costs to dewater the repair site.
The primary techniques available to permit work to be carried out under dry conditions are sheet pile cofferdams,
earthen dikes, and portable dams. Because underwater repairs are specialized and more difficult to inspect,
prequalification of the underwater contractor is recommended. Whether repairs are performed submerged or in the dry,
all environmental regulations should be complied with. Final acceptance of below water repairs should be made in
conjunction with an independent underwater inspection.
(2) UNDERWATER REPAIR OF CONCRETE
Materials - For underwater placement of concrete, durability and workability are usually as important as strength and
those properties can be enhanced with the proper admixtures. For below water applications, the most important factor
in achieving concrete durability is low permeability. This is accomplished with low water/cement ratio, the use of
pozzolans, and good consolidation. Improper concrete workability will also adversely affect durability.
Specialized concrete mix designs, which differ for marine or freshwater applications, should be used to provide a
durable, long lasting repair. Aggregates should themselves be durable, non-reactive and of the appropriate size for the
means of concrete placement. Admixtures, including water reducers, air entrainers, pozzolans, retarders, and anti-
washout additives, are available to assist concrete mixes in satisfying particular requirements. However, their use
should be checked for the compatibility of those to be used together, as well as suitability for the means of concrete
placement and the specific repair parameters. The implementation of trial mixes and placement is recommended prior
to the performance of the repairs. Water reducers are usually used to obtain low water / cement ratios. Air entraining
should be used for freeze-thaw exposures; however, it may not be suitable for other applications since it can increase
permeability. The use of pozzolans (such as fly ash and silica fume) will aid in reducing permeability and
susceptibility to sulfate attack; however, rate of strength gain will vary and moist curing will be needed for a dewatered
application. Anti-washout admixtures (AWA) assist in retaining concrete mix fines during underwater placement, and
can be used in conjunction with water reducers, rich mixes, and pozzolans to obtain maximum benefits. AWA's can
have disadvantages, including high cost, sensitivity to mix changes, and incompatibility with other admixtures, so their
use should be thoroughly investigated.
When steel reinforcement is used for concrete repairs in water related applications, a dense concrete and adequate
cover are imperative. Potential problems related to the concrete reinforcement can also be lessened with the use of
© 2013,

epoxy coated, galvanized, stainless steel, fiberglass or composite reinforcement. Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium
nitrite, can also be added to the concrete to lower the corrosion potential of the reinforcement.
Methods - Concrete substructure repairs made underwater can address material deterioration and/or undermining. For
relatively small and shallow areas of concrete deterioration, hand-patching techniques can be used for placement of
repair mortar above and below water. Materials commonly used for hand patching applications include mortars made
with portland cement, hydraulic cement, epoxies or polymers, with the hydraulic mortars often having the smallest
reduction from their dry bond strength when used underwater. For larger areas to be repaired, rigid or flexible forms,
constructed from a variety of materials and designed to either stay-in-place or be removed, can be used for the
placement of the mortar. Materials used for rigid forms include wood, steel, fiberglass and concrete, whereas flexible
forms include fabric pile jackets, fabric bags and plastic membranes typically intended to be left in place. Grout filled
fabric bags can be used to fill large irregularly shaped voids, including those created by undermining, when outward
appearance is not a concern.
Prior to any placement of repair materials, the affected area should be properly prepared by removing all unsound
concrete and cleaning corrosion from any exposed reinforcement. Preparation techniques are similar to those used
above water, including pneumatic and hand hammers, wire brushes, and water or abrasive blasting which can be used
below water. Proper preparation may also include the installation of replacement or supplemental reinforcement and
expansion or grouted anchorage mechanisms for the repair mortar/concrete. Underwater placement of concrete can be
accomplished by tremie or pumping methods, with the incorporation of anti-washout admixtures in the concrete.
Preplaced aggregate within the forms may also be used with a pumping application to enhance durability and reduce
shrinkage of the repair.
Cracks below water can be structurally repaired with the injection of specially formulated, water insensitive resins that
contain particular polymers not found in true epoxies. The same injection techniques used above water are applicable
1
underwater; however, cracks must be adequately flushed with clean water or cleaning agents for proper resin bond and
penetration. Special resin compositions are required for water temperatures below 55°F (13°C). Hand applied or
formed mortar repairs and crack injection can also be used for concrete piles below water.
Synthetic membrane pile wraps can be used to inhibit further deterioration of concrete piles by creating a barrier
against chloride penetration and chemically aggressive waters. The structural repair of a concrete pile can be 3
accomplished with any of a number of pile jackets or encasements. Jacket repairs should typically incorporate
reinforcement around the pile within the forming system, which can consist of either rigid or flexible forms usually
intended to stay-in-place. Ideally, the forms should be filled by pumping of the grout from the bottom up, with
underwater monitoring to ensure uniform consolidation during placement.
Undermining of substructure footings caused by channel bottom scour can be repaired with grout bags, grouted stone,
or formed concrete used to fill the void under the footing. Grout bags can be used to occupy the void entirely, or 4
assembled as a form to contain the concrete that is placed behind to fill the void. Stone of the appropriate size can also
be used to fill around and within the void, with grout again being placed behind and among the stone. Placement of the
cement grout within the forms, bags or stones at the undermining can be accomplished by either a tremie or pumping
process, with anti-washout admixtures and underwater monitoring for leakage being incorporated. Repairs to
undermined substructures should be analyzed for effects on scour potential and the structural stability. The installation
of scour countermeasures in conjunction with the repairs should be considered.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(3) UNDERWATER REPAIR OF MASONRY
Materials - For underwater repair of masonry, stone of good, durable quality should be specified. Specifications for
stone should include minimum allowable compressive strengths, and limits on maximum porosity and bedding planes
or cracks. Cut stone replacement blocks should be aged to allow stress relaxation and moisture equilibrium, as well as
to allow time for the development of any cracks, which can occur in stone quarried by blasting. Mortars for masonry
joints are typically made of sand, cement and lime with newer compositions incorporating polymers and/or fine
aggregates. Older mortars were generally softer than those used in current practice, and new mortars should attempt to
match existing properties to maintain structure flexibility. Hard mortars should be avoided since they are more
inclined to crack or cause edge spalls.
Methods - Underwater masonry repairs can address both stone and mortar joint deterioration. Common repair
techniques include stone replacement with concrete to fill voids created by missing stones; mortar joint repointing; and
encasement of a masonry substructure unit with concrete. Stone replacement is typically incorporated when
appearance is a concern. Stones can also be replaced with concrete which is less expensive, but also less attractive.
The stone void can be filled by pumping concrete behind formwork that should include a venting mechanism to
completely fill the void.
The repair of deteriorated masonry joints can be accomplished by hand-applied mortar. The joints should first be
cleaned of all loose and unsound material, dirt and marine growth. Hand-applied mortar repairs below water are
conducted in the same manner as above water, with repointing accomplished with a trowel or squeeze bag, although
hydraulic cement mortars are often used underwater. Where joint strength is not a concern, caulk may be used in the
joint to arrest further deterioration of the mortar. For deeper joint problems, joints can also be pressure-grouted with
cement grout or epoxy after an exterior seal is installed along the joints. To restore deteriorated areas, as well as to
afford future protection, masonry substructure units can be encased with concrete, either partially or completely.
Dowels should be used to hold and aid in supporting the encasement. The methods for the placement of concrete for
encasements, as well as for stone replacements, should be consistent with the recommendations for underwater
concrete repairs.
C - SECTION 14.2 DETERMINATION OF THE CAUSES OF CONCRETE

DETERIORATION (2006)
a. Several factors contribute to the deterioration of concrete. These include:
(1) Lack of quality in the original concrete and/or its placement can be caused by deficiencies in:
(a) Quality of materials such as: improperly stored or handled cement; reactive, porous or soft aggregates;
contaminated water; or inappropriate admixtures or combinations of admixtures
(b) Mix design and proportioning
(c) Workmanship, placing, finishing or curing
(2) Deficiency of reinforcement such as:
(a) Design deficiencies
(b) Inadequate or improper details
(c) Damaged coating on epoxy coated reinforcement
© 2013,

(d) Insufficient concrete cover
(3) Properties of surrounding environment including:
(a) Use of deicing agents
(b) Alkali soil or water
(c) Industrial chemicals
(d) Marine environment
(4) Inadequate structural capacity due to:
(a) Excessive loads
(b) Design deficiencies
(c) Inadequate or improper details
(d) Inadequate consolidation
(5) Physical damage due to:
(a) Impact
1
(b) Abrasion from ice, stream flow, traffic
(c) Settlement of the foundation
(d) Freeze-thaw cycles 3

(e) Fire
(f) Seismic activity
(g) Wind
4
(h) Storm
C - SECTION 14.3 EVALUATION OF THE EFFECTS OF DETERIORATION AND

DAMAGE
C - 14.3.1.3 Non-Destructive Tests
a. For determining the extent of concrete or masonry deterioration, the following are some of the non-destructive
techniques available.
(1) For surface conditions, visual inspection can be used to identify the location and size of cracks, voids, scaling,
spalls, delaminations, and exposed (corroded) reinforcement.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(2) For internal conditions and subsurface deterioration, conventional testing methods include:
(a) Audio methods for detection of cracks, voids and delaminations require the use of hand tools, including
hammers, steel rods and chains, which are used for striking the structure to detect sound differentials between
good and defective ("hollow" sounding) material.
(b) Electrical methods for evaluation of reinforcement corrosion activity include the use of half-cells or multiple
electrode systems, which measure resistance and potential differences. The method requires connection be
made to an exposed section of steel reinforcement.
(c) Impulse radar uses electromagnetic wave (radar) reflection to detect voids, measure material thickness, and
evaluate presence and location of embedments (reinforcement) in structures. This method is affected by
moisture in the concrete or masonry, and relative measurements should be correlated to known dimensions.
(d) Infrared thermography uses heat flow through structures to determine anomalies such as voids and
delaminations.
(e) Magnetic methods for determining location, size and depth of reinforcement include the use of pachometers
or R-meters that make measurements based on the principles of induction.
(f) Stress wave reflection/refraction methods, including pulse-echo, impact-echo and stress wave refraction,
introduce a stress pulse into the structure, and reflections of the stress waves denote material flaws or
interfaces such as voids, cracks, and delaminations.
(g) Rebound (impact) hammers use a spring-loaded weight impacted against the structure, with the amount of
rebound being a measurement of material hardness and strength. This commonly used method is inexpensive,
but results can be affected by surface conditions, material moisture content and aggregate type.
(h) Ultrasonic pulse velocity methods use measurements of the time for a sound wave to travel to and from a
reflection surface (backside of a structure or internal discontinuity) to determine material thickness and to
identify the presence and location of voids, cracks or delaminations. This method is affected by material
density and component make-up, and relative measurements should be correlated to known dimensions.
C - 14.3.2 RESULTS OF EVALUATION (2006)
Both cost-effectiveness of the repair and the business costs of the time impacts on rail operations should be considered in
evaluating a course of action.
C - SECTION 14.4 PRINCIPAL MATERIALS USED IN THE REPAIR OF CONCRETE

STRUCTURES
C - 14.4.8 NON-SHRINK GROUTS (2006)
Non-shrink grouts are available in a wide variety of compositions for special purposes. This results in highly variable
properties of the products. The variables include flowability, resistance to chemical attack, set time, rate of strength gain,
ultimate strength and impact resistance. No single product is applicable for all cases. Product should be checked for
suitability of application.
© 2013,

C - SECTION 14.5 REPAIR METHODS
C - 14.5.1 SURFACE REPAIRS USING PORTLAND CEMENT MATERIALS (2006)
C - 14.5.1.1 Scope
b. Preload consists of the application of external loads during the repair process to restore the prestressing forces in
members where the prestress has been lost due to damage. If the prestress is restored to a level less than the original
design level, the capacity of the member should be evaluated at the reduced level of prestressing.
C - 14.5.1.2 Preparation
Proper preparation of the surfaces to be repaired is critical to the success of the repair. Failure to provide a sound, clean
surface prior to application of repair material is a common cause of failure of repairs.
C - 14.5.1.5 Bonding
When using bonding agents, timing can be critical. Extended exposure of the bonding agent prior to application of the new
material may cause failure of the bond.
C - 14.5.1.8 Shotcrete
The successful application of shotcrete requires experience and knowledge. The use of an experienced, qualified crew is
recommended, especially in the nozzleman position. 1
C - 14.5.1.12 Curing and Protection
Curing of cast-in-place concrete and shotcrete repairs may be more critical than for concrete in new construction. Where there
is an existing concrete or masonry substrate, shrinkage is limited to the repair material only and cracking may result. In
addition, the substrate may pull water from the repair material, reducing the available water in the mix. In the case of
shotcrete, which has a low water cement ratio, there is no form to reduce moisture loss further increasing the need for 3
protection from drying during the curing process.
C - 14.5.2 SURFACE REPAIRS USING POLYMER CONCRETES AND POLYMER

PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETES (2006)
Polymer concrete mixes may contain unpolymerized chemicals that can be hazardous. Particular attention should be given to 4
the ingredients and handling instructions. Many of these materials have a very rapid strength gain, high strengths and high
impact capacity. These features make these materials useful where load bearing concrete must be replaced in short time
frames. The particular characteristics of the materials vary from product to product. The characteristics of the product should
be evaluated before use.
C - 14.5.5 INTERNAL STRUCTURAL REPAIRS (2006)
C - 14.5.5.1 Scope
Care should be taken in the choice of whether to use portland cement grouts or epoxy for injection. The two materials have
different characteristics and costs. Cement grouts are generally thicker and considerably less expensive, making them
appropriate for applications where large internal voids, large cracks and a pathway to the earth fill behind the member are
present. Where high strength is important, cracks are thin and the material can be well contained in the crack, epoxy materials
are appropriate.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 14.5.5.3 Epoxy Injection
C - 14.5.5.3.3 Injection Ports
d. (2) Care should be taken to prevent concrete dust generated during drilling from plugging the crack. A vacuum
attached to the drill and hollow drill bits should be used to remove the dust as drilling occurs and prevent it from
blocking the flow of the epoxy.
C - 14.5.5.3.5 Materials and Equipment
a. (3) Where one component is used in a high ratio to the other component it is difficult to assure even mixing and pockets
of unmixed materials may result. When this occurs the epoxy may never jell or reach the desired strength.
C - 14.5.5.3.6 Injection of Epoxy
g. Injection pressures above 100 psi (0.7 MPa) are not recommended as the pressure could cause further damage to the
member. If the normal pressures are not sufficient to cause penetration of the materials into the cracks, a lower
viscosity epoxy should be considered.
C - 14.5.5.4 Reinforcement of Cracks
Injection of materials into a crack should not be considered to restore the tensile capacity of the concrete. Where tension is to
be transferred across the crack, reinforcement should be installed to carry the tension. The selection of the type of
reinforcement should consider where the tension forces are to be transferred. The reinforcement should continue to a point
where the existing capacity of the structure can resist the forces, with proper consideration to development of reinforcement.
C - SECTION 14.6 REPAIR METHODS FOR PRESTRESSED MEMBERS

(REFERENCES 60 AND 61)
C - 14.6.1 CRACKS EXIST WITH NO SIGNIFICANT SECTION LOSS AND NO TENDON

DAMAGE (2006)
The application of preload should be investigated in conjunction with concrete repairs. Applying preload prior to epoxy
injection can result in live load stresses no greater than original.
© 2013,

Figure C-8-14-1. Preloading
C - 14.6.2 THERE IS MINOR SECTION LOSS, BUT NO TENDON DAMAGE (2006)

3
C - 14.6.2.1 Minor Concrete Nicks, Spalls, or Scrapes (Adequate cover remains and there was not
significant section loss)
The application of two coats of a penetrating sealer is recommended to prevent moisture intrusion or other corrosive elements
to the prestressing steel.
C - 14.6.2.2 Gouges Across Bottom Flange with Loss of Cover (No Significant Section Loss) 4
Gouge patches should attain required strength prior to removal of preload.
C - 14.6.4 THERE IS SECTION LOSS AND TENDON DAMAGE (2006)
Impact damage may cause sweep (lateral curvature in the bottom flange) or abrupt lateral curvature caused by the combination
of torsional and transverse flexural stress induced by tendon eccentricities when strands are broken on one side of a girder. It
may be possible to jack the tension flange into alignment and hold it using an additional diaphragm.
C - 14.6.4.2 Few Tendons Are Damaged
One advantage of internal strand splices is that they restore strength internally. Combined with preloading, the girder should
be restored to its original condition.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 14.6.4.3 Several Tendons Are Damaged (6-8 Tendons)
Jacking corbels may be used to secure the ends of post-tensioned rods. The strength of the corbels will generally control the
number of severed strands that can be spliced by post-tensioning. Between corbels, the post-tensioning rods should be grouted
after post-tensioning inside of a conduit to protect the rods.
Figure C-8-14-2. External Post-Tensioning Section Between Corbels
C - 14.6.4.4 Multiple Tendon Damage with Large Section Losses
The use of metal splice sleeves does not restore prestress unless preloading is used. Intermediate cracks which are covered by
the splice should not reduce structure integrity or durability.
© 2013,

Figure C-8-14-3. Metal Splice Sleeve 1
C - 14.6.7 SUMMARY (2006)
For independent precast members, replacement of the member may be the most effective solution.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 16
Design and Construction of Reinforced
Concrete Box Culverts
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
16.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-2 1

16.1.1 Scope (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-2
16.1.2 Units (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-3
16.1.3 Definition (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-3
16.2 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4

16.2.1 Existing Foundation Material (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4
16.2.2 Existing Embankment Material (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-4 3
16.2.3 Backfill and Bedding Materials (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.2.4 Concrete (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.2.5 Reinforcement (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.2.6 Miscellaneous Metal (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.2.7 Miscellaneous Materials (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-5
16.3 Design Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6

16.3.1 Design Considerations (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.3.2 Design to Accommodate Flow (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.3.3 Structural Design (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.4 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6

16.4.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-6
16.4.2 Dead Load (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-7
16.4.3 Live Load (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-9
16.4.4 Impact Load (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.4.5 Other Forces (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.5 Details of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13

16.5.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.5.2 Wingwalls (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13
16.5.3 Barrel and Apron (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-13

16.5.4 Longitudinal Reinforcement (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15

16.5.5 Drainage and Waterproofing (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15
16.5.6 Backfill (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15
16.6 Manufacture of Precast Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15

16.6.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-15
16.6.2 Manufacturing Tolerances (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-16
16.6.3 Physical Requirements (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-16
16.6.4 Marking (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17

16.7.1 Construction Tolerances (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7.2 Joints (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7.3 Waterproofing or Dampproofing (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7.4 Handling Devices (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17
16.7.5 Foundations (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-18
16.7.6 Backfilling (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-18
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-19
LIST OF FIGURES
8-16-1 Uniformly Distributed Load to Top of Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-8

8-16-2 Distribution of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-9
8-16-3 Design Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-10
8-16-4 Design Equations U.S. Customary Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-11
8-16-5 Design Equations Metric Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-12
8-16-6 Tongue and Groove Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-14
8-16-7 Male and Female Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-14
8-16-8 Backfilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-18
16.1.1 SCOPE (2006)1
a. This recommended practice governs the design and construction of precast or cast-in-place rigid frame reinforced
concrete box culverts on soil foundations.
b. This recommended practice does not apply to installations where the vertical dimension (H) from the top of the
structure to the base of rail is less than 18 inches (450 mm).
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts
c. This recommended practice does not provide for installation of precast units by jacking. Provisions for jacking must
be considered separately and in addition to the recommendations of this Part.
d. This recommended practice applies to installations beneath conventional ballasted track.
16.1.2 UNITS (2006)
This recommended practice uses U. S. customary units. The metric (SI) units in parentheses are approximate, and are
provided for information only.
ASTM Standard Specifications are cited, where available. Corresponding Metric ASTM International Specifications are
shown in parenthesis where available.
16.1.3 DEFINITION (2006)1
A box culvert is a structure which forms one or more rectangular openings through an embankment.
The size designation of a box culvert opening indicates first the width, followed by the height.
16.1.3.1 Notations
U.S. Metric
Customary Units
1
b The width of a box culvert opening. ft m
b´ The horizontal distance between center lines of box culvert ft m
walls.
h The height of a box culvert opening. ft m
h´ The vertical distance between center lines of box culvert ft m
top and bottom slabs. 3
H The vertical distance between the top of a box culvert and ft m
the base of rail.
H´ The vertical distance between the center of a box culvert ft m
opening and the base of rail.
I The impact load applied to the top of a box culvert, as a % %
percentage of WLL. 4
IS Moment of inertia of the box culvert top slab gross section, in4 mm4
per foot (meter) of culvert length.
IW Moment of inertia of the box culvert wall gross section, per in4 mm4
foot (meter) of culvert length.
ke The coefficient of active earth pressure of embankment fill none none
excluding surcharge loading.
ks The coefficient of active earth pressure of embankment fill none none
including surcharge loading.
k The ratio of S to R. none none
Ld Lateral live load distribution length illustrated in Figure 8- ft m
16-2.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

U.S. Metric
Customary Units
MA The maximum negative moment at the exterior corner of a kip.ft kN.m
box culvert per foot (meter) of culvert length.
MB The maximum positive moment in a box culvert top slab kip.ft kN.m
near the center of a culvert opening per foot (meter) of
culvert length.
MC The maximum negative moment in the top slab of a box kip.ft kN.m
culvert at the top of a center wall per foot (meter) of culvert
length.
Pe The uniformly distributed design load on the sides of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert, excluding surcharge loading.
Ps The uniformly distributed design load on the sides of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert, including surcharge loading.
R The ratio of b´ to h´. none none
S The ratio of Is to Iw none none
VA The maximum vertical shear in the top slab of a box lbs kN
culvert, at the face of support near an exterior corner per
foot (meter) of culvert length.
VC The maximum vertical shear in the top slab of a box lbs kN
culvert, at the face of support near a center wall per foot
(meter) of culvert length.
W The total uniformly distributed load on the top of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert; a combination of WLL , WDL , and I.
WDL The uniformly distributed dead load on the top of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert.
We Weight density of embankment fill taken as 120 lbs/ft3 lbs/ft3 kg/m3
(Mass density of embankment fill taken as 1900 kg/m3).
WLL The uniformly distributed live load on the top of a box lbs/ft2 kN/m2
culvert.
Ws Weight of concrete per square foot of top slab area (Mass lbs/ft2 kg/m2
of concrete per square meter of top slab area).
16.2.1 EXISTING FOUNDATION MATERIAL (2006)
The Engineer shall investigate the characteristics of existing foundation materials as recommended in Part 22, Geotechnical
Subsurface Investigation.
16.2.2 EXISTING EMBANKMENT MATERIAL (2006)
The Engineer shall investigate the characteristics of existing embankment materials in conjunction with existing foundation
conditions where existing embankment material will be excavated and reused.
© 2013,

16.2.3 BACKFILL AND BEDDING MATERIALS (2006)
a. Backfill and bedding materials shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer. Wet or impervious materials shall not
be used except as outlined in Article 16.2.3 g, and all backfill and bedding shall be free from brush and other organic
materials.
b. Crushed stone for bedding shall consist of crushed rock graded such that 100% passes a 2 inch (50 mm) sieve, and
100% is retained on a 3/4 inch (19 mm) sieve.
c. Sand for foundation leveling shall consist of selected excavated sand, free from clay and organic materials, and free
from rock fragments exceeding 3/4 inch (19 mm).
d. Crushed stone placed around drainage pipes shall meet the same requirements for bedding, except that the Engineer
may specify a different grading.
e. Unless otherwise shown on the contract documents, structural granular backfill shall consist of well-graded granular
pit run gravel or crushed stone with 100% passing the 4-1/4 inch (106 mm) sieve and 100% retained on the Number
200 (75 μm) sieve.
f. Native or imported backfill materials not meeting the requirements of structural granular backfill may be used subject
to the approval of the Engineer.
g. Clay for seepage barriers shall consist of clay or silty clay of a medium to high plasticity and of a low permeability, all
subject to the approval of the Engineer. 1
16.2.4 CONCRETE (2006)1
a. The minimum compressive strength of concrete shall be 4000 psi (28 MPa) at 28 days.
b. Concrete materials shall comply with the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements that
affect the durability of the culvert, including alkali-aggregate reactions, sulfate and other chemical reactions, and 3
freezing and thawing. Use air entraining and other admixtures only when approved by the Engineer. Admixtures
containing chlorides shall not be used.
Reinforcing steel shall meet the requirements of ASTM 615 (A615M) Grade 60 (Grade 420), or ASTM A706 (A706M), or 4
welded steel wire fabric conforming to ASTM A497 (ASTM A497M), with an allowable tensile stress of 24,000 psi (165
MPa) for service load design.
16.2.6 MISCELLANEOUS METAL (2006)
All hardware for sleeves, anchor bolts, inserts and other hardware shall be either hot-dip galvanized in accordance with ASTM
A153, or epoxy coated in accordance with ASTM A775 (ASTM A775M), or stainless steel in accordance with ASTM A955
(A955M), as approved by the Engineer.
16.2.7 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS (2006)
a. Water stops shall meet the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements for watertight
construction joints.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. Gasket material shall conform to ASTM C990-03 Preformed Flexible Joint Sealant, as approved by the Engineer.
SECTION 16.3 DESIGN METHODS
16.3.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS (2006)1
a. The design shall consider the following:
(1) The purpose of the structure.
(2) Depth of culvert from base of rail to invert level.
(3) Requirements for soil cover above the top of the structure and below the base of rail, as specified by the Engineer,
in addition to the requirements of these recommendations.
(4) Waterway alignment and skew angle.
(5) Subgrade width and embankment slopes.
(6) Existing foundation conditions.
b. For precast culverts, the design shall consider the following:
(1) Stresses induced by handling and transportation of units.
(2) Methods of installation.
(3) Methods of connecting sections of box culverts together to secure the units in their intended position.
16.3.2 DESIGN TO ACCOMMODATE FLOW (2006)
Calculation of flow rates and the design of the culvert and approaches to accommodate flows in accordance with Chapter 1,
Roadway and Ballast, Part 3, Natural Waterways.
16.3.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN (2006)2
a. The design shall comply with all provisions of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, except as modified in this part.
b. The structure shall be analyzed assuming that all joints between slabs and walls are rigid, with positive and negative
bending moments determined by the theory of elasticity.
SECTION 16.4 DESIGN LOADS
16.4.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. The design of box culverts supporting track shall consider the following loads:
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

(1) dead load,
(2) live load,
(3) impact load.
b. The loads, uniformly distributed per square foot (per square meter) to the top of the box, are shown in Figure 8-16-1 for
various depths of fill.
16.4.2 DEAD LOAD (2006)1
a. The vertical dead load consists of the estimated weight of the track, fill, and top slab of the structure. Dead load shall be
determined from, and uniformly distributed to the culvert as shown on Figure 8-16-1 and Figure 8-16-2, respectively.
b. The minimum lateral pressure on the sides of the box shall be based on an assumed earth pressure coefficient of 0.33.
c. The maximum lateral pressure on the sides of the box shall be based on an assumed earth pressure coefficient of 1.0.
d. As an alternative to paragraph c, the Engineer may determine the maximum designed density of a fully saturated fill,
and the corresponding earth pressure coefficient that would apply, and use these in the calculation of both vertical and
lateral pressures from dead loads.
e. The lateral pressures on each side of the box may be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire height, equal
and opposite in direction. This assumption has been made in the design equations shown in Figure 8-16-4 and 1
Figure 8-16-5. If a more exact distribution is used, Figure 8-16-4 and Figure 8-16-5 do not apply.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

DISTANCE H - BASE OF RAIL TO TOP OF BOX, METERS

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4500
210
4250
4000
3750 180
3500
DEAD LOAD + LIVE LOAD + IMPACT
3250
150
UNIFORM LOAD W = LB. PER SQ FT.
3000
2750
UNIFORM LOAD W = kPa

2500 120
2250
2000
DEAD LOAD 90
1750
1500
1250 60
1000
LIVE LOAD E-80 (EM 360)
750
30
500
IMPACT
250
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
DISTANCE H - BASE OF RAIL TO TOP OF BOX, FEET
Figure 8-16-1. Uniformly Distributed Load to Top of Box
© 2013,

16.4.3 LIVE LOAD (2006)1
a. Determine live load for each track in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Distribution of the live load
to the culvert shall be in accordance with Figure 8-16-2.
Ld
Figure 8-16-2. Distribution of Loads

3
b. No increase in live load shall be used for multiple track loadings.
c. Calculate the minimum lateral pressure induced from live load on the sides of the box using the earth pressure
coefficient determined by Article 16.4.2.
d. The maximum lateral pressures that may be generated on the sides of the box shall be considered in the design, except 4
that the earth pressure coefficient of Article 16.4.2 c need not be applied to live loads. If the provisions of
Article 16.4.2 d are used with respect to dead loads, then they shall be used for the calculation of maximum pressures
from live loads also.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-16-3. Design Data
© 2013,

Figure 8-16-4. Design Equations U.S. Customary Units
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-16-5. Design Equations Metric Units
© 2013,

16.4.4 IMPACT LOAD (2006)
a. Add impact load to the live load as determined from Figure 8-16-1 or Figure 8-16-4 or Figure 8-16-5, respectively, and
uniformly distributed to the culvert top slab in the same manner as the live load.
b. No impact shall be added to the lateral forces on the sides of the box.
16.4.5 OTHER FORCES (2006)
a. Centrifugal force, wind force, and longitudinal forces resulting from starting and stopping of trains need not be
considered.
SECTION 16.5 DETAILS OF DESIGN
16.5.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. The contract documents shall show construction elements in detail including dimensions, spacing and size of
reinforcement, permitted locations for the placement of handling devices and holes in the case of precast, construction
and expansion joints, water stops, waterproofing, and drainage. The maximum design foundation pressure shall also be
shown.
1
b. When it is anticipated that multiple culverts will be built, standardization of the design and construction details is
recommended.
c. The culvert shall be designed with a camber along its longitudinal axis where required by the Engineer, to counteract
the effects of settlement.
3
16.5.2 WINGWALLS (2006)
a. Wingwalls may be cast-in-place or precast.
b. Wingwalls shall have such slope and length as required to retain the embankment and maintain the culvert opening.
c. Wingwalls may be straight or flared, as local conditions and hydraulic design require. 4
16.5.3 BARREL AND APRON (2006)
a. The minimum concrete cover for reinforcement shall be 2 inches (50 mm) unless approved otherwise by the Engineer.
This requirement does not apply at the joints of precast units.
b. The same barrel section shall be used throughout, except under deep fills where a reduced barrel section may be used
toward the ends of the box. Consideration shall be given to the construction of future tracks.
c. Wall and top and bottom slab thicknesses shall be a minimum of 10 inches (250 mm), or as required by the Engineer.
Greater wall and slab thicknesses should be considered for cast-in-place construction to facilitate concrete placement.
d. A minimum haunch of 6 inches (150 mm) shall be provided.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

e. In long culverts, or culverts under deep fills, consideration should be given to the placement of joints to provide for
possible vertical and longitudinal movements of the barrel of cast-in-place culverts. If joints are used, the first joint
shall be not less than 10 feet (3 meters) from the end of the cast-in-place barrel. For cast-in-place construction, joints
should not be placed in regions of maximum stress.
f. Precast units shall be designed with tongue and groove or male and female ends such as shown in Figure 8-16-6 and
Figure 8-16-7 or as determined by the Engineer. The inside face reinforcement shall extend into the male portion of the
joint, and the outside face reinforcement shall extend into the female portion of the joint.
g. Where differential deflection from live load between units exceeds b/800, (where b is the width of the box opening)
joints between precast units shall be capable of transferring shear loads through the top slab between adjacent units by
a method or devices which may be mutually agreed upon by the box culvert manufacturer and the Engineer. If
individual shear connectors are used to fasten the adjacent top slabs together, they shall be spaced no more than 30
inches (750 mm) on center, with a minimum of two shear connectors per joint.
Figure 8-16-6. Tongue and Groove Joint
Figure 8-16-7. Male and Female Joint
© 2013,

h. The floor of the barrel and apron may be sloped toward the center. Flow energy dissipation may be provided by
texturing the floor of the culvert if this is taken into account in the flow capacity design.
i. The surface of the top slab in contact with the backfill may be sloped toward the sidewalls for drainage.
j. The length of the apron, and rip-rap requirements, shall be determined by field conditions in accordance with Chapter
1, Roadway and Ballast.
k. Cutoff walls shall be used at inlet and outlet ends to a depth consistent with the field conditions and potential scour.
16.5.4 LONGITUDINAL REINFORCEMENT (2006)
a. The minimum longitudinal reinforcement in the top slab, bottom slab and walls shall be as follows:
(1) 0.4% of concrete cross sectional area for fill depths over the top of the top slab equal to or less than 10 feet (3
meters).
(2) For fill depths greater than 10 feet (3 meters), this percentage shall be increased proportionally to 1.0% for fills of
100 feet (30 meters).
b. The minimum reinforcement determined from paragraph a shall be provided half on each face of the slab or wall.
16.5.5 DRAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING (2006)1

1
a. Pipe drains in the backfill adjacent to the side walls shall be shown on the contract drawings when necessary.
Horizontal drain pipes shall be not less than 8 inches (200 mm) in diameter, perforated, and in such a position that they
will function properly. Provisions shall be made for cleaning drainage pipes.
b. Special provision may be made for waterproofing by use of non-corrosive water stops in accordance with Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements for watertight construction joints, and/or by use of a waterproofing
membrane in accordance with Part 29, Waterproofing. 3
16.5.6 BACKFILL (2006)
a. The limits of structural granular backfill shall be shown on the contract drawings.
b. Where structural granular backfill is not required, the Engineer shall specify the materials to be used. 4
c. When a seepage barrier is required, the details of its location and thickness shall be shown on the contract drawings.
d. The Engineer shall specify any other backfill details required.
SECTION 16.6 MANUFACTURE OF PRECAST UNITS
16.6.1 GENERAL (2006)
a. Manufacturer’s shop drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and approval.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. Precast reinforced concrete culvert units shall be manufactured using steel forms and cured in accordance with Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
c. Concrete shall be placed by the wet cast method when air-entrainment is specified in the contract documents. When
air-entrainment is not specified, the precast reinforced concrete culvert units may be manufactured by the dry cast
method if approved by the Engineer.
d. Handling devices or holes shall be provided where shown on the contract drawings. Details of handling devices shall
be shown on the shop drawings and shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer, and shall also satisfy the
requirements of Article 16.7.4.
16.6.2 MANUFACTURING TOLERANCES (2006)
a. Opening Dimensions — The dimensions of the culvert opening shall vary by not more than +/– 1% from the
dimensions shown on the contract documents. Such variations shall also satisfy the requirements of Article 16.6.3 a.
The haunch dimensions shall vary by not more than 1/4 inch (7 mm) from the dimensions shown on the contract
documents.
b. Slab and Wall Thickness — The slab and wall thickness shall not be less than 95% of that shown on the contract
documents. A thickness more than that shown on the contract documents shall not be cause for rejection.
c. Length of Opposite Surfaces — Variations in laying lengths of two opposite surfaces of the box unit shall not be more
than 1/8 inch per foot (10 mm per meter) of span, with a maximum of 3/4 inch (20 mm) in any box unit, except where
beveled ends for laying on curves are specified on the contract documents.
d. Length of Precast Unit — The length of a precast unit shall vary by not more than 1/8 inch per foot (10 mm per meter)
of length from that shown on the contract documents with a maximum variation of 1/2 inch (12 mm) in any box unit.
e. Position of reinforcement — The maximum variation in the position of reinforcement shall be 3/8 inch (10 mm) from
that shown on the contract documents. In no case, however, shall the as-manufactured cover over the reinforcement be
less than 1-1/2 inch (40 mm) as measured to the internal surface or the external surface of the completed box unit
unless approved otherwise by the Engineer. This minimum cover limitation does not apply at the mating surfaces of
joints.
f. Area of Reinforcement — The areas of steel reinforcement shall be as required by the contract documents. Steel areas
greater than those required shall not be cause for rejection.
16.6.3 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS (2006)
a. The ends of the units shall be produced with joints as shown on the contract documents, and so formed that when the
units are laid together they will make a continuous line of box units with a smooth interior free of irregularities
exceeding 3/8 inch (10 mm) at the joints.
b. The manufacturer may use alternate joint details to those shown on the contract documents subject to the approval of
the Engineer.
c. When concrete is placed by the wet cast method concrete compressive strength shall be determined from cylindrical
concrete specimens made in conformance with ASTM Standard C39/C39M, and prepared in conformance with ASTM
Standard C31/C31M.
d. When units are manufactured by the dry cast method, cylinders shall be made in conformance with ASTM Standard
C361, Article 10.3.2.
© 2013,

e. At least five test cylinders shall be prepared from each day’s production of concrete.
f. Compression test requirements shall be in accordance with ASTM Standard C361, Article 10.3.3.
16.6.4 MARKING (2006)
a. The following information shall be clearly marked on each box unit by indentation, waterproof paint, or other
approved means:
(1) Project name.
(2) Date of manufacture.
(3) Name or trademark of the manufacturer.
(4) Identification of the plant.
(5) Location number/match mark.
(6) Identification of top slab.
(7) Weight (mass) of unit.
16.7.1 CONSTRUCTION TOLERANCES (2006)
The construction tolerances of Article 16.6.2 a, b, e, and f shall also apply for cast-in-place concrete.
3
16.7.2 JOINTS (2006)
a. Joints shall be located as shown on the contract drawings or as approved by the Engineer. Joints in cast-in-place box
culverts shall be formed as prescribed in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
4
b. Premolded bituminous filler at least 1/2 inch (12 mm) thick may be used at joints in cast-in-place box culverts.
c. Precast units shall be placed against previously completed units in such a manner as to assure an adequate seal.
16.7.3 WATERPROOFING OR DAMPPROOFING (2006)
a. Waterproofing, if any, shall be provided in accordance with Part 29, Waterproofing, or as specified by the Engineer.
b. Where no waterproofing is specified, the surface in contact with the backfill may be dampproofed. Dampproofing, if
any, shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part 29, Waterproofing.
16.7.4 HANDLING DEVICES (2006)
Following installation of precast units, and before waterproofing or backfilling, all protruding handling devices shall be
removed, and all holes and pockets shall be filled with a non-shrink grout approved by the Engineer.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

16.7.5 FOUNDATIONS (2006)1
a. The foundation requirements apply where the reinforced concrete box culvert is to be constructed by open cut.
b. Foundation conditions shall be inspected and approved by the Engineer.
c. Existing unsuitable foundation materials shall be excavated and replaced with new material as required by the
Engineer.
d. A compacted crushed stone bed shall be provided under precast reinforced concrete box culverts. The depth of the
crushed stone bed shall be a minimum of 12 inches (300 mm), and shall extend 12 inches (300 mm) on each side of the
precast reinforced concrete box culvert with a minimum one to one side slope as shown on Figure 8-16-8.
Figure 8-16-8. Backfilling
e. In cast-in-place construction, the crushed stone bed may be omitted if foundation conditions are favorable, as
determined by the Engineer.
f. The foundation surface upon which the reinforced concrete box culvert is to be supported shall be carefully graded to
the required line and grade. A well compacted sand layer not exceeding 4 inches (100 mm) in thickness may be
provided directly under a precast culvert, and on top of the crushed stone bedding, to facilitate this.
16.7.6 BACKFILLING (2006)
a. The backfilling requirements apply where the reinforced concrete box culvert is to be constructed by open cut.
b. Structural granular backfill shall be used for the entire backfill area unless shown otherwise on the contract drawings,
and except as required for:
(1) foundations, as recommended in Article 16.7.5; and
(2) drainage materials, as recommended in Article 16.2.3 d; and
(3) parallel installations as recommended by Article 16.7.6 c.
c. When reinforced concrete culverts are used in parallel for multicell installations, positive means of ensuring lateral
support shall be provided by grouting with non-shrink grout between the units or by filling the space between adjacent
units with compacted granular or cementitious material as approved by the Engineer.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

d. Backfill shall be placed alternately on each side of the box and deposited in layers not more than 12 inches (300 mm)
thick. The layers shall be horizontal or sloping away from the structure, with each layer carefully tamped.
e. Care shall be taken in selecting and placing the backfill to prevent damage when the exterior of the culvert has a
waterproofing coating or membrane. Protective cover material may be used to prevent damage to the waterproofing
system.
COMMENTARY
C - 16.1 GENERAL
C - 16.1.1 SCOPE (2006)
The design and construction of reinforced concrete box culverts having more than two openings may be modeled upon these
recommendations, but the design equations of Figure 8-16-4 and Figure 8-16-5 will not apply.
For culverts of more than two openings the effects of unbalanced loading or pattern loading should be considered.
The design of box culverts on pile or rock foundations is governed by support conditions, and box culverts on pile foundations
will require a special analysis because of these different support conditions. However, the design of box culverts on rock
foundations may be based on these recommendations if the Engineer ensures that there is sufficiently elastic backfill bedding
between the culvert and the rock.
1
The design and construction of reinforced concrete box structures having a vertical dimension from the top of the structure to
the base of rail of less than 18 inches (450 mm) may be modeled upon these recommendations, but the effects of impact
loading will require special determination. The design equations of Figure 8-16-4 and Figure 8-16-5 will not apply,
particularly with regard to impact.
Reinforced concrete box culvert installations will normally be by open cut, and the reference to jacking in Article 16.1.1 c will
not apply. 3
C - 16.1.3 DEFINITION (2006)
Box culverts are used principally for waterways, but may also be used as pedestrian or livestock underpasses, or for other
purposes.
4
C - 16.2 MATERIALS
C - 16.2.4 CONCRETE (2006)
Air entrainment should always be provided where concrete will be subjected to freeze-thaw cycles. To increase the
imperviousness of the concrete, air entrainment should also be considered in chemically aggressive environments including
dissolved sulfates, industrial effluent, and acid rain. Since the dry cast method is not compatible with air entrainment, the
Engineer should consider this when preparing the contract specifications.
The preparation of cylinders for determining concrete compressive strength differs for wet cast and dry cast concrete. The
Engineer should determine the methods employed by potential manufacturers when preparing the contract specifications.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 16.3 DESIGN METHODS
Shallow boxes or boxes without much fill may be subject to heaving depending on conditions of the soil below the box.
C - 16.3.3 STRUCTURAL DESIGN (2006)
A box culvert may be designed as a rigid “U” shape, with a top slab acting as a simple span without negative corner moments.
A box culvert may also be designed as an inverted U-shape and placed upon a separate footing slab. Design of such culverts
may be modeled upon these recommendations but the design equations of Figure 8-16-4 and Figure 8-16-5 will not apply.
C - 16.4 DESIGN LOADS
C - 16.4.2 DEAD LOAD (2006) and
C - 16.4.3 LIVE LOAD (2006)
Pressures applied to a box culvert will vary with soil moisture content, and over time with increased compaction under traffic.
To accurately account for these changes, it would be necessary to determine a range of soil density, earth pressure coefficients,
and hydrostatic conditions. These would then be applied in combinations to determine both maximum positive and maximum
negative moments.
Article 16.4.2 and Article 16.4.3 permit such an approach, but also offer a simplified method. The intent of Article 16.4.2 c
with regard to a maximum design earth pressure coefficient for the application of dead loads is to approximate the more
rigorous analysis of maximum negative moments.
C - 16.5 DETAILS OF DESIGN
C - 16.5.5 DRAINAGE AND WATERPROOFING (2006)
Waterproofing will not normally be required for reinforced concrete box culverts. However, the Engineer may require
waterproofing at special installations, such as where culverts are to serve as pedestrian underpasses.
C - 16.7 CONSTRUCTION
C - 16.7.5 FOUNDATIONS (2006)
The Engineer may determine that special foundation requirements should apply, for example, where precast culverts are to
serve as pedestrian underpasses. In such cases, grillage supports may be considered in order to control differential
displacements.
© 2013,

8
828
Part 17
Prestressed Concrete1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
17.1 General Requirements and Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4

17.1.1 Scope (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4
17.1.2 Design Loads (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-4
17.2 Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-5 1
17.3 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-7
17.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9

17.4.1 Concrete (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9
17.4.2 Prestressing Tendons (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-9 3
17.4.3 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.4.4 Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.4.5 Rigid Ducts (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.5 Details of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10

17.5.1 Spacing of Tendons and Ducts (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-10
17.5.2 Minimum Concrete Cover (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.5.3 Protection for Prestressing Tendons (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.5.4 Protection for Debonded Prestressing Tendon (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.5.5 Post-Tensioning Ducts (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-11
17.5.6 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-12
17.5.7 Tendon Anchorage Zones (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-12
17.5.8 Development of Prestressing Strand (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-12
17.6 General Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.7 Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.8 Span Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-13
17.9 Frames and Continuous Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14
1
References, Vol. 84, 1983, p. 93; Vol. 90, 1989, p. 53; Vol. 94, 1994, p. 102.

17.10 Effective Flange Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-14

17.10.1 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Beams with Wide Top Flanges (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-15
17.11 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-15
17.12 Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.13 Deflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-16
17.14 General Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17

17.14.1 Design Theory and General Considerations (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.14.2 Basic Assumptions (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.14.3 Composite Flexural Members (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.15 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17

17.15.1 Required Strength (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-17
17.16 Allowable Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-18

17.16.1 Prestressing Tendons (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-18
17.16.2 Concrete (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-19
17.17 Loss of Prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-20

17.17.1 Prestress Losses (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-20
17.18 Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25

17.18.1 Introduction (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25
17.18.2 Rectangular Sections (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25
17.18.3 Flanged Sections (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-26
17.18.4 Steel Stress (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-26
17.19 Ductility Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-27

17.19.1 Maximum Prestressing Steel (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-27
17.19.2 Minimum Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-28
17.20 Non-Prestressed Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-28
17.21 Shear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29

17.21.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29
17.21.2 Shear Strength Provided by Concrete (2007). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-29
17.21.3 Shear Strength Provided by Web Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-31
17.21.4 Horizontal Shear Design-Composite Flexural Members (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-33
17.22 Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34

17.22.1 Geometry of Anchorage Zone (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34
17.22.2 General Zone and Local Zone (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-34
17.22.3 Design of the General Zone (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-35
17.22.4 Application of Strut-and-Tie Models to the Design of Anchorage Zones (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-38
17.22.5 Elastic Stress Analysis (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-39
17.22.6 Approximate Methods (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-39

Prestressed Concrete
17.22.7 Design of the Local Zone (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-42
17.23 Pretensioned Anchorage Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.24 Concrete Strength at Stress Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.25 General Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44

17.25.1 Flange Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.25.2 Cover and Spacing of Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.25.3 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-44
17.25.4 Embedment of Prestressed Tendon (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-47
17.26 General Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-47

17.26.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-47
17.26.2 Contractor’s Drawings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.3 Materials and Fabrication (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.4 Curing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.5 Storage and Handling (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.6 Erection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-48
17.26.7 Placement of Ducts, Steel, and Anchorage Hardware (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-49 1
17.26.8 Application and Measurement of Prestressing Force (2005). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-50
17.27 Mortar and Grout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51

17.27.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51
17.27.2 Materials and Mixing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51
17.27.3 Placing and Curing (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-51
3
17.28 Application of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29 Materials - Reinforcing Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52

17.29.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29.2 Bar Lists and Bending Diagrams (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29.3 Fabrication (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-52
17.29.4 Handling, Storing and Surface Condition of Reinforcement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53 4
17.29.5 Placing and Fastening (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
17.29.6 Splicing of Bars (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
17.30 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle (2003) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-53
Commentary (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-55
LIST OF FIGURES
8-17-1 Annual Average Ambient Relative Humidity, (R), %. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-22

8-17-2 Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-56

LIST OF TABLES
8-17-1 Values for K and μ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-24

8-17-2 Estimated Loss of Prestress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-25
SECTION 17.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
17.1.1 SCOPE1 (2001)
a. This recommended practice shall govern the design of prestressed concrete members of railway structures supporting
or protecting tracks.
b. Provisions of Part 17 supplement Part 2 of Chapter 8. All provisions of Part 2 not in conflict with provisions of Part 17
shall apply to prestressed concrete. The following provisions of Part 2 shall not apply to prestressed concrete:
Article 2.2.3d, Section 2.7, Section 2.8, Article 2.11.1, Article 2.23.9, Article 2.32.1, Section 2.38, Section 2.39 and
Section 2.40.
c. Long span or unusual structures require detailed consideration of effects which have not been included under Part 17.
d. Bearing devices for prestressed concrete structures shall be designed in accordance with Chapter 15, Part 10.
e. Segmental concrete bridges shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of Part 26.
f. Structures with direct fixation track shall be designed in accordance with Part 27.
Design loads and loading combinations shall be in accordance with Part 2, Article 2.2.3 and Article 2.2.4, including that
percentage of live-load for impact.
Equation 17-1 deleted. EQ 17-1
1
See C - 17.1.1 Scope (2001)

SECTION 17.2 NOTATIONS
As = area of non-prestressed tension reinforcement (Articles 17.18, 17.20 and 17.22), in.2 (mm2)
A′s = area of compression reinforcement (Article 17.20), in.2 (mm2)
As* = area of prestressing steel (Article 17.18), in.2 (mm2)

Asf = steel area required to develop the compressive strength of the overhanging portions of the flange
(Article 17.18), in.2 (mm2)
Asr = steel area required to develop the compressive strength of the web of a flanged section (Articles 17.18-
17.20), in.2 (mm2)
Av = area of web reinforcement (Article 17.21), in.2 (mm2)
b = width of flange of flanged member or width of rectangular member, in. (mm)
bw = web width (Article 17.21), in. (mm)
bv = width of cross section at the contact surface being investigated for horizontal shear (Article 17.21), in.
(mm)
b’ = width of a web of a flanged member, in. (mm)
CRc = loss of prestress due to creep of concrete (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
CRs = loss of prestress due to relaxation of prestressing steel (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
D = nominal diameter of prestressing steel (Articles 17.18 and 17.24), in. (mm)
d = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the prestressing force, or to centroid of 1
negative moment reinforcing for pre-cast girder bridges made continuous, in. (mm)
db = nominal diameter of prestressing wire, bar or strand, in. (mm)
dburst = the distance from the loaded surface where the bursting force is computed, in. (mm)
dd = outside diameter of post-tensioning duct, in. (mm)
dp = distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of prestressing steel, in. (mm) 3
dt = distance from the extreme compressive fiber to the centroid of the non-prestressed tension
reinforcement (Articles 17.18-17.20), in. (mm)
Ec = modulus of elasticity of concrete, ksi (MPa)
Eci = modulus of elasticity of concrete at transfer, ksi (MPa)
Es = modulus of elasticity of steel reinforcement, ksi (MPa) 4
ES = loss of prestress due to elastic shortening (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
e = base of Naperian logarithms (Article 17.17)
Fpu = ultimate load of the post-tensioned tendon (Article 17.25.3), lbs (N)
fcds = average concrete compressive stress at the c.g. of the prestressing steel under full dead load (Article
17.17), psi (MPa)
fcir = average concrete stress at the c.g. of the prestressing steel at time of release (Article 17.17), psi (MPa)
f′ c = compressive strength of concrete at 28 days, psi (MPa)
f′ ci = compressive strength of concrete at time of initial prestress (Article 17.16), psi (MPa)
fct = average splitting tensile strength of light-weight aggregate concrete, psi (MPa)
fd = stress due to unfactored dead load, at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Article 17.21), psi (MPa)

fpc = compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all prestress losses) at centroid of cross section
resisting externally applied loads or at junction of web and flange when the centroid lies within the
flange (In a composite member, fpc is resultant compressive stress at centroid of composite section, or
at junction of web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange, due to both prestress and
moments resisted by precast member acting alone) (Article 17.21), psi (MPa)
fpe = compressive stress in concrete due to effective prestress forces only (after allowance for all prestress
losses) at extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by externally applied loads (Article
17.21), ksi (MPa)
fps = guaranteed ultimate strength of the prestressing tendon, As*f’s, lbs (N)
fr = modulus of rupture of concrete, as defined in Article 17.16.2.3 (Article 17.19), ksi (MPa)
Δf s = total prestress loss, excluding friction (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)

fse = effective stress prestress after losses (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
f*su = average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load (Article 17.18), ksi (MPa)
f’s = ultimate strength of prestressing steel (Articles 17.16 and 17.18), ksi (MPa)
fsy = yield strength of non-prestressed conventional reinforcement in tension (Articles 17.20 and 17.21), ksi
(MPa)
f’y = yield strength of non-prestressed conventional reinforcement in compression (Article 17.20), ksi
(MPa)
f*y = yield point stress of prestressing steel (Article 17.16), psi (MPa)
h = overall depth of member (Article 17.21), in. (mm)
I = moment of inertia about the centroid of the cross section (Article 17.21), in.4 (mm4)
K = friction wobble coefficient per foot (meter) of prestressing steel (Article 17.17)
l = length of prestressing steel element from jack end to point x (Article 17.17), in. (mm)
Mcr = moment causing flexural cracking at section due to externally applied loads (Article 17.21), ft-lbs (N-
m)
M*cr = minimum steel cracking moment (Article 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Md/c = composite dead load moment at the section (Article 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Md/nc = non-composite dead load moment at the section (Article 17.19), ft-lbs (N-m)
Mmax = maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads (Article 17.21), ft-lbs (N-m)
Mn = nominal moment strength of a section, ft-lbs (N-m)
p = As/bdt ratio of non-prestressed tension reinforcements (Articles 17.18-17.20)
p* = As*/bd, ratio of prestressing steel (Articles 17.18 and 17.20)
p’ = A’s/bd, ratio of compression reinforcement (Article 17.20)
Pu = factored tendon force, lbs (N)
Q = statical moment of cross sectional area, above or below the level being investigated for shear, about
the centroid (Article 17.21), in.3 (mm3)
SH = loss of prestress due to concrete shrinkage (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
s = longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement (Article 17.21), in. (mm)

Sb = noncomposite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where the tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Article 17.19), in.3 (mm3)
Sc = composite section modulus for the extreme fiber of section where the tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads (Article 17.19), in.3 (mm3)
t = average thickness of the flange of a flanged member (Articles 17.18 and 17.19), in. (mm)
Tburst = the bursting force computed from the post-tensioning tendon loads at a given point (Article 17.22),
Kips (N)
To = steel stress at jacking ends (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
Tx = steel stress at any point x (Article 17.17), ksi (MPa)
T1 = edge tension force (Article 17.22), Kips (N)
T2 = bursting force (Article 17.22), Kips (N)
v = permissible horizontal shear stress (Article 17.21), psi (MPa)
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vci = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from combined shear and
moment (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vcw = nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal cracking results from excessive principal
tensile stress in web (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vd = shear force at section due to unfactored dead load (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vi = factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads occurring simultaneously with Mmax
1
(Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vnh = nominal horizontal shear strength (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vp = vertical component of effective prestress force at section (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
Vs = nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement (Article 17.21), Kips (N)
3
wc = unit density (weight) of concrete, Lbs/cu. ft. (kg/m3)
yt = distance from centroidal axis of gross section, neglecting reinforcement, to extreme fiber in tension
(Article 17.21), in. (mm)
μ = friction curvature coefficient (Article 17.17)
α = total angular change of prestressing steel profile in radians from jacking end to point x (Article 17.17)
ß1 = factor for concrete strength, as defined in Part 2 of this Chapter (Articles 17.18-17.20)
4
γ* = factor for type of prestressing steel (Article 17.18)
ϕ = Strength Reduction Factor (Article 17.15)
SECTION 17.3 TERMS
The following terms are defined for general use. Specialized definitions appear in individual articles.
Anchorage Device - Mechanical device to transmit post-tensioning force to concrete in a post-tensioned member. Also referred
to as an End Anchorage.

Anchorage Seating - Deformation of anchorage or seating of tendons in anchorage device when prestressing force is
transferred from jack to anchorage device.
Anchorage Spacing - Center-to-center spacing of anchorage devices.
Anchorage Zone - The portion of the structure in which the concentrated prestressing force is transferred from the anchorage
device into the concrete (Local Zone), and then distributed more widely into the structure (General Zone) (Article 17.22).
Basic Anchorage Device - Anchorage device meeting the restricted bearing stress and minimum plate stiffness requirements of
Articles 17.22.7.2b through 17.22.7.2d; no acceptance test is required for Basic Anchorage Devices.
Bonded Tendon - Prestressing tendon that is bonded to concrete either directly or through grouting.
Coating - Material used to protect prestressing tendons against corrosion, to reduce friction between tendon and duct, or to
debond prestressing tendons.
Coupler or Coupling - Means by which prestressing force is transmitted from one partial length prestressing tendon to another.
Creep - Time-dependent deformation of concrete under sustained load.
Curvature Friction - Friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile.
Debonding or Blanketing - Wrapping, sheathing or coating prestressing tendon to prevent bond between strand and
surrounding concrete.
Diaphragm - Transverse stiffener in girders to prevent buckling or rotation.
Duct - Hole or void formed in prestressed member to accommodate tendon for post-tensioning.
Edge Distance - Distance from the center of the anchorage device to the edge of the concrete member.
Effective Prestress - Stress remaining in concrete due to prestressing after all calculated losses have been deducted, excluding
effects of superimposed loads and weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred
excluding effects of dead load and superimposed load.
Elastic Shortening of Concrete - Shortening of member caused by application of forces induced by prestressing.
End Anchorage - Length of reinforcement, or mechanical anchor or a hook, or combination thereof, beyond point of zero
stress in reinforcement. See Anchorage Device.
End Block - Enlarged end section of member designed to reduce anchorage stresses.
Friction - Surface resistance between tendon and duct in contact during stressing.
General Zone - Region within which the concentrated prestressing force spreads out to a more linear stress distribution over
the cross section of the member (Saint Venant Region).
Grout Opening or Vent - Inlet, outlet, vent, or drain in post-tensioning duct for grout, water or air.
Intermediate Anchorage - Anchorage not located at the end surface of a member or segment; usually in the form of embedded
anchors, blisters, ribs, or recess pockets.
Jacking Force - Temporary force exerted by device that introduces tension into prestressing tendons.

Loss of Prestress - Reduction in prestressing force resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete and steel, including
effects of elastic shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, friction, and anchorage seating.
Post-Tensioning - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened.
Precompressed Zone - Portion of flexural member cross-section compressed by prestressing force.
Prestressed Concrete - Reinforced concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses
in concrete resulting from loads.
Pretensioning - Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed.
Relaxation of Tendon Stress - Time-dependent reduction of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain.
Shear Lag - Nonuniform distribution of transverse bending stress over the cross section.
Shrinkage of Concrete - Time-dependent deformation of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hydration process).
Special Anchorage Device - Anchorage device whose adequacy must be proven empirically as specified by construction
contract documents.
Tendon - Wire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such elements, used to impart prestress to concrete.
Transfer -
1
(1) Act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete member.
(2) Transfer of stress in a pretensioned tendon to surrounding concrete.
Transfer Length - Length over which prestressing force is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned members.
3
Wobble Friction - Friction caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified profile.
Wrapping or Sheathing - Enclosure around a prestressing tendon to prevent bond between prestressing tendon and surrounding
concrete.
4
17.4.1 CONCRETE (2001)
Concrete shall conform to the provisions of Part 1. The required compressive strength, fc', of the concrete for the various
members shall be as shown on the plans. The minimum fc' for prestressed concrete should be 4500 psi (31 MPa).
17.4.2 PRESTRESSING TENDONS (2001)
Provisions of Part 17 shall apply to members prestressed with wire, strands, or bars conforming to one of the following
specifications:
– "Standard Specification for Steel Strand Uncoated Seven-Wire for Prestressed Concrete" (ASTM A416).

– "Standard Specification for Uncoated Stress-Relieved Steel Wire for Prestressed Concrete" (ASTM A421).
– "Standard Specification for Uncoated High-Strength Steel Bar for Prestressing Concrete" (ASTM A722).
17.4.3 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (2001)
Non-prestressed reinforcement shall conform to the provisions of Part 1 and Article 17.28.
17.4.4 GROUT FOR POST-TENSIONING TENDONS (2006)1
All grout for post-tensioning tendons shall comply with the provisions of the current PTI GUIDE SPECIFICATION
“SPECIFICATION FOR GROUTING OF POST-TENSIONED STRUCTURES” prepared by the Post-Tensioning Institute
Committee on Grouting Specifications and published by the Post-Tensioning Institute.
The applicable provisions of the PTI guide specification include the following:
a. Materials
b. Design
c. Testing, Quality Assurance and Quality Control
d. Requirements for Technician and Inspector Certification
17.4.5 RIGID DUCTS (2001)
Rigid ducts shall have sufficient strength to maintain their correct alignment without visible wobble during placement of
concrete. Rigid ducts may be fabricated with either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of the welded seam will not be
required.
SECTION 17.5 DETAILS OF PRESTRESSING TENDONS AND DUCTS
17.5.1 SPACING OF TENDONS AND DUCTS (2006)2
a. The minimum clear distance between prestressing tendons at each end of a member shall not be less than 1-1/3 times
the maximum size of the coarse aggregate. The minimum spacing center-to-center of tendon shall be as follows:
Tendon Size Spacing

1/2 inch special, 9/16 inch, 9/16 inch special, and 0.6 inch 2 inches (50 mm)
7/16 inch and 1/2 inch 1-3/4 inches (45 mm)
3/8 inch 1-1/2 inches (40 mm)
b. Clear distance between post-tensioning ducts or trumpets at each end of a member shall not be less than 1-1/2 in. (40
mm) nor 1-1/2 times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate.
1
See C - 17.4.4 Grout for Post-Tensioning Tendons (2006)
2
See C - 17.5.1 Spacing of Tendons and Ducts (2006)

c. Post-tensioning ducts may be bundled in groups of 3 maximum, provided the spacing limitations specified in
Paragraph b are maintained in the end 3 feet (900 mm) of the member.
d. Where pretensioning tendons are bundled, all bundling shall be done in the middle third of the beam length and the
deflection points shall be investigated for secondary stresses.
17.5.2 MINIMUM CONCRETE COVER (2001)
a. For Precast Concrete the following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressing tendons and non-
prestressed reinforcement, and ducts:
Minimum Cover
Pretensioning tendons ................................. 1½ in. (40 mm)
Post-tensioning ducts ........................... 1½ in. (40 mm), but not less than dd/2
Non-prestressed reinforcement ....................... 1½ in. (40 mm)
Stirrups, ties and spirals .......................... 1 in. (25 mm)
b. For Cast-in-Place Concrete, the following minimum concrete cover shall be provided for prestressing tendons and
non-prestressed reinforcement, and ducts:
1
Post-tensioning ducts ........................... 3 in. (75 mm), but not less than dd/2
Non-prestressed reinforcement ........................ 2 in. (50 mm)
Stirrups, ties and spirals ...................... 2 in. (50 mm)
Concrete cast against earth ...................... 3 in. (75 mm) 3

c. In corrosive or marine environments or other severe exposure conditions, the amount of tendon and reinforcement
protection shall be increased by use of more dense and impervious concrete, by increasing the minimum cover or other
suitable means.
17.5.3 PROTECTION FOR PRESTRESSING TENDONS (2001) 4

a. Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed tendons shall be protected from corrosion.
b. Burning or welding operations in vicinity of prestressing tendons shall be carefully performed, so that tendons are not
subjected to excessive temperatures, welding sparks, or ground currents and the shock to the concrete is minimized.
17.5.4 PROTECTION FOR DEBONDED PRESTRESSING TENDON (2001)
Tendon wrapping, sheathing, or coating shall be continuous over entire debonded length, and shall prevent intrusion of cement
paste during concrete placement.
17.5.5 POST-TENSIONING DUCTS (2001)
a. Ducts shall be mortar-tight and nonreactive with concrete, tendons, or grout.

b. Ducts for single wire, strand, or bar tendons shall have an inside diameter not less than ¼ in. (10 mm) larger than
tendon diameter.
c. Ducts for multiple wire, strand, or bar tendons shall have an inside cross sectional area not less than 2 times the net area
of tendons.
d. Ducts shall be maintained free of water.
e. Ducts shall be grouted within twenty-four hours of post-tensioning, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer.
17.5.6 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS (2001)
a. Anchorages and couplers for post-tensioning tendons shall develop not less than 95 percent of the specified ultimate
strength of the tendons, when tested in an unbonded condition, without exceeding anticipated set.
b. Couplers shall be located in areas approved by the Engineer and enclosed in housing long enough to permit necessary
movements. Couplers shall not be located at points of sharp tendon curvature. Couplers located in areas of high stress
range shall be investigated for fatigue.
17.5.7 TENDON ANCHORAGE ZONES (2001)
a. Reinforcement shall be provided where required in tendon anchorage zones to resist bursting, splitting, and spalling
forces induced by tendon anchorages. Regions of abrupt change in section shall be adequately reinforced.
b. End blocks shall be provided where required for support bearing or for distribution of concentrated prestressing forces.
c. Post-tensioning anchorages and supporting concrete shall be designed to resist maximum jacking force for strength of
concrete at time of prestressing.
d. For design criteria of post-tensioning anchorage zones refer to Article 17.22.
17.5.8 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND1 (2013)
a. Seven-wire prestressing strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for a development length, in inches (mm),
not less than
(f*su - 2/3 fse) D EQ 17-2
(f*su - 2/3 fse) D/7 EQ 17-2 (Metric)
where f*su and fse are expressed in ksi (MPa), and D is strand diameter in inches (mm).
b. Investigation may be limited to cross sections nearest each end of the member that are required to develop full design
strength under specified factored loads.
c. Where a portion or portions of pretensioning strands are not bonded and where tension exists in the precompressed
tensile zone, the development length, measured from the end of the debonded zone, shall be twice the calculated length
determined by EQ 17-2.
1
See C - 17.5.8 Development of Prestressing Strand (2013)

Debonded strands shall be symmetrically distributed about the centerline of the member and the length of a pair of
debonded strands shall be the same. The length of debonding any strand shall be such that all design criteria are
satisfied with consideration of the total developed resistance at any section being investigated.
The following provisions are to be included in analysis and design:
(1) The number of partially debonded strands shall not exceed 25 percent of the total number of strands.
(2) The number of partially debonded strands in any horizontal row shall not exceed 40 percent for that row.
(3) Not more than 40 percent of the partially debonded strands, or four strands, whichever is greater, shall have the
debonding terminated at any section.
(4) Exterior strands in each horizontal row shall be fully bonded.
SECTION 17.6 GENERAL ANALYSIS1
All members shall be designed for adequate strength and satisfactory behavior using these recommended practices as
minimum guidelines. Behavior shall be determined by elastic analysis, taking into account the reactions, moments, shears,
and axial forces produced by prestressing, the effects of temperature, creep, shrinkage, axial deformation, restraint of attached
structural elements, and foundation settlement. 1
SECTION 17.7 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION
In all bridges, provisions shall be made in the design to resist thermal stresses induced, or means shall be provided for 3
movement caused by temperature changes.
Movements not otherwise provided for, including shortening during stressing, shall be provided for by means of hinged
columns, rockers, sliding plates, elastomeric pads, or other devices.
SECTION 17.8 SPAN LENGTH
The effective span lengths of simply supported beams shall be the distance center to center of bearings.
The span length of continuous or restrained floor slabs and beams shall be the distance center to center of supports.
Where fillets making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the axis of a continuous or restrained slab are built monolithic with
the slab and support, the span shall be measured from the section where the combined depth of the slab and the fillet is at least
one and one-half times the thickness of the slab. Maximum negative moments are to be considered as existing at the ends of
the span, as above defined. No portion of the fillet shall be considered as adding to the effective depth.
1
See C - Section 17.6 General Analysis

SECTION 17.9 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION1
Frames and continuous construction of prestressed concrete, where permitted by the Engineer, shall be designed for adequate
strength and for satisfactory performance at service load conditions.
Moments to be used to compute required strength shall be the algebraic sum of the moments due to reactions induced by
prestressing (with a load factor of 1.0) and the moments due to factored loads.
Composite flexural members consisting of prestressed concrete elements shall be designed in accordance with Article 2.23.9.
Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with Articles 2.29.5 or 2.35.5.
Composite Semi-Continuous Construction
a. These provisions shall apply for design of superstructures of two or more spans composed of simple span precast-
prestressed girders made continuous with deck slab for live load and superimposed dead load.
b. Positive Moment Connection at Piers
(1) Provision shall be made for positive moments that may develop at piers due to combined effects of creep and
shrinkage in girders and deck slab, and due to effects of live load in remote spans.
(2) Non-prestressed positive moment connection reinforcement may be designed for a service load stress of 0.6 fy but
not greater than 36 ksi (250 MPa).
c. Continuity Negative Moment Reinforcement
(1) Non-prestressed negative moment reinforcement shall be proportioned by the strength design method of Part 2 of
this Chapter.
(2) Effect of initial precompression due to prestress in the precast girders may be neglected in calculation of negative
moment strength if maximum precompression stress is limited to 0.45f 'c and continuity reinforcement ratio is less
than 0.015.
(3) Negative moment strength shall be calculated using compressive strength of girder concrete, regardless of strength
of diaphragm concrete.
(4) Extreme fiber stress in compression at ends of girders at piers due to prestress and negative continuity moment
shall not exceed 0.60f 'c.
Segmental Box Girders shall conform to the requirements of Part 26 of these recommended practices.
SECTION 17.10 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH
For composite prestressed construction where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with the beam, the effective flange
width shall conform to the provisions for T-girder flanges in Article 2.23.10.
1
See C - Section 17.9 Frames and Continuous Construction

For monolithic prestressed construction, with normal slab span and girder spacing, the effective flange width shall be the
distance center-to-center of beams. For very short spans, or where girder spacing is excessive, analytical investigations shall
be made to determine the effective width of flange acting with the beam.
For monolithic prestressed design of isolated beams, the flange width shall not exceed 15 times the web width and shall be
adequate for all design loads.
For cast-in-place box girders with normal slab span and girder spacing, where the slabs are considered an integral part of the
girder, the entire slab width shall be assumed to be effective in compression.
For box girders of unusual proportions, methods of analysis which consider shear lag shall be used to determine stresses in the
cross section due to longitudinal bending.
Adequate fillets shall be provided at the intersections of all surfaces within the cell of a box girder, except at the junction of
web and bottom flange where none are required.
17.10.1 PRECAST/PRESTRESSED CONCRETE BEAMS WITH WIDE TOP FLANGES

(2001)
a. For composite prestressed concrete where slabs or flanges are assumed to act integrally with the precast beam, the
effective web width of the precast beam shall be the lesser of:
(1) six (6) times the maximum thickness of the flange (excluding fillets) on either side of the web plus the web and
fillets; and, 1
(2) the total width of the top flange.
b. The effective flange width of the composite section shall be the lesser of:
(1) one-fourth of the span length of the girder;

3
(2) six (6) times the thickness of the slab on each side of the effective web width as determined by Article 17.10.1a
plus the effective web width; and,
(3) one-half the clear distance on each side of the effective web width plus the effective web width.
SECTION 17.11 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS-BOX GIRDERS1
The minimum top flange thickness shall be 1/30th of the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 6 inches (150
mm), except the minimum thickness may be reduced for factory produced precast, pretensioned elements to 5 ½ inches (140
mm).
The minimum bottom flange thickness shall be 1/30th of the clear distance between fillets or webs but not less than 5 ½ inches
(140 mm), except the minimum thickness may be reduced for factory produced precast, pretensioned elements to 5 inches
(130 mm).
Changes in girder stem thickness shall be tapered for a minimum distance of 12 times the difference in web thickness.
1
See C - Section 17.11 Flange and Web Thickness-Box Girders

SECTION 17.12 DIAPHRAGMS1
a. Diaphragms shall be provided in accordance with Articles 17.12b through 17.12e, except that adequate bracing of the
compression flange shall be provided by a cast-in-place deck.
b. Diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends to strengthen the free edge of the slab and to transmit forces to
the substructure.
c. For spread box beams, diaphragms shall be placed within the box and between boxes at span ends and at the points of
maximum moment for spans over 80 feet (24 m).
d. For precast box multi-beam bridges, diaphragms are required only if necessary for slab end support or to contain or
resist transverse tension ties.
e. For cast-in-place box girders, diaphragms or other means shall be used at span ends to resist lateral forces and maintain
section geometry. Intermediate diaphragms are not required for bridges with inside radius of curvature of 800 feet (245
m) or greater.
f. For all types of prestressed boxes in bridges with inside radius of curvature less than 800 feet (245 m), intermediate
diaphragms may be required and the spacing and strength of diaphragms shall be given special consideration in the
design of the structure.
SECTION 17.13 DEFLECTIONS
Flexural members of bridge structures shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to limit deflections or any deformations that
may adversely affect strength and serviceability of the structure at service load. Members having simple or continuous spans
shall be designed so that the deflection due to service live load plus impact does not exceed l/640 of the span.
Deflections that occur immediately on application of load shall be computed by usual methods or formulas for elastic
deflections, and moment of inertia of gross concrete section may be used for uncracked sections.
Additional long-time deflection shall be computed taking into account stresses in concrete and steel under sustained load and
including effects of creep and shrinkage of concrete and relaxation of prestressing steel.
Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete and Es for nonprestressed steel reinforcement shall be as specified in Article 2.23.4.
Modulus of elasticity Es for prestressing tendons shall be determined by tests or supplied by manufacturer.
1
See C - Section 17.12 Diaphragms

SECTION 17.14 GENERAL DESIGN
17.14.1 DESIGN THEORY AND GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS (2001)
17.14.1.1 Design of prestressed members shall be based on strength (Load Factor Design) and on
behavior at service load conditions (Article 17.6) at all load stages that may be critical during the life of the
structure from the time prestressing is first applied.
17.14.1.2 Stress concentrations due to prestressing shall be considered in design.
17.14.1.3 Effects of temperature, creep and shrinkage shall be considered in design.
17.14.2 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS (2001)
17.14.2.1 Strength design of prestressed members for flexure and axial loads shall be based on the
following assumptions for design of monolithic members:
a. Strains vary linearly over the depth of the member throughout the entire load range.
b. Before cracking, stress is linearly proportional to strain.
c. After cracking, tension in the concrete is neglected.
17.14.3 COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2001)1

1
Composite flexural members consisting of precast and/or cast-in-place concrete elements constructed in separate placements
but so interconnected that all elements respond to superimposed loads as a unit shall conform to the provisions of Articles
17.21.4 and the following:
17.14.3.1 When an entire member is assumed to resist the vertical shear, the design shall be in accordance 3
with the requirements of Articles 17.21.1 through 17.21.3.
17.14.3.2 The design shall provide for full transfer of horizontal shear forces at contact surfaces of
interconnected elements. Design for horizontal shear shall be in accordance with the requirements of
17.21.4.
SECTION 17.15 LOAD FACTORS
17.15.1 REQUIRED STRENGTH (2001)
a. Prestressed members shall have design strengths at all sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the
factored loads and forces in such combinations as stipulated in Article 2.2.4c for the load groups that are applicable.
For the design of post-tensioned anchorage zones, a load factor of 1.2 shall be applied to the maximum tendon jacking
force.
b. The following strength capacity reduction factors shall be used:
1
See C - 17.14.3 Composite Flexural Members (2001)

(1) For flexure: ϕ = 0.95
(2) For shear ϕ = 0.90
(3) For anchorage zones ϕ = 0.85 for normal weight concrete and ϕ = 0.70 for lightweight concrete
SECTION 17.16 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
The design of precast prestressed members and cast-in-place post-tensioned concrete spans ordinarily shall be based on f 'c =
5000 psi (35 MPa). An increase to 6000 psi (40 MPa) is permissible where, in the Engineer’s judgement, it is reasonable to
expect that this strength will be obtained consistently. Higher concrete strengths may be considered on an individual basis. In
such cases, the Engineer shall satisfy himself completely that the controls over materials and fabrication procedures will
provide the required strengths. The provisions of this Article are equally applicable to prestressed concrete structures and
components designed with lower concrete strengths.
17.16.1 PRESTRESSING TENDONS (2001)
17.16.1.1 Tensile stress in prestressing tendons shall not exceed the following:
a. Due to tendon jacking force .................................................................................................. 0.75f 's or 0.90f*y
whichever is smaller, but not greater than the maximum value recommended by the manufacturer of the
prestressing tendons or anchorages.
b. Slight over stressing of pretensioning tendons up to 0.85f 's for short periods of time may be permitted to offset seating
losses, provided the stress after seating does not exceed the value in Paragraph a.
c. Stress-relieved pretensioning tendons immediately after prestress transfer .................... 0.82f*y or 0.70f 's
whichever is larger.
d. Stabilized (low-relaxation) pretensioning tendons immediately after prestress transfer..0.82f*y or 0.75f 's
whichever is larger.
17.16.1.2 Tensile stress in post-tensioning shall not exceed the following:
a. Immediately after tendon anchorage ....................................................................................0.82f*y or 0.70f 's
whichever is larger, but not greater than 0.70f 's at end anchorage.
b. Over stressing of post-tensioning tendons up to 0.90f 's for short periods of time may be permitted to offset seating and
friction losses provided the stress at the anchorage does not exceed the value in Paragraph a. above. The stress at the
end of the seating loss zone must not exceed 0.82f*y immediately after seating.

17.16.2 CONCRETE (2001)1
17.16.2.1 Stresses in concrete immediately after prestress transfer (before time-dependent prestress
losses-Creep and Shrinkage) shall not exceed the following:
a. Extreme fiber stress in compression
Pretensioned members..................................................................0.60f 'ci
Post-tensioned members...............................................................0.55f 'ci
b. Extreme fiber stress in tension
(1) Members without bonded auxiliary reinforcement .............................. 200 psi (1.38 MPa) or
3 f ′ ci
0.25 f ′ ci (metric)
Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds this value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided to resist the total
tension force in the concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section. 1
(2) Members with bonded auxiliary reinforcement provided in the tensile zone to resist the total tensile force in
concrete computed with the assumption of an uncracked section ..........................
7.5 f ′ ci
3
0.623 f ′ ci (metric)
17.16.2.2 Stresses in concrete at service loads (after allowance for all prestress losses) shall not exceed 4
the following:
Compression...........................................................................................................................0.40f 'c
Tension in the precompressed tensile zone...................................................................................0
Tension in other areas is limited by allowable temporary stresses specified in Article 17.16.2.1.
17.16.2.3 Cracking Stress2
Modulus of rupture from tests or if not available:
1
See C - 17.16.2 Concrete (2001)
2
Refer to Article 17.19

For normal weight concrete................................................................................
7.5 f ′ c
0.623 f ′ c (metric)
For sand lightweight concrete...............................................................................
6.3 f ′ c
0.523 f ′ c (metric)
17.16.2.4 Anchorage Bearing Stress
Post-tensioned anchorage at service load.......................................................................................3000 psi (21 MPa)
(but not to exceed 0.9f 'ci)
SECTION 17.17 LOSS OF PRESTRESS
17.17.1 PRESTRESS LOSSES (2004)
a. To determine effective prestress fse, allowance for the following sources of loss of prestress shall be considered:
Δf s = ES + CR c + SH + CR s
where:
ES =Elastic shortening of concrete
CRc =Creep of concrete
SH =Shrinkage of concrete
CRs =Relaxation of tendon stress
Anchorage seating and friction due to intended or unintended curvature in post-tensioning tendons shall be considered.
b. Total loss of prestress shall be determined in accordance with a method of calculating prestress losses supported by
appropriate research data, representing properties of the materials to be used, methods of curing, ambient service
conditions, and any pertinent structural details.1

c. In lieu of the more exact procedure prescribed in Paragraph b, loss of prestress may be determined in accordance with
either Paragraph d or Paragraph e for the conditions stated.
d. Loss of prestress may be determined by the following procedure for normal weight concrete and the following types of
prestressing tendons:
270 ksi (1860 MPa) uncoated seven-wire stress-relieved or low-relaxation strand; 145 to 160 ksi (1000 to 1100 MPa)
uncoated high-strength steel bar (plain or deformed).
Data representing properties and effects of lightweight concrete shall be determined from documented tests.
(1) Elastic shortening of concrete
(a) For Pretensioned members:
E
ES = ⎛ ------s-⎞ f cir EQ 17-3
⎝E ⎠
ci
(b) For Post-tensioned1 members:
E
ES = 0.5 ⎛ ------s-⎞ f cir EQ 17-4 1
⎝E ⎠
ci
Es = modulus of elasticity for prestressing tendons to be determined from documented test data.
Eci = modulus of elasticity for concrete at time of transfer; may be taken as

3
1.5 ′
wc ( 33 ) f ci in pounds per square inch
wc
1.5
( 0.0428 ) f
′
ci in MPa 4
fcir = stress in concrete at centroid of prestressing reinforcement immediately after transfer, due to total
prestress force and dead load acting at transfer. fcir shall be computed at the section or sections of
maximum moment. For pretensioned members, fcir shall be calculated using a prestress force reduced
below stress at transfer by elastic shortening of concrete and tendon relaxation during placing and
curing of concrete. For post-tensioned members, fcir shall be calculated using a prestress force
reduced below stress at transfer by elastic shortening of concrete and tendon friction. Amount of
reduction below prestress stress at transfer can be estimated, or for pretensioned members the reduced
tendon stress may be taken as 0.63fs', for stress relieved strand or 0.69fs' for low relaxation strand.
(2) Creep of concrete
1
“Estimating Prestress Losses” by Paul Zia, H. Kent Preston, Norman L. Scott, and Edwin B. Workman, ACI Concrete International, June 1979, pp. 32-38.
1
Certain post-tensioning procedures may alter the elastic shortening loss.

(a) For pretensioned and post-tensioned members:
CRc = 12fcir - 7fcds EQ 17-5
where:
fcds = stress in concrete at centroid of prestressing reinforcement, due to all dead load not included in
calculation of fcir.
(3) Shrinkage of Concrete
(a) For pretensioned members:
SH = 17 - 0.150 R EQ 17-6
SH = 117 - 1.03 R EQ 17-6

(Metric)
(b) For post-tensioned members:
SH = 0.8 (17 - 0.150 R) EQ 17-7
SH = 0.8 (117 - 1.03 R) EQ 17-7

(Metric)
where:
R = annual average ambient relative humidity in percent. The following map may be used to determine R.
Figure 8-17-1. Annual Average Ambient Relative Humidity, (R), %
(4) Relaxation of tendon stress

(a) For Pretensioning tendons:
1 270 ksi stress-relieved strand tensioned to 0.70f's
CRs = 20 - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-8a
2 1860 MPa stress-relieved strand tensioned to 0.70f's
CRs = 138 - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-8a (Metric)
3 270 ksi low-relaxation strand tensioned to 0.75f's
CRs = 5 - 0.10 ES - 0.05 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-8b
4 1860 MPa low-relaxation strand tensioned to 0.75f's
25% of CRs in previous above EQ 17-8b (Metric)
(b) For Post-tensioning tendons:
1 270 ksi stress-relieved strand anchored at 0.70f's
CRs = 20 - 0.3 FR - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-9a
2 1860 MPa stress-relieved strand anchored at 0.70f's

1
CRs = 138 - 0.3 FR - 0.4 ES - 0.2 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-9a (Metric)
3 270 ksi low-relaxation strand anchored at 0.75 f's
CRs = 5 - 0.07 FR - 0.1 ES - 0.05 (SH + CRc) EQ 17-9b 3

4 1860 MPa low-relaxation strand anchored at 0.75f's
CRs = 25% of CRs in EQ 17-9a above EQ 17-9b (Metric)
5 145 to 160 ksi high-strength steel bar

4
CRs = 3.0 EQ 17-9c
6 1000 to 1100 MPa high-strength steel bar
CRs = Loss due to relaxation should be based on approved test data. If test EQ 17-9c (Metric)
data are not available the loss may be assumed to be 21 MPa
where:
FR = friction loss below 0.70f's at point being considered, computed according to Paragraph d(6) below.
ES, SH, CRc = appropriate values as determined for either pretensioned or post-tensioned member.
(5) Anchorage Seating

Allowance shall be made for loss of prestress in post-tensioning tendons due to anchorage seating. Calculations
shall be made in accordance with a method consistent with the friction coefficients for the materials used.
(6) Friction
Effect of friction loss due to intended or unintended curvature in post-tensioning tendons shall be computed by:
f lfx = f po [ l – e – ( Kl x + μα ) ]
T o = T x e ( KL + μα ) EQ 17-10
When (Klx + μα) is not greater than 0.3, effect of friction loss may be computed by:
f lfx = f po ( Kl x + μα )
T o = T x ( 1 + KL + μα ) EQ 17-11
Friction coefficients K and μ shall be determined experimentally, and shall be verified during tendon stressing
operations. When experimental data for the materials used are not available, the following values for K and μ may
be used.
Table 8-17-1. Values for K and μ
Type of Steel Type of Duct K μ

Uncoated wire or strand Bright Metal Sheathing 0.0020 (0.0027) 0.30
Galvanized Metal Sheathing 0.0015 (0.0020) 0.25
Galvanized Rigid 0.0002 0.25
(0.00027)
Polyethylene 0.0020 (0.0027) 0.25
Uncoated high strength bar Bright Metal Sheathing 0.0003 (0.0004) 0.20
Galvanized Metal Sheathing 0.0002 0.15
(0.00027)
Friction losses should be estimated for design and verified during stressing operations. Rigid ducts shall have
sufficient strength to maintain proper alignment without visible wobble during placement of concrete. Rigid ducts
may be fabricated with either welded or interlocked seams. Galvanizing of the welded seam will not be required.
e. Loss of prestress, excluding friction loss, may be estimated for preliminary design in accordance with the following
values for prestressed members or structures of usual design. Tabulated estimates are based on normal weight

concrete, normal prestressing levels, and average exposure conditions. Friction loss in post-tensioning tendons shall be
determined in accordance with Paragraph d(6), above.
Table 8-17-2. Estimated Loss of Prestress
Total Loss of Prestress (Note 1)

Type of Prestressing Tendon
f′c = 4,000 psi (28 MPa) f′c = 5,000 psi (35 MPa)
Pretensioning tendon:
Stress relieved 45,000 psi (310 MPa)
Low relaxation 35,000 psi (240 MPa)
Post-tensioning wire or strand:
Stress relieved 32,000 psi (220 MPa) 33,000 psi (228 MPa)
Low relaxation 24,000 psi (165 MPa) 25,000 psi (172 MPa)
Post-tensioning bar 22,000 psi (152 MPa) 23,000 psi (158 MPa)
Note 1: Excluding friction losses in post-tensioning tendons.
SECTION 17.18 FLEXURAL STRENGTH1 1
17.18.1 INTRODUCTION (2001)
Prestressed concrete members may be assumed to act as uncracked members subjected to combined axial and bending stresses
within specified service loads. In calculations of section properties, the transformed area of bonded reinforcement may be
included in pretensioned members and in post-tensioned members after grouting; prior to bonding of tendons, areas of the 3
open ducts shall be deducted.
17.18.2 RECTANGULAR SECTIONS (2001)
For rectangular or flanged sections having prestressing steel only, in which the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block,
defined as (A*s f*su)/(0.85 f 'cb), is not greater than the compression flange thickness “t”, and which satisfy EQ 17-23, the
design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
4
ϕMn = ϕ[A*s f*su d{1-0.6(p*f*su/f'c)}] EQ 17-12
For rectangular or flanged sections with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which the depth of the equivalent
rectangular stress block, defined as (A*s f*su + As fsy)/(0.85 f'c b), is not greater than the compression flange thickness “t” and
which satisfy EQ 17-24, the design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
ϕMn = ϕ{A*sf*sud[1-0.6((p*f*su/f 'c)+(dt/d)(pfsy/f 'c))] + Asfsydt[1-0.6((d/dt)(p*f*su/f 'c)+(pfsy/f 'c))]} EQ 17-13
1
See C - Section 17.18 Flexural Strength

17.18.3 FLANGED SECTIONS (2001)
For sections having prestressing steel only, in which the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block, defined as (Asr
f*su)/(0.85 f'cb') is greater than the compression flange thickness “t”, and which satisfy EQ 17-24 the design flexural strength
shall be assumed as:
ϕMn = ϕ{Asrf*sud[1-0.6(Asrf*su/b'df 'c)] + 0.85 f'c(b-b')(t)(d-0.5t)} EQ 17-14
For sections with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included, in which the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress
block, defined as (Asr f*su)/(0.85 f'cb') is greater than the compression flange thickness “t”, and which satisfy EQ 17-24, the
design flexural strength shall be assumed as:
ϕMn = ϕ{Asrf*sud[1-0.6(Asrf*su/b' df'c)] + Asfsy(dt-d) + 0.85 f'c(b-b')(t)(d-0.5t)} EQ 17-15
where:
Asr = A*s - Asf, in EQ 17-14 EQ 17-16
Asr = A*s + (Asfsy/f*su) - Asf, in EQ 17-15 EQ 17-17
Asf = 0.85f'c(b-b')t/f*su EQ 17-18
Asf = The steel area required to develop the ultimate compressive strength of the overhanging portions of the
flange.
17.18.4 STEEL STRESS (2001)
17.18.4.1 As an alternative to a more accurate determination of f*su based on strain compatibility, the
following approximate values of f*su shall be permitted to be used:
Bonded Members:
with prestressing only (as defined):
f*su = f's[1-(γ*/ß1)(p*f's/f'c)] EQ 17-19
with non-prestressed tension reinforcement included:
f*su = f's{1-(γ*/ß1)[(p*f's/f'c)+dt/d(pfsy/f'c)]} EQ 17-20
where γ* :
= 0.28 for low-relaxation steel
= 0.40 for stress-relieved steel
= 0.55 for bars
Unbonded members:

f*su = fse + 15,000 EQ 17-21

f*su = fse + 100 EQ 17-21 (Metric)
provided that:
a. The stress strain properties of the prestressing steel conform to the requirements of ASTM A416 (Low-Relaxation).
b. The effective prestress after losses is not less than 0.5 f 's.
17.18.4.2 At ultimate load, the stress in the prestressing steel of precast deck panels shall be limited to:
f*su = lx/D + 2/3 fse EQ 17-22
f*su = 7 lx/D + 2/3 fse EQ 17-22 (Metric)
but shall not be greater the f*su as given by the equations in Article 17.18.4.1. In the above equation:
D = nominal diameter of strand in inches (mm);
fse = effective stress in prestressing strand after losses in psi (MPa);
lx = distance from end of prestressing strand to center of panel in inches (mm).

1
SECTION 17.19 DUCTILITY LIMITS
17.19.1 MAXIMUM PRESTRESSING STEEL (2001) 3

Prestressed concrete members shall be designed so that the steel is yielding as ultimate capacity is approached. In general, the
reinforcement index shall be such that:
p*f*su/f 'c, for rectangular sections EQ 17-23
and 4
Asrf*su/b'df 'c, for flanged sections EQ 17-24
does not exceed 0.36ß1. (See Article 17.20 for reinforcement indices of sections with non-prestressed reinforcement).
For members with reinforcement indices greater than 0.36ß1, the design flexural strength shall be assumed not greater than:
For rectangular sections: ϕMn = ϕ[(0.36ß1 - 0.08ß12)f'cbd2] EQ 17-25
For flanged sections: ϕMn = ϕ[(0.36ß1 - 0.08ß12)f'cbd2 +0.85f'c(b-b')t(d-0.5t)] EQ 17-26

17.19.2 MINIMUM REINFORCEMENT (2001)
17.19.2.1 The total amount of prestressed and non-prestressed reinforcement shall be adequate to develop
an ultimate moment at the critical section at least 1.2 times the cracking moment M*cr.
ϕM n ≥ 1.2M* cr
where:
M*cr = (fr + fpe)Sc - Md/nc(Sc/Sb - 1) EQ 17-27
Appropriate values for Md/nc and Sb shall be used for any intermediate composite sections. Where beams are designed to be
noncomposite, substitute Sb for Sc in the above equation for the calculation of M*cr.
17.19.2.2 The minimum amount of non-prestressed longitudinal reinforcement provided in the cast-in-
place portion of slabs utilizing precast prestressed deck panels shall be 0.25 square inch per foot (530
mm2 per meter) of slab width.
SECTION 17.20 NON-PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT
Non-prestressed reinforcement may be considered as contributing to the tensile strength of the beam at design flexural strength
in an amount equal to its area times yield strength, provided that:
For rectangular sections:
( pf sy ⁄ f′ c )d t ⁄ d + ( p*f * su ⁄ f′ c ) – ( p′f′ y ⁄ f′ c ) ≤ 0.36β 1 EQ 17-28
For flanged sections:
( A s f sy ) ⁄ ( b′df′ c ) + ( A sr f * su ) ⁄ ( b′df′ c ) – ( A′ s f ′ y ) ⁄ ( b′df′ c ) ≤ 0.36β 1 EQ 17-29
Design flexural strength shall be calculated based on EQ 17-13 or EQ 17-15 if these values are met, and on EQ 17-25 or EQ
17-26 if these values are exceeded.

SECTION 17.21 SHEAR
17.21.1 GENERAL (2001)
17.21.1.1 Prestressed concrete flexural members, except solid slabs and footings, shall be reinforced for
shear and diagonal tension stresses. Voided slabs shall be investigated for shear, but shear reinforcement
may be omitted if the factored shear force, Vu, is less than half the shear strength provided by the concrete
ϕVc.
17.21.1.2 Web reinforcement shall consist of stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or welded
wire fabric with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member. Web reinforcement shall extend to
a distance d from the extreme compression fiber and shall be carried as close to the compression and
tension surfaces of the member as cover requirements and the proximity of other reinforcement permit.
Web reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends for its design yield strength in accordance with the
provisions of Article 2.21.
17.21.1.3 Members subject to shear shall be designed so that
Vu ≤ ϕ ( Vc + Vs ) EQ 17-30
where Vu is the factored shear force at the section considered, Vc is the nominal shear strength provided by concrete and Vs is
the nominal shear strength provided by web reinforcement.
1
17.21.1.4 When the reaction to the applied loads introduces compression into the end regions of the
member, sections located at a distance less than h/2 from the face of the support may be designed for the
same shear Vu as that computed at a distance h/2. An exception occurs when major concentrated loads
are imposed between that point and the face of support. In that case sections closer than d to the support
shall be designed for Vu at distance d plus the major concentrated loads.
17.21.2 SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY CONCRETE (2007) 3
17.21.2.1 For members with effective prestress force not less than 40 percent of the total tensile strength
of flexural reinforcement, unless a more detailed calculation is made in accordance with 17.21.2.2, shear
strength Vc shall be computed by:
EQ 17-31 4
⎛ f′ V u d p⎞ EQ 17-31
V c = ⎜ ---------c- + 5 ------------⎟b d (Metric)
⎝ 20 Mu ⎠ w
but Vc need not be taken less than
2 f′ c b w d
1
--- f′ c b w d Metric
6

nor shall Vc be taken greater than
5 f ′c bw d
0.4 f ′ c b w d Metric
nor the value given in 17.21.2.3. The quantity Vudp/Mu shall not be taken greater than 1.0, where Mu is factored moment
occurring simultaneously with factored shear force, Vu at the section considered.
17.21.2.2 For more precise analysis the shear strength provided by concrete, Vc, shall be taken as the
lesser of the values Vci or Vcw.
The shear strength, Vci, shall be computed by:
V i M cr EQ 17-32
V ci = 0.6 f′ c b′d + V d + ---------------
M max
4 V i M cr EQ 17-32
V ci = 5 × 10 f ′ c b′d + V d + --------------- (Metric)
M max
but Vci need not be less than
1.7 f′ c b′d
220 f′ c b′d Metric
and d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
The moment causing flexural cracking at the section due to externally applied loads, Mcr, shall be computed by:
M cr = ( I ⁄ y t ) ( 6 f′ c + f pe – f d ) EQ 17-33
EQ 17-33
M cr = ( I ⁄ y t ) ( 0.5 f′ e + f pe – f d ) (Metric)
The maximum factored moment and factored shear at the section due to externally applied loads, Mmax and Vi, shall be
computed from the load combination causing maximum moment at the section.

17.21.2.3 The shear strength, Vcw, shall be computed by:
EQ 17-34
V cw = ( 3.5 f′ c + 0.3f pc )b′d + V p
5 EQ 17-34
V cw = 10 × 10 [ ( 0.29 f′ c + 0.3f pe )b′d ] + V p (Metric)
but d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
17.21.2.4 In a pretensioned member in which the section at a distance h/2 from face of support is closer to
the end of member than the transfer length of the prestressing steel, the reduced prestress shall be
considered when computing Vcw. This value of Vcw shall also be taken as the maximum limit for EQ 17-31.
The prestress force shall be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the end of prestressing steel, to a
maximum at a distance from the end of prestressing steel equal to the transfer length, assumed to be 50
diameters for strand and 100 diameters for single wire.
17.21.2.5 In a pretensioned member where bonding of some tendons does not extend to the end of
member, a reduced prestress shall be considered when computing Vc in accordance with 17.21.2.1 and
17.21.2.2. The value of Vcw calculated using the reduced prestress shall also be taken as the maximum limit
for EQ 17-31. The prestress force due to tendons, for which bonding does not extend to the end of member,
shall be assumed to vary linearly from zero at the point at which bonding commences to a maximum at a 1
distance from this point equal to the transfer length, assumed to be 50 diameters for strand and 100
diameters for single wire.
17.21.2.6 The provisions for computing the shear strength provided by concrete, Vci and Vcw , apply to
normal weight concrete. When lightweight aggregate concretes are used, (see definition, concrete,
structural lightweight, Article 2.2.2), one of the following modifications shall apply:
3
a. When fct is specified, the shear strength, Vci and Vcw, shall be modified by substituting fct/6.7 (1.8 fct) for but the value
f′ c
of fct/6.7 (1.8 fct) used shall not exceed
f′ c 4
b. When fct is not specified, Vci and Vcw shall be modified by multiplying each term containing
f′ c
by 0.85 for “sand-lightweight” concrete.
17.21.3 SHEAR STRENGTH PROVIDED BY WEB REINFORCEMENT (2001)
Shear reinforcement shall consist of stirrups perpendicular to axis of member or welded wire fabric with wires located
perpendicular to axis of member. Shear reinforcement shall be anchored at both ends in accordance with Article 2.21.

17.21.3.1 The shear strength provided by web reinforcement shall be taken as
Vs = (Avfsyd)/s EQ 17-35
where Av is the area of web reinforcement within a distance s. Vs shall not be taken greater than
8 f′ c b′d
0.66 f′ c b′d Metric
and d need not be taken less than 0.8h.
17.21.3.2 The spacing of web reinforcing shall not exceed 0.75h or 24 inches (600 mm). When Vs exceeds
4 f′ c b′d
0.332 f′ c b′d Metric
this maximum spacing shall be reduced by one-half.
17.21.3.3 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
A minimum area of shear reinforcement shall be provided in all flexural members, except: slabs, footings, and shallow beams,
where factored shear force Vu exceeds ½ the shear strength provided by concrete ϕVc, (Beams with total depth not greater
than either 10 in. (250 mm), 2-1/2 times the thickness of the flange, or one-half the width of web shall be considered shallow
beams).
The minimum area of web reinforcement shall be:

Av = (50 b's)/fsy EQ 17-36
Av = (0.345 b's)/fsy EQ 17-36 (Metric)
where b' and s are in inches (mm) and fsy is in psi (MPa).

17.21.3.4 The design yield strength of web reinforcement, fsy, shall not exceed 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
17.21.4 HORIZONTAL SHEAR DESIGN-COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2001)
17.21.4.1 In a composite member, full transfer of horizontal shear forces shall be assured at contact
surfaces of interconnected elements.
17.21.4.2 Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be in accordance with provisions of
Article 17.21.4.3 or 17.21.4.4, or any other shear transfer design method that results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
17.21.4.3 Design of cross sections subject to horizontal shear may be based on:
V u ≤ ϕV nh EQ 17-37
where Vu is factored shear force at section considered, Vnh is nominal horizontal shear strength in accordance with the
following, and where d is for the entire composite section.
a. When contact surface is clean, free of laitance, and intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be taken
greater than 80bvd in pounds (0.552bvd in newtons).
b. When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 17.21.4.5, and contact surface is clean and free of
laitance, but not intentionally roughened, shear strength Vnh shall not be taken greater than 80bvd, in pounds (0.552bvd 1
in newtons).
c. When minimum ties are provided in accordance with Article 17.21.4.5, and contact surface is clean, free of laitance,
and intentionally roughened to a full amplitude of approximately 1/4 in. (7 mm), shear strength Vnh shall not be taken
greater than 350bvd, in pounds (2.413bvd in newtons).
d. For each percent of tie reinforcement crossing the contact surface in excess of the minimum required by Article
3
17.21.4.5, shear strength Vnh may be increased by (160fy/40,000)bvd, in pounds [(90fy/100,000) bvd in newtons].
17.21.4.4 Horizontal shear may be investigated by computing, in any segment not exceeding one-tenth of
the span, the change in compressive or tensile force to be transferred, and provisions made to transfer
that force as horizontal shear between interconnected elements. The factored horizontal shear force shall
not exceed horizontal shear strength ϕVnh in accordance with Article 17.21.4.3, except that length of 4
segment considered shall be substituted for d.
17.21.4.5 Ties for Horizontal Shear
a. When required, a minimum area of tie reinforcement shall be provided between interconnected elements. Tie area
shall not be less than 50 bvs/fy, and tie spacing “s” shall not exceed four times the least web width of support element,
nor 24 in. (600 mm).
b. Ties for horizontal shear may consist of single bars or wire, multiple leg stirrups, or vertical legs of welded wire fabric.
All ties shall be adequately anchored into interconnected elements by embedment or hooks.
c. All beam shear reinforcement shall extend into cast-in-place deck slabs. Extended shear reinforcement may be used in
satisfying the minimum tie reinforcement.

SECTION 17.22 POST-TENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES
17.22.1 GEOMETRY OF ANCHORAGE ZONE (2001)
a. The anchorage zone is geometrically defined as the volume of concrete through which the concentrated prestressing
force at the anchorage device spreads transversely to a linear stress distribution across the entire cross section.
b. For anchorage zones at the end of a member or segment, the transverse dimensions may be taken as the depth and
width of the section. The longitudinal extent of the anchorage zone in the direction of the tendon (ahead of anchorage)
shall be taken as not less than the larger transverse dimension but not more than one and one-half times that dimension.
c. For intermediate anchorages in addition to the length of Article 17.22.1b the anchorage zone shall be considered to also
extend in the opposite direction for a distance not less than the larger transverse dimension.
d. For multiple slab anchorages, both width and length of the anchorage zone shall be taken as equal to the center-to-
center spacing between stressed tendons, but not more than the length of the slab in the direction of the tendon axis.
The thickness of the anchorage zone shall be taken equal to the thickness of the slab.
e. For design purposes, the anchorage zone shall consist of two regions; the general zone as defined in Article 17.22.2.1
and the local zone as defined in Article 17.22.2.2.
17.22.2 GENERAL ZONE AND LOCAL ZONE (2001)
17.22.2.1 General Zone
The geometric extent of the general zone is identical to that of the overall anchorage zone as defined in Article 17.22.1 and
includes the local zone.
Design of general zones shall meet the requirements of Articles 17.15 and 17.22.3.
17.22.2.2 Local Zone
The local zone is defined as the rectangular prism (or equivalent rectangular prism for circular or oval anchorages) of concrete
surrounding and immediately ahead of the anchorage device and any integral confining reinforcement. The dimensions of the
local zone are defined in Article 17.22.7.
Design of local zones shall meet the requirements of Articles 17.15 and 17.22.7 or shall be based on the results of experimental
tests required in Article 17.22.7.3 and described in Article 17.25.3.5. Anchorage devices based on these acceptance tests of
Article 17.25.3.5, are referred to as special anchorage devices.
17.22.2.3 Responsibilities
The Engineer is responsible for the overall design and approval of working drawings for the general zone, including the
specific location of the tendons and anchorage devices, general zone reinforcement, and the specific stressing sequence. The
Engineer is also responsible for the design of local zones based on Article 17.22.7.2 and for the approval of special anchorage
devices used under the provisions of Article 17.22.7.3. All working drawings for the local zone must be approved by the
Engineer.
Anchorage device suppliers are responsible for furnishing anchorage devices which satisfy the anchor efficiency requirements
of Article 17.25.3.1. In addition, if special anchorage devices are used, the anchorage device supplier is responsible for
furnishing anchorage devices that satisfy the acceptance test requirements of the Engineer. This acceptance test and the anchor
efficiency test shall be conducted by an independent testing agency acceptable to the Engineer. The anchorage device supplier
shall provide records of the acceptance test to the Engineer and to the constructor and shall specify auxiliary and confining

reinforcement, minimum edge distance, minimum anchor spacing, and minimum concrete strength at time of stressing
required for proper performance of the local zone.
The responsibilities of the constructor shall be as specified by the Engineer.
17.22.3 DESIGN OF THE GENERAL ZONE (2001)
17.22.3.1 Design Methods
The following methods may be used for the design of general zones:
a. Equilibrium based plasticity models (strut-and-tie models) (see Article 17.22.4)
b. Elastic stress analysis (finite element analysis or equivalent) (see Article 17.22.5)
c. Approximate methods for determining the compression and tension forces, where applicable (see Article 17.22.6).
Regardless of the design method used, all designs shall conform to the requirements of Article 17.22.3.4.
The effects of stressing sequence and three-dimensional effects shall be considered in the design. When these three
dimensional effects appear significant, they may be analyzed using three-dimensional analysis procedures or may be
approximated by considering two or more planes. However, in these approximations the interaction of the planes’ models
must be considered, and the model loadings and results must be consistent.
1
17.22.3.2 Nominal Material Strengths
The nominal tensile strength of bonded reinforcement is limited to fsy for nonprestressed reinforcement and to fy for
prestressed reinforcement. The nominal tensile strength of unbonded prestressed reinforcement is limited to fse + 15,000 psi
(fse + 105 MPa).
The effective nominal compressive strength of the concrete of the general zone, exclusive of confined concrete, is limited to 3
0.7 f 'c. The tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected.
The compressive strength of concrete at transfer of prestressing shall be specified on the construction drawings. Stress shall
not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods
identical with the curing of the member, meets the requirements of the drawings.
17.22.3.3 Use of Special Anchorage Devices 4

Whenever special anchorage devices which do not meet the requirements of Article 17.22.7.2 are to be used, reinforcement
similar in configuration and at least equivalent in volumetric ratio to the supplementary skin reinforcement permitted under the
provisions of Article 17.25.3.5 shall be furnished in the corresponding regions of the anchorage zone.
17.22.3.4 General Design Principles and Detailing Requirements
Good detailing and quality workmanship are essential for the satisfactory performance of anchorage zones. Sizes and details
for anchorage zones should respect the need: for tolerances on the bending, fabrication and placement of reinforcement; the
size of aggregate; and, the placement and sound consolidation of the concrete.
a. Compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of basic anchorage devices shall meet the requirements of Article
17.22.7.2.

b. Compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of special anchorage devices shall be checked at a distance measured from
the concrete bearing surface equal to the smaller of:
(1) The depth to the end of the local confinement reinforcement.
(2) The smaller lateral dimension of the anchorage device.
These compressive stresses may be determined according to the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 17.22.4,
from an elastic stress analysis according to Article 17.22.5b, or by the approximate method outlined in Article
17.22.6.2. These compressive stresses shall not exceed 0.7 f 'ci.
c. Compressive stresses shall also be checked where geometry or loading discontinuities within or ahead of the anchorage
zone may cause stress concentrations.
d. The bursting force is the tensile force in the anchorage zone acting ahead of the anchorage device and transverse to the
tendon axis. The magnitude of the bursting force, Tburst , and its corresponding distance from the loaded surface,
dburst, can be determined using the strut-and-tie model procedures of Article 17.22.4, from an elastic stress analysis
according to Article 17.22.5c, or by the approximate method outlined in Article 17.22.6.3. Three-dimensional effects
shall be considered for the determination of the bursting reinforcement requirements.
e. Resistance to bursting forces, ϕ Asfsy and/or ϕ A*s f*y, shall be provided by non-prestressed or prestressed
reinforcement, in the form of spirals, closed hoops, or well anchored transverse ties. This reinforcement is to be
proportioned to resist the total factored bursting force. Arrangement and anchorage of bursting reinforcement shall
satisfy the following:
(1) Bursting reinforcement shall extend over the full width of the member and must be anchored as close to the outer
faces of the member as cover permits.
(2) Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed ahead of the loaded surface along both sides of the tendon throughout a
distance of 2.5 dburst for the plane considered, but not to exceed 1.5 times the corresponding lateral dimension of
the section. The centroid of the bursting reinforcement shall coincide with the distance dburst used for the design.
(3) Spacing of bursting reinforcement shall exceed neither 24 bar diameters nor 12 inches (300 mm).
f. Edge tension forces are tensile forces in the anchorage zone acting parallel and close to the transverse edge and
longitudinal edges of the member. The transverse edge is the surface loaded by the anchors. The tensile force along
the transverse edge is referred to as spalling force. The tensile force along the longitudinal edge is referred to as
longitudinal edge tension force.
g. Spalling forces are induced in concentrically loaded anchorage zones, eccentrically loaded anchorage zones, and
anchorage zones for multiple anchors. Longitudinal edge tension forces are induced when the resultant of the
anchorage forces considered causes eccentric loading of the anchorage zone. The edge tension forces can be
determined from an elastic stress analysis, strut-and-tie models, or in accordance with the approximate methods of
Article 17.22.6.4.
h. In no case shall the spalling force be taken as less than two percent of the total factored tendon force.
i. Resistance to edge tension forces, ϕAsfsy and/or ϕA*sf*y, shall be provided in the form of non-prestressed or
prestressed reinforcement located close to the longitudinal and transverse edge of the concrete. Arrangement and
anchorage of the edge tension reinforcement shall satisfy the following:
• Minimum spalling reinforcement satisfying Article 17.22.3.4h shall extend over the full width of the member.
• Spalling reinforcement between multiple anchorage devices shall effectively tie these anchorage devices together.

• Longitudinal edge tension reinforcement and spalling reinforcement for eccentric anchorage devices shall be
continuous. The reinforcement shall extend along the tension face over the full length of the anchorage zone and
shall extend along the loaded face from the longitudinal edge to the other side of the eccentric anchorage device or
group of anchorage devices.
17.22.3.5 Intermediate Anchorages
a. Intermediate anchorages shall not be used in regions where significant tension is generated behind the anchor from
other loads. Whenever practical, blisters shall be located in the corner between flange and webs, or shall be extended
over the full flange width or web height to form a continuous rib. If isolated blisters must be used on a flange or web,
local shear, bending and direct force effects shall be considered in the design.
b. Bonded reinforcement shall be provided to tie back at least 25 percent of the intermediate anchorage unfactored
stressing force into the concrete section behind the anchor. Stresses in this bonded reinforcement are limited to a
maximum of 0.6fsy or 36 ksi (250 MPa). The amount of tie back reinforcement may be reduced using EQ 17-38, if
permanent compressive stresses are generated behind the anchor from other loads.
Tia = 0.25Ps - fcbAcb EQ 17-38
where:
Tia = the tie back tension force at the intermediate anchorage;
Ps = the maximum unfactored anchorage stressing force;

1
fcb = the compressive stress in the region behind the anchor;
Acb = the area of the continuing cross section within the extensions of the sides of the anchor plate or
blister. The area of the blister or rib shall not be taken as part of the cross section.
c. Tie back reinforcement satisfying Article 17.22.3.5b shall be placed no further than one plate width from the tendon
axis. It shall be fully anchored so that the yield strength can be developed at a distance of one plate width or half the 3
length of the blister or rib ahead of the anchor as well as at the same distance behind the anchor. The centroid of this
reinforcement shall coincide with the tendon axis, where possible. For blisters and ribs, the reinforcement shall be
placed in the continuing section near that face of the flange or web from which the blister or rib is projecting.
d. Reinforcement shall be provided throughout blisters or ribs are required for shear friction, corbel action, bursting
forces, and deviation forces due to tendon curvature. This reinforcement shall be in the form of ties or U-stirrups
which encase the anchorage and tie it effectively into the adjacent web and flange. This reinforcement shall extend as
4
far as possible into the flange or web and be developed by standard hooks bent around transverse bars or equivalent.
Spacing shall not exceed the smallest of blister or rib height at anchor, blister width, or 6 inches (150 mm).
e. Reinforcement shall be provided to resist local bending in blisters and ribs due to eccentricity of the tendon force and
to resist lateral bending in ribs due to tendon deviation forces.
f. Reinforcement required by Articles 17.22.3.4d through 17.22.3.4i shall be provided to resist tensile forces due to
transfer of the anchorage force from the blister or rib into the overall structure.
17.22.3.6 Diaphragms
For tendons anchored in diaphragms, concrete compressive stresses shall be limited within the diaphragm in accordance with
Articles 17.22.3.4a through 17.22.3.4c. Compressive stresses shall also be checked at the transition from the diaphragm to
webs and flanges of the member.

Reinforcement shall be provided to ensure full transfer of diaphragm anchor loads into the flanges and webs of the girder. The
more general methods of Article 17.22.4 or 17.22.5 shall be used to determine this reinforcement. Reinforcement shall also be
provided to tie back deviation forces due to tendon curvature.
17.22.3.7 Multiple Slab Anchorages
a. Minimum reinforcement meeting the requirements of Articles 17.22.3.7b through 17.22.3.7d shall be provided unless a
more detailed analysis is made.
b. Reinforcement shall be provided for the bursting force in the direction of the thickness of the slab and normal to the
tendon axis in accordance with Article 17.22.3.4d and 17.22.3.4e This reinforcement shall be anchored close to the
faces of the slab with standard hooks bent around horizontal bars, or equivalent. Minimum reinforcement is two No.
10 (#3) bars per anchor located at a distance equal to one-half the slab thickness ahead of the anchor.
c. Reinforcement in the plane of the slab and normal to the tendon axis shall be provided to resist edge tension forces, T1,
between anchorages (EQ 17-39) and bursting forces, T2, ahead of the anchorages (EQ 17-40). Edge tension
reinforcement shall be placed immediately ahead of the anchors and shall effectively tie adjacent anchors together.
Bursting reinforcement shall be distributed over the length of the anchorage zones (see Article 17.22.1d).
(
T1 = 0.10Pu 1- a/s ) EQ 17-39
(
T2 = 0.20Pu 1 - a/s ) EQ 17-40
where:
Pu = the factored tendon load on an individual anchor;
a = the anchor plate width;
s = the anchorage spacing.
d. For slab anchors with an edge distance of less than two plate widths or one slab thickness, the edge tension
reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist 25 percent of the factored tendon load. This reinforcement shall
preferably be in the form of hairpins and shall be distributed within one plate width ahead of the anchor. The legs of
the hairpin bars shall extend from the edge of the slab past the adjacent anchor but not less than a distance equal to five
plate widths plus development length.
17.22.4 APPLICATION OF STRUT-AND-TIE MODELS TO THE DESIGN OF ANCHORAGE

ZONES (2001)
17.22.4.1 General
The flow of forces in the anchorage zone may be approximated by a series of straight compression members (struts) and
straight tension members (ties) that are connected at discrete points (nodes). Compression forces are carried by concrete
compression struts and tension forces are carried by non-prestressed or prestressed reinforcement.
The selected strut-and-tie model shall follow a load path from the anchorages to the end of the anchorage zone. Other forces
acting on the anchorage zone, such as reaction forces, tendon deviation forces, and applied loads, shall be considered in the
selection of the strut-and-tie model. The forces at the end of the anchorage zone can be obtained from an axial-flexural beam
analysis.

17.22.4.2 Nodes
Local zones which meet the provisions of Article 17.22.7 or Article 17.25.3.5 are considered as properly detailed, adequate
nodes. The other nodes in the anchorage zone are adequate if the effective concrete stresses in the struts meet the requirements
of Article 17.22.4.3 and the tension ties are properly detailed to develop the full yield strength of the reinforcement.
17.22.4.3 Struts
The effective concrete compressive strength for the general zone shall usually be limited to 0.7ϕf 'ci. In areas where the
concrete may be extensively cracked at ultimate due to other load effects, or if large plastic rotations are required, the effective
compressive strength shall be limited to 0.6ϕf 'ci.
In anchorage zones the critical section for compression struts is ordinarily located at the interface with the local zone node. If
special anchorage devices are used, the critical section of the strut can be taken as that section whose extension intersects the
axis of the tendon at a depth equal to the smaller of the depth of the local confinement reinforcement or the lateral dimension
of the anchorage device.
For thin members with a ratio of member thickness to anchorage width of no more than three, the dimension of the strut in the
direction of the thickness of the member can be approximated by assuming that the thickness of the compression strut varies
linearly from the transverse lateral dimension of the anchor at the surface of the concrete to the total thickness of the section at
a depth equal to the thickness of the section.
The compression stresses can be assumed as acting parallel to the axis of the strut and as uniformly distributed over its cross
section.
1
17.22.4.4 Ties
Tension forces in the strut-and-tie model shall be assumed to be carried completely by non-prestressed or prestressed
reinforcement. Tensile strength of the concrete shall be neglected.
Tension ties shall be properly detailed and shall extend beyond the nodes to develop the full tension tie force at the node. The 3
reinforcement layout must closely follow the directions of the ties in the strut-and-tie model.
17.22.5 ELASTIC STRESS ANALYSIS (2001)
a. Analyses based on assumed elastic material properties, equilibrium, and compatibility of strains are acceptable for
analysis and design of anchorage zones.
4
b. If the compressive stresses in the concrete ahead of the anchorage device are determined from a linear-elastic stress
analysis, local stress maxima may be averaged over an area equal to the bearing area of the anchorage device.
c. Location and magnitude of the bursting force may be obtained by integration of the corresponding tensile bursting
stresses along the tendon path.
17.22.6 APPROXIMATE METHODS (2001)
17.22.6.1 Limitations
In the absence of a more accurate analysis, concrete compressive stresses ahead of the anchorage device, location and
magnitude of the bursting force, and edge tension forces may be estimated by EQ 17-41 through EQ 17-42, provided that:
a. The member has a rectangular cross section and its longitudinal extent is at least equal to the largest transverse
dimension of the cross section.

b. The member has no discontinuities within or ahead of the anchorage zone.
c. The minimum edge distance of the anchorage in the main plane of the member is at least one and one-half times the
corresponding lateral dimension, a, of the anchorage device.
d. Only one anchorage device or one group of closely spaced anchorage devices is located in the anchorage zone.
Anchorage devices can be treated as closely spaced if their center-to-center spacing does not exceed one and one-half
times the width of the anchorage devices in the direction considered.
e. The angle of inclination of the tendon with respect to the center line of the member is not larger than 20 degrees if the
anchor force points toward the centroid of the section and for concentric anchors, and is not larger than 5 degrees if the
anchor force points away from the centroid of the section.
17.22.6.2 Compressive Stresses
a. No additional check of concrete compressive stresses is necessary for basic anchorage devices satisfying Article
17.22.7.2.
b. The concrete compressive stresses ahead of special anchorage devices at the interface between local zone and general
zone shall be approximated by EQ 17-41 and EQ 17-42.
⎛ ⎞
0.6P ⎜ k ⎟
f ca = ⎛ -------------⎞ ⎜ --------------------------------------⎟
u
EQ 17-41
⎝ A ⎠⎜ 1 1
b 1 + l c ⎛ --------- – ---⎞ ⎟
⎝ ⎝b t⎠⎠
eff
k = 1 + (2 - s/aeff) (0.3 + n/15) for s < 2aeff
k=1 for s ≥ 2a eff EQ 17-42
where:
fca = the concrete compressive stress ahead of the anchorage device;
k = a correction factor for closely spaced anchorages;
Ab = an effective bearing area as defined in Article 17.22.6.2c;
aeff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel to the larger dimension of the cross
section or in the direction of closely spaced anchors;
beff = the lateral dimension of the effective bearing area measured parallel to the smaller dimension of the cross
section;
lc = the longitudinal extent of confining reinforcement for the local zone, but not more than the larger of 1.15 aeff
or 1.15 beff;
Pu = the factored tendon load;
t = the thickness of the section;

s = the center-to-center spacing of multiple anchorages;
n = the number of anchorages in a row.
If a group of anchorages is closely spaced in two directions, the product of the correction factors, k, for each direction is used
in EQ 17-42.
c. Effective bearing area, Ab, in EQ 17-41 shall be taken as the larger of the anchor bearing plate area, Aplate, or the
bearing area of the confined concrete in the local zone, Aconf, with the following limitations:
(1) If Aplate controls, Aplate shall not be taken larger than
( 4 ⁄ π )A conf
(2) If Aconf controls, the maximum dimension of Aconf shall not be more than twice the maximum dimension of Aplate
or three times the minimum dimension of Aplate. If any of these limits is violated the effective bearing area, Ab,
shall be based on Aplate.
(3) Deductions shall be made for the area of the duct in the determination of Ab.
17.22.6.3 Bursting Forces
Values for the magnitude of the bursting force, Tburst, and for its distance from the loaded surface, dburst, shall be estimated by
EQ 17-43 and EQ 17-44. In the application of EQ 17-43 and EQ 17-44, the specified stressing sequence shall be considered if
more than one tendon is present.
1
T burst = 0.25ΣP u ( 1 – a ⁄ h ) + 0.5P u sin α EQ 17-43
dburst = 0.5 (h - 2e) + 5e sin α EQ 17-44
where: 3
ΣP u = the sum of the total factored tendon loads for the stressing arrangement considered;
a = the lateral dimension of the anchorage device or group of devices in the direction considered.
e = the eccentricity (always taken as positive) of the anchorage device or group of devices with respect to the
centroid of the cross section; 4
h = the lateral dimension of the cross section in the direction considered;
α = the angle of inclination of the resultant of the tendon forces with respect to the centerline of the member.
17.22.6.4 Edge Tension Forces
For multiple anchorages with a center-to-center spacing of less than 0.4 times the depth of the section, the spalling forces shall
be given by Article 17.22.3.4h. For larger spacings, the spalling forces shall be determined from a more detailed analysis, such
as strut-and-tie models or other analytical procedures.
If the centroid of all tendons considered is located outside of the kern of the section both spalling forces and longitudinal edge
tension forces are induced. The longitudinal edge tension force shall be determined from an axial-flexural beam analysis at a
section located at one half the depth of the section away from the loaded surface. The spalling force shall be taken as equal to
the longitudinal edge tension force but not less than specified in Article 17.22.3.4h.

17.22.7 DESIGN OF THE LOCAL ZONE (2001)
17.22.7.1 Dimensions of the Local Zone
a. When no independently verified manufacturer’s edge distance recommendations for a particular anchorage device are
available, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as the larger of:
(1) The corresponding bearing plate size plus twice the minimum concrete cover required for the particular
application and environment.
(2) The outer dimension of any required confining reinforcement plus the required concrete cover over the confining
reinforcing steel for the particular application and environment.
b. When independently verified manufacturer’s recommendations for minimum cover, spacing and edge distance for a
particular anchorage device are available, the transverse dimensions of the local zone in each direction shall be taken as
the smaller of:
(1) The bearing plate size plus twice the edge distance specified by the anchorage device supplier,
(2) The center-to-center spacing specified by the anchorage device supplier.
The manufacturer’s recommendations for spacing and edge distance of anchorages shall be considered minimum
values.
c. The length of the local zone along the tendon axis shall be taken as the greater of:
• The maximum width of the local zone.
• The length of the anchorage device confining reinforcement.
• For anchorage devices with multiple bearing surfaces, the distance from the loaded concrete surface to the bottom of
each bearing surface plus the maximum dimension of that bearing surface.
In no case shall the length of the local zone be taken as greater than one and one-half times the width of the local zone.
d. For closely spaced anchorages an enlarged local zone enclosing all individual anchorages shall also be considered.
17.22.7.2 Bearing Strength
a. Anchorage devices may be either basic anchorage devices meeting the bearing compressive strength limits of Articles
17.22.7.2b through 17.22.7.2d or special anchorage devices meeting the requirements of Article 17.22.7.3.
b. The effective concrete bearing compressive strength fb used for design shall not exceed that of EQ 17-45 or EQ 17-46 .
Pr = ϕfb Ab
f b ≤ 0.7f ′ ci A ⁄ A g EQ 17-45
but:
f b ≤ 2.25f ′ ci EQ 17-46

where:
fb = the maximum factored tendon load, Pu, divided by the effective bearing area Ab;
f 'ci = the concrete compressive strength at stressing;
A = the maximum area of the portion of the supporting surface that is geometrically similar to the loaded area and
concentric with it;
Ag = the gross area of the bearing plate if the requirements of Article 17.22.7.2c are met, or is the area calculated
in accordance with Article 17.22.7.2d;
Ab = the effective net area of the bearing plate calculated as the area Ag minus the area of openings in the bearing
plate.
EQ 17-45 and EQ 17-46 are only valid if general zone reinforcement satisfying Article 17.22.7.3 is provided and if the
extent of the concrete along the tendon axis ahead of the anchorage device is at least twice the length of the local zone
as defined in Article 17.22.7.1c.
c. The full bearing plate area may be used for Ag and the calculation of Ab if the anchorage device is sufficiently rigid.
To be considered sufficiently rigid, the slenderness of the bearing plate (n/t) must not exceed the value given in EQ 17-
47. The plate must also be checked to ensure that the plate material does not yield.
n ⁄ t ≤ 0.08 3 E b ⁄ f b EQ 17-47
1
where:
n = the largest distance from the outer edge of the wedge plate to the other edge of the bearing plate. For
rectangular bearing plates this distance is measured parallel to the edges of the bearing plate. If the
anchorage has no separate wedge plate, the size of the wedge plate shall be taken as the distance between the
extreme wedge holes in the corresponding direction. 3
t = the average thickness of the bearing plate.
Eb = the modulus of elasticity of the bearing plate material.
d. For bearing plates that do not meet the stiffness requirements of Article 17.22.7.2c, the effective gross bearing area, Ag,
shall be taken as the area geometrically similar to the wedge plate (or to the outer perimeter of the wedge hole pattern 4
for plates without separate wedge plate) with dimensions increased by assuming load spreading at a 45 degree angle.
A larger effective bearing area may be calculated by assuming an effective area and checking the new fb and n/t values
for conformance with Articles 17.22.7.2b and 17.22.7.2c.
17.22.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices
Special anchorage devices that do not meet the requirements of Article 17.22.7.2 as well as other devices that do not meet the
requirements of Article 17.22.7.2 but which the Engineer requires to have tested may be used provided that they have been
tested by an independent testing agency acceptable to the Engineer according to the procedures described in Article 17.24 (or
equivalent) and meet the acceptance criteria specified in Article 17.25.3.5.3c. For a series of similar special anchorage
devices, tests are only required for representative samples unless tests for each capacity of the anchorages in the series are
required by the Engineer.

SECTION 17.23 PRETENSIONED ANCHORAGE ZONES
In pretensioned beams, vertical stirrups acting at a unit stress of 20,000 psi (140 MPa) to resist at least 4 percent of the total
prestressing force shall be placed within the distance of d/4 of the end of the beam.
For at least the distance d from the end of the beam, nominal reinforcement shall be placed to enclose the prestressing steel in
the bottom flange.
For box girders, transverse reinforcement shall be provided and anchored by extending the leg into the web of the girder.
Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as
indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods identical with the curing of the member, is at least 4,000 psi (28 MPa).
SECTION 17.24 CONCRETE STRENGTH AT STRESS TRANSFER
Unless otherwise specified, stress shall not be transferred to concrete until the compressive strength of the concrete as
indicated by test cylinders, cured by methods identical with the curing of the members, is at least 4,000 psi (28 MPa) for
pretensioned members (other than piles) and 3,500 psi (24 MPa) for post-tensioned members and pretensioned piles.
SECTION 17.25 GENERAL DETAILING
17.25.1 FLANGE REINFORCEMENT (2001)
Bar reinforcement for cast-in-place T-beam and box girder flanges shall conform to the provisions in Articles 2.23.10 and
2.23.11 except that the minimum reinforcement in bottom flanges shall be 0.3 percent of the flange section.
17.25.2 COVER AND SPACING OF REINFORCEMENT (2001)
The minimum concrete cover to be provided for prestressing tendons and non-prestressing reinforcement shall conform to the
requirements of Article 17.5.2.
Drainage details shall dispose of chemical spill solutions without constant contact with the prestressed girders. Where such
contact cannot be avoided, or in locations where members are exposed to salt water, salt spray, or chemical vapor, additional
cover should be provided.
The minimum clear spacing of prestressing tendons and post-tension ducts shall conform to the requirements of Article 17.5.1.
Prestressing tendons in precast deck panels shall be spaced symmetrically and uniformly across the width of the panel. They
shall not be spaced farther apart than 1 ½ times the total composite slab thickness or more than 18 inches (460 mm).
17.25.3 POST-TENSIONING ANCHORAGES AND COUPLERS (2001)
17.25.3.1 Anchorages, Couplers, and Splices
Anchorages, couplers, and splices for bonded post-tensioned reinforcement shall develop at least 95 percent of the minimum
specified ultimate strength of the prestressing steel, tested in an unbonded state without exceeding anticipated set. Bond

transfer lengths between anchorages and the zone where full prestressing force is required under service and ultimate loads
shall normally be sufficient to develop the minimum specified ultimate strength of the prestressing steel. Couplers and splices
shall be placed in areas approved by the Engineer and enclosed in a housing long enough to permit the necessary movements.
When anchorages or couplers are located at critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength required of the bonded
tendons shall not exceed the ultimate capacity of the tendon assembly, including the anchorage or coupler, tested in an
unbonded state.
17.25.3.2 Anchorages, End Fittings, Couplers, and Exposed Tendons
Anchorages, end fittings, couplers, and exposed tendons shall be permanently protected against corrosion.
17.25.3.3 Bonded Systems
Bond transfer lengths between anchorages and the zone where full prestressing force is required under service and ultimate
loads shall normally be sufficient to develop the minimum specified ultimate strength of the prestressing steel. When
anchorages or couplers are located at critical sections under ultimate load, the ultimate strength required of the bonded tendons
shall not exceed the ultimate capacity of the tendon assembly, including the anchorage or coupler, tested in an unbonded state.
Housings shall be designed so that complete grouting of all the coupler components will be accomplished during grouting of
tendons.
17.25.3.4 Unbonded Systems
For unbonded tendons, a dynamic test shall be performed on a representative anchorage and coupler specimen and the tendon
shall withstand, without failure, 500,000 cycles from 60 percent to 66 percent of its minimum specified ultimate strength, and
1
also 50 cycles from 40 percent to 80 percent of its minimum specified ultimate strength. The period of each cycle involves the
change from the lower stress level to the upper stress level and back to the lower. The specimen used for the second dynamic
test need not be the same used for the first dynamic test. Systems utilizing multiple strands, wires, or bars may be tested
utilizing a test tendon of smaller capacity than the full-sized tendon. The test tendon shall duplicate the behavior of the full-
sized tendon and generally shall not have less than 10 percent of the capacity of the full-sized tendon. Dynamic tests are not
required on bonded tendons, unless the anchorage is located or used in such a manner that repeated load applications can be 3
expected on the anchorage.
Anchorages for unbonded tendons shall not cause a reduction in the total elongation under ultimate load of the tendon to less
than 2 percent measured in a minimum gauge length of 10 feet (3 meters).
All the coupling components shall be completely protected with a coating material prior to final encasement in concrete.
4
17.25.3.5 Special Anchorage Device Acceptance Test
The test block shall be a rectangular prism. It shall contain those anchorage components which will also be embedded in the
structure's concrete. Their arrangement has to comply with the practical application and the suppliers specifications. The test
block shall contain an empty duct of size appropriate for the maximum tendon size which can be accommodated by the
anchorage device.
The dimensions of the test block perpendicular to the tendon in each direction shall be the smaller of the minimum edge
distance or the minimum spacing specified by the anchorage device supplier, with the stipulation that the cover over any
confining reinforcing steel or supplementary skin reinforcement be appropriate for the particular application and environment.
The length of the block along the axis of the tendon shall be at least two times the larger of the cross-section dimensions.
The confining reinforcing steel in the local zone shall be the same as that specified by the anchorage device supplier for the
particular system.

In addition to the anchorage device and its specified confining reinforcement steel, supplementary skin reinforcement may be
provided throughout the specimen. This supplementary skin reinforcement shall be specified by the anchorage device supplier
but shall not exceed a volumetric ratio of 0.01.
The concrete strength at the time of stressing shall be greater than the concrete strength of the test specimen at time of testing.
Either of three test procedures is acceptable: cyclic loading described in Article 17.25.3.5.1, sustained loading described in
Article 17.25.3.5.2, or monotonic loading described in Article 17.25.3.5.3. The loads specified for the tests are given in
fractions of the ultimate load Fpu of the largest tendon that the anchorage device is designed to accommodate. The specimen
shall be loaded in accordance with normal usage of the device in post-tensioning applications except that load can be applied
directly to the wedge plate or equivalent area.
17.25.3.5.1 Cyclic Loading Test
In a cyclic loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.8 Fpu . The load shall then be cycled between 0.1 Fpu and 0.8 Fpu until
crack widths stabilize, but for not less than 10 cycles. Crack widths are considered stabilized if they do not change by more
than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) over the last three readings. Upon completion of the cyclic loading the specimen shall be preferably
loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1 Fpu.
Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at the initial load of 0.8 Fpu at least at the last three consecutive peak
loadings before termination of the cyclic loading, and at 0.9 Fpu. The maximum load shall also be reported.
17.25.3.5.2 Sustained Loading Test
In a sustained loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.8 Fpu and held constant until crack widths stabilize but for not less
than 48 hours. Crack widths are considered stabilized if they do not change by more than 0.001 in. (0.025 mm) over the last
three readings. After sustained loading is completed, the specimen shall be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the
capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.1 Fpu.
Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at the initial load of 0.8 Fpu, at least three times at intervals of not less than
4 hours during the last 12 hours before termination of the sustained loading, and during loading to failure at 0.9 Fpu. The
maximum load shall also be reported.
17.25.3.5.3 Monotonic Loading Test
a. In a monotonic loading test, the load shall be increased to 0.9 Fpu and held constant for 1 hour. The specimen shall then
be preferably loaded to failure or, if limited by the capacity of the loading equipment, to at least 1.2 Fpu.
b. Crack widths and crack patterns shall be recorded at 0.9 Fpu after the 1-hour period, and at 1.0 Fpu. The maximum load
shall also be reported.
c. The strength of the anchorage zone must exceed:
Specimens tested under cyclic or sustained loading............................................................1.0 Fpu
Specimens tested under monotonic loading.........................................................................1.2 Fpu
d. The maximum crack width criteria specified below must be met for moderately aggressive environments.
e. For higher aggressive environments the crack width criteria shall be reduced by at least 50 percent.
(1) No cracks greater than 0.010 in. (0.254 mm) at 0.8 Fpu after completion of the cyclic or sustained loading, or at 0.9
Fpu after the 1-hour period for monotonic loading.

(2) No cracks greater than 0.016 in. (0.406 mm) at 0.9 Fpu for cyclic or sustained loading, or at 1.0 Fpu for monotonic
loading.
f. A test series shall consist of three test specimens. Each one of the tested specimens must meet the acceptance criteria.
If one of the three specimens fails to pass the test, a supplementary test of three additional specimens is allowed. The
three additional test specimen results must meet all acceptance criteria of Article 17.25.3.5.
For a series of similar special anchorage devices, tests are only required for representative samples unless tests for each
capacity of the anchorages in the series are required by the Engineer.
g. Records of the anchorage device acceptance test shall include:
(1) Dimensions of the test specimen.
(2) Drawings and dimensions of the anchorage device, including all confining reinforcing steel.
(3) Amount and arrangement of supplementary skin reinforcement.
(4) Type and yield strength of reinforcing steel.
(5) Type and compressive strength at time of testing of concrete.
(6) Type of testing procedure and all measurements required in Articles 17.25.3.5.1 through 17.25.3.5.3c for each
specimen.
1
17.25.4 EMBEDMENT OF PRESTRESSED TENDON (2001)
Seven-wire pretensioning strand shall be bonded beyond the critical section for a development length in inches (mm) not less
than
(f*su - 2/3 f se)D EQ 17-48
3
(f*su - 2/3 fse) D/7 EQ 17-48 (Metric)
where D is the nominal diameter in inches (mm), f*su and fse are in psi (MPa), and the parenthetical expression is considered
to be without units.
Investigations may be limited to those cross sections nearest each end of the member which are required to develop their full
4
ultimate capacity.
Where strand is debonded at the end of a member and tension at service load is allowed in the precompressed tensile zone, the
development length required above shall be doubled.
SECTION 17.26 GENERAL FABRICATION
17.26.1 GENERAL (2001)
Precast concrete members shall be fabricated, erected and installed in accordance with the contract documents, except as may
be modified by Contractor's drawings that have been reviewed and accepted by the Engineer.

17.26.2 CONTRACTOR’S DRAWINGS (2001)
Such drawings shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
17.26.3 MATERIALS AND FABRICATION (2001)
a. Materials and manufacture shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter, except as modified by this Part.
b. The fabricator shall perform all tests required by the contract documents and ASTM Standards, and the Engineer or his
representative shall be allowed access to observe all of this sampling and testing. The results of all tests shall be
submitted to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
c. Precast members shall be cast on unyielding beds. Bearing surfaces shall be cast in accordance with the contract
documents, so that they will join properly with other elements of the structure.
d. Precast members that are to be abutted together in the finished work shall be match-cast with adjacent segments.
e. Forms may not be removed until such time as the removal will not damage the member. A member shall not be lifted
until its strength is sufficient to prevent damage.
f. When cast-in-place concrete will later be cast against a precast member, mating surfaces shall be finished to a coarse
texture as approved by the Engineer.
17.26.4 CURING (2001)1
Unless otherwise specified in the contract documents, precast members shall be cured by the water method or the steam or
radiant heat method. Curing shall not be interrupted or compromised by the removal of forms.
17.26.5 STORAGE AND HANDLING (2001)
a. Care shall be taken during storage and handling to prevent damage to precast units. Units damaged during storage or
handling shall be replaced at the Contractor's expense.
b. Precast girders shall be transported in an upright position with points of support as shown on the Contractor's drawings.
c. Prestressed concrete members shall not be shipped until tests demonstrate that the concrete has attained a compressive
strength equal to the specified design compressive strength.
17.26.6 ERECTION (2001)
a. The Contractor shall be responsible not to damage precast members during construction. Lifting devices shall be used
in accordance with Contractor’s drawings that have been reviewed and accepted by the Engineer. Temporary supports
shall be used as necessary to prevent damage.2
b. Where cast-in-place concrete is to be cast against precast members, forms shall be erected and sealed so that excessive
leakage will not occur.
1
See C - 17.26.4 Curing (2001)
2
See C - 17.26.6 Erection (2001)

17.26.7 PLACEMENT OF DUCTS, STEEL, AND ANCHORAGE HARDWARE (2001)
17.26.7.1 Placement of Ducts
Ducts shall be rigidly supported at the proper locations in the forms by ties to reinforcing steel which are adequate to prevent
displacement during concrete placement. Supplementary support bars shall be used where needed to maintain proper
alignment of the duct. Hold-down ties to the forms shall be used when the buoyancy of the ducts in the fluid concrete would
lift the reinforcing steel.
Joints between sections of duct shall be coupled with positive connections which do not result in angle changes at the joints
and will prevent the intrusion of cement paste.
After placing of ducts, reinforcement and forming is complete, an inspection shall be made to locate possible duct damage.
All unintentional holes or openings in the duct must be repaired prior to concrete placing.
Grout openings and vents must be securely anchored to the duct and to either the forms or to reinforcing steel to prevent
displacement during concrete placing operations.
After installation in the forms, the ends of ducts shall at all times be covered as necessary to prevent the entry of water or
debris.
17.26.7.1.1 Vents and Drains

1
All ducts for continuous structures shall be vented at the high points of the duct profile, except where the curvature is small, as
in continuous slabs, and at additional locations as shown on the plans. Where freezing conditions can be anticipated prior to
grouting, drains shall be installed at low point in ducts where needed to prevent the accumulation of water. Low-point drains
shall remain open until grouting is started.
The ends of vents and drains shall be removed 1 inch (25 mm) below the surface of the concrete after grouting has been
completed, and the void filled with mortar. 3
17.26.7.2 Placement of Prestressing Steel
17.26.7.2.1 Placement for Pretensioning
Prestressing steel shall be accurately installed in the forms and held in place by the stressing jack or temporary anchors and,
when tendons are to be harped or draped, by hold-down devices. The hold-down devices used at all points of change in slope 4
of tendon trajectory shall be of an approved low-friction type.
Prestressing steel shall not be removed from its protective packaging until immediately prior to installation in the forms and
placement of concrete. Openings in the packaging shall be resealed as necessary to protect the unused steel. While exposed,
the steel shall be protected as needed to prevent corrosion.
17.26.7.2.2 Placement for Post-Tensioning
All prestressing steel preassembled in ducts and installed prior to the placement of concrete shall be accurately placed and held
in position during concrete placement.
When the prestressing steel is installed after the concrete has been placed, the Contractor shall demonstrate to the satisfaction
of the Engineer that the ducts are free of water and debris immediately prior to installation of the steel. The total number of
strands in an individual tendon may be pulled into the duct as a unit, or the individual strand may be pulled or pushed through
the duct.

Anchorage devices or block-out templates for anchorages shall be set and held so that their axis coincides with the axis of the
tendon and anchor plates are normal in all directions to the tendon.
The prestressing steel shall be distributed so that the force in each girder stem is equal or as required by the plans, except as
provided herein. For box girders with more than two girder stems, at the Contractor's option, the prestressing force may vary
up to 5 percent from the theoretical required force per girder stem provided the required total force in the superstructure is
obtained and the force is distributed symmetrically about the center line of the typical section.
17.26.7.2.2.1 Protection of Steel after Installation
Prestressing steel installed in members prior to placing and curing of the concrete, or installed in the duct but not grouted
within the time limit specified below, shall be continuously protected against rust or other corrosion by means of a corrosion
inhibitor placed in the ducts or directly applied to the steel. The prestressing steel shall be so protected until grouted or
encased in concrete. Prestressing steel installed and tensioned in members after placing and curing of the concrete and grouted
within the time limit specified below will not require the use of a corrosion inhibitor described herein and rust which may form
during the interval between tendon installation and grouting will not be cause for rejection of the steel.
The permissible interval between tendon installation and grouting without use of a corrosion inhibitor for various exposure
conditions shall be as follows unless approved by the Engineer:
Very Damp Atmosphere (Humidity > 70%) or Over Saltwater ..........................................7 days
Moderate Atmosphere (Humidity from 40% to 70%)..........................................................15 days
Very Dry Atmosphere (Humidity < 40%)............................................................................20 days
After tendons are placed in ducts, the openings at the ends of the ducts shall be sealed to prevent entry of moisture.
When steam curing is used, steel for post-tensioning shall not be installed until the steam curing is completed.
Whenever electric welding is performed on or near members containing prestressing steel, the welding ground shall be
attached directly to the steel being welded. All prestressing steel and hardware shall be protected from weld spatter or other
damage.
17.26.7.3 Placement of Anchorage Hardware
The contractor is responsible for the proper placement of all materials according to the design documents of the Engineer and
the requirements stipulated by the anchorage device supplier. The Contractor shall exercise all due care and attention in the
placement of anchorage hardware, reinforcement, concrete, and consolidation of concrete in anchorage zones. Modifications
to the local zone details verified under provisions of Section 17.22.7.3 and Section 17.26.3 shall be approved by both the
Engineer and the anchorage device supplier.
17.26.8 APPLICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE (2005)1
Prestressing force shall be determined by both of the following methods:
(1) Observation of jacking force on a calibrated gage or load cell or by use of a calibrated dynamometer.
(2) Measurement of tendon elongation. Required elongation shall be determined from average load elongation curves
for prestressing tendons used.
1
See C - 17.26.8 Application and Measurement of Prestressing Force (2005)

Cause of any difference in force determination between Paragraph 1 and Paragraph 2 that exceeds 5% for pretensioned
elements or 7% for post-tensioned construction shall be ascertained and corrected.
Where transfer of force from bulkheads of pretensioning bed to concrete is accomplished by cutting prestressing tendons,
cutting points and cutting sequence shall be predetermined to avoid undesired temporary stresses. Unless otherwise required
by the Contract Documents long lengths of exposed pretensioned strand shall be cut near the member to minimize shock to
concrete.
Wire failure in prestressing tendons is acceptable provided total area of broken wires does not exceed 2% of total area of
tendons in member, and wire failure is not symptomatic of a more extensive distress condition.
SECTION 17.27 MORTAR AND GROUT
17.27.1 GENERAL (2001)
This article governs mortars and grouts except as required for prestressing ducts.
17.27.2 MATERIALS AND MIXING (2001)
a. Grout shall consist of portland cement and water; or portland cement, water and approved admixtures.
1
b. Materials for mortar and grout shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter except as modified by this
Part.
c. The grading of sand for use in grout or mortar shall be adjusted in accordance with Part 1 the use to which the mortar
or grout is being put.
d. Air entraining Portland cement shall be used for grout whenever air entrainment is required for the concrete.
3
e. When non-shrink mortar or grout is specified in the contract documents or on the Contractor's drawings, a non-shrink
admixture or an expansive hydraulic cement approved by the Engineer, shall be used.
f. Six proportions for mortars and grouts shall be submitted to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
4
g. Mortar or grout shall not be retempered by the addition of water and shall be placed within one hour of mixing.
17.27.3 PLACING AND CURING (2001)
a. Concrete areas to be patched shall be free of all loose material and shall be sprayed with water and allowed to surface
dry immediately prior to placing the mortar or grout.
b. After placing all surfaces of mortar or grout shall be cured by the water method.
c. Locations to be grouted shall be mortar-tight before placing mortar.

SECTION 17.28 APPLICATION OF LOADS
a. Loads shall not be applied to prestressed members until the concrete has attained sufficient strength to prevent damage
or until as specified on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
b. Application of loads to members that are to be post-tensioned shall only be done in accordance with construction
sequences shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
c. Materials and equipment shall not be supported on the work except as shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings.
d. Earth loads shall be applied in such a way as not to cause movements or deformations during construction.
e. Railway loading shall not be permitted on the completed work until the concrete strengths and other requirements
specified on the contract documents have been achieved.
SECTION 17.29 MATERIALS - REINFORCING STEEL1
17.29.1 GENERAL (2001)
a. Uncoated reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter except that welded steel wire
fabric for concrete reinforcement shall conform to the requirements of either ASTM Standard A185 or ASTM Standard
A497, as shown on the contract documents.
b. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter except that when epoxy
coating of reinforcing bars is shown on the contract documents, the coating materials and process, fabrication,
handling, identification of the steel, and the repair of any damaged coating material that occurs during fabrication and
handling shall conform to the requirements of ASTM Standard A775.
c. Contractor's Reports:
(1) Whenever steel bars, other than bars conforming to ASTM A706 are to be welded, or when otherwise required by
the contract documents a certified copy of the mill test report showing physical and chemical analysis for each
heat or lot of reinforcing bars shall be provided to the Engineer for review and acceptance.
(2) Shipments of epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall include a certificate of compliance that the coated bars or coated
wire conform to the applicable ASTM Standard.
17.29.2 BAR LISTS AND BENDING DIAGRAMS (2001)
The Contractor shall provide bar lists and bending diagrams in accordance with the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter to
the Engineer for review and acceptance.
17.29.3 FABRICATION (2001)
Steel reinforcement shall be cut and bent as shown on the bar lists and bending diagrams.
1
See C - Section 17.29 Materials - Reinforcing Steel

17.29.4 HANDLING, STORING AND SURFACE CONDITION OF REINFORCEMENT (2001)
a. Steel reinforcement shall be handled and stored in such a way as to meet the surface condition requirements of Part 1 of
this Chapter.
b. Epoxy-coated reinforcing steel shall be handled and stored as not to damage the epoxy coating. Materials and
equipment for handling epoxy-coated reinforcement shall have adequate padding to prevent damage. The
requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter shall also be satisfied.
17.29.5 PLACING AND FASTENING (2001)
17.29.5.1 General
a. Steel reinforcement shall be placed as shown on the accepted Contractor's drawings and held firmly in position as
required by Part 1 of this Chapter.
b. Tie wires and metal clips for epoxy-coated reinforcement shall be plastic or epoxy-coated.
17.29.5.1.1 Support Systems
a. Reinforcing steel shall be supported in position by mortar blocks, wire bar supports, supplementary bars or other
devices subject to the acceptance of the Engineer. Supports shall prevent shifting of the reinforcement within the
forms.
1
b. Mortar blocks shall have a compressive strength not less than that of the concrete in which they are to be embedded.
c. Wire bar supports shall meet the requirements of Part 1 of this Chapter.
d. Any damage to the epoxy coating of reinforcing steel shall be repaired in accordance with Part 1 of this Chapter.
17.29.6 SPLICING OF BARS (2001) 3
All reinforcement shall be furnished in the lengths indicated in the contract documents unless otherwise permitted by the
accepted Contractor's drawings. Splices shall not be provided except as so approved.
4
SECTION 17.30 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE CAP AND/OR SILL FOR TIMBER PILE
TRESTLE (2003)1
For guidelines for prestressed concrete cap and/or sill for timber pile structures, refer to Figure 8-17-2.
1
References, Vol. 78, 1977, p. 109.

Figure 8-17-2. Prestressed Concrete Cap and/or Sill for Timber Pile Trestle

COMMENTARY (2013)
C - SECTION 17.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIALS
C - 17.1.1 SCOPE (2001)
c. For practical reasons a long span structure would be greater than 150 feet (50 m).
C - 17.4.4 GROUT FOR POST-TENSIONING TENDONS (2006)
Several bridges have experienced corrosion of post-tensioning tendons because grout did not completely fill the tendon ducts
allowing water to be entrapped. The primary cause of these grout voids in the tendon ducts has been attributed by
investigators to construction methodology and to bleeding of the grout after it was installed.
Substantial effort was expended by the Post-Tensioning Institute and the American Segmental Bridge Institute in cooperation
with several State Departments of Transportation to develop an acceptable set of grout requirements and specifications to
assist the correcting the deficiencies of the existing grout specifications. The result was the creation of the “Specification For
Grouting Of Post-Tensioned Tendons” published by the Post-Tensioning Institute.
All of the State Departments of Transportation have accepted and are using the new guide specifications. The specifications
will remain guide specifications until such time as AASHTO accepts them for inclusion into the AASHTO bridge code
1
publications. The guide specifications makes substantial revisions for materials, testing and prequalification of materials,
certification of personnel, equipment requirements and installation procedures. The industry and the design community
believe all post-tensioning tendons should be grouted in compliance with these guide specifications.
C - 17.5.1 SPACING OF TENDONS AND DUCTS (2006)

3
With the increased use of High Performance Concrete and the desire to use 0.6 inch tendon to take advantage of the higher
strength concrete being used, the U. S. D. O. T. - Federal Highway Administration had extensive tests performed relative to the
bond and spacing of these new prestressing tendons. The test results indicated that the 0.6 inch tendon was “behaving fine: 2
inch (50 mm) spacing for 0.6 inch diameter tendons was acceptable”, and that designers could use 1/2 inch diameter tendons at
1-3/4 inch (45 mm) spacing. Subsequently, AASHTO adopted these criteria in the Standard Specifications for Highway
Bridges.
4
Since the prestressing industry has been using this strand at the 2 inch (50 mm) spacing with success, it is believed, in the
interest of uniformity of facilities and economy, Part 17 should follow this criteria adopted by the industry.
C - 17.5.8 DEVELOPMENT OF PRESTRESSING STRAND (2013)
EQ 17-2 gives the development length beyond which a three- or seven-wire prestressing strand is considered bonded. The
equation can be divided into two components, the transfer length and the flexural bond length. In October 1988, the Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) issued a memorandum to all State Highway Departments expressing concern that the
AASHTO Equation 9-32 was not conservative in determining the flexural bond length and thus the total development length.
The memorandum has resulted in a great deal of research by a number of universities, State Departments of Transportation,
and the FHWA. Two documents are available from the FHWA giving more information on this issue. Publication No. FHWA-
RD-93-076, “The Prestensioned Concrete History of the Prestressing Strand Development Length Equation”, and Publication
No. FHWA-RD-94-049, “An Analysis of Transfer and Development Lengths for Pretensioned Concrete Structures”. Until
research proves otherwise, the 1988 memorandum from the FHWA increased the required development length for fully
bonded uncoated strand by 1.6 times the development length specified by AASHTO in Equation 9-32. For debonded strands,

the factor was specified as 2.0 times the AASHTO Equation. Research at various institutions has been conducted to validate
that partially debonded pretensioned strands require longer development lengths.
Tests completed by researchers (Shahawy, Robinson, and Batchelor 19931, and Shahawy and Batchelor 19912) indicate that
the anchored strength of the strands is one of the primary contributors to shear resistance at end zones of prestressed concrete
beams. The recommended debonding limit of 25 percent of the total number of strands is derived from the tests of the
researchers. Where 40 percent of the total strands were debonded in full-scale beams, shear capacity was found to be
inadequate.
C - SECTION 17.6 GENERAL ANALYSIS
Where load or external forces, or geometry of the structure produces a torsion in the member the provisions of ACI 318 may
be appropriate for use.
C - SECTION 17.9 FRAMES AND CONTINUOUS CONSTRUCTION
When designing grade separations, solid cast-in-place conventionally reinforced or post-tensioned concrete spans may be used
for continuous construction. Prior approval from the Engineer must be obtained. Most railroads normally do not utilize
continuity in precast superstructures so that repairs can be made after derailments without the potential for overstressing
members to remain.
For post-tensioned cast-in-place concrete continuous bridges, any benefits from the restraint moment should not be considered
when checking the ultimate moment. At ultimate state, the slab may be cracked and there would be a redistribution of the
restraint moment.
C - SECTION 17.11 FLANGE AND WEB THICKNESS-BOX GIRDERS
Consideration should be given to the potential damage that may be caused to the top flange by track tampers being used on the
bridge with insufficient ballast depth during the track installation. Increasing the flange thickness may mitigate this problem.
C - SECTION 17.12 DIAPHRAGMS
It is suggested that intermediate diaphragms are not required for typical “I” beam structures. Temporary diaphragms are
suggested during deck casting to provide stability.
1
See Reference 91
2
See Reference 92

C - 17.14.3 COMPOSITE FLEXURAL MEMBERS (2001)
In structures with a cast-in-place slab on precast beams, the differential shrinkage tends to cause tensile stresses in the slab and
in the bottom of the beams. Because the tensile shrinkage develops over an extended time period, the effect on the beams is
reduced by creep. Differential shrinkage may influence the cracking load and the beam deflection profile. When these factors
are particularly significant, the effect of differential shrinkage should be added to the effect of loads.
C - 17.16.2 CONCRETE (2001)
The “auxiliary reinforcement” cited is additional mild steel reinforcement added to the member to resist part of the tension.
C - SECTION 17.18 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
Strand A*s may be considered as non-prestressed reinforcement.
C - SECTION 17.26 GENERAL FABRICATION

1
C - 17.26.4 CURING (2001)
Curing of prestressed members shall be in accordance with the provisions of Section 17.1 of this chapter.
C - 17.26.6 ERECTION (2001)
a. It is recommended that lifting devices shall be designed with a safety factor to account for temporary stresses due 3
to shipping and erection.
C - 17.26.8 APPLICATION AND MEASUREMENT OF PRESTRESSING FORCE (2005)
Elongation measurements for prestressed elements should be in accordance with the procedures outlined in the “Manual for
QUALITY CONTROL for Plants and Production of STRUCTURAL PRECAST CONCRETE PRODUCTS” published by the 4
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute.
Elongation measurements for post-tensioned construction are affected by several factors that are less significant, or that do not
exist, for pretensioned elements. The friction along prestressing steel in post-tensioning applications may be affected to
varying degrees by placing tolerances and small irregularities in tendon profile due to concrete placement. The friction
coefficients between the prestressing steel and the duct are also subject to variation. The 5 percent tolerance for pretensioned
elements was proposed by ACI-ASCE Committee 423 in 1958, and primarily reflected experience with production of
pretensioned concrete elements. Because the tendons for pretensioned elements are usually stressed with minimal friction
effects, the 5 percent tolerance for such elements has been retained.
Where differences are less than 5% for pretensioned elements or 7% for post-tensioned construction, the gage readings are to
be used.

C - SECTION 17.29 MATERIALS - REINFORCING STEEL
A497 is already cited in Part 1, but A185 is not. A497 is for fabric made of deformed wire, and A185 is for fabric made of
plain wire. This reference to A185 is from AASHTO. Article 17.29 now gives the designer a choice.

8
Part 18
Elastomeric Bridge Bearings
— 2001 —
This Part has now been eliminated. This material can now be found in Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 10, Bearing Design and
Part 11, Bearing Construction.


8
Part 19
Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges1
— 2013 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
19.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2

19.1.1 Scope (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2 Rating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2

19.2.1 General (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2 1
19.2.2 Normal Rating (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2.3 Maximum Rating (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-2
19.2.4 Load Carrying Capacity (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-3
19.2.5 Inspection (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-3
19.2.6 Computation of Stresses or Strengths (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-3
3
19.3 Loads and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.1 General (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.2 Dead Load (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.3 Live Load (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.4 Impact (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-4
19.3.5 Longitudinal Forces (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.3.6 Other Loads (2005) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5

19.4.1 Concrete (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-5
19.4.2 Reinforcing Steel (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-6
19.5 Load Combinations and Rating Formulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8

19.5.1 Loads and Forces (2005) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.5.2 Notations (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.5.3 Formulas (2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-8
19.6 Excessive Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10

19.6.1 Action to be Taken (2000) R(2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
1
References Vol. 67, 1966, pp. 355, 656; Vol. 71, 1970, p. 232; Vol. 90, 1989, pp. 53, 80.

Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-10
LIST OF TABLES
8-19-1 Maximum Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-6

8-19-2 Reinforcing Steel - Unknown Yield Strengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-7
8-19-3 Prestressing Steel - Unknown Yield Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-7
8-19-4 Welded Wire Fabric or Cold Drawn Steel Wire - Unknown Yield Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19-7
19.1.1 SCOPE (2000) R(2013)
a. The provisions of Parts 2 and 17, this Chapter, should be followed except as modified by this Part.
SECTION 19.2 RATING
19.2.1 GENERAL (2000)1 R(2013)
a. Concrete railway bridges shall be rated according to their load carrying capacity as determined by the rules specified
herein.
b. The rating of the bridge shall be made either with reference to service loads and allowable service load stresses as
provided in SERVICE LOAD RATING or, alternately, with reference to load factors and strength as provided in
LOAD FACTOR RATING. The method to be used, SERVICE LOAD RATING or LOAD FACTOR RATING, shall be
as directed by the Engineer.
c. Each bridge shall be assigned two ratings; NORMAL and MAXIMUM. The stated normal and maximum ratings of
each bridge as a unit shall be the lowest of the ratings determined for the various components.
19.2.2 NORMAL RATING (2000) R(2013)
a. Normal rating is the maximum load level which can be carried by an existing structure for an indefinite period of time.
19.2.3 MAXIMUM RATING (2000) R(2013)
a. Maximum rating is the maximum load level which the structure can support at infrequent intervals.
1
See Commentary

Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges
19.2.4 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY (2000)1 R(2013)
a. The load-carrying capacity of a bridge should be determined by the computation of stresses or strengths based on
actual records of the design, details, materials, workmanship, and physical condition, including data obtained by
inspection and load tests, if feasible.
19.2.5 INSPECTION (2013)2
a. Inspection of the bridge shall be made in accordance with Part 21, this Chapter, with special attention to the following
items:
(1) Whether the actual sections and details conform to the plans. Dimensions of the concrete sections should be
measured to nearest 1/4 inch (nearest 5 mm). Location and size of reinforcement should be checked at critical
sections by use of a pachometer or other suitable device.
(2) Any additions to the dead load not shown on the plans, such as heavier rail, deeper ballast section, concrete ties,
walkways, pipelines, conduits, signal devices, and wire supports.
(3) The position of the track with respect to the center line of the bridge.
(4) Any loss of concrete. All loose concrete shall be removed before making this determination.
(5) Any reduction in reinforcing steel area due to corrosion. This determination should be made by measurements
after removal of corrosion. 1
(6) The physical condition, noting such conditions as excessive cracking at points of maximum moment and at points
of maximum shear. If cracks are deemed critical, they should be observed during the passage of a train to
determine whether live load stresses cause movement or growth in the cracks.
(7) Uneven settlement of supports.

3
(8) Vertical or horizontal misalignment of spans or supports.
(9) Superelevation of track.
19.2.6 COMPUTATION OF STRESSES OR STRENGTHS (2013)

4
19.2.6.1 General3
a. The computation of stresses or strengths should be made for all load-carrying members and components, giving
particular attention to the increased load carried by any member due to eccentricity.
19.2.6.2 Critical Sections
a. The critical sections at which computations are made should be approved by the Engineer. In addition to the main
reinforcement, consideration shall be given to:
(1) Sizes, spacing and development length of shear reinforcement.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

(2) Development length of and splices in longitudinal reinforcement.
(3) Column moments due to continuous construction or eccentricity of loading.
(4) The bond (development length) requirements in effect at the time the bridge was designed.
19.2.6.3 Redistribution of Moments1
a. For continuous bridges, moments determined by elastic analysis may be redistributed by increasing or decreasing the
negative moments by not more than 20 percent.
b. This redistribution of moments should follow that given in “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete–
ACI 318-11 (ACI 318-11M),” ART. 8.4 for nonprestressed members or ART 18.10.4 for prestressed members.
19.2.6.4 Maximum Reinforcement
a. For LOAD FACTOR RATINGS the area of tension steel to be used in computing the design moment strength should
not exceed that available at the section. If the area of the tension steel exceeds the reinforcement required for balanced
conditions, then a general analysis is required.
SECTION 19.3 LOADS AND FORCES
19.3.1 GENERAL (2000)2 R(2013)
a. The loads and forces should be computed and are defined as follows:
19.3.2 DEAD LOAD (2013)
a. The dead load should be the weight of the bridge, including the track, ballast, and fill, together with that of any other
loads (mass multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity).
19.3.3 LIVE LOAD (2013)
a. The live load should be one of the Cooper E (EM) series. Other standard loading criteria, or a load consisting of a
specific locomotive or other equipment may be used, depending on the purpose for which the rating is being done.
b. The lateral and longitudinal distribution of the axle loads to the structure should be determined as outlined in Part 2,
this Chapter.
19.3.4 IMPACT (2013)3
a. The impact should be determined as outlined in Part 2, or Part 17, this Chapter, as applicable.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

b. Reduction of impact may be allowed as follows: for speeds less than 40 mph (65 km/h) the impact shall be reduced in
a straight-line variation from full effect at 40 mph (65 km/h) to 0.5 of the full effect at 10 mph (15 km/h). The load
rating may be increased by reducing the speed over the structure.
19.3.5 LONGITUDINAL FORCES (2013)1
Longitudinal forces shall be as specified in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.3(j). The E80 (EM360) loading is
to be scaled proportionally to be consistent with the live load plus impact rating of the structure.
19.3.6 OTHER LOADS (2005) R(2013)
a. Other loads shall be determined as given in Part 2, this Chapter.
19.4.1 CONCRETE (2013)
19.4.1.1 General2
a. The compressive strength of the concrete shall be taken as the 28-day strength of the concrete, if records of same are 1
available. If there is no record of the compressive strength of the concrete, it shall be assumed as 3,000 psi (20 MPa).
For deteriorated concrete, the compressive strength should be assumed as not more than 2,500 psi (17 MPa), or a lower
value should be used as required by the Engineer.
19.4.1.1.1 Coring for Strength Tests3
a. In the event that the concrete stress proves to be critical, the compressive strength of the concrete may be determined 3
by “Standard Methods of Obtaining Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete,” ASTM Standard C42
(C42M), or other methods as determined by the Engineer.
19.4.1.1.2 Treatment of Core Holes
a. All core holes shall be filled with cementitious material having a 28-day specified compressive strength equal to or
higher than that of the structure, or with a commercial grout approved by the Engineer. Epoxy bonding compound, 4
meeting the approval of the Engineer, shall be used to bond the new concrete to the existing concrete.
19.4.1.2 Service Load Rating
a. The permissible stress for the concrete shall be taken as 1.2 fc, where fc is the allowable stress as specified in Part 2,
this Chapter.
b. Modular ratio n shall be determined as the ratio of elasticity of steel to that of concrete, Es/Ec, as specified in Part 2,
this Chapter.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary

19.4.1.3 Load Factor Rating
a. The applicable concrete design assumptions shall follow those in Part 2, this Chapter.
19.4.2 REINFORCING STEEL (2013)
19.4.2.1 Maximum Allowable Stresses
a. The following maximum allowable stresses should be used where fy is determined as indicated in Article 19.4.2.2.
Table 8-19-1. Maximum Allowable Stresses
METRIC UNITS IMPERIAL UNITS
1. Tension reinforcement in flexural members: (with or without axial loads)
Structural-grade steel bars. . . 0.8 fy 0.8 fy

Intermediate-grade steel bars and Grade 40 (280) bars. . . 0.7 fy 0.7 fy
Hard-grade steel bars and Grade 50 (340) or Grade 60 (410) bars. . . 0.6 fy 0.6 fy
Wrought Iron. . . 20 ksi 140 MPa
Wire mesh or cold-drawn steel wire not exceeding 1/2 inch (12 mm) in diameter when
used in one-way solid slabs only. . . 0.7 fy 0.7 fy
but not to exceed. . . 34 ksi 230 MPa
2. Tension in shear reinforcement:
All grade of steel. . . 24 ksi 165 MPa
3. Compression in column vertical reinforcement:
Structural-grade steel bars. . . 0.6 fy 0.6 fy
Intermediate-grade steel bars and Grade 40 (280) bars. . . 0.6 fy 0.6 fy
Hard-grade steel bars and Grade 50 (340) or Grade 60 (410) bars. . . 0.5 fy 0.5 fy
4. Compression reinforcement in flexural members:
5. Compression in composite column:
19.4.2.2 Yield Strength
19.4.2.2.1 Known Yield Strengths1
a. The yield strengths of the reinforcement shall be as shown on the plans unless mill test reports of the reinforcement
used in the structure are available. If the reports are available, the yield strength of the reinforcement used in
determining the rating shall be the lowest value shown for the size of bar used at the section being analyzed.
19.4.2.2.2 Unknown Yield Strengths
a. If the yield strength is unknown the following should be used:
1
See Commentary

Table 8-19-2. Reinforcing Steel - Unknown Yield Strengths
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH fy

REINFORCING BARS
Imperial Metric
Structural Grade or unknown before 1968 33 ksi 230 MPa
Intermediate Grade, Grade 40 (300) or unknown after 1967 40 ksi 300 MPa
Hard Grade or Grade 50 (350) 50 ksi 350 MPa
Grade 60 (400) 60 ksi 400 MPa
Grade 75 (500) 75 ksi 500 MPa
Table 8-19-3. Prestressing Steel - Unknown Yield Strength
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH fpy

PRESTRESSING STEEL
Imperial Metric
1. Strands ASTM A416 (A416M)
a. Grade 270 (1860)
1) Low-Relaxation 243 ksi 1670 MPa
2) Stress-Relieved 230 ksi 1580 MPa
b. Grade 250 (1720)
1) Low-Relaxation 225 ksi 1550 MPa 1
2) Stress-Relieved 213 ksi 1470 MPa
2. Wire ASTM A421 (A421M)

a. Low-Relaxation 212 ksi 1460 MPa
b. Stress-Relieved 200 ksi 1380 MPa
3
3. High-Strength Bar ASTM A722 (A722M)
a. Low-Relaxation 128 ksi 880 MPa
b. Stress-Relieved 120 ksi 820 MPa
Table 8-19-4. Welded Wire Fabric or Cold Drawn Steel Wire - Unknown Yield Strength 4
WELDED WIRE FABRIC OR COLD-DRAWN STEEL WIRE Imperial Metric
1. Plain Wire ASTM A82 (A82M)
a. 1961 & Before 64 ksi 440 MPa
b. 1962 & After 70 ksi 480 MPa
2. Plain Welded Wire Fabric ASTM A185 (A185M)

a. Smaller than W1.2 56 ksi 380 MPa
b. W1.2 and larger 60 ksi 410 MPa
3. Deformed Wire ASTM A496 (A496M) 75 ksi 510 MPa

4. Deformed Welded Wire Fabric ASTM A497 (A497M) 70 ksi 480 MPa

SECTION 19.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND RATING FORMULAS
19.5.1 LOADS AND FORCES (2005) R(2013)
a. The following notations represent the effect, due to the load or force specified, to be considered in the rating of a
railroad bridge. The effects should be determined as stresses for service load rating and as forces for load factor
rating.
D = Dead Load
L = Live Load
I = Impact Load
CF = Centrifugal Force
E = Earth Pressure
B = Buoyancy
W = Wind Force on Structure
WL = Wind Force on Live Load
LF = Longitudinal Force from Live Load
F = Longitudinal Force due to Friction or Shear Resistance at Expansion Bearings
SF = Stream Flow Pressure
19.5.2 NOTATIONS (2000) R(2013)
SLN = Service Load Normal Rating Factor

SLM = Service Load Maximum Rating Factor
LFN = Load Factor Normal Rating Factor
LFM = Load Factor Maximum Rating Factor
Sf = Permissible Stress
SN = Nominal Strength
φ = Strength Reduction Factor as specified in Part 2 or Part 17, this Chapter, whichever applies
19.5.3 FORMULAS (2013)
19.5.3.1 Service Load Rating
19.5.3.1.1 Normal Rating
a. The rating factor (SLN) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
[ S f ⁄ 1.2 ] – [ D + E + B + SF ]
SLN = ----------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-1
[ L + I + CF ]
S f – [ D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F ]
SLN = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-2
[ L + I + CF + LF ]

b. The rating expressed in terms of Cooper E (EM) Series shall be computed in accordance with the following expression.
For example, if the live load in EQ 19-1 or EQ 19-2 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
Normal Rating = SLN × 80 ( SLNx360 ) EQ 19-3
19.5.3.1.2 Maximum Rating
a. This rating factor (SLM) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
S f – [ D + E + B + SF ]
SLM = -----------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-4
[ L + I + CF ]
1.2S f – [ D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F ]
SLM = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-5
[ L + I + CF + LF ]
For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-4 or EQ 19-5 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
Maximum Rating = SLM × 80 ( SLMx360 ) EQ 19-6
19.5.3.2 Load Factor Rating

1
19.5.3.2.1 Normal Rating
a. The rating factor (LFN) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
φS N – 1.1 ( D + E + B + SF )
LFN = ------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-7
3
1.3 [ 5 ⁄ 3 ( L + I ) + CF ]
φS N – 1.1 [ D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F ]
LFN = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-8
1.3 [ L + I + CF + LF ]
4
For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-7 or EQ 19-8 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360) series, then the rating value
would be:
Normal Rating = LFN × 80 ( LFNx360 ) EQ 19-9
19.5.3.2.2 Maximum Rating
a. The rating factor (LFM) shall be taken as the lesser of the values calculated using the following formulas:
φS N – 1.1 ( D + E + B + SF )
LFM = ------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-10
1.3 ( L + I + CF )

φS N – 1.1 [ D + E + B + SF + 0.5W + WL + F ]
LFM = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
- EQ 19-11
1.1 [ L + I + CF + LF ]
b. The rating expressed in terms of Cooper E (EM) Series for full speed shall be computed in accordance with the
following expression. For example, if the live load used in EQ 19-10 or EQ 19-11 were for a Cooper E80 (EM360)
series, then the rating value would be:
Maximum Rating = LFMx80 ( LFMx360 ) EQ 19-12
SECTION 19.6 EXCESSIVE LOADING
19.6.1 ACTION TO BE TAKEN (2000)1 R(2013)
a. If the normal operating loads exceed those permissible under these rules, the speed and/or the loading should be
restricted so that the permissible loads will not be exceeded; otherwise, appropriate action should be taken until the
bridge is strengthened or replaced. When the operating loads are determined to be close to permissable loads, or when
the physical conditions of the main members or components are marginal, the bridge should be frequently inspected as
long as it is in service.
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this Commentary is to provide additional information and explanation regarding various articles in Part 19
Rating of Existing Concrete Bridges. The numbers after the “C -” correspond to the Article or Section being explained.
C - SECTION 19.2 RATING
C - 19.2.1 GENERAL (2005) R(2013)
a. Protection of the investment made in a bridge facility through well programmed preventative maintenance, inspections,
ratings, and repairs is second only to the overall safety of the structure and the traffic it carries. The procedure for
rating requires careful evaluation of a number of complex and often conflicting factors in the continuing effort to
extend the useful life of concrete railroad bridges. The evaluation of bridges should include a detailed inspection, a
thorough structural analysis, and consideration of the degree of control the railroad can exercise over the bridge
loading. This work is to be performed in the interest of obtaining the maximum safe and cost-effective utilization of
the assets of the railroad facility.
b. Two methods of structural analysis are allowed. These methods should both account for the strength of the bridge in its
current state, and the method used should be identified for future reference.
c. The MAXIMUM load rating is the higher level rating, and reflects the absolute maximum permissible load level to
which the structure may be subjected on an infrequent basis. The NORMAL load rating reflects the load level that can
1
See Commentary

safely utilize an existing structure on a regular basis. Both ratings need to be re-evaluated periodically to account for
ongoing deterioration that may be detected in regular inspections.
C - 19.2.4 LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY (2005) R(2013)
a. Field tests should be made and the results given due consideration in the assessment of the load carrying capacity if
required by the Engineer. For a specific service, the location, history, and behavior of the bridge under investigation
should be taken into account.
C - 19.2.5 INSPECTION (2005) R(2013)
a. Rating of a bridge generally should start with a detailed field inspection. All physical features of the bridge having an
affect upon its structural integrity should be examined. In some cases, a detailed physical inspection may be all that is
required for the Engineer to make a judgment that the bridge is safe for normal, every-day loads. An example could be
a sound concrete bridge carrying normal traffic for many years and shows no distress. Features other than the bridge
itself that may affect the structure should also be observed and noted. For example, a rough or otherwise abrupt
transition between the track on the embankment section and the track on the bridge may cause an increase in the impact
above what would routinely be calculated.
C - 19.2.6 COMPUTATION OF STRESSES OR STRENGTHS (2005) R(2013)
C - 19.2.6.1 GENERAL
1
a. Generally, most bridges requiring load restrictions are either old, or are of insufficient strength as a result of damage.
With some exceptions, the elements of older structures with insufficient strength are usually in the superstructures, not
in the piers or abutments. The susceptibility of substructure elements to the effects of scour at bridges over waterways
should be considered, as well as potential detrimental effects of longitudinal force from live load.
C - 19.2.6.3 REDISTRIBUTION OF MOMENTS

3
a. Under certain specific conditions, negative moments at interior supports of continuous beams may be reduced. Such
reduction must be accompanied by an increase in the positive moments in the adjacent spans equal to the average
decrease in negative moment. Moment redistribution is dependant upon adequate ductility in the plastic hinge regions
to allow plastic hinges to develop. Often, the ductility required to allow redistribution of moments is not available in
members designed by the Working Stress Method.
4
C - SECTION 19.3 LOADS AND FORCES
C - 19.3.1 GENERAL (2013)
a. The total load in any member caused by dead load, live load, and other loads deemed applicable by the Engineer shall
not exceed the member capacity. When it becomes necessary to reduce the allowable live load in order to avoid
exceeding the capacity of the bridge, such a reduction is based upon the assumption that each axle load maintains a
constant relation to the total load. For example, each axle of an E-60 (EM-270) live load is exactly three-fourths of the
magnitude of each corresponding axle of an E-80 (EM360) live load.

C - 19.3.4 IMPACT (2005) R(2013)
a. A reduced speed of operation may be considered where it is desirable to reduce impact loads. In some cases, a
reduction in speed of operation will reduce impact loads to the extent that decreasing the load rating will not be
required. Consideration of a reduced speed of operation will require the judgment of the Engineer and much will
depend upon the track alignment, the bridge location, as well as the type and volume of traffic. The condition of the
approaching track and the transition from the embankment section to the bridge section may also influence the
selection of an appropriate impact factor.
C - 19.3.5 LONGITUDINAL FORCES (2013)
a. Longitudinal forces due to train traffic on railway bridges are influenced by a number of factors including: 1) the type
of motive power used, 2) train tonnage, 3) grades, 4) braking forces, 5) likelihood of starting or stopping a train at or
near a particular bridge, and 6) individual railroad operating practices. For further information, see Chapter 8
commentary section on design for longitudinal forces (C -2.2.3(j)), and see related material in Chapter 15.
b. The longitudinal force in Article 2.2.3(j) is based on E-80 (EM-360) loading. For structures with a live load plus
impact rating different from E-80 (EM-360), the longitudinal force used in the rating is to be reduced or increased by
the ratio of the rating for live load plus impact to E-80 (EM-360).
c. It is important to trace the load path these forces will follow to the point at which they are taken out of the structure,
and ensure the load path is consistent with compatibility of deflections and rotations.
d. Longitudinal forces are included in the Group III load case in design. The same load case is used to include
longitudinal forces for rating purposes.
e. These rating cases cover the extreme events of emergency braking, and starting a train from a static state at maximum
tractive effort. Longitudinal forces applied during normal train operations might be significantly lower. If the rating of
a particular structure is too restrictive because of longitudinal forces, the methodology provided in Chapter 15, Part 7,
may be considered and adapted to provide relief for normal train operations, at the discretion of the Engineer.
Additionally, a reduction in impact may be considered, as the maximum longitudinal force due to tractive effort or
braking occurs at speeds below 25 mph (40 km/h).
C - SECTION 19.4 MATERIALS
C - 19.4.1 CONCRETE (2005) R(2013)
C - 19.4.1.1 GENERAL
a. In some cases, such as with compression members or over-reinforced flexural sections, the strength of the concrete
may be the controlling factor in the rating calculation of the member. In such cases, use of an assumed concrete
strength may not be advisable.
C - 19.4.1.1.1 CORING FOR STRENGTH TESTS
a. Care must be exercised in gathering and interpreting the results of field and laboratory tests. Several issues may play a
part in the evaluation, especially if the test results indicate incipient failure, the need for immediate repairs, or load
rating reduction below acceptable levels. For example, was sampling done properly? Were the location, size, and
number of samples adequate to represent the member being evaluated? Is there a pattern or consistency in the results?

Are other tests or inspections needed to verify results, or to investigate other members in the bridge for similar defects?
Is there a possibility or likelihood other structures on the system have similar problems that may not have been
discovered yet?
C - 19.4.2 REINFORCING STEEL (2005) R(2013)
C - 19.4.2.2 YIELD STRENGTH
C - 19.4.2.2.1 UNKNOWN YIELD STRENGTHS
a. These strengths are provided to facilitate rating of bridges with unknown steel reinforcement properties. Records
should exist for most bridges, and these records should be researched in an effort to determine the most accurate data to
use in the bridge rating. The yield strengths given in this section should only be used after an exhaustive search for the
actual records proves unproductive. The values given in this section may also be used as a rough approximation prior
to searching for the actual data.
C - SECTION 19.6 EXCESSIVE LOADING
C - 19.6.1 ACTION TO BE TAKEN (2005) R(2013)

1
a. All bridges should be included in a regular inspection program. More frequent inspections are required for any bridge
with known deficiencies or which is in questionable condition. Also, bridges with no apparent deficiencies loaded at a
level above their “NORMAL” rating should be subject to more frequent, competent inspections. Several factors may
influence the selection of the load level. For example:
(1) A higher safety factor for a bridge carrying a large volume of traffic may be desirable as compared with the safety
factor for a bridge carrying very little traffic, especially if the bridge carrying the high traffic volume also carries a 3
high percentage of heavy loads.
(2) Bridges with extensive material losses may warrant a lower load level due to the greater uncertainty in evaluating
the present strength of the bridge. This is especially true if the loss of material is in a highly stressed region.
(3) The ratio of dead load to live load may have an influence on the selection of the appropriate load level. Structures
with high dead load to live load ratios and no signs of distress may merit consideration of higher load levels. 4


8
Part 20
Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads
— 1995 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
20.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2

20.1.1 Scope (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2
20.1.2 Types of Flexible Bulkheads (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-2
20.2.1 Field Surveys and Records (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.2.2 Soil Investigation (1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.2.3 Loads (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.2.4 Drainage (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.2.5 Character of Backfill (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-3
20.3 Computation of Lateral Forces Acting on Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5
20.3.1 Active Earth Pressure Due to the Weight of Backfill (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5 3
20.3.2 Active Earth Pressure Due to Surcharge Loads (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5
20.3.3 Active Earth Pressure Due to Unbalanced Water Pressure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-8
20.3.4 Passive Earth Pressure (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
20.3.5 Reduction of Weight in Passive Wedge Due to Upward Seepage (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
20.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
20.4.1 Stability Calculations (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
20.5 Design of Anchored Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10
20.5.1 Depth of Embedment (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10
20.5.2 Maximum Moment (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
20.5.3 Anchor Pull (1993). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
20.5.4 Flexibility of Anchorage (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
20.5.5 Anchorages (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
20.5.6 Connections (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.5.7 Allowable Stresses (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.6 Cantilever Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.6.1 Scope (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-14
20.7 Notations (1993) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-15
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-16

LIST OF FIGURES
8-20-1 Lateral Pressure Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-5

8-20-2 Pressure Distribution for Strip Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-6
8-20-3 Pressure Distribution for Line Load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-7
8-20-4 Pressure Distribution for Point Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-8
8-20-5 Flow Net for Upward Seepage of Water After Rapidly Receding High Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-9
8-20-6 Stability Analysis – Massive Earth Movements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10
8-20-7 Depth of Total Embedment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-11
8-20-8 Maximum Moment Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-12
8-20-9 Anchorage Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-13
LIST OF TABLES
8-20-1 Granular Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-4

8-20-2 Silt and Clay Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-4
8-20-3 Unit Weights of Soils, and Coefficients of Earth Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-4
20.1.1 SCOPE (1995)1

a. This part of the Manual provides a recommended practice for the design of flexible sheet pile bulkheads. The
guidelines are intended for SERVICE LOAD DESIGN only.
b. Braced excavations and cofferdams are not within the scope of these recommended practices.
20.1.2 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE BULKHEADS (1995)2

a. A sheet pile bulkhead is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from the
passive resistance of the soil in which the bulkhead is embedded. Bulkheads are frequently referred to as retaining
walls of the waterfront or as seawalls.
b. For purposes of this part of the Manual, the “bulkhead” is considered to include the sheet piling, the soil masses behind
and in front of the sheet piling, and the various kinds of anchors.
c. Sheet pile bulkheads may be constructed of steel, concrete, or timber. They may be cantilevered; or they can be
anchored by tie rods connected to deadman, pile foundations, or existing structures. Bulkheads may be anchored by
batter piles secured to wales connecting the sheet piles.
d. Sheet piles bulkheads are generally designed as flexible structures which yield sufficiently to mobilize full active earth
pressure and a portion of the passive pressure. For anchored bulkheads, movement at the anchor rod in the range of
0.001Hf to 0.002Hf is needed to develop full active pressure.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

e. Where adjacent structures would be endangered by a flexible bulkhead, a rigid type bulkhead not covered in this design
guideline must be utilized.
f. Braced excavations and cofferdams, not included in the scope of this design guideline, exhibit different types of
deformation with resulting higher earth pressures.
20.2.1 FIELD SURVEYS AND RECORDS (1995)

Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of a profile and cross sections, or a topographical map to determine
general design and structural requirements. Present and proposed grades and alignment of tracks and roads shall be indicated
together with records of: reference datum, maximum and minimum high water, mean high water, minimum and mean low
water, existing ground water level, location of utilities, construction history of the area, indication of any conditions which
might hamper proper installation of the piling, depth of scour, allowance for overdredging, wave heights, and seiches.
20.2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION (1995)1

The characteristics of the foundation soils shall be investigated as indicated in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
20.2.3 LOADS (1993)

a. All design criteria, temporary and permanent loading, boring and laboratory test results, and properties of construction
materials, including yield stress, should be clearly stated in the design calculations and on the contract and record 1
plans. Temporary loads include, but are not limited to: construction equipment, construction materials, lower water
levels adjoining the bulkhead causing unbalanced hydrostatic pressure. Permanent loads include, but are not limited to:
future grading and paving, railroads or highways, structures, material storage piles, snow and earthquake.
b. The allowable live load after construction should be clearly shown in the plans and painted on the pavements behind
the bulkheads or shown on signs at the site and also recorded on the record plans.
3
c. The “loads” listed above are external to the total bulkhead system. There are also internal effects that are treated as
loads in the design of individual members of the bulkhead system. These internal loads are active and passive soil
pressures, acting separately or combined algebraically, saturated or dry as appropriate, for granular or cohesive soil or
a combination thereof.
20.2.4 DRAINAGE (1993)

4
a. The drainage pattern of the site before and after construction should be analyzed, and adequate drainage provisions
incorporated into the plans and specifications. Consideration should be given to underdrainage as well as surface
drainage.
b. Drainage provisions for backfill should be compatible with the assumed water conditions in design.
20.2.5 CHARACTER OF BACKFILL (1993)

a. A reconnaissance survey should be made of cost and availability of local materials. At major structures, gradation,
maximum and minimum density, specific gravity, and shear strength determinations should be performed and
classified with reference to granular soils (Table 8-20-1) and Silt and Clay Soils (Table 8-20-2).
b. Granular backfill is recommended where the depth of the bulkhead is great or the bulkhead deformation must be
minimized.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

c. The range of the unit weight of soils and the coefficients of active pressure, Ka, and passive pressure, Kp , for
horizontal ground surface are shown in Table 8-20-3.
Table 8-20-1. Granular Soils
Descriptive Term for Relative Density Standard Penetration Test Blows per Foot “N”
Very Loose 0–4
Loose 4 – 10
Medium 10 – 30
Dense 30 – 50
Very Dense Over 50
Table 8-20-2. Silt and Clay Soils
Unconfined Compressive Strength

Descriptive Term for Consistency
Tons per Square Foot
Very Soft Less than 0.25
Soft 0.25 – 0.50
Medium 0.50 – 1.00
Stiff 1.00 – 2.00
Very Stiff 2.00 – 4.00
Hard Over 4.00
Table 8-20-3. Unit Weights of Soils, and Coefficients of Earth Pressure
Coefficient of Active Earth Pressure, Coefficient of Passive

Unit Weight of Moist Unit Weight of Ka Earth Pressure, Kp
Type of Soil, γ Submerged Soil, γ ′ Friction

(Note 1) (Note 1) Friction Angles For
Soil For For Soils Angles
(Note 2) Soils in
Backfill in Place (Note 2)
Place
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum φ δ φ δ
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12)
Clean Sand:
Dense 110 140 65 78 0.20 38 20 9.0 38 25
Medium 110 130 60 68 0.25 34 17 7.0 34 23
Loose 90 125 56 63 0.35 0.30 30 15 5.0 30 20
Silty Sand:
Dense 110 150 70 88 0.25 7.0
Medium 95 130 60 68 0.30 5.0
Loose 80 125 50 63 0.50 0.35 3.0
Silt and qu qu
165 ( 1 + w ) 103 1 – -------------- 1 + --------------
Clay (Note --------------------------- ------------------------ 1.00
3) 1 + 2.65w 1 + 2.65w p + γz p + γz
Note 1: In pounds per cubic foot.
Note 2: These angles, expressed in degrees, are φ, the angle of internal friction, and δ, the angle of wall friction, and are used in estimating the coefficients
under which they are listed.
Note 3: The symbol γ represents γ or γ ′, whichever is applicable; p is the effective unit pressure on the top surface of the stratum; qu is the unconfined
compressive strength; w is the natural water content, in percentage of dry weight; and z is the depth below the top surface of the stratum.
© 2013,

SECTION 20.3 COMPUTATION OF LATERAL FORCES ACTING ON BULKHEADS
20.3.1 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE DUE TO THE WEIGHT OF BACKFILL (1993)
a. The active earth pressure due to the weight of the backfill may be computed by the Coulomb Theory, and is represented
in the loading diagram by area I, Figure 8-20-1.
b. The active earth pressure at depth “z” is:
pA = Kaγz
20.3.2 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE DUE TO SURCHARGE LOADS (1993)
20.3.2.1 Uniform Load q
The active earth pressure due to a uniform surcharge load q (pounds per square foot) is:
pu = Kaq
which is represented by area II, Figure 8-20-1.
Figure 8-20-1. Lateral Pressure Diagrams
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

20.3.2.2 Strip Load q
a. A continuous strip of surcharge load q (pounds per square foot) parallel to the bulkhead is shown in Figure 8-20-2. The
intensity of pressure at a given point may be computed by:
p s = 2q
2 2
------ ( β + sin β sin α – sin β cos α )
π
b. The Strip Load is not shown in Figure 8-20-1. Symbols and notations are shown in Figure 8-20-2.
20.3.2.3 Line Load
a. A very narrow strip surcharge load q′ (pounds per linear foot) may be considered as a line load. The intensity of lateral
pressure, p1, may be computed by the following semi-empirical formulas:
2
1.27q′ m n
p 1 = --------------- -------------------------- For ( m > 0.40 )
H 2 2 2
(m + n )
q′ n
p 1 = 0.203 ---- ------------------------------ For ( m ≤ 0.40 )
H 2 2
( 0.16 + n )
Figure 8-20-2. Pressure Distribution for Strip Load
© 2013,

b. The pressure is represented by area IV, Figure 8-20-1. Symbols and notations are shown in Figure 8-20-3.
Figure 8-20-3. Pressure Distribution for Line Load
20.3.2.4 Point Load
a. The lateral pressure due to a point load, Q, Figure 8-20-4, varies with the depth as well as the horizontal distance from
the load. The intensity of lateral pressure pq on line ab directly opposite the load may be computed by the following
formulas:
2 2
Q m n
p q = 1.77 ------ -------------------------- For ( m > 0.40 ) 1
2 3
H ( m2 + n2 )
2
Q n
p q = 0.28 ------ ------------------------------ For ( m ≤ 0.40 )
2 3
H ( 0.16 + n 2 )
3
b. The unit pressure on any other point, on both sides of ab is smaller than pq at the same depth, and may be computed by:
p2 = pqcos2(1.1Ψ).
c. Point loading is not shown in the diagram in Figure 8-20-1. Symbols and notations are shown in
Figure 8-20-4.
4
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

d. A Trial Wedge analysis, Part 5, Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers, Commentary, is accepted as an alternate
solution for the loading obtained in Article 20.3.2.2, Article 20.3.2.3, or Article 20.3.2.4.
Figure 8-20-4. Pressure Distribution for Point Load
20.3.3 ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE DUE TO UNBALANCED WATER PRESSURE (1993)
a. When bulkheads are used for waterfront construction, the bulkhead is subjected to a maximum earth pressure at the
low water stage. During a rainstorm or a rapidly receding high water, the water level behind the bulkhead may be
several feet higher than in front, as shown in Figure 8-20-5. The unbalanced water pressure is represented by area III in
Figure 8-20-1.
b. Drained conditions in backfill apply when clean sand or clean sand and gravel, as defined in Article 20.2.5 are used
and adequate permanent drainage outlets are provided. Where drained conditions exist, the design water level may be
assumed at the drainage outlet elevation.
© 2013,

20.3.4 PASSIVE EARTH PRESSURE (1993)
The passive earth pressure, pp, in front of the bulkhead may also be computed by the Coulomb Theory. This pressure is also
shown in Figure 8-20-1.
pp = Kpγ z
20.3.5 REDUCTION OF WEIGHT IN PASSIVE WEDGE DUE TO UPWARD SEEPAGE (1993)
a. During a rainstorm or rapidly receding high water, the water level behind the bulkhead may be several feet higher than
in front. The receding water percolates downward through the backfill and then upward in front of the bulkhead as
illustrated in Figure 8-20-5. The upward flow causes a significant reduction in the effective weight of the soil γ ′ and
consequently must be considered in the design using passive pressure where applicable.
b. Piping under the sheeting may be a problem for bulkheads driven to a shallow depth.
Figure 8-20-5. Flow Net for Upward Seepage of Water After Rapidly Receding High Water
SECTION 20.4 STABILITY
20.4.1 STABILITY CALCULATIONS (1993)

4
a. The stability condition referred to herein concerns a local condition immediately under the bulkhead. Massive earth
movements such as the type indicated in Figure 8-20-6 are not covered by this calculation. Massive movements may
occur independently of the type and design of the bulkhead and constitute a slope stability problem.
b. The vertical effective pressure behind the bulkhead at the elevation of the mud line is denoted by p . It is made up of
the effective submerged unit weight of the soil below the low water line, the weight of the soil above the low water
line, the uniform surcharge load q as shown in Figure 8-20-1, and a distributional load of any line, point, and other
loads. For purposes of this stability calculation line, strip, and point loads may be distributed uniformly over the area
covered (behind the bulkhead only) by a 2:1 (horizontal:vertical) distribution to the elevation of the mud line.
c. The stability calculation is carried out by treating the area behind the bulkhead as though it were a spread footing
resting on the surface of the soil at the elevation of the mud line. Generally, stability problems will arise only with
weak silts and clays. To meet the stability requirements the passive pressure must satisfy the following:
p ≤ 5.14c
-------------
FS
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

where:
c = the cohesion which can be taken as one-half the unconfined compressive strength of soft clays below the
mud line
FS = the factor of safety
For well defined loading conditions and thoroughly determined soil parameters, the minimum factor of safety for
permanent construction may be 1.50. If temporary loading is included, the minimum factor of safety may be reduced to
1.30.
d. If weaker layers exist below, then the shear strength value applicable to these layers should be used in the above
calculations.
e. If the above criteria for stability are not satisfied, then these design guidelines are not applicable. In such an event, a
thorough soils investigation and analysis, combined with field observations, may lead to a satisfactory design, but this
condition is considered beyond the scope of this Manual.
Figure 8-20-6. Stability Analysis – Massive Earth Movements
SECTION 20.5 DESIGN OF ANCHORED BULKHEADS
20.5.1 DEPTH OF EMBEDMENT (1993)
a. The total depth of embedment D is found by extending the active and passive pressures downward to the bottom of the
pile as schematically shown in Figure 8-20-7. The total embedment D, is satisfactory when the moment about the
elevation of the anchorage Ap, due to the passive pressure resultant Pp equals that due to the active pressure resultant Pa
with a factor of safety of 2.0 for permanent construction and 1.5 if temporary loads are included.
b. The designer should be on guard against shallow penetration of sheet piling into relatively strong soil layers. The
moment summations described above are greatly affected when a relatively strong layer is encountered. It is suggested
that arbitrary reductions in strengths, or assumption of the lowest probable elevation of the mudline, be made for such
layers in order to avoid unrealistically short penetrations.
© 2013,

20.5.2 MAXIMUM MOMENT (1993)1
a. It will usually be found that a maximum positive moment controls the selection of the sheet pile section. The maximum
moment for design is to be not less than that calculated according to the assumed equivalent beam shown in Figure 8-
20-8. The structure has been made statically determinate by assuming that a hinge occurs at the lowest elevation of the
mud line. Naturally, the designer shall make a structural check for all loading conditions.
b. If a thin layer of relatively soft soil exists at the mud line, the point of contraflexure is moved to the base of said layer,
but not deeper than 0.1D. It may be assumed that the maximum negative moment, below the dredge line as shown in
Figure 8-20-8, is less than the maximum positive moment. In selecting a structural section, interlock friction is to be
ignored. If materials other than steel are used, their flexural stiffness EI should not be greater than that for the required
steel sheet pile section; otherwise, this part of the design procedure does not apply.
3
Figure 8-20-7. Depth of Total Embedment
20.5.3 ANCHOR PULL (1993)2
For design of the anchorage system, the anchor pull shall be increased arbitrarily by at least 20% when determined according 4
to the equivalent beam theory given in Figure 8-20-8.
20.5.4 FLEXIBILITY OF ANCHORAGE (1993)
The anchor, anchor rod, and the connecting details are to be sufficiently flexible that a deformation of 0.001 Hf to 0.002 Hf can
develop at the wall without distress to the structural system. If the specified deformation cannot develop, then the active earth
pressures should be recomputed as for a braced cut and the bulkhead redesigned accordingly.
20.5.5 ANCHORAGES (1993)
a. All reactions to the anchor pull are developed entirely beyond the active pressure wedge behind the face of the
bulkhead as indicated in Figure 8-20-9. If batter piles are used as the anchorage, the piles are to develop the anchor pull
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-20-8. Maximum Moment Calculations
entirely below and in back of the active earth pressure wedge. Deadman anchorages as shown in Figure 8-20-9 are
designed utilizing passive earth pressures as resistance against anchor pull.
(1) Deadman type anchorages are preferred.
(2) Next in order of preference, is the A-Frame shown in Figure 8-20-9, utilizing a combination of tension and
compression batter piles connected by a pile cap.
(3) The least desirable anchorage is a tension pile as shown in Figure 8-20-9. The tension pile may be difficult to
develop and costly. The flexibility requirements may be difficult to develop because of the high axial stiffness of
the pile; further, this is frequently a very expensive anchorage.
b. Corrosion protection of the anchor rods shall be provided consistent with the electrochemical properties of the soil and
external factors affecting corrosion.
c. The probable settlement of the backfill should be estimated and the anchor rods designed to withstand the added
loading. Alternately, the rods may be encased in tubes sufficient in size to enable the settlement to occur without
adding loads to the rods.
d. Anchorages should never be proportioned for a factor of safety less than 2.0.
© 2013,

Figure 8-20-9. Anchorage Design
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

20.5.6 CONNECTIONS (1993)
The walers, brackets, and all connections shall be designed in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 15, Steel Structures.
20.5.7 ALLOWABLE STRESSES (1993)
a. The allowable stresses shall be determined on the following basis:
(1) Sheet Pile Sections:
• 1/3 compressive strength for concrete.
• 2/3 tensile yield strength for steel.
(2) Anchor Rods – 1/2 tensile yield strength for steel.
(3) Other structural Members:
• According to the applicable section of the Manual.
b. All connections shall be designed for the computed structural loads after allowances for wear and corrosion. The
minimum corrosion allowance for anchor rods shall be 1/32 inch for each surface. Provision should be made to
facilitate maintenance of structural elements subjected to significant wear and corrosion.
SECTION 20.6 CANTILEVER BULKHEADS
20.6.1 SCOPE (1993)1
Cantilever bulkheads are not covered within these design guidelines.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 20.7 NOTATIONS (1993)
Ap = Anchor Pull
c= Cohesion
D= Depth of embedment below mud line
D′ = Minimum depth of embedment below mud line for equilibrium
EI = Flexural Stiffness
FS = Factor of Safety
H= Length of sheet pile
Hf = Length from top of sheet pile to mud line
Hu = Unbalanced head of water
Ka = Active earth pressure coefficient
Kp = Passive earth pressure coefficient
m= Horizontal distance from top of sheet pile as a percentage of H
n= Vertical distance below top of sheet pile as a percentage of H
N= Blows per foot, Standard Penetration Test
Pa = Resultant horizontal active earth pressure
Pp = Resultant horizontal passive earth pressure
pa = Horizontal active earth pressure
p1 = Horizontal active earth pressure due to a Line Load 1
pp = Horizontal passive earth pressure
p2 = Horizontal active earth pressure due to a Point Load Q
ps = Horizontal active earth pressure due to a Strip Load of intensity q
pu = Horizontal active earth pressure due to a Uniform Surcharge
pq = Maximum horizontal active earth pressure due to a Point Load 3
p = Vertical effective pressure behind the bulkhead at elevation of mud line
p = Vertical effective pressure behind the bulkhead at lowest elevation of the mud line
Q = Point Load
q = intensity of strip load or surcharge load
q′ = intensity of line load
qu = Unconfined compressive strength of cohesive soil
4
w= Water content
x= Horizontal distance from top of wall
z= Vertical distance from top of sheet pile
α= Angle (in radians) from wall to center of a uniform strip load Article 20.3.2
β= Angle (in radians) made by a uniform strip load Article 20.3.2
γ= Moist unit weight of soil
γ′ = Submerged unit weight of soil
δ= Angle of wall friction
φ= Angle of internal friction of soil
ψ= Angle of point in question from maximum Article 20.3.2
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 20, Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads. In
the numbering of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being explained. See
Reference 1, 22, 33, and 101.
C - 20.1.1 SCOPE (1995)
a. This part of the Manual has been prepared for permanent construction. Braced excavations and cofferdams are not
included.
b. This part of the Manual is primarily based on the references listed in the References.
c. Tiebacks drilled into in situ soil are not included within the scope at this time.
C - 20.1.2 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE BULKHEADS (1995)
a. Most bulkheads or sheet pile walls are sufficiently flexible to meet the design criteria of a total deflection more than
0.0015 times the wall height. If this requirement is not satisfied, the magnitude and distribution of the earth pressures
can be much greater and the loads must be calculated on the basis of a braced cut. See any major soil text for the
pressure distribution for “braced excavations.”
b. This part of the Manual has been prepared assuming waterfront construction and designed backfill. The principles
given are fully applicable to other situations, i.e. sheeting used for a retaining wall or wingwall. When natural soil is
retained, consideration must be given to several other conditions:
(1) Swelling soils.
(2) Poor drainage which may result in higher pressures.
(3) Difficulty in the tieback installation, including necessary shoring for this installation.
(4) Unknown driving conditions for piling.
Though some or all of the above conditions can be a part of any installation, they are more apt to occur where virgin
ground is retained.
C - 20.2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION (1995)
a. Consideration must be given to the importance of the structure and anchorages when planning geotechnical work. A
thorough study may result in shorter piling lengths and/or lower anchor loads, and thus result in an economical design.
b. The present and future location of the water table is of great importance since water reduces the passive pressure, and
increases the active pressure.
c. Corrosiveness of the soil shall be investigated. (See Reference 101.)
d. Considerations shall be given to possibility of liquefaction due to seismic loadings.
© 2013,

C - 20.5.2 MAXIMUM MOMENT (1993)
For sheeting in water, the elevation of mud line shall be considered at minimum 2′-0″ below the dredge line. If site
investigation reveals that the mud and/or silt build-up is more than 2′-0″, the lowest elevation of mud and/or silt build-up shall
be used as mud line elevation. Effect of sloping soil in front of the bulkhead which would reduce passive resistance should be
investigated.
C - 20.5.3 ANCHOR PULL (1993)
a. The anchor pull is determined by an assumption that the sheet pile penetration below the mud line is sufficient to
provide for fixed support of the piling at the bottom. Considerations should be given to future construction possibilities
and design should be modified accordingly.
b. Since the pressure behind a bulkhead will build up if the deflection of the bulkhead is not sufficient to fully mobilize
the active pressure, rigid anchorages can be a problem, and this condition should be recognized by the designer.
C - SECTION 20.6 CANTILEVER BULKHEADS
C - 20.6.1 SCOPE (1993)
a. Since cantilever bulkheads are not recommended for permanent construction, they are not covered in these design
guidelines.
1
b. Cantilever sheet pile bulkheads often undergo large lateral deflections which are not easily calculated. Erosion in front
of the bulkhead materially affects the stability of the structure. For these reasons, cantilever sheet pile bulkheads are
recommended only for temporary installations and not for permanent construction. Further, the use of cantilever sheet
pile bulkheads is generally not recommended where a track will be located on the higher elevation behind the
bulkhead.
c. Cantilever sheet pile bulkheads receive all of their lateral support from passive pressure exerted on the embedded 3
portion of the bulkhead. For this reason, the depth of penetration can become very large, which can result in very high
stresses and deflections in the sheet piling.
d. The recommended restrictions on cantilever sheet pile bulkheads are:
(1) Temporary construction only.

4
(2) No track or railroad loads behind the bulkhead, except for very short cantilevers in medium to very dense or hard
soil.
(3) Maximum height not to exceed 12 feet.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 21
Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures1
— 2006 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
21.1 General (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1
21.2 Reporting of Defects (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3 Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2 1

21.3.1 General (2006) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-2
21.3.2 Structural Protection (2006). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-5
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-19
3
SECTION 21.1 GENERAL (2006)2
a. All concrete and masonry structures and components should be given thorough, detailed condition inspections at
scheduled intervals. For timber and steel components, refer to Chapter 7 and Chapter 15, respectively. The scope and
detail of the inspection should be based on the condition and age of the structure, and traffic type and tonnage in order
to determine that the physical condition of each structure is suitable for the imposed loading and to determine
maintenance or rehabilitation needs. A record of physical conditions should be kept.
b. A special inspection may be required when the structure is subjected to abnormal conditions which may affect the
capacity of the structure such as: floods, storms, fires, earthquakes, collisions, overloads and evidence of recent
movement. Refer to Commentary for information related to inspection of fire damaged concrete.
c. The inspector should review prior inspection reports before making the inspection. Previously noted defects should be
examined in the field and any changes in conditions recorded. Field book, sketch pad, inspection form, camera,
monitoring gages, etc., should be used to record the inspection data. Appropriate personal safety equipment should be
used throughout the inspection.
1
References, Vol. 71, 1970, p. 246; Vol. 86, 1985, p. 53.
2
See Commentary

SECTION 21.2 REPORTING OF DEFECTS (2006)
a. When the inspector finds defects that appear to be of such a nature as to make the passage of traffic unsafe, the
condition should immediately be reported. After steps have been taken to protect traffic, the train dispatcher and
appropriate officers should be notified, consistent with established policies, recommending a speed limit and briefly
describing the conditions which prompted the action. The inspector should follow this immediately with a report so
that a detailed investigation and recommendation for repair can be made.
b. Upon completion of the inspection, a written record covering the inspection should be forwarded to the engineer or
other officer in charge of maintenance. Upon receipt of the report, a review should be made to determine the need for
remedial action.
c. A sample inspection form for concrete and masonry structures is included at the end of this part.
SECTION 21.3 INSPECTION1
21.3.1 GENERAL (2006)

a. The inspection of concrete and masonry structures should be carried out in a methodical manner. Of primary
importance in all structures is evidence of distress, misalignment, deflection, settlement, cracks, and general
deterioration. Evidence of deterioration of concrete such as width and length of structural cracks, size and location of
spalling and scaling, and location and extent of water-saturation of concrete should be recorded. Cleaning of the
structure or component parts may be necessary prior to inspection.
b. The inspector should report indications of failure in any portion of the structure and any conditions which could
contribute to a future failure.
c. Reference points should be established for monitoring misalignment, deflection, settlement, and cracks. The amount of
tilt, separation between components, width and length of cracks, efflorescence and rust-staining and other
measurements necessary for future checking should be recorded.
d. The inspection should include the structure and all related features.
21.3.1.1 Track2
The inspector should note the alignment, profile and surface of the track on the structure, its approaches and bridge ends. Any
irregularities in line or surface should be noted along with their magnitude, location and any other information that may
indicate the cause of the irregularities. Depth of ballast and condition of ballast, ties and hardware should be noted.
21.3.1.2 Site and Crossing3
a. Where a structure crosses over a waterway, the inspector should note the condition and alignment of the waterway. The
condition of the slopes and any slope protection (such as riprap) should be noted along with any indication of debris
accumulation. The inspector should note any indication of damage from marine collision, ice or debris.
b. Where scour is possible, the channel bottom at piers and abutments should be checked by sounding, probing or other
means.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
© 2013,

Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures
c. Where a structure carries tracks over a roadway, waterway or another track, the inspector should note any indication of
collision damage from high or wide loads. Roadway clearances should be measured and signage verified for accuracy.
d. The inspector should note any indication of collision damage from high or wide loads to the bridge superstructure,
bearings and substructure.
21.3.1.3 Foundations, Piers and Abutments1
a. The type of foundation and type and condition of material used in the various structural components should be noted.
The inspector should note any settlement and/or rotation of foundations, piers, abutments or their component parts.
Reference points should be established for monitoring of structural movement if appropriate.
b. Location and extent of exposed and/or corroded reinforcing steel should be reported. The condition of the structure at
the bridge seats, bearings and near the waterline should also be investigated.
c. Crack width, orientation and location should be noted. Widths and lengths of structural cracks should be marked and
dated to monitor crack progression. On masonry structures note cracked, shifted, or missing stones, and condition of
mortar.
d. Location, size and description of unsound areas, spalling, scaling or other deterioration should be noted.
e. Condition of retained fill, drainage and slope protection at abutments should be inspected. Water-saturated masonry or
concrete and extent of efflorescence and rust-staining should be noted. Check weepholes and drains for proper
function.
21.3.1.4 Pile and Pile Bents

1
a. Inspection of piling and pile bents should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.3. For timber and steel
components, refer to Chapter 7 and Chapter 15, respectively.
b. Alignment and condition of piling should be recorded. Impact damage from debris, vessels or vehicles should also be
noted.
c. Condition of piles should be investigated for soundness. Loss of section and cracking should be noted. These may be 3
especially severe in a marine environment, particularly in the tidal zone.
d. Condition of connections between cap and piling should be noted.
e. Condition of bracing members and their connections should be noted.
21.3.1.5 Underwater Inspections2

4
The need and frequency for underwater inspections should be evaluated for every structure having submerged components.
These inspections should identify the channel bottom conditions and presence of any scour, extent of foundation exposure and
any undermining, and all deterioration and damage below water.
a. Divers should be experienced in the inspection of bridge substructures.
b. Inspection data should be recorded by written description, sketches, reports, photography and/or video.
c. During high water events when scour conditions may be expected, channel activity should be monitored, which may
include the use of sonar readings, until inspections can be made.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

21.3.1.6 Retaining Walls1
a. Concrete inspection should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.
b. The inspector should note any settlement and/or rotation of retaining walls. Changes in wall alignment or cracks in
earth embankment which parallel the wall should be noted.
c. Condition of retained fill and drainage at walls should be inspected. The extent of water-saturated concrete and
exposed or corroded reinforcing steel should be recorded.
21.3.1.7 Slabs and Beams2
a. Inspector should note if prestressed or conventionally reinforced concrete is used in the structure. Method of
construction, cast-in-place or precast, simple or continuous, should also be recorded.
b. Any cracks that open and close under traffic, diagonal cracks near supports, or wide or numerous cracks in any location
should be reported immediately to the proper authority. Acute corners of skewed bridges should be examined for
cracks, delaminations and spalls.
c. Structural members should be inspected for excessive deflection, misalignment or collision damage.
d. Curbs, ballast retainers, walkways and handrails should be inspected, noting the condition as to soundness and security
of fastening devices. Soundness, uniformity and condition of bearings and bearing areas should also be noted. Areas
exposed to drainage should be checked for spalls and cracks.
21.3.1.8 Box Girders3
a. Type of box construction (precast, cast-in-place, segmental, pre-tensioned, post-tensioned, simple or continuous spans)
should be recorded.
b. General inspection guidelines should be as outlined in Article 21.3.1.7. Top flange, bottom flange and web walls
should be inspected when accessible. Chamfers of boxes should be inspected for cracking which may extend along the
sides or bottom of the girders.
c. Shear transfer devices between adjacent box girders should be inspected, where accessible. Condition of grout,
hardware, tie rods, and other materials used in tying together adjacent box girders should be noted. Evidence of
differential box deflections or misalignments should be recorded.
d. Condition of void drain holes and evidence of leakage between adjacent boxes should be noted.
21.3.1.9 Arches4
a. Type of arch construction, such as segmental, open spandrel, closed spandrel, single or multiple span should be noted.
Shape of arch span (circular, elliptical or parabolic) should be recorded, if known. Type and general condition of
material (brick, stone, mortar or concrete) should also be recorded.
b. Arch foundations should be investigated for settlement, shifting, scour and undermining.
c. Arch ribs and bearing areas of arches at springings (spring lines) should be inspected for loss of cross section due to
spalling or cracking.
d. Open spandrel columns and walls should be inspected with particular attention to areas near the interface with the arch
rib and cap.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
© 2013,

e. Arch ribs connected with struts should be inspected for diagonal cracking due to torsional shear.
f. Floor systems of open spandrel arches and closed spandrel arches with no fill material should be inspected as outlined
in Article 21.3.1.7.
g. Inspect areas exposed to drainage and seepage for deteriorated and contaminated areas. For closed spandrel arches,
note whether weepholes are working properly.
21.3.2 STRUCTURAL PROTECTION (2006)
Structural protection devices including crash walls, cellular dolphins, pile clusters, shear fences, floating shear booms,
anchored pontoons, fender systems, navigation lights and warning mechanisms should be inspected as part of the scheduled
inspection of their related foundation or substructure element. The inspection should identify all deterioration, damage,
displacement, misalignment, instability, undermining, and any other detrimental conditions which would inhibit these devices
from protecting the structure or cause them to create an obstruction. All submerged portions of structural protection devices
should be inspected underwater based on the recommendations set forth in Article 21.3.1.5. The inspection of structural
protection devices should also note any aspects which may present a hazard to navigation, railroad or highway operations, and
identify the necessary measures to correct the situation.
21.3.2.1 Culverts1
a. Inspection of a concrete or masonry culvert in general should be in conformance with Article 21.3.1.3.
b. Inspector should note any settlement, variations in cross-sectional shape and misalignment along the horizontal axis of
a culvert. All joints between end treatments and within the culvert itself should be examined for differential movement,
and all transverse or longitudinal cracking within a culvert should be noted.
1
c. A culvert should be inspected for any scour or undermining at either end. Any embankment damage around the culvert
openings and debris or vegetation within the culvert should be noted. All submerged portions of a culvert should be
inspected underwater based on the recommendations set forth in Article 21.3.1.5.
21.3.2.2 Tunnels
3
a. Important features of a tunnel might be obscured by a shield or lining, therefore the inspector should review plans, if
available, prior to the inspection. Note the structural configuration, provisions for drainage, ventilation and lighting.
Note if secondary passageways that would provide additional access for inspection are present.
b. Concrete inspection should be in general conformance with Article 21.3.1.3. In exposed masonry construction, make
special note of bulges in walls and displacement, shifting or loss of masonry or mortar.
4
c. Walls should be inspected for indications of water leakage or ice buildup. The condition and effectiveness of drainage
systems should be noted.
d. Note whether ancillary systems for lighting, ventilation, and fire prevention are in working order, if discernible.
e. The accumulation of trash or foreign debris or the blockage of safety niches should be noted.
f. Any new construction above or adjacent to the tunnel should be noted.
g. Horizontal and vertical clearances should be verified. Items causing changes in clearance should be noted.
h. The inspector should note the alignment, profile and surface of the track and clearance of the tunnel.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

RECORD OF INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES
Division __________________________________ Date: _____________________________________
Bridge No. ____________________________ (MP) Inspector __________________________________
Weather __________________________________ Temperature _______________________________
Description of Structure:
NOTE: Remarks should include an estimate of the urgency to repair the structure.
(i.e., Immediate, 1 or 2 years, over 2 years).
TRACK CONDITION
1.Surface of track on structure and approaches
2.Alignment of track and its location with reference to the structure
3.Location, amount and probable causes of any track out of line or surface
4.Ballast, condition and depth
5.Remarks
SUBSTRUCTURE
1. General:
Alignment of unit (horizontal, vertical)
Evidence of settlement
Evidence of scour (wingwalls, abutments, piers)
© 2013,

RECORD OF INSPECTION OF CONCRETE AND MASONRY STRUCTURES (Continued)
SUBSTRUCTURE (Continued)
Condition of retained fill (drainage, slope protection)
Alignment of waterway and evidence of debris
Changes apparent since last inspection
2. Piers and Abutments:

Material (brick, stone, concrete)
Condition of backwall (plumb, clearance of structure)
1
Condition of bridge seat
Condition of bearings (level, bedding)

3
Brick and Stone:

Condition of mortar joints
4
Condition of bricks or stones
Conditions at waterline
Concrete:
Cracks (location, size, description)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Spalling or cracking (location, size, description)
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded – location)
Condition at waterline
3. Bents and Pile Piers:

Type of Piles
(prestressed concrete, conventional concrete, concrete filled, metal shells, steel H, timber, other)
Alignment of piles (horizontal and vertical)
Cracks, corrosion and decay (location, size, description)
Spalling or crazing (location, size, description)
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded – location and description)
Condition of pile shells (corroded – location, size and description)
Condition of pile at waterline
Caps, Bracing and Collars

Cracks (location, size and description)
Spalling and crazing (location, size and description)
© 2013,

Condition of bridge seat
Condition of bearings (level, bedding)
4. Remarks
PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS

1. General:
Type of construction (prestressed or reinforced concrete)
1
Spalling and crazing (location, size and description) 3
Condition of reinforcing steel (exposed, corroded, rust around cracks – location and description)
4
Condition of end blocks (voids draining)
Condition of bearings
Condition of expansion joints
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

PRESTRESSED AND REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS

AND SLABS (Continued)
Condition of curbs (cracks, spalls)
Condition of handrail (fastenings)
Indications of movement
Other deterioration (location and description)
2. Remarks
ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL

1. General:
Materials (stone or concrete)
Headwalls and wingwalls
Barrel of arch
Alignment of unit (horizontal, vertical)
Evidence of settlement
© 2013,

ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL (Continued)

Leakage through barrel of arch
Condition of expansion joints
2. Headwalls and Wingwalls:

Condition of embankment (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Indications of wingwall movement
1
Evidence of scour
Headwall pulling away from barrel of arch

3
Stone:
4
Condition of stones
Concrete:
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

ARCHES – SOLID AND OPEN SPANDREL (Continued)

3. Stone Arch Barrel:

Condition of stones
4. Concrete Arch Barrel:

5. Remarks
CULVERTS
1. General:
Type (box, pipe, arch)
Material
Condition of channel (open)
Culvert undermined
© 2013,

CULVERTS (Continued)
Indications of settlement
Cracks or open joints (location and description)
Condition of embankment (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Condition of headwalls and wingwalls
Indications of wingwall movement
Water leaking into embankment 1
3
2. Remarks
TUNNELS
1. General: 4
Material
Portals
Lining (or unlined)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

TUNNELS (Continued)
Track alignment
Condition of side ditches and drainage
2. Portals
Conditions of overburden (spilling over, drainage, cavities)
Sealing required
Evidence of washing
Portal pulling away from tunnel
3. Tunnel lining
Lined:
Bulges, cracks, open joints, flaking (location, size and description)
Seepage through walls (weep holes functioning)
Deterioration of lining material (location, size and description)
Unlined:
Condition of rock (loose)
© 2013,

TUNNELS (Continued)
Seepage into tunnel
Condition of rock anchors (if present)
4. Remarks
RETAINING WALLS
1. General:
Material
Indicated movement (settling, sliding, leaning)

1
Condition of fill (spilling over, cavities, stability)
Washing or scouring 3
Condition of drainage (weep holes functioning, ditches open)
4
Cracks, deterioration or open joints (location, size and description)
Condition of prefabricated members (broken, misaligned)
Changes apparent since last inspection (wall movement)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

RETAINING WALLS (Continued)

2. Remarks
PIER PROTECTION
1. General:
Type
Materials
General condition of alignment
Collision damage
Evidence of scour
Condition of navigation channel
Condition of navigation aids (lighting, fog horn)
Debris trapped on system
Apparent ability to protect pier
© 2013,

PIER PROTECTION (Continued)

2. Integral:
Condition of energy absorbing devices
Condition of rubbing strips (non-sparking)
Condition of fasteners and splicing materials
Condition of pier adjacent to fender
3. Dolphins:
Pile clusters
Type of piles 1
Condition of piles
3
Location relative to planned position
Condition of lashings or connections

4
Cellular dolphins:
Type of construction (sheet piles, steel rings, etc.)
Condition of piles or rings
Type and condition of fill material
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering


4. Floating shear booms:

Condition of floating material
Condition of boom material
Condition of anchoring system
5. Hydraulic devices:
Condition of suspended cylinder
Condition of suspension system
Condition of supporting piles, caissons, or piers
Changes in water level affecting cylinder engagement
6. Independent Fenders:
Condition of pile supports
Condition of energy absorbers
© 2013,


Condition of longitudinal wales
Condition of rubbing strips
7. Remarks
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 21, Inspection of Concrete and 1
Masonry Structures. In the numbering of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article
being explained.
C - EVALUATING FIRE DAMAGED CONCRETE RAILWAY BRIDGES (2006)
General
3
Concrete structures exposed to fire may experience a permanent loss of strength, formation of structural cracks, surface
spalling, and reinforcing damage. However, concrete structures exposed to fire generally perform well and usually are
repairable. The heat conductivity of concrete is low and thus heat from a fire is usually confined to shallow depths. The extent
of structural damage is related to the intensity and duration of the fire, and the mass and details of the concrete structure.
The exposure of concrete to a temperature of 572°F (300°C) is significant for two reasons:
4
• Below this temperature the effects of heat on concrete are likely to be insignificant.
• Above this temperature concrete coloration changes may indicate permanent damage.
Water directed on hot concrete may cause spalling, crack development and the embrittlement of steel. Fire fighting
efforts should be directed to extinguishing the combustible material and not cooling the structure.
Traffic should not cross the structure if significant deflection or distortion is noted or if there are reasons to doubt that
adequate strength remains.
Inspection
a. Prior to the inspection of a damaged concrete structure, it should be determined whether the site is safe for entry.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. Damage may include the deflection of concrete beams and slabs, distortion of columns, cracking, spalling and
unsightly appearance.
c. Inspection observations should include looking for and measuring any unusual component deflection, recording the
location and extent of structural cracks, spalls and exposed reinforcing. Fire exposed surfaces should be mapped to
indicate those areas having structural and cosmetic damage. If fire exposed surfaces exhibit colorations of pink, white
or buff, those surfaces should be mapped and color noted. Surfaces may need to be cleaned of soot to make these
observations.
d. Information concerning the combustible material, duration, intensity indicators and method for extinguishing should be
obtained from eyewitnesses or other reliable sources for assistance in evaluating the damage. Although any concrete
coloration from the fire may provide sufficient information concerning the intensity of the fire, if coloration is not
evident, to a lesser degree other materials associated with the fire site may have melted and may provide some
indication of the fire intensity, such as: lead 621°F (327°C), plastics 572-842°F (300–450°C), glass 752–932°F (400–
500°C), aluminum 1218°F (660°C), and copper 1981°F (1083°C). Other information concerning the original concrete
strength, age, reinforcing details and types of aggregates may be obtained from structural plans, specifications and
construction records.
Evaluation
e. Generally, all concrete that has coloration changes (pink, white, buff) is considered damaged. The pink coloration
572°F (300°C) experienced by heating concrete is the formation of ferrous salts and is more pronounced in concrete
with siliceous aggregates. At approximately 1110°F (600°C), concrete may have a whitish coloration from the
hydration of lime. At 1650°F (900°C) the coloration may be grey-buff.
f. Indications of possible structural damage may be evident by visual examination, but the extent of damage will require
tests and analysis. Evaluation tools for testing include: surface hammer sounding, impact hammers, coring and/or
drilling and pulse-echo non-destructive testing. Sounding the concrete surface with hammers may be sufficient to
determine if there is any internal concrete delamination. Calibrated impact hammers can give direct measurements of
the concrete compressive strength and may be used on sound and unsound concrete for quick strength comparisons.
Coring will assist in determining the depth of damage and corings destructively tested will ascertain accurate
compressive strength. A petrographic analysis of cored samples will give a detailed analysis of the concrete condition
but the analysis is time consuming. Pulse-echo testing can give a rapid and accurate determination of internal concrete
conditions relative to micro-cracking and bond loss. Additional testing may be needed for prestressed and post-
tensioned concrete.
g. Concrete strength decreases as temperature is increased and further decreases on cooling as a result of micro-cracking.
Approximately 75% residual strength remains in most concrete after exposure to fire. This loss may be offset by excess
residual strength of mature concrete. Internal induced stresses from differential heating may result in the formation of
cracks. Young concrete may experience more damage than mature concrete due to larger amounts of internal moisture
that may convert to steam and increase internal tensile stresses.
h. Damage may result from aggregate spalls due to physical or chemical changes. Explosive spalling may occur from the
release of tensile stresses by the formation of steam within aggregates. Slough-off or the detachment of layers of
concrete may occur where reinforcement is restrained. Igneous aggregates (granite, basalt) generally perform well
when exposed to fire, carbonate aggregates (limestone) perform well to about 1290°F (700°C), and siliceous
aggregates (quartz) do not perform well due to expansion and cracking.
i. The absence of deflection or distortion in any element may indicate that the steel was not damaged. Reinforcing steel
usually recovers in strength unless exposed to temperatures over 1110°F (600°C). Anchorages of post-tensioned
members may require special evaluation. The tension in pretensioned steel or post-tensioned ducts exposed by spalling
should generally be assumed to be zero. Prestressed members may suffer substantial relaxation losses, additional to
those allowed by normal design. Low relaxation strands may have improved fire performance. At 572°F (300°C) the
© 2013,

residual bond strength is approximately 85% and at 932°F (500°C) the bond strength is approximately 50% of initial
bond. Bond strength losses of epoxy coated reinforcing steel subjected to fire may require special evaluation.
j. Resins used in construction bonding of concrete elements and in repairs may not perform well in the presence of
elevated temperatures.
k. Hydrochloric acid fumes occurring in fires involving PVC and other plastic ducts may react with hardened cement
paste to form calcium chloride which may constitute a hazard to the reinforcement. A silver/chromate test can confirm
the presence of calcium chloride ions.
Repairs
l. Repair procedures, as applicable, are outlined in Part 14.
m. Pulse-echo or other nondestructive testing may be used to confirm that all damaged concrete is removed and can be
used to confirm proper bonding of new concrete to old concrete and bonding to reinforcement.
C - 21.3 INSPECTION
There are many common defects that occur on concrete bridges. The following definitions are provided as a guideline for
consistency in reporting of defects.
Abrasion — Abrasion damage is the result of external forces acting on the surface of the concrete member. Erosive action of
silt-laden water running over a concrete surface and ice flow in rivers and streams can cause considerable abrasion damage to
concrete.
1
Cold joint displacement or deterioration — Unbonded concrete resulting from intended separate concrete placement or by
lack of consolidation.
Cracking — A crack is a linear fracture that may extend partially or completely through the concrete member. When
recording cracks, the inspector should describe the type, width, depth, length, direction, location and appearance of the crack
as appropriate for the inspection. 3
Delamination — Delamination occurs when layers of concrete separate at or near the level of the top or outermost layer of
reinforcing steel. The major cause of delamination is expansion of corroding reinforcing steel. Delaminated areas can
generally be identified by a hollow sound when tapped with a hammer.
Efflorescence — Efflorescence is a white deposit on concrete caused by crystallization of soluble salts (calcium chloride)
brought to the surface by moisture in the concrete. 4
Freeze-Thaw Damage — The deterioration of concrete, typically a crack or spall, due to introduction of moisture and the
subsequent alternate freezing and thawing of the retained moisture.
Honeycombs — Honeycombs are hollow spaces or voids that may be present within the concrete. Honeycombs are caused by
improper consolidation during construction, resulting in the segregation of the coarse aggregates from the fine aggregates and
cement paste.
Pop-Outs — Pop-outs are conical fragments that break out of the surface of the concrete leaving small holes. Generally, a
shattered aggregate particle will be found at the bottom of the hole, with a part of the fragment still adhering to the small end
of the pop-out cone.
Scaling — Scaling is the gradual and continuing loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area. When reporting scaling,
the inspector should note the location of the defect, the size of the area, and the depth of penetration of the defect.
Spalling — A spall is a roughly circular or oval depression in the concrete. Spalls result from the separation and removal of a
portion of the surface concrete, revealing a fracture roughly parallel to the surface. Spalls can be caused by corroding
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

reinforcement and friction from thermal movement. Reinforcing steel is often exposed after spalling. When reporting spalls,
the inspector should note the location of the defect, the size of the area, and the depth of the defect.
C - 21.3.1.1 Track
Line swings may be an indication of pier movement. Sags in the track over the structure may indicate settlement. Effects of
creep and strand relaxation may affect track profile.
C - 21.3.1.2 Site and Crossing
a. The inspector should note any changes in the alignment of a waterway both upstream and downstream and the resulting
effect that they may have on the structure. A major change in the alignment of a waterway may place it outside the
spans intended for the crossing.
b. Sedimentation deposits may fill scour holes after high water events. Underwater investigations may be required as per
Article C - 21.3.1.5. Structures located downstream of spillways or locks may be subject to increased scour potential.
C - 21.3.1.3 Foundations, Piers and Abutments
Concrete and masonry structures are placed on foundations of earth, piling, cribbing, rock or other similar material. Cracks
may be evidence of settlement which has occurred during consolidation of the foundation. Settlement may occur without
cracking. Noticeable changes in track surfaces and alignment, plumbness or elevation may indicate foundation settlement.
Changes in backwall alignment or cracks in the earth embankment parallel to the backwall may indicate movement. Constant
wetting may indicate swelling, premature loss of mortar, deterioration of facing or excessive water pressure behind backwalls.
Exposure of timber mats or untreated timber piling may lead to rapid deterioration of the timber.
C - 21.3.1.5 Underwater Inspections
In evaluating the need for an underwater inspection, consideration should be given to type and depth of foundation, depth of
water, normal and peak flow rates, nature of channel bottom and susceptibility to and history of scour, type of aquatic
environment, typical extent of drift and ice accumulation, and amount and type of watercraft traffic. The inspections should be
performed with sufficient frequency to provide early detection of any detrimental conditions, and between inspections, the
measuring of water depths should be considered to monitor channel bottom activity. In the event of a high water and/or flow
occurrence, an excessive accumulation of ice or drift, a watercraft collision, a significant change in channel bottom
configuration, or any submerged component movement, consideration should be given to performing an emergency inspection
as soon as conditions will safely permit.
C - 21.3.1.6 Retaining Walls
In addition to structural deficiencies, retaining wall failures may result from:
a. Softening of the supporting material by moisture.
b. Overloading of the embankment behind the wall.
c. Scour or erosion beneath the foundation.
d. Expansive backfills.
e. Hydrostatic pressure behind wall.
f. Seismic event.
g. Cracks in the earth embankment which parallel the wall may be signs of wall movement.
© 2013,

C - 21.3.1.7 Slabs and Beams
a. Transverse cracks in the bottom of simple span slabs and beams can indicate overload, particularly if cracks open and
close during passage of a train. Hairline cracks on the tops of simple span prestressed beams are generally due to
shrinkage of the concrete. Hairline cracks in the top or bottom of simple span reinforced concrete slabs and beams are
generally not significant. Diagonal cracks running up the sides of the slab or beam from near the supports may indicate
excessive shear stress in the member or the beginning of shear failure.
b. Transverse cracks in the top of continuous beams over support locations or in the bottom of continuous beams within
the span can indicate overload.
(1) Sagging or excess deflection may indicate a loss of prestress. Loss of prestress may be caused by strand slippage,
which may be visible at the ends of beams.
(2) End spalling can lead to a loss of bond in the prestressing tendons. Note any deterioration that has exposed or
damaged prestressing tendons.
C - 21.3.1.8 Box Girders
a. Horizontal or vertical cracks in the top of girder ends are frequently due to stresses created at the transfer of
prestressing forces. Flexural cracks in the lower portion of the girders, particularly at mid-span, may indicate a problem
resulting from overload or loss of prestress.
b. Individual girder deflection under live load may indicate that shear keys between boxes have been broken and that
boxes are acting independently of each other.
1
C - 21.3.1.9 Arches
a. A true arch has an elliptical shape and functions in a state of pure compression. Many arches are not elliptical and resist
loads by a combination of axial compression and bending moment.
3
b. Changes in horizontal alignment, sags in the arch crown, bulges in the sidewalls, transverse cracks, longitudinal cracks
and expansion joint failures may be signs of settlement, overload or impending arch failure.
c. The area between the arches and the deck is called the spandrel. Open spandrel concrete arches receive traffic loads
through spandrel bents which support a slab or tee beam floor system. Horizontal cracks in spandrel columns within
several feet of the arch indicate excessive bending in the column, which may be caused by overloads and differential
arch rib deflection. 4
d. The spandrel area in closed spandrel arches is typically occupied by fill retained by vertical walls. Surface water should
drain properly and not penetrate the fill material.
C - 21.3.2.1 Culverts
a. Horizontal alignment of a culvert can be inspected by sighting along one of the culvert walls. Sag in the culvert axis
may be identified by a location of sediment buildup on the culvert floor. Spalls or cracking in the vicinity of a joint may
be a sign of movement at the joint. Both longitudinal and transverse cracking may be an indication of differential
settlement. Longitudinal cracks can also be caused by a structural overloading of the culvert. Holes appearing in the
track structure may be an indication of open culvert joints. For culvert extensions, integrity of connection should be
noted.
b. Insufficient hydraulic capacity, either by design or due to obstructions, may cause upstream ponding and lateral flow
movements which can erode the embankments and supporting material around the culvert end treatments. Culverts
often convey short-term, high volume flows, and consequently, all culverts should be carefully inspected for scour and
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

undermining. Tipping, cracking or separation of the headwalls, wingwalls or apron may indicate the presence of
undermining. For arch and frame type culverts with earthen floors, undermining beneath the wall foundations along
their full length should also be investigated.
© 2013,

8
Part 22
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation1
— 1992 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
22.1 General (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.2 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.3 Classification of Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2 1

22.3.1 Foundation Investigations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-2
22.3.2 Failure Investigations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3
22.4 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3

22.4.1 Planning an Exploration Program (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-3
22.4.2 Number and Location of Borings (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4 3
22.4.3 Depth of Borings (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.4.4 Equipment (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.4.5 Permits (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.5 Exploration Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4

22.5.1 Dry Sample Borings (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-4
22.5.2 Test Pits (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-5
22.5.3 Core Borings in Rock (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-5
22.6 Determination of Groundwater Level (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.7 Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6

22.7.1 Dry Samples (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-6
22.7.2 Rock Cores (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.8 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7

22.8.1 Scope (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.8.2 General (1992). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-7
22.8.3 Borings – Dry Sample (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-8
22.8.4 Core Borings (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-8
1
References Vol. 78, 1977, p. 102; Vol. 93, 1992, pp. 78, 98.

22.9 Inspection (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.10 Geophysical Explorations (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.11 In-Situ Testing of Soil (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-9
22.12 Backfilling Bore Holes (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
22.13 Cleaning Site (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-10
SECTION 22.1 GENERAL (1992)
a. The intent of this part is to furnish the Engineer with certain guidelines for the formulation of specifications for a
particular project. Subsurface investigation for structures only is addressed in this section. Site investigations for fills
and cuts shall follow the requirements of Chapter 1, Roadway and Ballast, Part 1, Roadbed.
b. It is recommended that a qualified geotechnical engineer be retained to perform the investigation, conduct the
laboratory and/or in-situ testing, and prepare the geotechnical analysis and report.
SECTION 22.2 SCOPE (1992)
These specifications entail a procedure for performing borings through soil and into rock, to determine the nature and extent of
the various soil and rock strata, location of groundwater level, as well as, to obtain samples for identification and tests for the
purpose of development of the subsoil profile and determination of the engineering properties of the soil and rock.
SECTION 22.3 CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTIGATIONS
22.3.1 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATIONS (1992)
22.3.1.1 New Structure
For a new structure, the site investigation shall provide sufficient information to determine:
a. Location of groundwater level, at least to the extent that it is within the zone of influence, beneath the footing.
b. Bearing capacity of the soil.
c. Data on soil and/or rock properties relative to shallow and deep foundations.
© 2013,

Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation
d. Settlement predictions.
e. Selection of alternative types and/or depth of foundations.
f. In seismic areas, evaluation of liquefaction potential of various soil strata.
22.3.1.2 Existing Structure
For an existing structure, if it is desired to make additions or increase the service loading (Ex: heavier rolling stock), then an
investigation shall be conducted based on the increased loadings. The information obtained shall be employed in determining
the ability of the existing foundation to carry additional loading, both in terms of bearing capacity and settlement.
22.3.2 FAILURE INVESTIGATIONS (1992)
Failure investigations are made to obtain information for the failure analysis of a structure related to the foundation conditions.
22.4.1 PLANNING AN EXPLORATION PROGRAM (1992)
a. Preliminary site reconnaissance and review of existing information will facilitate the understanding of the site 1
subsurface information. Useful information includes:
(1) Topographic and geologic maps.
(2) Aerial photographs.
(3) Geologic and subsurface exploration reports.

3
(4) Related articles in engineering and geologic journals.
(5) Study of local ground features.
(6) Survey of existing or adjacent structures on site and their influence on ground type. 4
(7) Condition of adjacent structures.
(8) Information on previous and future planned use of the site.
b. For buildings the Engineer should provide to the geotechnical engineer information on column spacing, column loads,
dimensions, and use of the structure. For bridges, the geotechnical engineer should have access to type, span length,
foundation loading, and controlling dimensions.
c. If project funding and scheduling permits, explorations can be conducted in a phase sequence as: reconnaissance
investigation; and, explorations for preliminary design, followed by explorations for final design.
d. Thorough research for details of any contaminated materials and associated appurtenances must be made. A Risk
Management procedure needs to be in-place that conforms with federal, state and local government guidelines for
removal of elements.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

22.4.2 NUMBER AND LOCATION OF BORINGS (1992)
The number and location of borings shall be such that the soil profiles obtained will permit an accurate estimate of the extent
and character of the underlying soil and/or rock masses and will disclose important irregularities in the subsurface conditions.
Borings shall be uniformly distributed or located in accordance with the loading pattern imposed by the structure. The number
and location of the borings shall be determined by the Engineer.
22.4.3 DEPTH OF BORINGS (1992)
a. The depth of borings shall be based on the magnitude and distribution of the load imposed by the structure and the
nature of the subsurface conditions. In all projects, the borings as a minimum, must extend to a depth sufficient to
reveal the nature of all materials which could be significantly affected by the loads imposed by the structure and which
by settlement and/or shear failure could affect the integrity of the structure.
b. As a rule of thumb, for spread footings the borings should extend to a depth such that from a Boussinesq (or similar)
analysis the increase in pressure is 10% of the contact pressure, in other words the boring depth shall be 1.5 to 2 times
the anticipated width of the footing.
c. For piles and other deep foundations the depth of borings should extend below the zone of influence and not less than
10 feet below the estimated tip elevation.
d. When a structure is to be founded on rock, one or more borings should be extended at least 15 feet into sound rock
(defined as RQD1 equal to 90%) in order to determine the extent and character of the weathered zone of the rock and to
ensure that bedrock and not boulders have been encountered. For failure investigations, borings shall extend to a depth
sufficient to determine the limits of the failure.
22.4.4 EQUIPMENT (1992)
Drill rigs shall be specifically designed and manufactured for drilling, coring and sampling soil and rock. Drill rigs shall have
adequate capacity, be in satisfactory operating condition and have the power to accomplish the required work. The rigs shall be
supplemented with the necessary auxiliaries, appurtenances, tools and other equipment required for proper operation. The
operator in charge shall be thoroughly experienced in soil and rock boring.
22.4.5 PERMITS (1992)
All necessary permits shall be secured before the work is started as provided by the contract.
SECTION 22.5 EXPLORATION METHODS
22.5.1 DRY SAMPLE BORINGS (1992)
22.5.1.1 Auger Borings
Auger borings shall conform to current ASTM D1452 requirements and may be used for exploratory borings as a rapid means
of obtaining a preliminary soil profile.
1
Rock Quality Designation defined as the ratio of the total length of pieces 4 inches or greater to the length cored. In determining the length of 4 inch pieces,
fresh fractures caused by the drilling process shall be ignored.
© 2013,

a. Procedure. Auger borings shall be made by turning a screw-type auger into the soil a short distance, either by hand or
mechanical means, withdrawing the auger and the soil that clings to it, and removing the soil from the auger for
examination. The auger shall not be less than 1-1/2 inches in diameter. Most cohesive soils above the water table will
permit auger borings to a depth of 20 feet or more without casing to support the walls of the hole.
b. Casing. If the hole does not stand open because of caving or squeezing from the sides, it shall be lined with a casing the
diameter of which is larger than that of the auger. The casing shall be driven to a depth not to exceed the top of the next
sample. In lieu of casing, a continuous-flight hollow-stem auger may be used, sampling being done through the stem
with a split-barrel sampler. Point closure devices shall be used where the soils have a tendency of flowing into the
hollow stem.
c. Sampling. The soil auger can be used for both boring the hole and bringing up disturbed samples of the soil
encountered. Other sampling methods shall be as specified in Article 22.7.1.
22.5.1.2 Wash Borings
a. Procedure. Casing shall be driven to the required sampling elevation and the inside cleaned partly by a chopping and
twisting action of a light bit and partly by the jetting action of water which is pumped through the hollow drill rod and
bit. Cuttings are removed from the hole by circulating water which passes down the drill rod and returns to the surface
between the drill rod and the casing pipe. Wash borings shall conform to current ASTM D1586 requirements. (Split
Barrel.)
b. Casings. Casings shall not be less than 1-1/2 inches inside diameter and shall be extra-heavy pipe.
c. Sampling. Whenever there is a change in the appearance of the mixture of wash water and soil that comes out of the
1
hole, but not greater than at intervals of 5 feet, a sample shall be taken by one of the methods specified in Section 22.7,
Sampling.
22.5.2 TEST PITS (1992)
Test pits are preferable for shallow investigations where the surface material is extremely variable. Test pits are required when 3
there is a need for load testing of the soil in-situ. They shall be made to the full depth of the layer. Excavation shall be by
suitable methods and materials of each class shall be kept in separate piles as far as is practicable. Representative samples of
the formations shall be taken progressively from the natural formation where requested by the Engineer, placed in suitable
sample jars or containers and properly labeled.
22.5.3 CORE BORINGS IN ROCK (1992) 4

22.5.3.1 Equipment
Drilling into bedrock shall be done with a double-tube, swivel-type core barrel equipped with a diamond, shot or other
approved bit which will obtain a core, not less than 2-1/8 inches in diameter, from the rock penetrated. The drilling rig shall be
capable of applying a constant hydraulic pressure on the bit during drilling.
22.5.3.2 Starting Core Bit
Before starting the core bit in the hole, a chopping bit shall be used to break up and remove all disintegrated rock, and the
casing shall be seated firmly on hard rock, by driving and washing out.
22.5.3.3 Procedure
The core bit shall be in the hole and drilled to a depth of 5 feet. It shall then be withdrawn, the core removed, labeled as
specified in Article 22.7.2, and stored. After the core is removed, the core bit shall be replaced in the hole and another 5 feet of
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

depth drilled, the core bit withdrawn and the core removed as noted above. Drilling shall continue in this manner until the
required depth has been reached. If the core bit becomes blocked, it shall immediately be withdrawn and cleaned before
advancing further. Core borings in rock shall conform to current ASTM D2113 requirements.
SECTION 22.6 DETERMINATION OF GROUNDWATER LEVEL (1992)
a. The elevation of the groundwater at each boring location shall be accurately determined at a time when the
groundwater table has stabilized.
b. When the hole is in a material that caves when the casing is withdrawn, a 1 inch diameter perforated plastic tubing shall
be inserted in the casing before it is withdrawn. If long-term observations of the groundwater are desired, a short casing
shall be installed and sealed to prevent inflow of surface water. The casing shall be threaded and capped at the upper
end. The elevation of the groundwater can then be read in the plastic tube after the casing is withdrawn. If the boring is
located where the groundwater level may be influenced by a tidal body of water, a record of the exact stage and
direction of the tide at the time of taking the elevation of the groundwater shall also be made.
SECTION 22.7 SAMPLING
22.7.1 DRY SAMPLES (1992)
22.7.1.1 Split-Barrel Sampling of Soil
a. Scope. This procedure covers the method for recovering disturbed samples with a split-barrel sampler and to obtain a
record of the resistance of the soil to the penetration of the sampler. Split-barrel sampling borings shall conform to
current ASTM D1586 requirements.
b. Procedure. The casing shall be driven to the sampling elevation and the hole cleaned out by augering, washing or other
methods insuring that the material to be sampled is not disturbed by the clean-out operation. Sampling shall either be
continuous or at 5 feet intervals of depth and at all changes in strata. The split-barrel sampler shall be slowly lowered to
the bottom of the hole, then driven into the soil a distance of 18 inches by a series of blows from a 140 lb hammer
falling freely for a drop of 30 inches. The number of blows required to produce each 6 inches of penetration shall be
recorded. Where the bottom of the boring is below the water table at the time of sampling, the water level in the hole
should be at or above the groundwater level. The number of blows for the last 12 inches is termed the Standard
Penetration Blow Count or N-Value. If blow counts for the last 6 inches are abnormally high, indicating a different
layer, blow counts for the first 12 inches shall be used. If it is not possible to obtain 1 foot of penetration, the fraction of
a foot penetrated and the corresponding number of blows shall be reported.
c. In cohesionless, or nearly cohesionless, soils located below the water table, a core catcher attached to the lower end of
the sampler or a scraper bucket or other similar devices shall be used in order to prevent the sample from falling out
before it can be brought to the surface. The soil shall be promptly removed from the sampler and immediately placed in
airtight suitable containers of sufficient size to hold a section of the sample intact. The containers shall be marked to
indicate the job designation, boring number, sample number and elevation or depth at which the soil was taken. The
samples obtained by this methodology are disturbed samples. Strength or compressibility testing results should be
viewed with caution.
22.7.1.2 Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of Soil
a. Scope. This procedure covers the method of obtaining relatively undisturbed samples of suitable size of cohesive soils
for laboratory testing. The minimum size sample shall not be less than 3 inches outside diameter. Piston-type samples
© 2013,

shall be used if satisfactory samples cannot be obtained with the thin-walled tube samplers. Thin-walled tube samplers
shall conform to the current ASTM D1587 requirements.
b. Procedure. The casing shall be driven to the sampling elevation and the hole cleaned out by augering, washing, or
other methods insuring that the material to be sampled is not disturbed by the clean-out operations. With the sampling
tube resting on the bottom of the hole and the water level in the hole approximately at groundwater elevation, the tube
shall be pushed into the soil with a continuous and rapid motion without impact or twisting by means of a hydraulic
jack, for a distance about 6 inches less than the length of the tube. The sample shall then be rotated to shear the end of
the sample and the sample tube slowly raised to the surface. Disturbed material at each end of the tube shall be
completely removed. To insure laboratory test results that are representative of the in-situ conditions, it is necessary for
the samples to be transported and delivered to the laboratory in an undisturbed condition and without loss of moisture.
A recommended procedure is to fill the space in the tube with a minimum of 1 inch of micro-crystalline paraffin wax,
cap and tape the ends and seal them with wax. If the samples are to be tested in the field, they can be carefully extruded
from the tubes and tested. Each sample shall be labeled with the job designation, boring number, sampler number,
elevation or depth at which the sample was taken and the orientation of the sample. Thin-walled tube sampling borings
shall conform to current ASTM D1587 requirements. (Shelby Tube.)
22.7.2 ROCK CORES (1992)
The rock cores shall be placed in wooden boxes in the order in which they were taken. These boxes shall be about 5 feet long,
containing only one layer, capable of holding approximately 25 feet of core, and substantially made of 1/2 inch lumber. Each
row of cores shall be separated from the adjacent row by a 1/4 inch wood strip. Cores from each run shall be separated from
those of the next run by a wooden block nailed into place. If cores from more than one boring are placed in the same box, two
wooden blocks shall be nailed between cores from adjacent borings. On each of these two blocks, the boring number referring 1
to the adjacent core shall be marked. On the lid and ends of each box shall be clearly marked the job designation, boring
number, core runs, and the elevation or depth for each run.
SECTION 22.8 RECORDS 3
22.8.1 SCOPE (1992)

Full and complete records of all pertinent data shall be kept. All items listed in Article 22.8.2, Article 22.8.3 and Article 22.8.4
shall be included.
4
22.8.2 GENERAL (1992)
The following information shall be recorded:
a. Name of railroad, site and weather conditions.
b. Location and identifying number of test boring and reference to permanent survey data.
c. Date and time of start and completion of boring.
d. Name of contractor, names and titles of all boring crew members, inspectors, and engineer.
e. Ground surface elevation at each boring and datum used, preferably United States Geodetic Survey datum.
f. Elevation of groundwater or surface of waterway and time of observation.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

22.8.3 BORINGS – DRY SAMPLE (1992)

a. Diameter and description of casing (when used).
b. Weight and drop of hammer and number of blows used to drive the casing for each successive foot of elevation.
c. Depths at which major changes in the character of the soil take place.
d. Method and total force used to push sampler into soil.
e. If sampler is driven, height and weight of drop hammer used to drive sampler and number of blows required to drive it
each 6 inches for each sample.
f. Elevation of bottom of sampler at the start of taking each sample.
g. Elevation to which sampler was forced into the soil.
h. The length of the sample obtained.
i. The stratum represented by the sample.
j. Detailed description of the soil in each major stratum, to include:
• Kind: top soil, fill, clay, sand, gravel, etc.
• Color: Light, dark blue, red, etc.
• Moisture: Dry, moist, wet, very wet, etc.
• Consistency: Loose, soft, compact, stiff, etc.
22.8.4 CORE BORINGS (1992)
a. Elevation of bottom of casing when seated according to Article 22.5.3.2.
b. Type of core drill, including size of core.
c. Length of core recovered for each 5 feet length drilled, with resulting percentage of recovery, and Rock Quality
Designation.
d. Elevation of each change in type of rock.
e. Elevation of bottom of core hole.
f. The rock shall be described in accordance with the following classifications.
• Type: Shale, slate, limestone, sandstone, granite, etc.
• Condition: Broken, fissured, laminated, solid, etc.
© 2013,

• Hardness: Soft, medium hard, very hard, etc.
g. Rate at which each 5 feet section was cored in minutes per foot.
SECTION 22.9 INSPECTION (1992)
No drilling shall be done except in the presence of the Engineer or his representative (inspector). No more than two drilling
crews working in the same vicinity at the same time shall be covered by one inspector. The Engineer or inspector shall identify
bench marks for the determination of the required elevations, check the log of the boring to determine that the information
designated in Section 22.8, Records is being obtained, and to establish its accuracy and see that all soil samples and cores are
properly boxed and stored in a suitable place or shipped to its designated destination.
SECTION 22.10 GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATIONS (1992)
Two geophysical methods, seismic and electrical resistivity, have proven useful as rapid means of obtaining subsurface
information and as economical supplements to borings in exploratory programs. These methodologies supply information for
bedrock profiling, for locating firmer material underlying softer material and for yielding a general definition of subsurface
conditions including the depth to groundwater. However, there are numerous limitations to the information obtained. All 1
geophysical information should be used in conjunction with borings.
SECTION 22.11 IN-SITU TESTING OF SOIL (1992)

3
a. Techniques for the measurement of soil properties by in-situ tests have developed rapidly during the decade of 1980-
1990. Some of the advantages are:
(1) Provides an almost continuous soil record with depth.
(2) Ability to determine the properties of sands and offshore deposits which are difficult to sample undisturbed for
laboratory testing. 4
(3) Capacity of evaluating the properties of a much larger volume of soil and provides a cost effective technique
because of large collection of data in a short time which is processed automatically. Some of the common methods
are vane shear, sounding, dutch cone, and self-boring pressure meter test (SBPMT). Based on the nature and
complexity of the project, the project schedule and funding availability, the geotechnical engineer shall make the
judgement for use of the in-situ testing.
b. To determine values for shear use current ASTM D2573 requirements. (Field Vane Shear Test in Cohesive Soils.)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 22.12 BACKFILLING BORE HOLES (1992)
Open bore holes, as well as open exploratory excavations, can be a safety hazard and shall be backfilled when they are no
longer required. Backfilling with available local soil tamped in place will be adequate unless local or state regulations require
backfilling with grout or other means. In certain cases to prevent movement of water from one stratum to another and to
prevent piping of material through the bore hole or contamination of groundwater, the use of grout is appropriate.
SECTION 22.13 CLEANING SITE (1992)
After completion of the work, the casing shall be withdrawn, all equipment removed and the site restored to its original
condition as directed by the Engineer.
© 2013,

8
Part 23
Pier Protection Systems at Spans
Over Navigable Streams
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
23.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2 1

23.1.1 Scope (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.1.2 Purpose (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.1.3 Terms (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-2
23.2 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3

23.2.1 Vessel (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3
23.2.2 Waterway (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3 3
23.2.3 Types of Construction (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-3
23.2.4 Permits (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4
23.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4

23.3.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-4
23.3.2 Design Loads (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-5
23.3.3 Suggested Design Procedure (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-6
23.3.4 Types of Protection (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-8
23.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20

23.4.1 General (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20
23.4.2 Materials (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-21
23.4.3 Handling and Storage of Materials (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-23
23.4.4 Framing of Timber (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-23
23.4.5 Fabrication of Structural Steel (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-23
23.4.6 Pile Driving (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-24
Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-24

LIST OF FIGURES
8-23-1 Energy Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-7

8-23-2 Pier Protection - Sheet Pile Dolphin - Deep Water, Poor River Bottom (For General Information Only). . 8-23-9
8-23-3 Pier Protection - Treated Timber Pile Dolphin (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-11
8-23-4 Pier Protection - Hydraulic Type Hydrocushion Dolphin (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-12
8-23-5 Pier Protection - Floating Sheer Boom (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-13
8-23-6 Pier Protection - Fender System Integral with Pier (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-14
8-23-7 Pier Protection - Independent Fender System (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-15
8-23-8 Pier and Swing Span Protection - Pivot Pier (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-16
8-23-9 Pier Protection (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-17
8-23-10 Pier Protection - Modular Fender Systems (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-18
8-23-11 Rock Blanket Pier Protection (For General Information Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-20
23.1.1 SCOPE (2010)
These recommendations cover the design, construction, and maintenance of protective systems for railway bridge piers located
in or adjacent to channels of navigable waterways. The details included in these recommendations may also be applied for the
protection of railway bridge abutments. For inspection of protective systems, see Article 21.3.2.
23.1.2 PURPOSE (2001)
The purpose of the protective systems is to prevent or minimize damage to supporting piers of railway bridges caused by
accidental collision from floating debris and vessels. Such protection should be designed to eliminate or reduce the impact
energy transmitted to the pier from the debris or vessel, either by redirection of the force, or by absorption or dissipation of the
energy to nondestructive levels.
23.1.3 TERMS (2001)
Following is a list of terms associated with this Part. These terms are defined in the Glossary at the end of this Chapter.
Dolphin
Fender
Sheer Boom
Wales
© 2013,

Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams
SECTION 23.2 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
23.2.1 VESSEL (2010)
The size and type of vessel to be chosen as a basis for design of the pier protection should reflect the maximum vessel tonnage,
type of cargo and velocity to be reasonably expected for the specific facility involved.
23.2.2 WATERWAY (2001)
a. Consideration should be given to the exposure of the structure in the waterway, including the alignment and width of
the channel, skew of pier, visibility for approaching vessels, as well as effect of wind, ice, current, or tide in the
vicinity.
b. The use of increased bridge span length to reduce the chance of ship collision, by constructing piers in shallow water or
on land away from the waterway, may reduce or eliminate pier protection.
c. Depth of water, fluctuation of water level, and scour potential may dictate the type of protection to be chosen. If the
depth is so great, or the character of the waterway bottom does not lend itself to proper anchorage and support for an
independent protective system, it may be necessary to design a suspended or floating protective system.
23.2.3 TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION (2001)
a. The type of construction to be chosen for the protective system should be based on the physical site conditions and the 1
amount of energy to be absorbed or deflected, as well as the size and ability of the pier itself to absorb or resist the
impact.
b. Some of the more common types of construction are as follows.
23.2.3.1 Integral
3
Where the pier is considered to be stable enough to absorb the impact of floating vessels, it may be necessary to attach
cushioning devices to the surfaces of the pier in the areas of expected impact to reduce localized damage to concrete surfaces
and exposure of reinforcing steel, or damage to masonry and its jointing. Such cushioning may include strips of material
attached to the face of the pier, such as solid or preformed rubber, timber, pneumatic, hydraulic or hydrocushion strips.
23.2.3.2 Dolphins
4
Where depth of water and other conditions are suitable, the driving of pile clusters may be considered. Such clusters have the
piles lashed together with cable to promote integral action. The clusters should be flexible to be effective in absorbing impact
through deflection.
Cellular dolphins may be filled with concrete, loose material or material suitable for grouting. Cells filled with uncemented
materials may lose fill material in the event of rupture due to collision.
23.2.3.3 Floating Sheer Booms
Where the depth of water or other conditions precludes the consideration of dolphins or integral pier protection, floating sheer
booms may be used. These are suitably shaped and positioned to protect the pier and are anchored to allow deflection and
absorption of energy. Anchorage systems should allow for fluctuations in water level due to stream flow or tidal action.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

23.2.3.4 Hydraulic Devices
Suspended cylinders engaging a mass of water to absorb or deflect the impact energy may be used under certain conditions of
water depth or intensity of impact. Such cylinders may be suspended from independent caissons, booms projecting from the
pier, or other supports. Such devices are customarily most effective in locations subject to little fluctuations of water levels.
23.2.3.5 Fenders
Construction of fender systems, using piling with horizontal wales, is a common means of protection where water depth is not
excessive and severe impacts are not anticipated.
23.2.3.6 Other Types
Various other types of protective systems, such as earthen and riprap islands around piers, have been successfully used and
may be considered by the designer.
23.2.4 PERMITS (2001)
Proposed protective systems must receive approval of the appropriate regulating agencies prior to installation. Advance
coordination with these agencies to determine waterway clearance, lighting and any other special requirements, is
recommended.
SECTION 23.3 DESIGN1
23.3.1 GENERAL (2010)
a. Criteria for the design of protective systems cannot be specified to be applicable to all situations. Investigation of local
conditions is required in each case, the results of which may then be used to apply engineering judgment to arrive at a
reasonable solution.
b. In any type of pier protection system, general details should be designed to provide the following:
(1) Adequate mass and resilience so that the railroad facility will not be vulnerable to damage from reasonably
expected collision of marine traffic.
(2) A smooth transition past the pier with particular attention to protrusions and details that could cause damage to a
vessel.
(3) Ease of replacement of damaged parts.
(4) Elimination of sparking upon vessel impact.
(5) Accessibility for inspection.
c. The effects of scour for the protective system and the adjacent structure being protected should be considered.
1
See Commentary (2010).
© 2013,

Design loads to be used shall be determined for each individual structure, based on factors unique to the location. Information
may be available from ship owners and operators, port facility authorities, industry representatives, the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Federal Highway Administration, and the U.S. Coast Guard.
a. General factors to be considered in determining the desired degree of pier protection include, but are not limited to, the
following:
(1) Piers at the edge of a channel having a wide horizontal clearance may require only minimum protection.
(2) The type of construction of the pier should be considered.
(a) A massive pier may be capable of resisting most reasonably expected loads so that the additional resistance
offered by a protective system may not be warranted.
(b) A pier incapable of resisting reasonably expected loads should be provided with greater protection than a
massive pier might require.
(3) Piers may be especially vulnerable because of difficulty of navigation caused by high stream velocity or tidal flow,
wind velocity, waterway traffic, poor visibility, limited horizontal clearances, channel curvature, proximity of
other obstacles, or other similar factors.
(4) Foundation conditions will have a bearing on the resistance capability of the pier and on the practicality of 1
providing the desired degree of protection.
(5) The history of collisions with existing bridges or other obstacles in the vicinity should be considered.
b. To estimate the actual collision forces which could be encountered, and their effects, the following items should be
known:
(1) Maximum sizes and types of vessels. 3

(2) Impact velocity of vessels.
(3) Crushing resistance of hulls.
(4) Stream velocities.

4
(5) High and low water elevations.
(6) Impact angle.
(7) Wind velocities.
(8) Velocity and mass of floating ice.
c. The kinetic energy in the moving vessel may be determined as follows:
KE = MV2/2
where:
KE = Kinetic energy
M = Total mass of the vessel
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

V = Velocity of the vessel relative to the pier
d. Energy may be dissipated according to the following (see Figure 8-23-1):
E=F×d
where:
E = Energy dissipated
F = Average force applied to the moving vessel
d = Distance vessel moves (in the direction of F) during the time F is applied
The distance (d) is measured after initial contact and is composed of deflection of the protective system, crushing of the
system and vessel, or a combination thereof. System flexibility determines, to a large extent, the relative amounts of
deflection and crushing, and is more fully discussed in the appended commentary.
e. The effects of stream flow forces, wind forces and ice forces, where applicable, and the probability of collision should
be taken into consideration in the design of pier protection systems.
23.3.3 SUGGESTED DESIGN PROCEDURE (2010)
As a practical matter, pier protection will not always be adequate to completely dissipate the kinetic energy of a vessel at high
speed. However, in many cases, the protection will deflect a vessel, reducing damage that may otherwise occur. The outline
presented here provides an approach to the problem of evaluating the effect on the kinetic energy of a vessel when a collision
occurs:
a. Compute the kinetic energy (KE) based on the mass and impact velocity of the vessel.
b. Assume trial configuration of the pier protective device and estimate resistance force (F) of the pier protection for the
following:
(1) Assuming allowable stresses equivalent to 1.5 times basic allowable unit stress of the material.
(2) Assuming ultimate strength of materials.
c. Equate kinetic energy (KE) with energy dissipated (E):
MV2/2 = F × d
solve for d to determine total movement required to dissipate energy (see Commentary (2010)).
d. The above outline provides a basis for evaluating the amount of energy that can be dissipated by the pier protection and
the total resistance capability.
e. Vertical movement of the vessel can be considered in the dissipation of energy.
© 2013,

Figure 8-23-1. Energy Dissipation
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

23.3.4 TYPES OF PROTECTION (2010)
The various types of pier protection systems shown in this section are for general information only. For the most part, they
have been taken from protection systems currently in use on both highway and railway bridges in the United States. Member
sizes, numbers of units, types of material, and details of construction are those used for specific installations and cannot be
considered standards since the design of pier protection systems depends on many parameters that may vary markedly from
one installation to another. Each pier protection system must be chosen and designed to fulfill the unique requirements at the
given location.
The following types of protection are commonly used; however, other types may be considered.
23.3.4.1 Sheet Pile Cell Dolphins (Figure 8-23-2)
a. Sheet pile cells preferably should be of circular configuration. A typical cell includes interlocking steel sheet piles
filled with concrete or grouted material. If loose fill materials are used, a concrete or grouted liner and a reinforced
concrete top should be considered. The concrete top should be adequately anchored to the sheet piles. Desirable
qualities of fill material include free draining characteristics, high unit weight, shear strength, and high coefficient of
friction.
b. The designer should make an evaluation of the cell stability and resistance to overturning and sliding. Factors to be
considered include characteristics of the underlying soil or rock and the cell fill material, interaction of the cell fill
material with the cell walls, and friction of the sheet piles embedded in the underlying soil.
c. Additional resistance against overturning may be provided by driving and attaching additional piles around the
perimeter of the cell. Increased penetration into the underlying soil may be obtained in this manner, in lieu of extension
of all sheet piles.
d. The possibility of scour occurring near a dolphin or at the pier due to the dolphin, should be investigated and protection
should be provided, if required.
23.3.4.2 Pile Cluster Dolphins (Figure 8-23-3)
Pile cluster type dolphins should be composed of groups of battered and/or vertical piles which are held together at the top.
The designer should evaluate the resistance to lateral forces, considering the effects of any battered piles, and the interaction of
the piles and the surrounding soils.
23.3.4.3 Gravity Pendulum Dolphin (Hydrocushion Type) (Figure 8-23-4)
a. Typically, a heavy cylindrical mass of steel or concrete is suspended from a cantilevered supporting structure, which
may be a part of the pier, or may be an independent support. Energy is dissipated by movement of the pendulum when
a force is applied by a striking vessel.
b. The designer should evaluate the energy dissipated by the pendulum, taking the following items into account.
(1) Movement of the pendulum. When the pendulum is suspended in water, the effective mass includes an amount of
water which moves along with the pendulum; in the case of a ring, (as shown in Figure 8-23-4) the volume of
water enclosed by the ring is part of the total mass to be moved.
x
(2) The resisting horizontal force component = W r ⎛ ------------⎞
⎝ L – y⎠
© 2013,

where:
Wr = Weight of the ring

x = The horizontal displacement of the ring
L = Length of hanger to the ring
y = The amount the ring is lifted
23.3.4.4 Floating Sheer Booms (Figure 8-23-5)
a. The configuration of a sheer boom will depend upon the requirements of a particular location.
b. The designer should evaluate the capability of the device to dissipate energy, recognizing the following:
(1) The mass to be considered as part of the moving element includes a volume of water which will be forced to move
with the boom.
(2) Deflection movements of supporting elements will account for some energy loss.
(3) Frictional resistance is provided by the water adjacent to the moving elements.
23.3.4.5 Fenders (Figure 8-23-6, Figure 8-23-7, Figure 8-23-8, Figure 8-23-9, and Figure 8-23-10)
a. Pier fenders are intended to provide protection to the pier in the event of contact by a vessel. Fenders are usually 1
positioned with the anticipated direction of impact from a vessel at a relatively small angle with respect to the fender
line. A fender may be supported by the pier it is intended to protect, or it may be independently supported.
b. Independently supported fender systems typically consist of vertical and/or battered piles with horizontal members
connecting the piles so the fender system acts as a unit. The horizontal members may be used as rubbing strips or
separate rubbing strips may be attached to these members.
3
c. Pier-supported fenders vary in type from simple rubbing strips attached directly to the pier face to more elaborate
installations which provide for some energy dissipation by the fender when struck by a vessel.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-2. Pier Protection - Sheet Pile Dolphin - Deep Water, Poor River Bottom (For General
Information Only)
© 2013,

11 WRAPS OF CABLE COMFORMING TO

ARTICLE 23.4.2.10. EACH TURN SHOULD
BE STAPLED TO EACH PERIMETER PILE
Figure 8-23-3. Pier Protection - Treated Timber Pile Dolphin (For General Information Only)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-4. Pier Protection - Hydraulic Type Hydrocushion Dolphin (For General Information Only)
© 2013,

Figure 8-23-5. Pier Protection - Floating Sheer Boom (For General Information Only)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-6. Pier Protection - Fender System Integral with Pier (For General Information Only)
© 2013,

Figure 8-23-7. Pier Protection - Independent Fender System (For General Information Only)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

UP STREAM END
Figure 8-23-8. Pier and Swing Span Protection - Pivot Pier (For General Information Only)
DOWN STREAM END

Figure 8-23-9. Pier Protection (For General Information Only)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-10. Pier Protection - Modular Fender Systems (For General Information Only)

d. The designer should consider the following items pertaining to fenders:
(1) Fenders should preferably be detailed so that a maximum number of piles, or other supporting elements, will
participate in resisting applied loads.
(2) Fenders should have a somewhat flexible arrangement to provide for deflection of the fender and for energy
dissipation.
(3) The effects of battered piles and pile-soil interaction should be considered when evaluating the capability of the
fender to resist lateral forces.
(4) Consideration should be given to providing a weak point in the design, thus causing the unit to fail in a pre-
planned manner when struck by a force in excess of the capacity. Details can then be arranged to facilitate the
replacement of damaged elements.
23.3.4.6 Riprap Used as Pier Protection
a. Riprap may be mounted around a pier to prevent a vessel from making contact.
b. The designer should consider the following items pertaining to the use of riprap around piers:
(1) The depth of water and resulting amount of fill required.
(2) The effect on waterway opening required for navigation and hydraulics.
1
(3) The riprap should be designed to adequately dissipate the kinetic energy of the vessel prior to making contact with
the pier.
(4) Environmental and permitting concerns.
(5) Overburden on the pier foundation. 3

c. The use of protective islands may be considered for pier protection for major bridges.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-23-11. Rock Blanket Pier Protection (For General Information Only)
23.4.1 GENERAL (2010)
a. Construction permits from all federal, state and local regulatory bodies should be obtained prior to beginning
construction.
© 2013,

b. All construction should be performed in accordance with all applicable laws and regulations including navigational
clearances, maintenance of marine traffic, environmental considerations, navigation lighting and temporary warning
signs and devices.
c. All temporary construction facilities should be approved by the Engineer and the concerned regulatory bodies.
Temporary construction should be removed upon completion of the work and the construction site returned to a
condition acceptable to the regulatory bodies and the Engineer.
d. Excavated material and debris of demolition and of construction should be disposed of in accordance with all
applicable laws and regulations.
e. Construction inspection safeguards should be provided to ensure that pier protection structures are constructed in the
correct location with respect to the navigation channel. Underwater inspection services should be provided if necessary
to determine conditions relevant to the construction. As-built plans should be furnished to the Engineer upon
completion of the work.
23.4.2 MATERIALS (2010)
23.4.2.1 Timber1
a. All new timber should meet the requirements of the current standard Methods for Establishing Structural Grades and
Related Allowable Properties for Visually Graded Lumber, ASTM Designation D245. Timber should be Dense
Structural 65 or Long-Leaf Structural 65, southern yellow pine, conforming to the Grading Rules of the Southern Pine
Inspection Bureau; or No. 1 Douglas Fir conforming to the Standard Grading Rules for West Coast Lumber; or other 1
species conforming to the flexural strength specified for Southern Pine and Douglas Fir, other requirements being
comparable.
b. Timber for joists, planks, beams, wales and walkways should be square edge and shall be grade marked.
c. The preservative treatment should be in accordance with AREMA Chapter 30, Ties, Section 3.6, Wood Preserving and
Section 3.7, Specifications for Treatment, and applicable environmental regulations. Alternative preservative treatment 3
is subject to approval of the Engineer.
d. Timber should be treated with a fire retardant, if appropriate.
23.4.2.2 Concrete
a. Workmanship, materials and proportioning for concrete members used in pier protection structures should be in 4
accordance with requirements for Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
b. The design of concrete members used in pier protection structures should be in accordance with the requirements for
Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
c. The minimum cover on reinforcing steel in concrete faces subject to impact should be 3 inches (75 mm).
23.4.2.3 Structural Steel
Structural steel shapes and plates should conform to the Standard Specification for Structural Steel, ASTM A36, or ASTM
A709, with a minimum of 0.2% copper. Other steels may be used having greater strength and enhanced corrosion resistance as
required by the design of the pier protection work. The recommended minimum thickness of all metal components to be used
is 3/8 inch (10 mm).
1
See See Commentary (2010).
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

23.4.2.4 Composites and Other Materials
Other materials that can be used for fender wales and other pier protection components include: composite plastic, low-
friction rubber, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and ultra high molecular weight polymers (UHMV). These materials come
in various sections and lengths.
23.4.2.5 Timber Piles
a. Timber piles should be First Class piles in accordance with AREMA Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 1, Material
Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and
Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted Wood and Part 3, Rating Existing Wood Bridges and
Trestles, and should conform to ASTM D25.
b. Preservative treatment is required and should conform to AREMA Chapter 30, Ties, Section 3.6, Wood Preserving and
Section 3.7, Specifications for Treatment and be in accordance with applicable environmental regulations.
23.4.2.6 Steel Piles
a. W and H steel shapes should have minimum flange and web thicknesses of 3/8 inch (10 mm) and as appropriate
should, conform to ASTM A36, A572, or A709, with a minimum 0.2% copper; or should conform to ASTM A588.
b. Steel pipe piles should have a minimum wall thickness of 3/8 inch (10 mm) and shall conform to ASTM A252, Grade
2, with minimum 0.2% copper. A weathering steel equivalent may also be considered.
c. Steel sheet piles should have a minimum thickness of 3/8 inch (10 mm) and shall conform to ASTM A328, with
minimum 0.2% copper, or shall conform to ASTM A690. The designer should specify the minimum strength required
in the interlock joint.
23.4.2.7 Composite Plastic Piles
Composite plastic piles suitable for cluster dolphins and fenders are available in uniform diameters from 10 to 16 inches (250
to 400 mm) and of virtually any length that can be handled. The proprietary material is recycled plastic with either steel or
fiberglass reinforcing strands. The material is high energy absorptive, low friction, ultraviolet light resistant, impervious to
marine borers and can be cut and drilled with common construction tools. These pilings are generally used as a direct
substitution (one-for-one) for timber piling.
23.4.2.8 Hardware
Bolts, nuts, washers, spikes, lag bolts, staples, cable clamps and similar hardware items should be galvanized steel or stainless
steel. In lieu of using galvanized or stainless steel hardware, other means of corrosion protection should be provided.
a. Galvanized standard carbon steel fasteners should conform to the standard Specification for Carbon Steel Externally
and Internally Threaded Standard Fasteners, ASTM A307; or to the Standard Specification for High Strength Bolts for
Structural Steel Joints, Including Suitable Nuts and Plain Hardened Washers, ASTM A325, Type I. Galvanizing should
be in accordance with the requirements of ASTM A153, Class C. If galvanizing is not required, fasteners should
conform to the Standard Specifications for High Strength Bolts for Structural Steel Joints, Including Suitable Nuts and
Plain Hardened Washers, ASTM A325, Type 3.
b. Stainless steel hardware should be manufactured from material conforming to the Standard Specifications for Stainless
and Heat-Resisting Steel Bars and Shapes, ASTM A276, Type 304 or 316. Type 316 should be used in a salt water
atmosphere and treated with a positive corrosion resistant material.
© 2013,

23.4.2.9 Wrapping for Dolphins
Cable for wrapping dolphins should be galvanized 6 × 7 steel rope; or galvanized 7 × 7 mild plow steel rope. Where enhanced
corrosion resistance is required, 7 × 19 stainless steel wire rope should be used. The designer should evaluate the cost,
expected life, usage, susceptibility to damage and other pertinent factors when choosing the dolphin wrapping cable. All wire
ropes should have steel wire cores.
23.4.2.10 Corrosion Protection
Consideration should be given to protecting submerged steel surfaces cathodically and exposed surfaces by means of suitable
paint systems or by galvanizing.
23.4.3 HANDLING AND STORAGE OF MATERIALS (2010)
a. All timber, lumber, timber piles and associated hardware should be handled and stored in accordance with Chapter 7,
Timber Structures, Part 4, Construction and Maintenance of Timber Structures, Section 4.4, Workmanship for
Construction of Pile and Framed Trestles and Part 1, Material Specifications for Lumber, Timber, Engineered Wood
Products, Timber Piles, Fasteners, Timber Bridge Ties and Recommendations for Fire-Retardant Coating for Creosoted
Wood, Section 1.5, Specifications for Timber Piles.
b. Concrete materials such as cement, aggregates and steel reinforcement, should be stored in accordance with Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, Section 1.8, Storage of Materials.
c. Handling and storage of steel items should be in accordance with Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 4, Erection, 1
Section 4.8, Handling and Storing Materials.
d. Miscellaneous parts and materials should be handled in a manner as to prevent loss and damage, and should be stored
on blocking or on platforms above the ground. Weather and fire protection should be provided as necessary.
23.4.4 FRAMING OF TIMBER (2010)

3
a. Timber should be cut and framed in accordance with Chapter 7, Timber Structures, Part 4, Construction and
Maintenance of Timber Structures.
b. Bolt heads and washers on the navigation side should either be recessed below the rubbing surface of the fender or be
of the dome-head type flush with the rubbing surface.
4
23.4.5 FABRICATION OF STRUCTURAL STEEL (2001)
Fabrication of structural steel should be in accordance with the requirements of Chapter 15, Steel Structures, except as noted
herein:
a. Substitution of stronger, but less energy absorbing members will not be permitted.
b. Substitution of higher grade, but less ductile steel will not be permitted.
c. Shop assembly will not be required.
d. Field welding will not be permitted, unless specifically authorized by the Engineer. All field connections should be
held to a minimum and should be made by means of bolts with appropriate washers and nuts.
e. Washers should be placed under both the heads and nuts of all bolts (except dome-head bolts) bearing on timber.
Suitable lock nuts should be provided where fastenings may tend to loosen.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

23.4.6 PILE DRIVING (2001)
Pile driving should be performed in accordance with Part 4, Pile Foundations, Section 4.5, Installation of Piles or Chapter 7,
Timber Structures, Part 3, Rating Existing Wood Bridges and Trestles.
23.4.6.1 Pile Driving Records
An accurate record should be kept of all piles driven, on the form prescribed by the Engineer. The log should show date, type
of pile driven, pile number, location, type of hammer used, water depth and elevation, pile depth into soil, and ultimate driving
resistance. The form should be signed by the person recording the information, including their job title. The record should be
made a permanent part of the job statistics.
COMMENTARY (2010)
C - 23.3.2 DESIGN LOADS (2010)
C - ENERGY DISSIPATION
a. A moving vessel has a certain amount of kinetic energy, which is dependent upon the mass of the vessel and its
velocity. To redirect or stop a vessel in protecting the pier, a portion or all of its kinetic energy must be absorbed or
dissipated. This energy is dissipated by applying a force to the vessel over a given distance. For the fender to function
properly, this distance must be less than the distance from initial contact until the vessel would strike the pier. For large
vessels, traveling at fair speeds, in deep water, the amount of kinetic energy provided is large and the resistance of the
fender is relatively small and it is very difficult to design a fender that will completely protect a pier for such a collision
if the vessel is headed directly at the pier.
b. The energy in any contact with the fender is dissipated by deflection of the fender itself, by lifting a portion of the
fender, by lifting the vessel out of the water, by crushing of the fender, by crushing of the bow of the vessel, by
displacement of the water adjacent to the vessel, by displacement of the ground or river bottom, etc.
c. Several general facts should be considered and are noted briefly:
(1) It should be recognized that the total resisting force is not developed immediately upon impact, but requires some
movement until it develops.
(2) If the crushing force of the vessel is greater than the ultimate resisting force of the fender, then dissipation of the
kinetic energy occurs. Initially, the impact creates a force between the vessel and the fender, which causes the
vessel to decelerate and the fender to accelerate (F = mass × acceleration). At some point, the fender and the vessel
reach the same velocity and move along together, being slowed by the resisting forces of the fender and/or the soil
being acted upon. This will continue until either the vessel stops, the fender breaks or some combination of the
two.
(3) If the crushing force of the vessel is less than the total ultimate resisting force of the fender, then the velocity of the
fender will increase from zero to a maximum and decrease to zero again without a common velocity being
achieved. When the fender stops, the vessel continues to decelerate, acted upon by the crushing force.
C - FENDER FLEXIBILITY (2001)
a. An ideal pier fender would be constructed so that the fender itself absorbs all of the energy of the moving vessel in
stopping the vessel before it hits the pier and then returns to its normal position without damage to either the fender or
© 2013,

the vessel. Except for relatively small vessels and low speeds, design of such a fender is impractical due to the large
required resisting force and the short distance in which to stop the vessel.
b. A flexible fender, one that acts elastically, will absorb energy with little or no damage to the vessel; however, the
horizontal force that such a fender can resist is usually relatively small and may be insufficient to protect the pier. On
the other hand, a rigid fender is capable of resisting a considerably larger force, although this force may only be applied
over a small deflection before the member breaks, or is damaged locally. In this case, the total amount of energy
absorbed may be far less than is absorbed in a flexible fender, although a considerable amount of energy is absorbed in
breaking of the fender parts. In most cases, some compromise between a truly flexible and a very rigid fender is the
better solution.
c. In fender systems, incorporating steel pipe piles or sheet pile cells, a concrete fill will provide a much more rigid
device than will one filled with sand, stone or riprap. In the latter case, the energy absorbing qualities are improved due
to the rubbing of the fill particles on each other, by friction in the interlocks of the sheet piles and the like. On the other
hand, one must be extremely careful that the pile wall or the sheet pile wall is protected to prevent damage resulting in
the loss of fill, which would materially reduce the effectiveness of the fender and its energy absorbing capability.
d. The type of fender used in any particular application must take into account the size and velocity of the vessel, flow of
the stream, the depth of the water, the founding conditions, the distance between the pier protection and the pier, the
strength of the pier itself and the types of cargo that are normally carried. The designer must normally use his
discretion in selecting a pier protection design that best suits all of the parameters of the individual case considered.
C - 23.4.2 MATERIALS (2010)

1
Timber, except walkway planking and handrails, may be preservative treated with creosote or other appropriate preservative
subject to environmental regulations. Walkway planking and handrails may be treated either with creosote, pentachlorophenol
or other preservative subject to environmental regulations. Pentachlorophenol or other appropriate treatments should be used
if the member is to be painted with exterior paints. Creosoted members will generally not accept exterior paints.
C - SOURCES OF INFORMATION (2001)

3
a. Guide Specification and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges, Volume I: Final Report,
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., February, 1991.
b. Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges, NHI Course No. 13060, Publication No. FHWA HI-92-050-July, 1992.
c. Stream velocities for various river stages on most navigable waters can be obtained from the U.S. Corps of Engineers.
Channel locations, navigation maps and scour potential, may be available from the U.S. Corps of Engineers and the
4
U.S. Coast Guard.
d. Information regarding principal sizes, capacities and power of various vessels, as well as the type of cargo is usually
available for navigable waters from the U.S. Corps of Engineers, the U.S. Coast Guard, the American Waterways
Operators, Inc., port authorities, pilot associations and others.
e. Specific site parameters such as riverbed conditions, soil information, local wind and current effects on navigation
usually must be developed by the design engineer, although local pilot associations and and waterway users
associations may be able to help with the latter.
f. References are located at the end of this Chapter. Refer to Reference 16, 19, 28, 48, 75, 77, 79, 81, 83, 84, and 102.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 24
Drilled Shaft Foundations1
— 2010 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
24.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2

24.1.1 Scope (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-2
24.1.2 Purpose and Necessity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3
24.1.3 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3
24.1.4 Design Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-3 1
24.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5

24.2.1 Field Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.2.2 Subsurface Investigation (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5 3

24.3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3.2 The Transfer of Load from the Drilled Shaft to the Rock or Soil Bearing Strata (2010) . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-5
24.3.3 Connection Between Supported Structure and Drilled Shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-7
24.3.4 Group Action of Drilled Shafts (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-7
24.4 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8

24.4.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.4.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-8
24.4.3 Permanent Steel Casing Material (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.4.4 Temporary Casing Material (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9

24.5.1 Contractor Qualifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.2 Shaft Excavation (2010). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.3 Casing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-9
24.5.4 Bells or Underreams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.5 Sockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.6 Tolerances (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.7 Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
24.5.8 Inspection (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10
1
References, Vol. 85, 1984, p. 29.

24.5.9 Placing Reinforcing Steel (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-10

24.5.10 Placing Concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.11 Casing Removal (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.12 Continuity of Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.5.13 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-11
24.6 Testing ............................................................................... 8-24-12

24.6.1 Material Testing (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
24.6.2 Capacity Testing (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
24.6.3 Integrity Testing (2010)1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
C - Commentary (2010) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-12
LIST OF FIGURES
8-24-1 Drilled Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-4
24.1.1 SCOPE (2010)1
a. This part covers the description and general aspects of design, installation, inspection and testing of drilled shafts, also
frequently referred to as drilled caissons, drilled piers, or bored piles.
b. This part is intended to serve as guidelines in developing specific designs and construction specifications on a project
basis.
c. For the purpose of this part, the minimum diameter of these units shall be 30 inches (760 mm). Drilled shafts with
smaller diameters have been constructed, but are not included in this specification.
d. This part relates primarily to single, vertical drilled shafts.
e. Factors to be used in modifying the capacities of single drilled shafts for determination of the capacity of a group of
drilled shafts which support a common rigid cap are included elsewhere in this part.
f. The use of battered drilled shafts to accommodate lateral loads by the horizontal component of the shaft’s axial
resistance is not recommended and is not addressed by this part. Lateral loads applied to drilled shafts are to be resisted
by the effect of soil/rock interaction between the shaft and ground.
1
See C - Commentary (2010).
© 2013,

Drilled Shaft Foundations
24.1.2 PURPOSE AND NECESSITY
a. Drilled shafts are used to transmit loads through soils of poor bearing capacity into rock or soil formations having
adequate bearing capacity. Generally, single drilled shafts have load capacities much larger than piling due to their
larger size and capability of belling to increase the bearing area without enlarging either the footing or the drilled shaft.
b. The selection of foundation treatment for a given site should be determined by subsurface conditions, and by economic
considerations as there is often a choice of several types of foundations for a structure.
24.1.3 TERMS
Drilled Shaft — A machine and/or hand excavated shaft, concrete filled, with or without steel reinforcing, for the
purpose of transferring structural loads to bearing strata below the structure.
Protective Casing — Protective steel unit, usually cylindrical in shape lowered into the excavation to protect
workmen and inspectors from collapse or cave-in of the side wall.
Bell or Underream — An enlargement at the bottom of the drilled shaft made by hand excavation or mechanical
underreaming with drilling equipment for the purpose of spreading the load over a larger area.
Socket — A shaft of equal or smaller diameter extended into the bearing material.
Toe — Vertical section at bottom of bell.
Permanent Casing — A steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the 1
excavations. It is used as a form to contain concrete placed for the drilled shaft and remains in place.
Temporary Casing — A cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the excavations. It
may also be used as a form for the shaft concrete, but is withdrawn as the shaft concrete is placed.
24.1.4 DESIGN LOADS

3
a. Loading for drilled shafts shall be the design loads from the supported structure without application of load factors
used for Load Factor design procedure. Design loads shall include the following:
• Primary Forces:
– Dead Load
4
– Live Load
– Centrifugal Force
– Earth Pressure
– Buoyancy
– Negative Soil Friction
• Secondary Forces (Occasional):
– Wind and Other Lateral Forces
– Ice and Stream Flow

– Longitudinal Forces
– Seismic Forces
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-24-1. Drilled Shaft
b. When drilled shaft foundations are designed for both primary and secondary forces, the allowable load on the drilled
shafts may be increased by 25 percent, provided that the size or number of drilled shafts is not less than that required
for primary forces alone. In soils where downward movements of surrounding soil relative to the drilled shaft are
expected to occur, axial loads shall include negative soil friction forces, acting downward on the drilled shaft. Under
special conditions swelling soils can produce upward forces, with fluctuation of the water table, which should also be
considered in design.
© 2013,

24.2.1 FIELD SURVEY
Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of profile and cross sections to determine general design and structural
requirements. The location of overhead and underground utilities, existing foundations, roads, tracks, or other structures shall
be indicated. Records pertaining to high and low water levels and depth of scour shall be provided for stream crossings.
24.2.2 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (2010)
a. Foundation material shall be investigated as specified under Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, in order to
determine soil or rock properties, ground water elevations, and any other pertinent conditions.
b. Where a large portion of the required shaft capacity is to be generated from tip resistance of the shaft or rock socket,
the geotechnical investigation shall be of sufficient scope to permit the determination that the strata in which the tip is
founded is of sufficient depth and strength to carry the loads to which it is subjected.
c. Reference is also made to Article 4.3.1, Part 4, for additional information.
SECTION 24.3 DESIGN

1
24.3.1 GENERAL
The design is divided into three basic parts:
a. The transfer of load from the drilled shaft to the rock and/or soil bearing strata.
3
b. The drilled shaft itself.
c. The connection between the supported structure and the drilled shaft.
24.3.2 THE TRANSFER OF LOAD FROM THE DRILLED SHAFT TO THE ROCK OR SOIL
BEARING STRATA (2010)1 4
24.3.2.1 Drilled shafts transfer load to the bearing strata as follows:
a. An end bearing-type drilled shaft transfers essentially all of its load through weaker soils to a layer of soil or rock with
adequate bearing capacity.
b. A friction-type shaft is one whereby the drilled shaft load is transferred to the surrounding material primarily through
friction between the shaft wall and the adjacent material.
c. A combination end bearing and friction-type drilled shaft is a shaft in which some of the load is transferred into the
stratum by soil friction and the remainder by end bearing.
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

24.3.2.2 Lateral Loads and Moment
When the drilled shaft is subjected to lateral load and moments, as well as axial load, the distribution of soil pressures and the
variation of moments and shear in the shaft must be determined.
24.3.2.3 Belled Shafts
a. Where the bearing strata has insufficient strength to support the load on the base of the shaft, the shaft bottom may be
enlarged by belling or underreaming to reduce the pressure by distributing the load over a greater area. Belled shafts
shall be used only where the soil in which the bell is placed will not collapse due to the underreaming. Bells are
normally unreinforced. The base diameter of the bell shall not exceed three times the shaft diameter and the sides shall
not be less than 60 degrees from the horizontal. The toe height of bottom edge shall not be less than 6 inches (150 mm).
b. The ultimate axial capacity of a drilled shaft (Qult) shall be based on the summation of the ultimate shaft tip capacity
and ultimate side resistance capacity minus the weight of the shaft. The allowable shaft capacity shall be the ultimate
capacity divided by a factor of safety.
c. The ultimate shaft tip capacity (QT) shall be QT = qT · AT, where qT is the ultimate unit soil tip resistance determined
by geotechnical analysis and AT is the area of the shaft tip.
d. The ultimate side resistance (QS) of the shaft in a layer of uniform unit side resistance (qS) shall be equal to the
circumference of the shaft multiplied by the embedment length in a soil layer of uniform unit side resistance (qS)
multiplied by qS. The value(s) of qS shall be determined by geotechnical analysis. Where a shaft passes through
stratified soil having different values of qS for the various soil type layers, the value of QS shall be the shaft
circumference multiplied by the summation of various qS values multiplied by the depth of the respective layer. In
general, the top five feet (1,520 mm) of an embedded shaft and a bottom length equal to the diameter of the shaft tip or
perimeter of the bell shall be considered as noncontributing to the side resistance of the shaft. Where the drilled shaft is
located in scour susceptible areas, the probable depth of scour shall also be deducted when calculating the ultimate
shaft side resistance.
e. Where rock sockets having a diameter equal to or less than the nominal diameter of the shaft are used, the ultimate tip
capacity of the shaft shall be equal to the area of the socket tip multiplied by the uniaxial ultimate unit rock capacity.
The ultimate socket side resistance shall be the product of the socket circumference, socket embedment and ultimate
unit side shear resistance along the socket/rock interface.
f. Unless an analysis is used which accounts for the load/deflection relationship of the various soil or rock strata
encountered, the ultimate capacity of a drilled shaft which utilizes a rock socket shall be based on the sum of the
ultimate tip and side resistance capacities of the rock socket only, neglecting side resistance of the shaft in the soil
overburden.
24.3.2.4 Uplift Capacity
The ultimate uplift capacity of a drilled shaft shall be equal to or less than the weight of the shaft plus 0.7 times the ultimate
side resistance of the shaft. If belled, the uplift capacity of the shaft may be increased by taking into consideration the
reinforcement details of the shaft and bell together with the strength characteristics of the adjacent soil.
24.3.2.5 Factors of Safety
For drilled shafts in soil or socketed in rock, a minimum design factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used against bearing capacity
failure. A factor of safety of 2.5 shall be used when designing for conditions which produce uplift.
© 2013,

24.3.2.6 Shafts Under Water1
a. Wherever practicable, the drilled shaft shall be designed to permit the placing of the concrete in the dry, and for visual
inspection of the hole, the bearing strata, and the rock socket.
b. When it is impractical to dewater the excavation for rock-socketed shafts, the concrete may be placed under water by
means of a tremie or pumped concrete and appropriate allowances made in the concrete mix design. The water level
shall have reached a static condition before concrete placement begins.
c. When concrete cannot be placed in the dry and a thorough visual inspection cannot be made by television or by divers,
the Design Engineer shall reduce the allowable bearing and side resistance stress appropriately.
24.3.2.7 The Drilled Shaft
a. The drilled shaft is generally designed as a short column for axial loads due to the lateral support provided by the
soil/rock. In muck or water, slenderness effects of the column must be taken into consideration.
b. When the drilled shaft is subjected to moment and lateral forces at the connection to the supported structure, the shaft
must be designed for bending and shear in addition to axial force. Moment and shear along the length of the shaft must
be calculated, and adequate reinforcement provided.
c. The shaft shall satisfy the design requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design of this Chapter.
24.3.3 CONNECTION BETWEEN SUPPORTED STRUCTURE AND DRILLED SHAFT 1

The connection between the drilled shaft and the supported structure (parts above the top of shaft) shall be capable of
transferring the design loads, including direct load, shear and moment. This can be accomplished by the following means:
a. When the supported structure at the top of shaft is of concrete, the reinforcing steel cage shall be extended into the cap
so that the load is transferred into the reinforcing steel of the drilled shaft by bond and into the concrete by
compression. 3
b. When the cap section is a steel element, appropriate design shall be developed to transmit all loads, conforming to the
requirements of Chapter 15, Steel Structures, Part 1, Design or Part 3, Fabrication.
24.3.4 GROUP ACTION OF DRILLED SHAFTS (2010)
Evaluation of group shaft capacity assumes the effects of negative soil friction (if any) are negligible.
4
24.3.4.1 Cohesive Soil
a. Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesive soil shall consider the presence and contact of a cap with the ground
surface and the spacing between adjacent shafts.
b. If the cap is not in firm contact with the ground, or if the soil at the surface is loose or soft, the individual capacity of
each shaft having a diameter B should be reduced by a reduction factor times QT for an isolated shaft. This factor
equals 0.67 for a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 6B. For intermediate spacings, the
reduction factor may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may then be computed as the lesser of:
• the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, and
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

• the capacity of an equivalent pier defined as the perimeter area of the group.
For a shaft group with a cap in firm contact with the ground, Qult may be computed as the lesser of:
• the sum of the individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or
• the capacity of an equivalent pier as described above.
For the equivalent pier, the shear strength of soil shall not be reduced by any factor to determine the QS component of
Qult. The total base area of the equivalent pier shall be used to determine the QT component of Qult and the additional
capacity of the cap shall be ignored.
24.3.4.2 Cohesionless Soil
Evaluation of group capacity of shafts in cohesionless soil shall consider the spacing between adjacent shafts. Regardless of
cap contact with the ground, the individual capacity of each shaft should be reduced by a reduction factor times QT for an
isolated shaft. This factor equals 0.67 or a center-to-center (CTC) spacing of 3B and 1.0 for a CTC spacing of 8B. For
intermediate spacings, the reduction factor may be determined by linear interpolation. The group capacity may be computed as
the lesser of:
a. the sum of the modified individual capacities of each shaft in the group, or
b. the capacity of an equivalent pier circumscribing the group, including resistance over the entire perimeter and base
areas.
24.3.4.3 Group in Strong Soil Overlying Weaker Soil
a. If a group of shafts which are embedded in a strong soil deposit overlies a weaker deposit (cohesionless or cohesive
soil), consideration shall be given to the potential for a punching failure of the tip into the weaker soil strata.
b. If the underlying soil unit is a weaker cohesive soil strata, careful consideration shall be given to the potential for large
settlements in the weaker layer.
SECTION 24.4 MATERIAL
24.4.1 CONCRETE
Unless otherwise stipulated in this specification, concrete shall be produced and placed in accordance with Part 1 of this
Chapter. Concrete shall have a minimum compressive strength of 3,000 psi (21 MPa) in 28 days. Approved additives, such as
set retarders, may be used to improve workability. Slump at time of placement shall be not less than 4 inches (100 mm), and
not more than 6 inches (150 mm). If temporary casing is to be used, the slump should be not less than 5 inches (125 mm), and
a set retarder may be necessary.
24.4.2 REINFORCING STEEL
Unless otherwise stipulated in this specification, any required reinforcing steel shall conform to the requirements of Part 1 of
this Chapter.
© 2013,

24.4.3 PERMANENT STEEL CASING MATERIAL (2010)
If the steel casing is relied upon as a structural element, the steel casing material shall conform to the requirements of ASTM
A252 or ASTM A709, Grade 36.
24.4.4 TEMPORARY CASING MATERIAL (2010)
Casing that is not intended to be a structural element of the shaft or that is to be removed shall be considered temporary casing.
Temporary casing may be metal, fiber or other material that possesses adequate strength for its intended purpose and is not
detrimental to the design function of the shaft.
24.5.1 CONTRACTOR QUALIFICATIONS
Drilled shafts shall be installed by the Owner with experienced personnel, or by a Contractor or Subcontractor who specializes
in such work. Availability of all required special equipment, tools, and experienced personnel are important items to be
considered when determining Owner installation or selecting an installation contractor.
24.5.2 SHAFT EXCAVATION (2010) 1

a. When excavating a drilled shaft, earth walls shall be adequately and securely protected against cave-in, subsidence
and/or displacement of surrounding earth, and for the exclusion of groundwater by means of temporary or permanent
steel casings.
b. Whenever personnel are required to enter the shaft, a protective casing shall be used and there shall be adequate
provisions for fresh air, light and protection from falling objects and toxic gases. 3
c. Rock grapples or special tools for removal of boulders or other obstructions must be readily available for use. Blasting
will be permitted only upon obtaining written approval from the Engineer.
d. Inspection of the shaft base, and any socket, by a qualified inspector is highly recommended and should be omitted
only with the approval of the Engineer.
4
e. No shaft excavation shall be made within 15 feet (4,570 mm) of an uncased shaft filled with concrete that is less than
one day old. The construction procedure used shall be approved by the Engineer before commencing work.
24.5.3 CASING
a. Where called for, permanent steel casing shall be installed to the plan elevation or to the elevation designated by the
Engineer in the field. When the top of the drilled shaft is below the surface of the ground, installation of additional
large diameter casing may be required to extend above the working level to minimize the possibility of foreign
materials or water entering the top of the shaft.
b. Casings shall be of adequate size and thickness to safely retain the adjacent earth materials and water from entering the
shaft excavation, without exceeding allowable steel stresses, distortion, or collapse of the casing.
c. A protective casing is also to be provided, where required, to serve as protection for personnel entering the shaft
excavations not provided with casings as specified above. Casing size and thickness shall meet the requirements stated
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

above. The outside diameter of the protective casing shall be as large as possible, yet small enough to be lowered and
removed without damage to the sides of the shaft.
d. If conditions are such that casing withdrawal will cause dislocation of the reinforcing steel or permit sloughing soils to
enter the shaft, a double casing should be used. By this method, the shaft is drilled oversize and a temporary casing
installed. A light gage permanent inner casing the same size as the required shaft diameter is then installed. This inner
casing shall be of sufficient strength to serve as a form for the concrete shaft, but need not be designed for soil pressure.
Concrete is then placed within the permanent inner casing. After the concrete has set, the annular space between the
permanent casing and surrounding soil is filled with grout, lean concrete, sand or by another approved method and the
temporary outer casing is withdrawn.
24.5.4 BELLS OR UNDERREAMS
Before belling, the Engineer shall determine that the formation encountered at the plan elevation is adequate. When shafts are
required to be belled, the bells shall be formed either by hand or by use of special belling equipment to the angle and slope
called for on the drawings. The bottoms of bells shall be thoroughly cleaned of all loose materials and inspected before the
concrete is placed.
24.5.5 SOCKETS
When sockets are required, they shall be formed by machine or by hand to the proper size and depth called for in the plans.
Sides and bottom of sockets must be thoroughly cleaned of all loose material since the bond of the concrete to the socket sides
is used in design.
24.5.6 TOLERANCES (2010)
The center of the top of each shaft shall not vary from its design location by more than 1/24 of the shaft diameter, or 3 inches
(75 mm), whichever is less, and the shaft shall not be out of plumb by more than 1.5 percent of the length, not exceeding 12.5
percent of shaft diameter.
24.5.7 DEWATERING
Suitable dewatering procedures shall be as agreed upon between the Engineer and Contractor as determined at such time as
conditions warrant. Unless otherwise agreed, the shaft at the time of placement of steel reinforcing cage, if any, and concrete
shall be essentially free of standing water in excess of 2 inches (50 mm) deep.
24.5.8 INSPECTION (2010)1
Immediately prior to placement of any reinforcement or concrete, each shaft shall be thoroughly inspected as directed by the
Engineer to ascertain that the shaft has been properly prepared, that the bearing material is compatible with design
requirements, and whether additional investigation of the bottom is required. If conditions vary from the assumed conditions
determined by the borings, additional investigation shall be conducted as directed by the Engineer.
24.5.9 PLACING REINFORCING STEEL (2010)
Reinforcing steel shall be prefabricated and placed as a unit immediately prior to concrete operations. In order to minimize
displacement of reinforcing steel cage when casing is pulled, the cage may be reinforced by welding horizontal bands to the
cage at about 5 feet (1,520 mm) intervals. When concrete is placed by tremie methods, temporary hold-down devices shall be
employed to prevent uplift of the cage during concrete placement.
1
© 2013,

24.5.10 PLACING CONCRETE
24.5.10.1 Dry Hole
Prevent segregation of concrete through use of tube, sectionalized pipe or other means to direct the free fall of concrete, so that
it does not strike the sides of reinforcement in the shaft.
24.5.10.2 Under Water
Utilize a tremie or pumped concrete in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements,
Article 1.15.10 and Part 24, Drilled Shaft Foundations, Article 24.3.2.6.
24.5.10.3 Consolidation
Rodding or mechanical vibrating is necessary only for the top 5 feet (1,520 mm) of shaft. Any special requirements for
concrete placement shall be approved by the Engineer.
24.5.11 CASING REMOVAL (2010)
a. In situations where temporary casing is to be removed, the head of concrete inside the casing must be adequate to
preclude infiltration of water and sluffage of the shaft face and sides.
b. Elapsed time from beginning of concrete placement in cased portion of shaft, until extraction of casing is begun, shall
not exceed one hour. 1
c. Extreme care shall be taken when a casing is removed to prevent subsidence of the surrounding ground.
d. Elevation of top of the steel cage should be carefully checked before and after casing extraction. The top of the
concrete shall not raise during extraction of the casing.
e. The exterior temporary casing, if a double-cased shaft, shall not be removed until three (3) days after the shaft is 3
poured.
24.5.12 CONTINUITY OF WORK
Drilled shaft construction work shall be planned so that all required operations proceed in a continuous manner until the shaft
is complete. A precise time schedule agreement between the Contractor and the Engineer should be established. Provision 4
shall be made for protecting the shaft and adjacent construction in case of unforeseen interruptions. Such provisions shall be
approved by the Engineer before drilling begins.
24.5.13 RECORDS
An accurate record shall be kept of each drilled shaft as installed. The record shall show the top and bottom elevations, shaft
and bell diameters, depths of test holes if required, date the shaft is excavated, inspection report of the bearing stratum, depth
of water in excavation at time of placing steel and concrete, quantity of concrete placed compared with theoretical quantity,
and any other pertinent data. Records shall be made and signed by both the project superintendent and inspector and
distributed to proper authorities daily.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 24.6 TESTING
24.6.1 MATERIAL TESTING (2010)
Materials used in construction of drilled shafts should be sampled and tested as designated elsewhere in Part 1 of this Chapter.
At least two (2) concrete test cylinders shall be taken for each shaft. When permanent steel casing is used in determining the
capacity of the shaft, certified mill test reports in accordance with the provisions of Chapter 15 shall be provided to document
the adequacy of the material properties of the casing.
24.6.2 CAPACITY TESTING (2010)1
Drilled shafts may be static load tested per ASTM D1143 “Standard Method of Testing Piles under Axial Compressive Load.”
As an alternate, drilled shafts may be tested by use of a hydraulic load cell or other method as approved by the Engineer.
24.6.3 INTEGRITY TESTING (2010)1
It is essential that the excavation for drilled shafts, placement of permanent casing or placement and extraction of temporary
casing, placement of reinforcing steel and placement of concrete be conducted in a manner such that all construction
operations are under close supervision to verify that completed shaft will not contain any voids, deleterious or other extraneous
material or other defects that may reduce the ability of the shaft to support its design loading. When shafts are constructed
under conditions where all elements of the shaft’s construction cannot be reliably inspected, the use of Crosshole Sonic Log
(CSL) testing shall be employed to verify the integrity of the shaft(s).
CSL testing shall be performed by firms specializing in such testing and having a minimum of 5 years prior documented
related experience. Prior to testing, testing personnel, their qualifications and all elements of the testing process shall be
submitted to the Engineer for approval. All CSL testing procedures and equipment shall conform to the requirements of
ASTM D6760. CSL testing shall not commence until a minimum of 24 hours has elapsed after placement of the shaft
concrete.
C - COMMENTARY (2010)
C - 24.1.1 SCOPE (2010) (Bibliography 79)
f. Vertical drilled shafts, adequately reinforced, can accommodate significant lateral loading. Internal moments and
shears are highly dependent not only on the loading condition, but also on the physical properties of the material
through which the shaft passes. For additional information see Handbook on Design of Piles and Drilled Shafts Under
Lateral Load, U.S. DOT Report No. FHWA–IP-84-11 and Drilled Shafts: Construction Procedures and Design
Methods, U.S. DOT Report No. FHWA-IF-99-025.
C - 24.3.2 THE TRANSFER OF LOAD FROM THE DRILLED SHAFT TO THE ROCK OR SOIL
BEARING STRATA (2010)
For drilled shafts it is very important that the engineer work closely with the geotechnical engineer in order that both have a
clear understanding of what portion of the applied load to the drilled shaft is resisted by side friction and what is resisted by
end bearing. The interaction of side friction with end bearing is often very complex and the possibility of large and possibly
unsafe settlement occurring prior to complete mobilization of the anticipated end bearing resistance must be considered.
1
© 2013,

C - 24.3.2.6 SHAFTS UNDER WATER
When drilled shafts are to be constructed under water the concrete as it is placed in the casing may carry miscellaneous debris
(rock cuttings, sediment, diluted concrete, etc.) to the top of the shaft. Therefore, the top portion of the shaft in this situation
may contain poor quality concrete. It is recommended for such conditions that concrete in the casing be carried 1 to 2 feet
(300 to 600 mm) above the final top of shaft elevation to allow for the careful removal of that portion of the shaft which may
contain such deleterious material.
C - 24.5.8 INSPECTION (2010)
For further information on the inspection of drilled shafts, the following document is available.
Drilled Shaft Inspector’s Manual

Deep Foundations Institute
326 Lafayette Avenue
Hawthorne, NJ 07506
C - 24.6.2 CAPACITY TESTING (2010)
In lieu of a static load test which may be inefficient due to the typical large capacity of drilled shafts relative to driven piles,
consideration may be given to the use of a hydraulic load cell referred to as an Osterberg Cell®. This test method uses an
instrumented hydraulic cell placed typically near the tip of the shaft. After placement and curing of the shaft concrete the cell
is activated, loading the tip of the shaft and providing an upward force on the shaft above the cell. The use of the cell thus can
provide a measurement of tip base capacity as well as the frictional force developed along the side of the shaft. After testing, 1
the hydraulic fluid is replaced with a high strength grout. Use of this test method should be reserved for experienced specialty
contractors and requires the submission and approval of proposed test details.
C - 24.6.3 INTEGRITY TESTING (2010)1

(2010)
In the past the taking of concrete cores of drilled shafts was the primary means of ascertaining the quality and consolidation of 3
the shaft concrete. As an alternate to coring for determination of the quality of drilled shaft concrete, the measurement of the
response of ultrasonic pulse waves as they pass from a signal source to a receiver source within the shaft concrete will provide
an indication of the soundness of shaft. This method of testing is often referred to as Crosshole Sonic Log (CSL) Testing.
This method utilizes a number of tubes placed within the shaft to allow for transmission and reception of the ultrasonic pulse
waves. After testing, the tubes are fully grouted.
As opposed to coring, which verifies the concrete quality in the immediate vicinity of the core only, CSL Testing provides for 4
greater coverage of the shaft. CSL Testing is, however, limited to the area of the shaft within the arrangement of the CSL tubes
and therefore does not provide an assessment of concrete quality outside of the interior of the reinforcing steel cage. Also the
decision to use CSL Testing must be made before concrete placement. Therefore, if anomalies occur during the placement of
the shaft concrete, which may lead to questioning of the concrete integrity, coring remains the only viable test for such
situations.
Use of Crosshole Sonic Log Testing should be reserved for specialty firms with satisfactory experience in the use of this
method. Prior to testing, submittals detailing the materials to be used, the number of tubes, the vertical spacing of the tests and
the procedures to be employed should be made to the engineer for review and approval, if acceptable.
Where the CSL test indicates void or other anomalies present in the shaft, or when supplementary testing when the concrete
for the shaft is placed under water or where the use of a slurry is employed, the use of sample cores of approximate 2 inches
(50 mm) in diameter and extending the entire length of the shaft may be employed to verify the adequate consolidation and
composition of the concrete. After coring, the hole shall be filled with a cement grout compatible with the shaft concrete.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Reference: Osterberg, J.O. and S.F. Pepper, A New Simplified Method for Load Testing Drilled Shafts, Foundation Drilling,
Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors, August 1984, pp.9-11.
© 2013,

8
Part 25
Slurry Wall Construction1
— 2012 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
25.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2

25.1.1 Purpose (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2
25.1.2 Scope (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-2
25.1.3 Terms (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.1.4 References (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3 1
25.2 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3

25.2.1 General (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.2.2 Qualifications (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-3
25.2.3 Subsurface Investigation (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-4
25.2.4 Design for Construction Phase (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-4 3
25.2.5 Methods of Increasing Stability (1988) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-6
25.2.6 Final Condition (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-6
25.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-7

25.3.1 Slurry (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-7
25.3.2 Bentonite (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.3 Cement (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.4 Water (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.5 Additives (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.6 Backfill (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-8
25.3.7 Tremie Concrete (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.3.8 Precast Panels (2002) R(2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.3.9 Permanent Joint Beams (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.3.10 Materials Quality Control (2012). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.4 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9

25.4.1 General (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9
25.4.2 Trench Excavation (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-11
25.4.3 Slurry Material (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-11
25.4.4 Wall Construction (2002) R(2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-12
25.4.5 Inspection (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-13
1
References, Vol. 89, 1988, p. 114. Adopted 1988.

Commentary (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-13
LIST OF FIGURES
8-25-1 Forces in Non-Cohesive Soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-6

C-8-25-1 Marsh Funnel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-14
LIST OF TABLES
8-25-1 Backfill Gradation Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-9

8-25-2 Materials Quality Control Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-10
25.1.1 PURPOSE (2012)
These recommended practices apply to the use of bentonite slurry trenching techniques for the construction of underground
foundations and cutoff walls. Other materials such as polymers may be considered as an alternative to bentonite.
25.1.2 SCOPE (2012)
a. The use of bentonite slurry to permit deep, unshored excavation work is an effective construction method when
properly employed. The applicability of slurry trench techniques to any proposed site must be established by
subsurface investigation.
b. In practice, excavations are kept constantly filled with a bentonite slurry during both digging and backfilling
operations. The excavation is held open by the hydrostatic thrust of the slurry. Formation of an impermeable bentontitic
seal, or filter cake, at the trench interface prevents slurry loss and allows the development of the hydrostatic head.
Presence of slurry in the trench also prevents the drawdown of the ground water table, a frequent result of open
excavation.
c. Slurry applications include temporary and permanent construction of concrete foundation walls, both precast and cast-
in-place, and flow-controlling cutoff walls. Critical procedures such as cleaning the slurry, cleaning the bottom of the
trench and checking slurry density prior to placing tremie concrete should be considered.
d. The decision to use the slurry trench method on an excavation project, and the design of the appropriate slurry, must be
based on:
(1) Analysis of subsurface investigations.

Slurry Wall Construction
(2) Soil stability analysis.
(3) Risk assessment.
(4) Site constraints.
(5) Economic alternatives analysis.
(6) Possible adverse effects of stray current on slurry quality.
25.1.3 TERMS (2012)
Bentonite - An ultra fine natural clay whose principal mineral constituent is premium-grade sodium cation montmorillonite.
Slurry - A stable colloidal suspension of hydrated bentonite or other suitable material in water used as a drilling or trenching
fluid.
Slurry Trench - A vertical trench excavation filled with slurry to support the trench sidewalls.
Slurry Wall - A semi-impervious barrier of blended soil or cement and bentonite with a hydraulic conductivity of 1 x 10-6
cm/sec or less, constructed using a slurry trench during excavation and backfilling.
Slurry Ponds - Ponds constructed for the purpose of storing mixed slurry.
1
25.1.4 REFERENCES (1988) R(2012)
References for Part 25, Slurry Wall Construction are found at the end of this chapter. Refer to Reference 7, 8, 10, 18, 37, 60,
and 111.
SECTION 25.2 DESIGN
25.2.1 GENERAL (1988) R(2012)
a. Slurry walls are designed in large part according to accepted foundation engineering practices; however, the interaction 4
of the slurry and the surrounding soil affects the stability and functionality of the wall to a much greater degree than in
most other structure types.
b. Slurry walls must be designed for both the construction and the final conditions. While the design for one condition
affects the other, different forces and criteria apply.
25.2.2 QUALIFICATIONS (2002) R(2012)
It is highly recommended that the engineer for the design of the slurry wall have previous experience in the design of slurry
trench construction.

25.2.3 SUBSURFACE INVESTIGATION (1988) R(2012)
Subsurface investigation prior to the design of the slurry system shall be in accordance with Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface
Investigation. Additional information, such as permeability and pH of the soil, may also be required as part of this
investigation.
25.2.4 DESIGN FOR CONSTRUCTION PHASE (2012)
25.2.4.1 Trench Design
Design of the slurry trench for the construction phase has the following objectives:
a. Provide stability of the trench during excavation.
b. Prevent drawdown of groundwater.
c. Minimize settlement of surrounding soil and structures bearing thereon.
d. Minimize loss of the slurry into the groundwater of particular concern in very porous soils.
e. Assurance of integrity of adjacent structures.
25.2.4.2 Stability Analysis
a. The hydrostatic pressure from the slurry in the trench provides the main stabilizing force to offset the pressures acting
on the trench walls. These include pressures due to:
(1) Soil loads;
(2) Surcharge loads, including structures and construction equipment;
(3) Fluid pressures due to groundwater.
b. The factor of safety of the trench, with respect to stability based on these pressures, is calculated as follows:
Pf
F. S. = ----------------
-
Pa + Ps
H
where P f = H f γ f ⎛ -----f-⎞
⎝ 2⎠
(1) For cohesive soils
2
γH
P a = --------- – 2S u H
2
Ps = qs H
Assuming φ = 0

(2) For non-cohesive soils (Figure 8-25-1).
Pa = P1 + P2 + P3 + Pw
( H – Hw )
P 1 = ( H – H w )γK a ----------------------
-
2
P 2 = ( H – H w )γK a ( H w )
Hw
P 3 = ( H w γ′K a )-------
-
2
Hw
P w = H w γ w -------
-
2
2 2 2
( H – Hw ) ( Hw ) ( Hw ) γw
P a = -------------------------( γK a ) + H w ( H – H w )γK a +--------------
- ( γ′K a ) + ---------------------
-
2 2 2
Ps = Ka qs H
1
where:
Su = Undrained Shear Strength

qs = Surcharge Loading
H = Depth of Trench 3
Hf = Depth of Slurry
Hw = Depth of Water Table Above Bottom of Trench
γ = Unit Weight of Soil
γf = Unit Weight of Slurry
γw = Unit Weight of Water
4
γ’ = Unit Weight of Submerged Soil
Ka = Active Coefficient
Pa = Active Pressure
Ps = Pressure Due to Surcharge
Pf = Slurry Pressure
Pw = Pressure Due to Groundwater
φ = Angle of Internal Friction
c. Fluctuations in groundwater elevations have a large effect upon the stability of the trench. Therefore, in areas of porous
soil adjacent to bodies of water or other locations where the water table may vary quickly, the water table shall be
monitored.

Filter Cake
Figure 8-25-1. Forces in Non-Cohesive Soils
d. In addition to the force from the fluid pressure of the slurry, the formation of the filter cake that develops at the soil-
slurry interface may contribute to the stability of the trench. Due to this, the minimum allowable factor of safety for
slurry trenches is often lower than that used in the stability analyses of other systems where this interaction between the
soil and the retaining substance does not occur. The appropriate factor of safety for the trench shall be determined by
the Engineer, based upon previous experience with slurry walls, the soil type and an overall project risk assessment,
including the risk involved to the surrounding track or structures.
25.2.5 METHODS OF INCREASING STABILITY (1988) R(2012)
A number of measures may be taken to increase the stability of the trench:
a. Adjusting slurry level and density to increase the hydrostatic pressure within the trench.
b. The water table outside of the trench may be lowered by means of well points to decrease the hydrostatic pressure
outside the trench. Lowering the water table may increase settlement outside of the trench.
c. Grouting to lessen loss of slurry into coarse gravel layers, to lessen sloughing off of wall surfaces into the trench in
loose materials or to increase bearing capacity in areas with surcharge loads.
d. Adjusting the length of cut open at one time in order to increase the arching action in the soil.
25.2.6 FINAL CONDITION (2012)

25.2.6.1 Wall
The design of the wall for the final condition is dependent upon the type and purpose of wall.
25.2.6.2 Cutoff Walls
Slurry cutoff walls may be of either soil-bentonite or cement-bentonite construction. The design of either system shall be
based, in part, on the following factors:

a. Permeability. In order to be effective, cutoff walls must be keyed into an underlying aquaclude (impervious layer). The
soil-bentonite or cement-bentonite mixture shall be designed and tested for the desired degree of permeability, as
required to contain the lateral flow of the groundwater. It should be determined that chemical attack on the cutoff wall
from toxic wastes or acids will not reduce the integrity of the walls.
b. Strength. The cutoff wall shall have sufficient strength to withstand the hydraulic gradient across the wall, in addition
to pressures from any embankment or surcharge.
c. Flexibility. The wall should be sufficiently flexible to withstand movements due to deformation of the adjacent soil
under the loads listed in Article 25.2.4.2.
25.2.6.3 Foundation Walls
Foundation walls should be designed (see Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design) for the following applicable horizontal and
vertical loads:
a. Earth pressure.
b. Hydrostatic pressure from the difference in water table on the opposite sides of the wall.
c. Live load and structure surcharges on the retained fill.
d. Direct live and dead loads on the wall.
25.3.1 SLURRY (2012)
25.3.1.1 Bentonite-Water Slurry

3
Slurry consists of a stable colloidal suspension of bentonite in water and shall be controlled in accordance with the most
current American Petroleum Institute (API) Standard 13B, “Standard Procedure for Field Testing Drilling Fluids,” and the
following requirements:
a. At the time of introduction of the slurry into the trench the slurry shall be a mixture of not less than 18 pounds (8.16 kg) 4
of bentonite per barrel (42 U.S. gallons) (159 L) of water. Additional bentonite may be required, depending on the
hardness and temperature of the water and the quality of the bentonite. The slurry shall have a minimum apparent
viscosity of 15 centipoise or 40 seconds reading through a Marsh Funnel Viscosimeter at 68 F (20 C), a maximum
filtrate loss of 30 cubic centimeters (1.83 in3) in 30 minutes at 100 psi (690 kPa), and a pH of not less than eight.
b. The slurry mixture in the trench shall have unit weight not less than 64 pcf (1.03 g/cm3) and not greater than 87 pcf
(1.40 g/cm3).
25.3.1.2 Soil-Bentonite Slurry
The slurry to be mixed with the soil should be either slurry taken from the trench or slurry meeting the requirements of slurry
introduced into the trench. If slurry from the trench is used, it shall be cleaned of unsuitable excavated materials (lumps) and
tested prior to reuse.

25.3.1.3 Cement-Bentonite Slurry
The cement-bentonite slurry consists of a stable suspension of cement in a bentonite water slurry and shall be controlled in
accordance with the most current API Standard 10A: “Well Cements” and the following requirements:
a. At the time of introduction of cement in the bentonite-water slurry, the bentonite slurry shall have a minimum 34
seconds reading through a Marsh Funnel, 1.6 U.S. qt (1500 ml) in and 1 U.S. qt (946 ml) out.
b. Cement should be weighed and added to the bentonite slurry to produce a cement-water ratio of 0.20 by weight.
c. At the time of introduction in the trench, the cement-bentonite slurry should be generally proportioned so as to have a
viscosity corresponding to a Marsh Funnel reading not less than 40 seconds or more than 50 seconds, as measured at
the batch plant. If a reading falls outside these limits, the next batch will be corrected to fall within the limits.
25.3.2 BENTONITE (2002) R(2012)
Bentonite used in preparing slurry shall be pulverized (powder or granular) premium grade sodium cation montmorillonite and
shall meet the most current API Standard 13A “Drilling Fluid Materials.”
25.3.3 CEMENT (2002) R(2012)
a. Cement used in cement-bentonite slurry shall conform to ASTM C150, “Requirements for Portland Type 1 Cement.”
b. Cement used in tremie concrete shall conform to the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements.
25.3.4 WATER (2012)
Fresh water, free of deleterious substances that adversely affect the properties of the slurry, shall be used to manufacture
bentonite slurry. It is the responsibility of the Contractor that the slurry resulting from the water shall meet the requirements of
this Part.
25.3.5 ADDITIVES (2002) R(2012)
Additives such as softening agents, dispersants, retarders or plugging or bridging agents, may be added to the water or the
slurry to permit efficient use of bentonite and proper workability of the slurry only with the approval of the Engineer.
25.3.6 BACKFILL (2012)
a. When consolidation of the trench backfill is a concern, the material for trench backfilling for a Soil/Bentonite slurry
trench cutoff wall should be composed of slurry and selected granular soils obtained from the excavation and/or
designated borrow areas. The soil shall be friable and free from roots, organic matter, or other deleterious materials.
The backfill shall be thoroughly mixed and reasonably well-graded between the gradation limits found in Table 8-25-
1.
b. When a coefficient of permeability for the backfill must be less than or equal to 1 × 10-7 cm/sec, the fines in the
backfill mix shall have sufficient plasticity so that the material can be rolled into a 1/8 inch (3 mm) thread without
crumbling. The water content of the backfill material shall not exceed 20% prior to blending with bentonite slurry.
Laboratory permeability tests shall be run to verify the suitability of the mix. Dry bentonite may be added to further
decrease the permeability if needed.

Table 8-25-1. Backfill Gradation Limits
U.S. Standard Percent Passing by

(metric) Dry Weight
3/8 inches 65 to 100
(9.5 mm)
No. 20 35 to 85
(850 μm)
No. 200 15 to 35
(75 μm)
c. When consolidation of the backfill is not a concern and a coefficient of permeability in excess of 1 × 10-6 cm/sec for
the wall is acceptable, the excavated soil, cleaned of deleterious material, should be used for economy.
d. The material used to backfill trenches where precast panels are used shall be composed of any fine grain soil of low
plasticity capable of flowing in place between the precast panel and the walls of the trench excavation. Alternately, the
void between panels can be filled with an approved grout mix such as cement-bentonite.
25.3.7 TREMIE CONCRETE (2012)
Concrete shall be produced and placed in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements. Approved
additives, such as set retarders, may be used to improve workability. Slump at time of placement should not be less than 8 1
inches (200 mm).
25.3.8 PRECAST PANELS (2002) R(2012)
Design of precast panels shall meet all requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design.
3
25.3.9 PERMANENT JOINT BEAMS (2012)
If used with cast-in-place concrete walls, permanent joint beams may be precast concrete or steel shapes.
25.3.10 MATERIALS QUALITY CONTROL (2012)
a. Proper quality control should be maintained for the cutoff wall construction, under the direction of a qualified engineer. 4
Testing requirements are summarized in Table 8-25-2.
b. Results of all tests performed should be recorded.
25.4.1 GENERAL (2012)
The construction of precast, cast-in-place, and flow-controlling cutoff walls all generally follow the same construction
techniques, i.e., trench excavation under the influence of a restraining bentonite slurry fluid, and fluid replacement by a wall or
barrier material. Construction methods should be such that slurry material is contained and controlled to prevent loss of trench
excavation, leaks, spillage, and then properly disposed.

Table 8-25-2. Materials Quality Control Program
Minimum
Subject Standard Type of Test Specified Values
Frequency
Materials Water – – pH Per Water Source or as As Required to Properly
– Total Hardness Changes Occur Hydrate Bentonite with
Approved Additives
Additives – Manufacturer Certificate of Compliance As Approved by Engineer
with Stated Characteristics
Bentonite API Std. 13A Manufacturer Certificate of Compliance Premium Grade Sodium
Cation Montmorillonite
Backfill Soils – Selected Soils Obtained from a Borrow 65% to 100% Passing 3/8
Area Approved by the Engineer inches Sieve (9.5 mm)
35% to 85% Passing #20 Sieve
(850 μm)
15% to 35% Passing
#200 Sieve (75 μm)
Roll to 1/8 inch (3 mm) Thread
Cement (for ASTM C150 Manufacturer Certificate of Compliance Portland, Type I
Cement–
Bentonite
Slurry Wall)
Slurry Prepared for API Std. 13B – Unit Weight One Set per Shift or Unit Weight ≥ 64 lb/cu. ft.
Placement into – Viscosity Per Batch (Pond) (1.03 g/cm3)
the Trench – Filtrate Loss V ≥ 15 Centipoise or 40
– pH Sec-Marsh @ 68 degrees
F (20 degrees C)
Marsh Funnel as Loss ≤ 30 cc in 30 min @ 100
per ASTM psi (690 kPa)
D6910 pH ≥ 8
In Trench API Std. 13B 1 – Unit Weight One Set per Shift at Unit Weight = 64 - 87 lb/cu. ft.
Point of Trenching and (1.03 – 1.40 g/cm3)
Near the Bottom of
Trench
Backfill At Trench ASTM C143 – Slump One Set per 200 Cubic Slump 2 inches to 6 inches (50
Mix – Gradation Yards (153 m3) mm to 150 mm)
65% to 100% Passing 3/8
inches Sieve (9.5 mm)
35% to 85% Passing #20 Sieve
(850 μm)
15% to 35% Passing
#200 Sieve (75 μm)
Cement- Upon API Std. 13B – C/W Ratio Each Batch C/W = 0.20
BentoniteSl Introduction in API Std. 10 – Viscosity Five per Shift V = 40 to 50 Sec-Marsh
urry the Trench

25.4.2 TRENCH EXCAVATION (2012)
25.4.2.1 General
The trench should be constructed to line and grade and tolerances as shown on the plans. Boring logs indicate the general type
of materials to be excavated.
25.4.2.2 Pretrenching
Pretrenching may be performed to relocate, remove, or preserve utilities. Isolated additional excavations “in the dry” may be
needed to remove obstructions.
25.4.2.3 Trenching Method
a. Trenching should be performed using suitable earth-moving equipment, such as grab or clamshell buckets, backhoe,
chisels, drills, special patented equipment, or other means for the removal of material. Excavation shall be to full-depth
at the point of start, proceed along the trench line full-depth and be performed under bentonite slurry. Methods and
techniques are chosen to minimize over-excavation, loosening and/or caving of material outside the designated wall
width.
b. Guide walls are commonly constructed ahead of the trenching operations to assist in the control of line and grade,
protect the trench sides against sloughing and/or caving of material, support surcharge loads, and act as a reservoir for
the slurry.
1
c. The distance of trench excavation at any one time should not exceed practical limits for placement of permanent wall
material in a given period of time.
d. Additional equipment, such as an air lift, pump, or clamshell buckets, may be needed to clean the trench bottom of
loose material. Means shall be provided to verify the trench depth and condition prior to wall construction.
e. Continuous trenching may be allowed in soil-bentonite wall construction, but individual panels with joints are required 3
for reinforced concrete wall construction.
f. Joints are very important and their design and detail should be carefully considered.
25.4.3 SLURRY MATERIAL (2012)

25.4.3.1 General 4
Sufficient batch plant mixers, pumps, supply lines, ponds and tanks, and reserve material should be provided to assure proper
mixing and placement of the slurry. No slurry shall be prepared in the trench. Mixing of water and bentonite shall continue
until bentonite particles are fully hydrated and the resulting slurry appears homogeneous. The slurry shall be agitated or
recirculated in storage ponds or tanks as required to maintain a homogeneous mix.
25.4.3.2 Slurry Introduction
At the start of trench excavation, the bentonite slurry shall be introduced into the excavation.
25.4.3.3 Slurry Maintenance
The slurry shall be maintained in the excavated trench until the completion of the excavation and displacement of the wall
construction. The slurry level shall meet the design requirements of Section 25.2, Design and be maintained within a
reasonable distance from the top of excavation, generally within 3 feet (1 m), and at least 2 feet (0.7 m) above the groundwater
level. The Contractor should have sufficient personnel, equipment, and material ready to raise the slurry level at any time.

25.4.3.4 Quality Control
Quality control shall be maintained under the direction of a qualified engineer. Testing of the slurry should be performed each
working shift and include testing slurry pH, unit weight, filtration loss, and viscosity.
25.4.3.5 Slurry Disposal
As the slurry is displaced by the construction of the wall, means should be provided for holding the fluid or for its disposal.
Slurry must be disposed of properly.
25.4.4 WALL CONSTRUCTION (2002) R(2012)

25.4.4.1 General
In addition to the above construction requirements and methods, the following should be considered by the Engineer:
25.4.4.2 Cutoff Wall (Soil-Bentonite)
a. Introduce and maintain bentonite-water slurry into the trench. It is essential that the bottom of the slurry trench be
keyed a minimum specified penetration into the underlying aquaclude, as indicated by soil borings.
b. Prepare wall material per project requirements. Soil-bentonite wall material (backfill) shall be composed of slurry and
selected soils obtained from designated borrow areas. The soil shall be free of organic or other deleterious materials.
The backfill shall be thoroughly mixed to a homogeneous paste consistency and reasonably well-graded.
c. Place the wall material continuously, starting at the beginning of the trench in a manner that will produce a
homogeneous wall free of voids or pockets of slurry. Before drying occurs, the top of the wall shall be capped.
25.4.4.3 Cutoff Wall (Cement-Bentonite)
a. Introduce and maintain cement-bentonite slurry into the trench. If, at any time, the slurry in the trench begins to set or
gel before excavation is complete to the full-depth, or otherwise becomes unworkable, additional freshly prepared
cement-bentonite shall be introduced. Addition of water to slurry in the trench shall not be permitted.
b. It is essential that the bottom of the slurry trench be keyed a minimum specified penetration into the underlying
aquaclude, as indicated by soil borings.
c. After initial set, the top of the completed wall shall be checked for decantation. After the wall has been topped off and
set, but before drying occurs, the wall shall be capped.
d. Any time that a wall segment is extended where the slurry in the previously excavated trench has taken a set, a
minimum of 3 feet (1 m) overlap into the previously excavated trench shall be removed.
25.4.4.4 Cast-in-Place Concrete Wall
a. Trench to the line and grade shown on the plans, introducing water-bentonite slurry as trenching progresses. Trench
length open at any one time should not exceed the capacity for placing concrete.
b. Set panel end forms or joint material as required by the plans.
c. Place reinforcement (bars or structural steel) in slurry (for reinforced wall construction).
d. Place wall concrete by tremie (gravity flow or pump) using high slump concrete with 3/4 inches (2 cm) maximum size
aggregate, of the compressive strength designated on the plans. The concrete placement shall be controlled to prevent

segregation and not be allowed to fall through the slurry, but rather placed on the trench bottom and allowed to displace
slurry in accordance with Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
e. The wall top shall be finished to the grade designated on the plans.
f. Additional requirements for cast-in-place concrete wall construction are beyond the scope of this Part.
25.4.4.5 Precast Panel Wall
a. Trench to the line and grade shown on the plans, introducing water-bentonite slurry as trenching progresses. Trench
length should not exceed the capacity for placing precast panels and tremie concrete.
b. Place precast panels in trench (held in position by guide restraints) displacing the slurry fluid.
c. Place tremie concrete at toe of set precast panels as shown on the plans.
d. Backfill with granular material between panel and trench after concrete has set. Remove panel restraints.
25.4.5 INSPECTION (2012)
Only competent and experienced contractors, prequalified by the Engineer, should be engaged for slurry wall construction.
Slurry trench specialists (as approved by the Engineer) should supervise the construction, slurry preparation, and quality
control. Documentation of all materials used shall be furnished to the Engineer, along with certification that the wall
construction conforms to the requirements of the plans and all applicable environmental regulations.
1
C - COMMENTARY (2012)
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various paragraphs in Part 25, Slurry Wall Construction. In 3
the numbering of paragraphs of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/paragraph being explained.
C - SECTION 25.3 MATERIALS
C - 25.3.1 SLURRY (2012)
C - 25.3.1.1 Bentonite-Water Slurry

4
A bentonite-water slurry is generally used during an initial excavation to stabilize the soil on both sides of a trench. The
bentonite usually mixes with the soil on the faces of the excavation creating a “filter cake” that has low permeability.
C - 25.3.1.2 Soil-Bentonite Slurry
Following excavation, bentonite may be mixed with soil and reintroduced into the trench. The soil-bentonite slurry has low
permeability with good chemical resistance and lower cost than pure bentonite and can be used as a long term cutoff wall.
C - 25.3.1.3 Cement-Bentonite Slurry
Cement is mixed with bentonite when a stronger wall is required, either to withstand movement of the adjacent soil due to
loading or to withstand loads applied to the wall itself.
C - 25.3.1.10 Materials Quality Control

In Table 8-25-2 references to “Marsh” are to the Marsh Funnel (see Figure C-8-25-1) test used as a measure of viscosity. The
Marsh funnel is a cone 6 inches (152 mm) in diameter tapering down over the 12-inch (305 mm) height to a 2-inch (52 mm)
long tube 3/16 inch (4.75 mm) in diameter. The funnel is filled with about 1.6 U.S. quarts (1500 mL) of the slurry and the time
for 1.0 U.S. quart (946 mL) to pass through the funnel is recorded as a measure of viscosity. If water is used, the time is 26 +/-
0.5 seconds. The time for slurry should be about 40 seconds and for soil-bentonite slurry between 40 and 50 seconds as per
Table 8-25-2.
C - SECTION 25.4 CONSTRUCTION
C - 25.4.3 SLURRY MATERIAL (2012)
C - 25.4.3.5 Disposal
Slurry must be disposed of at a permitted disposal facility or on site if approved by the Owner/Engineer in compliance with
federal, state and local laws and regulations. Care must be taken to ensure that slurry does not escape to nearby drainage
courses, sewers, wetlands or detention basins.
Figure C-8-25-1. Marsh Funnel

8
Part 26
Recommendations for the Design of
Segmental Bridges1
— 1996 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS

26.1 General Requirements and Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.2 Notations (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-4
26.1.3 Terms (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-7 1
26.1.4 Concrete (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.1.5 Segmental Bridges, Design Reinforcement (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.2 Strut-and-Tie-Models (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8
26.2.3 Effective Flange Width (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-8 3
26.2.4 Transverse Analysis (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-11
26.2.5 Longitudinal Analysis (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3 Design Loads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.2 Dead Loads (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-12
26.3.3 Erection Loads (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-13
26.3.4 Thermal Effects (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-13
26.3.5 Creep and Shrinkage (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.3.6 Post-Tensioning Force (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4 Load Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.1 General (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.2 Service Load Combinations for Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4 (1996). . . . . . 8-26-16
26.4.3 Strength Reduction Factors (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-17
26.4.4 Construction Load Combinations, Stresses and Stability (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-18
26.5 Allowable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.5.1 Prestressing Steel (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
26.5.2 Prestressed Concrete (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-21
1
References, Vol. 97, p. 60. Adopted 1996.


26.6 Prestress Losses (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-22
26.7 Flexural Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.2 Strain Compatibility (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.7.3 Center of Gravity Correction for Strand Tendons (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8 Shear and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8.1 Scope (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
26.8.2 General Requirements (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-24
26.8.3 Traditional Shear and Torsion Design for Plane Section Type Regions (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-27
26.8.4 Strut-and-Tie Truss Model Design for Either Beam Type or Discontinuity Regions (1996). . . . 8-26-28
26.8.5 Special Requirement for Diaphragms, Deep Beams, Corbels and Brackets (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-30
26.8.6 Shear Transfer at Interfaces (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.8.7 Two-way Punching Shear (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9 Fatigue Stress Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9.1 Fatigue Stress Limits for Bonded Nonprestressed Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.9.2 Fatigue Stress Limits for Prestressed Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10 Design of Local and General Anchorage Zones, Anchorage Blisters and Deviation Saddles . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-32
26.10.2 Forces and Reinforcement in General Anchorage Zones (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-33
26.10.3 Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-33
26.10.4 Reinforcement Detailing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.5 Anchorages in Special Blisters (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.6 Anchorages in Diaphragms (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.7 Anchorage Bearing Reaction Force (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-34
26.10.8 Deviation Saddles (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11 Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.1 General (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.2 Bridges with Internal Ducts (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-35
26.11.3 Provision for Future Dead Load or Deflection Adjustment (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12 Duct Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.1 Material Thickness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.2 Duct Area (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-36
26.12.4 Duct Supports (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-37
26.12.5 Duct Size, Clearance and Detailing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-37
26.12.6 Duct Confinement Reinforcement (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.13 Couplers (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.14 Connection of Secondary Beams (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-38
26.15 Concrete Cover and Reinforcement Spacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.15.1 Cover and Spacing (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.15.2 Reinforcement Details for Erection Loads (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
© 2013,

Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges
26.16 Inspection Access (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40

26.17 Box Girder Cross Section Dimensions and Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.1 Minimum Flange Thickness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.2 Minimum Web Thickness (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-40
26.17.3 Length of Top Flange Cantilever (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
26.17.4 Overall Cross Section Dimensions (1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-41
LIST OF FIGURES
8-26-1 Cross Sections and Corresponding Effective Flange Widths, bm, for Bending and Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-9
8-26-2 Pattern of the Effective Flange Width bm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-10
8-26-3 Effective Flange Width bm/b Coefficients bf bs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-10
8-26-4 Effective Flange Widths bn for Normal Faces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-11
8-26-5 Normal Daily Minimum Temperatures (Degrees F) for January . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-14
8-26-6 Normal Daily Maximum temperatures (Degrees F) for July. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-15 1
8-26-7 Negative Moment Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-23
8-26-8 Reinforcement Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-39
C-8-26-1Relative Joint Displacement Shear Key Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-45
C-8-26-2Stress Trajectories in a B-Region and Near Discontinuities (D-Regions)1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-47
C-8-26-3Beam with Direct Supports1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-47
C-8-26-4T-beam1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-48
C-8-26-5Longitudinal Shear Transfer by Bottom Slab to Web Haunches1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-48 3
C-8-26-6Truss Model of a Beam with Cantilever1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-51
C-8-26-7The Two Most Frequent and Most Useful Strut-and-Tie Models1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-52
C-8-26-8The Compression Strut in the Web with the Stirrups1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-53
C-8-26-9Examples of the Basic Types of Nodes1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-54
C-8-26-10Diaphragm of a Box Girder Bridge1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-55
C-8-26-11Fan Action1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-56
C-8-26-12Different Support Conditions Lead to Different Strut-and-Tie Models and Different
4
Reinforcement Arrangements of Corbels1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-57
C-8-26-13Bursting Stresses Under Bearing Plate Anchorages1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-59
C-8-26-14A Typical D-Region1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-59
C-8-26-15Schematic Drawing of Different Types of “Hanger” Reinforcement1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-63
C-8-26-16Extent of the Intersection Zone for the Connection of Secondary Beams1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-63
LIST OF TABLES
8-26-1 Strength Reduction Factor φ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-18

8-26-2 Allowable Tensile Stresses for Construction Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-20
1 Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute PCI Journal, see individual figure for volume and page number.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 26.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIAL
26.1.1 GENERAL (1996)1
The specifications of this part are intended for design of longitudinally and/or transversely post-tensioned bridges utilizing
normal weight concrete constructed with either precast or cast-in-place box segments of single or multiple cells, or
combinations thereof, as well as simple span and continuous segmental beam-type bridges. The specifications pertain to
bridges of all sizes and are restricted to bridge span lengths of 200 feet or less. Unless otherwise stated or superseded by these
specifications, the provisions of the AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering are intended to apply to the design of
segmental concrete bridges.
26.1.2 NOTATIONS (1996)
Notations are in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete and the following:
A = area of concrete surrounding a bar, (see Article 26.15.2) square inch.

Ab = bearing area of tendon anchorage, square inch.
A' = maximum area of the portion of the concrete anchorage surface that is geometrically similar to and concentric with
b
the bearing area of the tendon anchorage, square inch.
Acc = area of concrete in compression chord, square inch.
Acn = area of one face of a truss node region, square inch.
Acp = area enclosed by outside perimeter of concrete cross section, square inch.
Acs = area of inclined compression strut, square inch.
Ag = gross area of concrete cross section, square inch.
Al = total area of additional longitudinal reinforcement to resist torsion, square inch.
Ao = area enclosed by shear flow path, See Article 26.8.2j, square inch.
As = area of nonprestressed tensile reinforcement, square inch.
A's = area of compression reinforcement, square inch.
A *s = area of prestressed reinforcement in tension zone, square inch.
At = area of one leg of continuous, closed transverse torsion reinforcement within a distances, square inch.
AV = area of transverse shear reinforcement within a distance s, square inch.
a = portion of single span, end span, or span adjacent cantilever arm subject to shear lag effects (see Figure C-8-26-2),
feet.
b = top or bottom flange width either side of web (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
be = minimum effective shear flow web or flange width to resist torsional stresses, (see Article 26.8.2j, Article 26.8.2e
and Article 26.8.3a), feet.
bf = effective flange width coefficient for interior portion of span (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), unitless.
bm = effective width of flange (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
bm1 = effective width of cantilever flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bm2 = effective width of half of interior top flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bm3 = effective width of half of bottom flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bmf = effective width for center portion of span (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bms = effective width at support or for cantilever arm (see Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bn = effective flange width for lateral distribution of post-tensioning force (see Figure C-8-26-4), feet.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

bno = web width at anchorage of post-tensioning force (see Figure C-8-26-4), feet.
bo = web width (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
bs = effective top or bottom flange width coefficient at supports and for cantilever arms (see Figure C-8-26-2 and
Figure C-8-26-3), feet.
bw = minimum web width, (see Article 26.8.2e), inches.
b1 = width of cantilever flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
b2 = width of half of interior top flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
b3 = width of half of interior bottom flange of box girder (see Figure C-8-26-1), feet.
CE = weight of specialized construction equipment, kips.
CLE = longitudinal construction equipment load, kips.
CLL = construction live load, psf, normally taken as 10 psf.
c = portion of continuous span adjacent to interior support subject to shear lag effects (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
D = sum of dead load of structure (DL), superimposed dead load (SDL), and permanent effects of erection loads (EL),
kips.
DIFF = differential (unbalanced) dead load from one cantilever, kips.
DL = dead load of structure only, kips.
DT = thermal differential from centerline of top flange to centerline of bottom slab, degrees F.
d = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the longitudinal tension reinforcement, inches. For
prestressed concrete members, the greater of the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
prestressed tension reinforcement or 0.8h may be used, feet.
1
da = depth of anchor plate, inches.
dc = thickness of cover from tension fiber to center of bar, (see Article 26.15.2) inches.
do = total depth of section (see Figure C-8-26-2), feet.
dON = construction height of secondary beam (see Figure C-8-26-8), feet.
dOH = construction height of main beam (see Figure C-8-26-8), feet.
dsp = total depth of symmetric concrete prism above and below the anchor plate (also assumed to be the length of the 3
anchorage zone), inches.
Ecm = secant modulus of elasticity, psi or ksf.
Eeff = effective modulus of elasticity for long term loads considering creep deformations, psi or ksf.
EL = permanent effect of erection loads (final state), psi or ksf.
e = base of Naperian logarithms
4
Fbst = total bursting force (tensile) due to a tendon anchorage, kips.
Fr = radial force due to tendon curvature, lb per foot.
f c' = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi or ksf.
f c' = square root of specified compressive strength of concrete, (see Article 26.8.2f for limit) psi or ksf.
f ci
' = compressive strength of concrete at time of initial prestress, psi or ksf.
fcn = compressive stress in the concrete node regions, (see Article if) psi or ksf.
fcp = permissible concrete compressive stress under anchorage, psi or ksf.
fcu = crushing strength of diagonally cracked concrete, (see Article id) psi or ksf.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

fpc = compressive strength in concrete after allowance for all prestress losses, psi or ksf. Critical stress to be determined
at:
(a) the centroid of the cross section resisting external loads, or
(b) the junction of the web and compression flange when the centroid lies within the flange, or
(c) in composite members, the stress at (a) or (b) for stresses due to both prestress and the moments resisted by the
precast member acting alone.
fpμ = ultimate strength of prestressing steel, psi.
fs = stress in nonprestressed reinforcement under erection loads, (see Article 26.15.2), psi.
f s' = stress in compression reinforcement, psi.
fst = steel stress at beginning of time intervals tl, psi.
*
f su = average stress in prestressed reinforcement at ultimate load, psi.
fsy = specified yield strength of nonprestressed reinforcement, psi.
f y* = yield point stress of prestressing steel, psi.
h = overall thickness of member, inches.
IE = impact load from equipment
f pc
K = 1 + -------------
- , factor for torsional cracking moment (see Article 26.8.2j and l)
2 f ′c
l = span length, (see Figure C-8-26-2) feet.

li = span length for use in determining effective flange width, (see Figure C-8-26-2) feet.
Mu = factored moment at section, in-lb or ft-lb.
Nuc = factored compressive axial force normal to cross section, lb.
Nut = factored tensile axial force normal to cross section, lb.
P = tendon force, (see Article 26.12.3 and Article 26.12.6.1) lb.
pcp = outside perimeter of the concrete cross section, inches.
Pj = tendon jacking force, kips.
ph = perimeter of centerline of outermost continuous closed transverse reinforcement, inches.
R = tendon radius of curvature, (Article 26.12.3) feet.
R = rib shortening and creep effects, (see Article 26.4.2 and Article 26.4.4.1) kips.
Rlr = loss of prestress due to steel relaxation, low relaxation strand, psi.
Rsr = loss of prestress due to steel relaxation, stress relieved steel, psi.
S = shrinkage effects, (see Article 26.4.4.1) kips.
Su = force in a truss member due to factored ultimate loads, lb.
SDL = superimposed dead load, kips.
s = spacing of shear or torsion reinforcement measured parallel to the longitudinal axis of the member, inches.
s = bar spacing, inches (see Article 26.15.2).
T = sum of effects of thermal rise or fall (TRF) and thermal differential (DT), kips.
TRF = thermal rise or fall, degrees F.
Tc = torsional cracking moment, (see Article 26.8.2j) in-lb.
Tn = nominal torsion resistance, in-lb.
To = tendon stress at jacking end, psi.
Tu = factored torsion at section, in-lb.
U = load due to segment unbalance on opposite cantilever ends, kips.
Vc = nominal shear strength provided by concrete, lb.
© 2013,

Vn = nominal shear force resisted by member, lb.

Vp = component of the effective prestressing which acts in the direction of the applied shear (see Article 26.8.1g and
Article 26.8.2h).
Vs = nominal shear resisted by the 45 degrees truss model as measured by the stirrup capacity, lb.
VU = factored shear force at section, lb.
WTdl = area of concrete surrounding a bar, (see Article 26.15.2), square inch.
WUP = wind uplift on cantilever, kips.
Z = correction dimension for location of center of gravity of tendon bundle in duct, (see Article 26.7.3) inch.
Z = quantity for detailing of reinforcement to control flexural cracking during erection, (see Article 26.15.2) kips per
inch.
σo = average compressive stress in the concrete section due to the post-tensioning anchorage force after the force is
distributed over the depth, d, of the section, psi.
σy = transverse tensile stress in the concrete section due to the post-tensioning anchorage force, psi (see Figure C-8-26-
13).
φ = strength reduction factor (see Article 26.4.3).
φb = strength reduction factor for bearing (see Article 26.4.3).
φc = creep coefficient, ratio of creep strain to elastic strain.
φf = strength reduction factor for flexure (see Article 26.4.3).
φv = strength reduction factor for shear and diagonal tension (see Article 26.4.3).
μ = friction coefficient (per radian)
1
α = total angular deviation from jacking end to point x, radians.
3
8 26
26.1.3 TERMS (1996)
Terms are in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design and Part 17, Prestressed Concrete and the following. Refer
to the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of the chapter for definitions. 4
Anchorage Blister General Zone Secondary Moment
Closure Internal Tendon Strut-and-Tie Model
Confinement Anchorage Local Zone Temperature Gradient
Deviation Saddle Launching Bearing Type A Joints
External Tendon Launching Nose Type B Joints
General Bursting Forces Low Relaxation Steel
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

26.1.4 CONCRETE (1996)

Structural concrete used in segmental construction shall have a minimum 28-day strength of 4,500 psi, or greater as specified
by the Engineer. The required concrete strength at the time of stressing shall be determined in accordance with Article 26.5.2.
26.1.5 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, DESIGN REINFORCEMENT (1996)1

26.1.5.1 Prestressing Steel
As per Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
26.1.5.2 Reinforcing Steel
a. ASTM Grade 60 unless otherwise specified.
b. All bridge deck reinforcement, including any reinforcement projecting from the web into the deck, shall be provided
with a corrosion protective system in aggressive environments.
SECTION 26.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
26.2.1 GENERAL (1996)2

Elastic analysis and beam theory may be used to determine design moments, shears, and deflections. The effects of creep,
shrinkage, and temperature differentials shall be considered, as well as the effects of shear lag. Shear lag shall be considered in
accordance with the provisions of Article 26.2.3.
26.2.2 STRUT-AND-TIE-MODELS (1996)3

Strut-and-tie-models may be used for analysis when tensile stresses exceed the tensile strength of the concrete, and for areas
where strain distribution is non-linear.
26.2.3 EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH (1996)

26.2.3.1 General4
Effective flange width may be determined by elastic analysis procedures (Reference 87 and 88), by the provisions of Section
3-10.2 of the 1983 Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (Reference 63) or by the provisions of Article 26.2.3.2.
26.2.3.2 Effective Flange Width for Analysis, and for Calculation of Section Capacity and Stresses5
a. Section properties for analysis and for calculation of the effects of bending moments and shear forces may be based on
the flange widths specified in this section, or may be based on flange widths determined by other procedures listed in
Article 26.2.3.1. The effects of unsymmetrical loading on effective flange width may be disregarded. For flange width,
b, less than or equal to 0.3 do, bm may be assumed equal to b, where do is taken as the web height in accordance with
Figure C-8-26-1. For flange widths, b, greater than 0.3 do, the effective width may be determined in accordance with
Figure C-8-26-2 and Figure C-8-26-3. The value of bs shall be determined using the greater of the effective span
lengths adjacent to the support. If bmf is less than bms in a span, the pattern of the effective width within the span may
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary
© 2013,

be determined by the connecting line of the effective width bms at adjoining support points. However, bm shall not be
greater than b.
Figure 8-26-1. Cross Sections and Corresponding Effective Flange Widths, bm, for Bending and Shear
4
b. The section properties for normal forces may be based on the pattern according to Figure C-8-26-4, or may be
determined by more rigorous analytical procedures.
c. Stresses due to bending, shear and normal forces may be determined by using their corresponding section properties.
d. For the superposition of the bending stresses of the main load-bearing structure over the slab bending stresses
generated by local loads, the former may be assumed to have a straight line pattern in accordance with Figure C-8-26-
1. The linear stress distribution is determined from the constant stress distribution under the condition that the flange
force remains unchanged.
e. The capacity of a cross-section at the ultimate state may be determined by considering the full flange width effective.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-26-2. Pattern of the Effective Flange Width bm
Figure 8-26-3. Effective Flange Width bm/b Coefficients bf bs
© 2013,

Figure 8-26-4. Effective Flange Widths bn for Normal Faces

4
1
26.2.4 TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS (1996)
a. The transverse design of box girder segments for flexure shall consider the segment as a rigid box frame. Flanges shall
be analyzed as variable depth sections considering the fillets between the flange and webs. Combinations of track
loads, if the structure may support more than one track, shall be positioned to provide maximum moments, and elastic
analysis shall be used to determine the effective longitudinal distribution of wheel loads for each load location. Tracks
shall be positioned on the structure in accordance with clearance policies. Consideration shall be given to the increase
in web shear and other effects on the cross-section resulting from eccentric loading or unsymmetrical structure
geometry.
b. Influence surfaces (Reference 41, 42 and 74) or other elastic analysis procedures may be used to evaluate live load plus
impact moment effects in the top flange of the box section.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

c. Transverse elastic and creep shortening due to prestressing and shrinkage shall be considered in the transverse analysis.
d. The secondary effects due to prestressing shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In calculating
ultimate strength moment and shear requirements, the secondary moments or shears induced by prestressing (with a
load factor of 1.0) shall be added algebraically to the moments and shears due to factored ultimate dead and live loads.
26.2.5 LONGITUDINAL ANALYSIS (1996)
26.2.5.1 General1
a. Longitudinal analysis shall be in accordance with the provisions of Article 26.2.1. Longitudinal analysis of segmental
concrete bridges shall consider a specific construction method and construction schedule, as well as the time-related
effects of concrete creep, shrinkage, and prestress losses.
b. The secondary effects due to prestressing shall be included in stress calculations at working load. In calculating
ultimate moments and shear requirements, the secondary moments or shears induced by prestressing (with a load factor
of 1.0) shall be added algebraically to moments and shears due to factored dead and live loads.
c. Internal Tendons shall be designed and constructed as bonded tendons. Details of construction methods resulting in
unbonded or partially unbonded internal tendons are not allowed.
26.2.5.2 Erection Analysis
Analysis of the structure during the construction stage, shall consider the construction load combinations, stresses, and
stability considerations outlined in Article 26.4.4.
26.2.5.3 Analysis of the Final Structural System
The final structural system shall be analyzed for redistribution of erection stage moments resulting from the effects of creep
and shrinkage, and from any change in the statical system, including the closure of joints. Thermal effects on the final
structural system shall be considered in accordance with Article 26.3.4. The effect of prestress losses occurring after closure
shall be evaluated in accordance with Section 26.6, Prestress Losses (1996). The maximum moments resulting from the above
analyses shall be utilized in conjunction with the combinations of loads specified in Article 2.2.4 for determination of required
flexural strength.
SECTION 26.3 DESIGN LOADS
26.3.1 GENERAL (1996)
All loadings shall be in accordance with the latest edition of the Manual For Railway Engineering except as provided below.
26.3.2 DEAD LOADS (1996)2
Unit weight of concrete (including reinforcing steel) – 155 pcf or as determined for the project. Weight of diaphragms, anchor
blocks, or any other deviations from the typical cross section shall be included in the dead load calculations.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

26.3.3 ERECTION LOADS (1996)1
a. Erection loads comprise all loadings arising from the designer’s anticipated system of temporary supporting works
and/or special erection equipment to be used in accordance with the assumed construction sequence and schedule. The
assumed erection loads (magnitude and configuration) and acceptable closure forces due to misalignment corrections
shall be stated on the drawings. Due allowance shall be made for all effects of any changes to the statical structural
scheme during construction. The application, changes or removal of the assumed temporary supports or special
equipment shall be considered by taking into account residual “built-in” forces, moments, deformations, secondary
post-tensioning effects, creep, shrinkage and any other strain induced effects.
b. All elements of the bridge shall be designed for the anticipated construction system assumed by the Engineer and
shown on the plans. Any accepted contractor proposals which present differing construction loads shall be evaluated,
by the Engineer, for effects upon the structure.
26.3.4 THERMAL EFFECTS (1996)
26.3.4.1 Normal Mean Temperature
Unless more precise local data are available, normal mean temperature for the location shall be taken as the average of the
January and July values from Figure C-8-26-5 and Figure C-8-26-6, (Reference 43) respectively.
26.3.4.2 Seasonal Variation
a. For the purposes of design of the structure, the minimum and maximum overall temperatures shall be taken from 1
Figure C-8-26-5 and Figure C-8-26-6, respectively, unless more precise local data is available.
b. The temperature setting variations for bearings and expansion joints shall be stated on the bridge plans.
26.3.4.3 Thermal Coefficient2
The coefficient of thermal expansion used to determine temperature effects shall be taken as 6.0 × 10-6 per degree F, unless 3
more precise data are available.
26.3.4.4 Differential Temperature3
Positive and negative differential superstructure temperature gradients shall be considered in accordance with Appendix A of
National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 276 “Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures.”
(Reference 43) More precise data may be used if available. 4
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-26-5. Normal Daily Minimum Temperatures (Degrees F) for January

Figure 8-26-6. Normal Daily Maximum temperatures (Degrees F) for July

26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)1
Effects due to creep and shrinkage strains shall be calculated in accordance with provisions of Article 26.2.5.3. The creep
coefficient φc may be evaluated in accordance with the provisions of the ACI Committee 209 Report, (Reference 2) the CEB-
FIP Model Code, (Reference 15) or by a comprehensive test program. Creep strains and prestress losses (Reference 14) which
occur after closure of the structure causes a redistribution of the forces. Stresses shall be calculated for this effect based on an
assumed construction schedule stated on the plans.
26.3.6 POST-TENSIONING FORCE (1996)2
The structure shall be designed for both initial and final post-tensioning forces. Prestress losses shall be calculated for the
construction schedule stated on the plans. The final post-tensioning forces used in service load stress calculations shall be
based on the most severe condition at each location along the structure.
SECTION 26.4 LOAD FACTORS
26.4.1 GENERAL (1996)
In the final working condition, service or load factor load combinations shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design as amended below. Allowable stresses shall be in accordance with Section 26.5, Allowable Stresses. When
checking tensile stresses for service load, Groups II through IX, the variable load effects shall be divided by the allowable
stress increases in Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4. Strength reduction factors, φ, shall be in accordance with
Article 26.4.3. During construction, load case combinations, allowable stresses and stability shall be in accordance with
Article 26.4.4.
26.4.2 SERVICE LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR PART 2, REINFORCED CONCRETE

DESIGN, ARTICLE 2.2.4 (1996)
26.4.2.1 Creep and Shrinkage
a. The permanent effects of creep and shrinkage shall be added to all specified loading combinations with a load factor of
1.0.
b. For the group loading combinations listed in Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4, the following
abbreviations shall apply:
D = DL + SDL + EL and
OF = TRF + DT + R where:
EL = Erection Loads (final state)
NOTE: See Article 26.4.2.2.
TRF = Thermal – Rise or Fall
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

DT = Thermal – Differential
R = Creep Effects
NOTE: Creep effects to be considered, in conjunction with any rib shortening, shrinkage and anticipated
support settlement effects as loading designation R.
A thermal differential of 0.5DT is permissible when the load combination includes full live load + impact.
26.4.2.2 Erection Loads at End of Construction
The final state erection loads are defined as the final accumulated “built-in” forces and moments resulting from the
construction process.
26.4.2.3 Additional Thermal Loading Combination
In addition to Group Loads IV, V, and VI at service load, the following combination and stress shall apply:
(DL + SDL + EL) + E + B + SF + R + S + (DT) @ 100% Allowable Stress
NOTE: Letters in parenthesis are as per Article 26.1.2, others are as per Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.2.3.
26.4.3 STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS (1996)1 1

a. The basic strength reduction factors, φf and φv for flexure and shear, respectively, shall consider both the type of joint
between segments and the degree of bonding of the post-tensioning system provided. The appropriate value of φv listed
below shall be used for torsional effect calculations in Section 26.8, Shear and Torsion.
b. Since the post-tensioning provided may be a mixture of fully bonded tendons and unbonded or partially bonded
tendons, the strength reduction factor at any section shall be based upon the bonding conditions for the tendons 3
providing the majority of the prestressing force at the section. All internal tendons shall be designed and constructed as
bonded tendons.
c. In order for a tendon to be considered as fully bonded to the cross-section at a section, it must be bonded beyond the
critical section for a development length. The development length shall be calculated by a rational approach based
upon tendon pull out tests.
4
d. Cast-in-place concrete joints and wet concrete joints shall be considered as Type A joints.
e. Epoxy joints between precast units shall be considered as Type B joints.
f. Dry joints between precast units shall be considered as Type B joints.
g. Strength reduction factor, φ, shall be taken as shown in Table 8-26-1.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Table 8-26-1. Strength Reduction Factor φ
φf φv
Type
Flexure Shear
Fully Bonded Tendons

Type A Joints 0.95 0.85
Type B Joints 0.90 0.80
Unbonded or Partially Bonded External
Tendons
Type A Joints 0.90 0.90
Type B Joints 0.85 0.75
NOTE: The appropriate value of φv from Table 8-26-1 shall be used for torsional effect calculations in Section
26.8, Shear and Torsion.
h. The strength reduction factor for bearing, φb shall be taken as 0.70 for all types of construction. This value shall not be
applied to bearing stresses under anchorage plates for post-tensioning tendons.
26.4.4 CONSTRUCTION LOAD COMBINATIONS, STRESSES AND STABILITY (1996)
26.4.4.1 Erection Loads During Construction1
a. Erection Loads as defined by AREMA and as stated on the plans shall be as follows:
(1) Dead load of structure (DL). Unit weight of concrete (including rebar) 155 pcf or as determined for the project.
Weight of diaphragms, anchor blocks, or any other deviations from the typical cross-section shall be included in
the dead load calculations.
(2) Differential load from one cantilever (DIFF). This only applies to balanced cantilever construction. The load is
2% of the dead load applied to one cantilever.
(3) Superimposed dead load (SDL). This does not normally apply during construction. If it does, it should be
considered as part of the dead load (DL).
(4) Distributed construction live load (CLL). This is an allowance for miscellaneous items of plant, machinery and
other equipment apart from the major specialized erection equipment. The following magnitudes shall be used as
minimum unless loads of different magnitudes can be verified. Distributed load allowance 10 psf. In cantilever
construction, distributed load shall be taken as 10 psf on one cantilever and 5 psf on the other. For bridges built by
incremental launching, construction live load may be taken as zero.
(5) Specialized construction equipment (CE). This is the load from any special equipment such as a launching gantry,
beam and winch, truss or similar major item. This also includes segment delivery trucks and the maximum loads
applied to the structure by the equipment during the lifting of segments.
(6) Impact Load from equipment (IE). To be determined according to the type of machinery anticipated. For very
gradual lifting of segments, where the load involves small dynamic effects, the impact load may be taken as 10%.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

(7) Longitudinal construction equipment load (CLE). The longitudinal force from the construction equipment.
(8) Segment unbalance (U). This applies primarily to balanced cantilever construction but can be extended to include
any “unusual” lifting sequence which may not be a primary feature of the generic construction system. The load
“U” is the effect of any out of balance segments or other unusual condition as applicable.
(9) Wind uplift on cantilever (WUP). 5 psf minimum (balanced cantilever construction applied to one side only).
(10) Accidental release or application of a precast segment load or other sudden impact from an otherwise static
segment load of WTd1. Force plus Impact = 2WT1.
(11) Creep (R). In accordance with Article 26.3.5. Creep effects shall be considered as part of rib shortening (R).
(12) Shrinkage (S). In accordance with Article 26.3.5.
(13) Thermal (T). The sum of the effects due to thermal rise and fall (TRF) and differential temperature (DT) from
Article 26.3.4.
26.4.4.2 Construction Load Combinations and Allowable Stresses
a. Stresses shall be checked under the service load combinations given in Table 8-26-2. The distribution and application
of the individual erection loads (Article 26.4.4.1) appropriate to a construction phase shall be such as to produce the
most unfavorable effects. Table 8-26-2 is a guide; if more unfavorable conditions may occur with the particular
construction system, these shall be taken into account. The maximum allowable construction load compressive stress
shall be 0.5 f c' .
1
b. Load factor design need not be used for construction conditions with the exception of Article 26.4.4.3.
26.4.4.3 Construction Load Combinations Load Factor Design Check
Using strength reduction factors (φ) in accordance with Article 26.4.3, the strength provided shall not be less than required by 3
the following load factor combinations:
a. For maximum forces and moments:
1.1 (DL + DIFF) + 1.3CE + 2A
b. For minimum forces and moments: 4

DL + CE + 2A
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Table 8-26-2. Allowable Tensile Stresses for Construction Load Combinations
8-26-20
Super-
Segmental
Dead Loads Live Loads Wind Loads structure
Substructure Only
Only
(1)
Allowable (2) βE
(R+S+T) Including B SF (3) (4)
Stress (Note 3) Excluding Including
(R+S+T)
Comments
DL DIFF U CLL CE IE CLE W WUP WE (Note 4) (R+S+T) (R+S+T)
Combination
Allowable
Allowable Allowable
Stress
Stress Stress
(Note 4)
a 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 6 f c' 1 7 f c' βE 1 1 6 f c' 7 f c'
b 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 βE 1 1
6 f c' 7 f c' 6 f c' 7 f c'

0.7
c 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0.7 0 6 f c' 1 7 f c' 1 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 1)
0.7 Equipment
d 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0.7 7 f c' 1 7 f c' βE 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 1) not working
0.3 Normal
e 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0.3 7 f c' 1 7 f c' βE 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 2) Erection
0.3 Moving
f 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0.3 7 f c' 1 7 f c' βE 1 1 7 f c' 7 f c'
(Note 2) Equipment
The allowable stresses in Columns (1) and (2) apply to the summation of all the loads multiplied by their tabulated coefficients in all the columns to the left. Similarly
for Columns (3) and (4) with the exceptions of (R+S+T) as noted.
Note 1: Reduction is to allow for lesser probability of maximum wind during construction period.
Note 2: Reduction is to allow for limiting wind beyond which construction is halted.
Note 3: The βE term is as defined in AASHTO Section 3.22.

Note 4: When less than 50% of the tendon capacity is provided by internal tendons, the maximum allowable construction stresses shall be 3 f c' for Type A joints,
and 0 for Type B joints.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

SECTION 26.5 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
26.5.1 PRESTRESSING STEEL (1996)
The allowable stresses for prestressing steel shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete.
26.5.2 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (1996)
26.5.2.1 Temporary Stresses Before Losses Due to Creep and Shrinkage, at the Time of Application of the
Prestress
a. Maximum Compression:
0.55 f ci' .
b. Longitudinal stresses in the PRECOMPRESSED tensile zone:
(1) Type A joints with minimum bonded mild steel auxiliary reinforcement through the joints sufficient to carry the
calculated tensile force at a stress of 0.5 fsy; internal tendons.
3 f ci' maximum tension
(2) Type A joints without the minimum bonded mild steel auxiliary reinforcement through the joints; internal or
1
external tendons: 0 tension
(3) Type B joints, external tendons not less than: 200 psi minimum compression
(4) Tension in other areas without bonded nonprestressed reinforcement: 0 tension.

3
(5) Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds the allowable tensile value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided at
a stress of 0.5 fsy to resist the total tensile force in concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section.
In such cases, the maximum tensile stress shall not exceed
6 f ci' .
4
26.5.2.2 Stresses at the Service Level After Losses
a. Maximum Compression:
0.4 f c'
b. Longitudinal stresses in the PRECOMPRESSED tensile zone:
(1) Type A joints with minimum bonded auxiliary reinforcement through the joints sufficient to carry the calculated
tensile force at a stress of 0.5 fsy; internal tendons:
3 f c' maximum tension
(2) Type A joints without minimum bonded auxiliary reinforcement through joints: 0 tension
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(3) Type B joints, external tendons, not less than: 200 psi minimum compression
(4) Tension in other areas without bonded reinforcement: zero tension
(5) Where the calculated tensile stress exceeds this value, bonded reinforcement shall be provided at a stress of 0.5 fsy
to resist the total tensile force in the concrete computed on the assumption of an uncracked section. In such cases,
the maximum tensile stress shall not exceed
6 f c' .
c. Transverse tension in the precompressed tensile zone:
3 f c' maximum tension
26.5.2.3 Anchorage
a. The bearing stresses under the anchor plates shall be in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed
Concrete, Article 17.16.2.4 as modified by this section. The stresses calculated at application of the post-tensioning
force and at the service load shall be limited to 5,000 psi and 6,250 psi, respectively.
b. Anchorage devices which function on the basis of confinement reinforcing need not conform to the bearing stress
limitations for plate type anchorage devices specified in paragraph a. Acceptance of such anchorage devices shall be
based on review of test data or on the basis of documented performance on major bridge projects.1
c. The concrete splitting force shall be calculated in accordance with Article 26.10.2; by test results based on similar
anchorages, tendon trajectory, and concrete section geometry; or by more rigorous analytical procedures.2
d. Reinforcement shall be provided to resist the anchorage splitting forces.
e. Tensile stress in anchorage splitting reinforcement at the time of application of the prestress: 0.6 fsy , where fsy shall not
exceed 60,000 psi.
SECTION 26.6 PRESTRESS LOSSES (1996)
Prestress losses shall be computed in accordance with the provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. Lump sum losses shall
only be used for preliminary design purposes. Losses due to creep, shrinkage, and elastic shortening of the concrete as well as
friction, wobble, anchor set and relaxation in the tendon shall be calculated for the construction method and schedule shown
on the plans in accordance with time-related procedures for calculation of prestress losses.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

SECTION 26.7 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
26.7.1 GENERAL (1996)1
Flexural strength of segmental concrete bridges shall be calculated in conjunction with Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. The
flexural capacity required by the load factor provisions of Article 26.4.1 shall be less than or equal to φf times the flexural
capacity provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete. The values of φf shall be taken from Article 26.4.3.
26.7.2 STRAIN COMPATIBILITY (1996)
As an alternative to use of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete, flexural strength of bonded tendon bridges may be calculated in
accordance with the strain compatibility provisions of Section 10.2 of the ACI 318 Building Code (Reference 4). Strain
compatibility analysis may also be used for computation of bridges with unbonded tendons provided that the analysis correctly
recognizes the differences in strain between the tendons and the concrete section, and provided that the analysis recognizes the
effect of tendon anchorage lateral restraints and deflection geometry changes on the effective stress in the tendons.
26.7.3 CENTER OF GRAVITY CORRECTION FOR STRAND TENDONS (1996)
Draped strand tendons shall be assumed to be at the bottom of the duct in negative moment areas, and at the top of the duct in
positive moment areas. For both strength and allowable stress calculations, the location of the tendon center of gravity with
respect to the center line of the duct shall be assumed as illustrated by Figure C-8-26-7 (negative moment area shown).
z
3
Figure 8-26-7. Negative Moment Region

4
SECTION 26.8 SHEAR AND TORSION
26.8.1 SCOPE (1996)2
a. The provisions of this section shall apply to the design of prestressed concrete segmental bridges subjected to shear or
combined shear and torsion. Design for shear of combined shear and torsion shall be based on ultimate load conditions.
The provisions of Article 26.8.2 shall apply to all parts of this section.
b. Regions with one-way beam or thin plate type action or similar conditions in which the plane sections assumption of
flexural theory can be applied shall be designed for shear or shear and torsion according to Article 26.8.1, and either
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

the traditional approach of Article 26.8.3 or the strut-and-tie model approach of Article 26.8.4. Detailing of all shear
and torsion reinforcement must meet the requirements of Article 26.8.2.1
c. Discontinuity regions where the plane sections assumption of flexural theory is not applicable such as regions adjacent
to abrupt changes in cross sections, openings, dapped ends, regions where large concentrated loads, reactions, or post-
tensioning forces are applied or deviated, diaphragms, deep beams, corbels or joints shall be designed for the applied
forces causing shear or shear and torsion according to Article 26.8.2 and the strut-and-tie model approach of
Article 26.8.4. In addition, special discontinuity regions like deep beams, brackets and corbels should be designed for
the applicable parts of Article 26.8.5.2
d. Interfaces between elements such as webs and flanges, between dissimilar materials, between concretes cast at
different times, or at an existing or potential major crack shall be designed for shear transfer in accordance with
Article 26.8.6.3
e. Slab type regions subjected to local concentrated forces such as concentrated loads or column reactions shall be
designed for two-way punching shear in accordance with Article 26.8.7.
f. The applied shear on a cross section shall consist of the shear due to factored ultimate dead load (VuDL) including
continuity effects, factored ultimate live load (VuLL) and any other factored ultimate load cases specified. Torsional
moments (Tu) shall be included in design for factored ultimate load when their magnitude exceeds the value specified
in Article 26.8.2j.4
g. The applied shear due to the component of the effective longitudinal prestress force which acts in the direction of the
section being examined (Vp) shall be considered as a load effect.
h. The vertical component of inclined tendons shall only be considered to reduce the applied shear on the webs for
tendons which cross the webs and are anchored or fully developed by anchorages, deviators, or internal ducts located
in the outer 1/3 of the webs.
a. For members subjected to combined shear and torsion, the resulting shear forces in the different elements of the
structure from the combined shear flows from shear and from torsion shall be considered. The individual elements
shall be designed for the resultant shear forces.
b. The effects of axial tension due to creep, shrinkage and thermal effects in restrained members shall be considered
wherever applicable.
c. The component of the effective prestressing force in the direction of the shear force shall be considered in accordance
with Article 26.8.1f.
d. The components of inclined flexural compression or tension in variable depth members shall be considered.
e. The effects of any openings or ducts in members shall be considered. In determining the effective web width, bw or be
the diameters of ungrouted ducts or one-half the diameters of grouted ducts shall be subtracted from the web width at
the level of these ducts.
f. The values of f c' used in any part of this section shall not exceed 100 psi.5
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary
© 2013,

g. The design yield strength of nonprestressed transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall not exceed 60 ksi. The shear
and torsion resistance contribution of prestressed transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall be based on
substitution of the effective stress after allowance for all prestress losses plus 60 ksi, but not to exceed f y* , in place of
fsy in transverse reinforcement expressions.
h. In pretensioned elements, the reduced prestress in the transfer length of the prestressing tendons shall be considered
when computing fpc and Vp. The prestress force due to a given tendon shall be assumed to vary linearly from zero at
the point at which bonding commences to a maximum at a transfer length which may be assumed as 50 diameters for
1/2 inch diameter strand.1
i. Shear effects may be neglected in areas of members where the factored shear force Vu is less than φ V c /2 (Vc is
defined in this article (Reference 3). Nominal minimum stirrup capacity of not less than the equivalent of two No. 4
Grade 60 bars at 1 foot on centers shall be provided per web in such areas or the minimum shrinkage and temperature
reinforcement required by Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.12.2
j. Torsional effects may be neglected in members where the factored torsional moment Tu is less than φ T c /3. In lieu of a
more detailed calculation, Tc may be taken as
T c = 2K f c' ( 2A o b e )
K shall be computed as
1 + ( f pc ⁄ 2 f c' ) but K ≤ 2.0 1
However, K shall not exceed 1.0 at any section where the stress in the extreme tension fiber due to factored load and
effective prestress force exceeds 6 f c' in tension. The influence of axial tension, Nut, shall be accounted for by
replacing fpc by (f p c – N u t /A g ). The influence of axial compression, Nuc, shall be accounted for by replacing fpc by
the term (f p c + N u c /A g ). Ao is the area enclosed by the shear flow path defined by the centroids of the longitudinal
chords of the space truss model resisting the applied torsion. In lieu of a more precise analysis, Ao may be taken as
3
85% of the area enclosed by the centerline of the exterior closed transverse torsion reinforcement. be is the effective
width of the shear flow path of the elements making up the space truss model resisting torsion. In box girders be may
be taken as A c p /p c p , where Acp is the area enclosed by the outside perimeter of the concrete cross section and Pcp is
the outside perimeter of the concrete cross section. The effects of openings and ducts must be considered as required in
paragraph e.
4
k. In a statically indeterminate structure where significant reduction of torsional moment in a member can occur due to
redistribution of internal forces upon cracking, the factored torsion moment Tu may be reduced to φTc [Tc is defined in
paragraph j], provided that moments and forces in the member and in adjoining members are adjusted to account for
the redistribution. In lieu of a more exact analysis, the torsional loading from a slab may be assumed as linearly
distributed along the member.
l. Transverse reinforcement shall be provided in all elements except for slabs and footings, and elements where Vu is less
than 0.5 φVc. In lieu of more detailed calculations, Vc may be taken as:
V c = 2K f c' b w d
K shall be computed in accordance with paragraph j.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

m. Where transverse reinforcement is required, the minimum tensile capacity of the transverse reinforcement shall be 50
bws, where bw and s are in inches. Greater amounts may be required to carry shear and torsion to meet the requirements
of Article 26.8.3 or Article 26.8.5.
n. Transverse reinforcement may consist of:
(1) Stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or making an angle of 45 degrees or more with the longitudinal
tension reinforcement, inclined to intercept potential cracks.
(2) Welded wire fabric sheets or cages with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the member.
(3) Longitudinal bars bent to provide an inclined portion making an angle of 30 degrees or more with the longitudinal
tension reinforcement and inclined to intercept potential diagonal cracks.
(4) Well-anchored prestressed tendons which are carefully detailed and constructed to minimize seating and time
dependent losses.
(5) Combinations of stirrups, tendons, and bent longitudinal bars.
(6) Spirals.
o. Transverse reinforcement shall be detailed so that the shear forces between the different elements or zones of a member
are effectively transferred. Transverse shear or torsion reinforcement shall extend as a continuous tie from the extreme
compression fiber (less cover) to the outermost tension reinforcement. All transverse reinforcement shall be fully
anchored according to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.13.1.
p. Torsion reinforcement shall consist of longitudinal bars or tendons and:
(1) closed stirrups or closed ties, perpendicular to the axis of the member;
(2) a closed cage of welded wire fabric with transverse wires perpendicular to the axis of the member:
(3) spirals.
q. Transverse torsion reinforcement shall be made fully continuous and shall be anchored according to Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, Section 2.21b(1), where the concrete surrounding the anchorage is restrained against spalling by
flange or slab or similar element. Anchorage shall be by 135 degrees standard hooks around longitudinal reinforcement
where the concrete surrounding the anchorage is unrestrained against spalling. Spacing of closed stirrups or closed ties
shall not exceed one-half of the shortest dimension of the cross section, nor 12 inches.
r. At any place on the cross section where the axial tension due to torsion and bending exceeds the axial compression due
to prestressing and bending, either supplementary tendons to counter the tension must be added or local longitudinal
reinforcement which is continuous across the joints between segments is required.
s. If supplementary tendons are added, they shall be distributed around the perimeter of the precompressed tension zone
inside the closed stirrups. At least one tendon shall be placed near each corner of the stirrups in the precompressed
tension zone.
t. If longitudinal reinforcement is added, the bars shall be distributed around the perimeter formed by the closed stirrups.
Perimeter bar spacing shall not exceed 18 inches. At least one longitudinal bar shall be placed in each corner of the
stirrups. The minimum diameter of the corner bars shall be 1/24 of the stirrup spacing but no less than that of a #5 bar.
u. Maximum spacing of transverse reinforcement shall not exceed 0.5d in nonprestressed elements, 0.75h in prestressed
elements nor 36 inches. When Vu exceeds 6φ f c' b w d , these maximum spacings shall be reduced by one-half.
© 2013,

v. Flexural reinforcement, including tendons, shall be extended beyond the theoretical termination or deviation points for
a distance of at least h/2 . Transverse reinforcement for shear and torsion shall be provided for a distance at least h/2
beyond the point theoretically required.1
w. Shear keys in webs of precast segmental bridges shall extend for as much of the web height as is compatible with other
detailing requirements. Alignment shear keys shall also be provided in top and bottom flanges.
26.8.3 TRADITIONAL SHEAR AND TORSION DESIGN FOR PLANE SECTION TYPE
REGIONS (1996)2
a. The design of beam-type members or regions for shear and torsion may be carried out according to this article
provided:
(1) Vn does not exceed 10 f c' b w d
2 2
(2) ( V n ⁄ b w d ) + ( T n ⁄ 2A o b e ) does not exceed 15 f c' .
(3) There are no significant discontinuities such as abrupt changes in cross section or openings.
(4) No concentrated load located within 2d of a support causes more than one-third of the shear at that support.
(5) Where required, shear reinforcement consists of tendons and stirrups perpendicular to the axis of the member or
welded wire fabric sheets or cages with wires perpendicular to the axis of the member, and conforms to
Article 26.8.2.
1
(6) Where required, torsion reinforcement consists of longitudinal bars, and closed stirrups perpendicular to the axis
of the member, and conforms to Article 26.8.2.
b. The design of cross sections subject to shear shall be based on Vu ≤ φVn where Vu is the factored shear force and Vn is
the nominal shear strength. Vu shall consider any unfavorable effects of prestressing and may consider favorable
effects of prestressing in accordance with Article 26.8.1f. For the purposes of this section, Vn may be computed as: 3
Vn = Vc + Vs
where:
Vc = may be determined from Article 26.8.2l 4

Vs = may be determined from paragraph d.
In equations for Vc and Vs, d shall be the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the prestressed
reinforcement in the tension chord or 0.8h, whichever is greater.
c. The applied shear Vu in regions near supports may be reduced to the value computed at a distance h/2 from the support
when both of the following conditions are satisfied:
(1) The support reaction, in the direction of the applied shear, introduces compression into the support region of the
member, and
(2) No concentrated load occurs within a distance h from the face of the support.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

d. The nominal shear contribution of the truss model with concrete diagonals at 45 degrees inclination as determined by
the shear reinforcement perpendicular to the axis of the member is
V s = A v f s y d/s
e. Where required by Article 26.8.2j, torsion reinforcement shall be provided in addition to the reinforcement required to
resist the factored shear, flexure and axial forces that act in combination with the torsion.
f. The longitudinal and transverse reinforcement required for torsion shall be determined from:
Tu ≤ φTn
g. The nominal torsional resistance provided by a space truss with concrete diagonals at 45 degrees inclination and the
indicated transverse reinforcement for torsion is:
T n = 2A o A t f s y /s
where:
Ao = defined in Article 26.8.2j
h. The additional longitudinal reinforcement for torsion shall not be less than:
Al = (Tnph) / (2Aofsy)
where:
ph = the perimeter of the polygon defined by the centroids of the longitudinal chords of the space truss
resisting torsion.
ph may be taken as the perimeter of the centerline of the outermost closed stirrups. Al shall be distributed around the
perimeter of the closed stirrups in accordance with Article 26.8.2t.1
i. The area of additional longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the flexural compression zone may be reduced by an
amount equal to M u /(0.9d f s y ) where Mu is the factored bending moment acting at that section except that the
reinforcement provided shall not be less than required by Article 26.8.2t.
26.8.4 STRUT-AND-TIE TRUSS MODEL DESIGN FOR EITHER BEAM TYPE OR

DISCONTINUITY REGIONS (1996)2
a. The design of any region for shear and torsion may be carried out according to this article based on an analysis of the
internal load paths for all forces acting on the member or region. The effects of the prestress force shall be included in
accordance with Article 26.8.1f. The internal load paths shall be idealized using appropriate strut-and-tie or space truss
models consisting of:
(1) Concrete and compressive reinforcement compression chords.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

(2) Inclined concrete compressive struts.
(3) Longitudinal reinforcement tension chords or ties.
(4) Transverse reinforcement tension members or ties.
(5) Node regions at all joints of chords, struts and ties.1
b. The proportions of the elements and the reinforcement shall be selected so that the tension ties yield before the
compression chords or struts crush. Chord capacities shall be based on underreinforced sections for flexure.
c. The size of the members and joint regions in the truss shall be chosen so that the computed forces in the struts, ties, and
truss members, Su, due to factored loads shall satisfy:
(1) Compression chords
φ f ( 085f c' A cc + A's f s' ) ≥ S u
where:
φf = the appropriate φ value for flexure
(2) Inclined compressive struts

1
φv(fcuAcs) ≥ Su
where:
φv = the appropriate φ value for shear and diagonal tension

fcu = the limiting strut compressive stress from paragraph d
3
(3) Reinforcement tension chords
φ f ( A s f sy + A *s f su
* )≥S
u
where:
4
φf = the appropriate φ value for flexure
* = the average stress in prestressing steel at ultimate load considering the anchorage and bonding
f su
conditions
(4) Transverse reinforcement tension members or ties:
φv(Avfsy) ≥ Su
where:
φv = the appropriate φ value for shear and diagonal tension
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

When such members or ties are prestressed, the effective stress after prestress losses shall be used in place of fsy.
(5) Node regions
φb(fcnAcn) ≥ Su
where:
φb = the appropriate φ value for bearing

fcn = the limiting compressive stress in a node region from paragraph f
d. The compressive stress in an inclined compressive strut, fcu shall not exceed:
(1) For essentially undisturbed, uniaxial compressive stress states 0.6 f c' .
(2) For compressive stress states where tensile strains in the cross-direction or transverse tensile reinforcement may
cause cracking of normal crack width parallel to the strut 0.45 f c' .
(3) For compressive stress states with skew cracking or skew transverse reinforcement 0.35 f c' .
(4) For compressive stress states with very wide skew cracks when the strut orientation differs appreciably from the
elastic orientation of the internal load path 0.25 f c' .
e. The tension chord and all tension ties shall be effectively anchored to transfer the required tension to the truss node
regions in accordance with the ordinary requirements of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design for development of
reinforcement (Section 2.14) and shall be detailed to satisfy the stress limits of paragraph f.
f. Unless special confining reinforcement is provided, the concrete compressive stress fcn in the node regions shall not
exceed:
(1) 0.85f c' in node regions bounded by compressive struts and bearing areas,
(2) 0.70f c' in node regions anchoring only one tension tie, or
(3) 0.60f c' in node regions anchoring tension ties in more than one direction.
26.8.5 SPECIAL REQUIREMENT FOR DIAPHRAGMS, DEEP BEAMS, CORBELS AND

BRACKETS (1996)
26.8.5.1 General
All discontinuity regions must be proportioned using the strut-and-tie model approach of Article 26.8.4. Special discontinuity
regions like diaphragms, deep beams, corbels, brackets must also satisfy the special provision of Article 26.8.5.
26.8.5.2 Diaphragms and Deep Beams
a. Diaphragms are ordinarily required in pier and abutment superstructure segments to distribute the high shear forces to
the bearings. Vertical and transverse post-tensioning shall be analyzed using the strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4
and the effective prestress forces of Article 26.8.1f. The diaphragm tendons must be effectively tied into the
© 2013,

diaphragms with bonded nonprestressed reinforcement to resist tendon forces at the corners of openings in the
diaphragms.1
b. Deep beams are members in which the distance from the point of zero shear to the face of the support is less than 2d or
members in which a load causing more than one-third of the shear at a support is closer than 2d from the face of the
support.
(1) The strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4 shall be used to analyze and design deep beams.2
(2) The minimum tensile capacity of transverse reinforcement shall be 120bws, and s shall not exceed d/4 nor 12
inches.
(3) Bonded longitudinal bars shall be well distributed over each face of the vertical elements in pairs. The minimum
tensile capacity of this bonded reinforcement pair shall be 120bws. The vertical spacing between each pair, s, shall
not exceed d/3 nor 12 inches.
(4) In deep beam vertical elements with a width less than 10 inches, the pairs of bonded bars required by paragraph (3)
may be replaced by a single bar with the required tensile capacity.
26.8.5.3 Brackets and Corbels
a. The strut-and-tie model of Article 26.8.4 shall be used to analyze and design brackets and corbels.3
b. The depth at the outside edge of the bearing area shall be at least half the depth at the face of the support.
1
c. Corbels and brackets shall be designed to resist the calculated external tensile force Nut acting on the bearing area, but
Nut shall not be less than 0.2 Vu unless special provisions are made to avoid tensile forces. Therefore, Nut shall be
regarded as a live load even when tension results from creep, shrinkage or temperature change.
d. The steel ratio A s /bd at the face of the support shall be at least 0.04f c' ⁄ f sy , where d is measured at the face of the
support. 3
e. Closed stirrups or ties parallel to the primary tensile tie reinforcement, As, with a total area not less than 0.5 As shall be
uniformly distributed within 2/3 of the effective depth adjacent to As.
f. At the front face of a bracket or corbel, the primary tension reinforcement As shall be effectively anchored to develop
the specified yield strength, fsy, by:
4
(1) A structural weld to a transverse bar of at least equal size, or;
(2) Bending the primary bars, As back to form a continuous loop, or;
(3) Some other positive means of anchorage.
g. The bearing area of the load on a bracket or corbel shall not project beyond the interior portion of the primary tension
bars, As, nor project beyond the interior face of any transverse anchor bar.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

26.8.6 SHEAR TRANSFER AT INTERFACES (1996)
Shear transfer at interfaces shall be designed in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.35.4 using the f
values found in this Part.
26.8.7 TWO-WAY PUNCHING SHEAR (1996)
Two-way punching shear slab type elements shall be designed in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.35.6 using the appropriate φ values from this Specification.
SECTION 26.9 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS
26.9.1 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR BONDED NONPRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT

(1996)1
Design of bonded nonprestressed reinforcement for fatigue shall conform to the provisions of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete
Design, Article 2.26.2.
26.9.2 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (1996)2
Fatigue of prestressed reinforcement need not be considered for bridges designed in accordance with this Specification.
SECTION 26.10 DESIGN OF LOCAL AND GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES, ANCHORAGE

BLISTERS AND DEVIATION SADDLES
26.10.1 GENERAL (1996)3
a. Anchorage zones for post-tensioning tendons are regions of complex stresses. The post-tensioned anchorages zone
may be considered as comprised of two zones.
b. The local zone is the region immediately surrounding each anchorage device. It may be taken as a cylinder or prism
with transverse dimensions approximately equal to the sum of the projected size of the bearing plate plus the
manufacturer’s specified minimum side or edge cover. The length of the local zone extends for the length of the
anchorage device plus an additional distance in front of the anchor equal to at least the maximum lateral dimensions of
the anchor. Performance of the anchorage device and furnishing of any supplementary reinforcement required in this
local zone is the responsibility of the constructor and material suppliers. These responsibilities shall be set forth in the
project plans and specifications.
c. The general zone is the region in front of the anchor which extends along the tendon axis for a distance equal to the
overall depth of the member. The height of the general zone is taken as the overall depth of the member. In the case of
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
© 2013,

intermediate anchorages which are not at the end of a member, the general zone shall be considered to also extend
along the projection of the tendon axis for about the same distance before the anchor.
d. Design and specification of any supplementary reinforcement required in the general zone (in addition to the required
local zone reinforcement) is the responsibility of the engineer of record. Proper installation of such supplementary
reinforcement is the responsibility of the constructor.
e. Reinforcement shall be provided for bursting, splitting, and spalling tensile stresses generated by tendon anchorages
and deviation saddles in accordance with the following provisions of this Section. The method of analysis shall
consider anchorage eccentricity, tendon inclination, and tendon curvature.
f. The proportions and supplementary reinforcement of the local zone containing the tendon anchors must be adequate to
transfer the tendon force into the mass of the concrete structure. The load transfer may be achieved by either bearing
plate type anchors or by special anchorage devices which in combination with special anchor reinforcement (such as
spirals, stirrups or other reinforcement) transfer the local zone loads from the anchors into the general anchorage zone
of the structure.
26.10.2 FORCES AND REINFORCEMENT IN GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES (1996)1
a. The general distribution of forces and the reinforcement required to provide the necessary general anchorage zone
tensile capacity to counteract the bursting forces of the anchorages may be determined using the strut-and-tie model
approach of Article 26.8.4.
b. In lieu of analysis using the strut-and-tie approach, the total bursting force, Fbst, for an individual anchorage shall be 1
taken as:
F bst = 0.30 ( 1 – d a ⁄ d sp )P j

3
26.10.3.1 Local Zones
The local zone shall be reinforced for the bursting forces as required for the anchor type used in accordance with the
provisions of Article 26.5.2.3 and Article 26.10.2. The reinforcement may consist of stirrups, ties, spirals, or combinations of
these.
26.10.3.2 General Anchorage Zone Bursting and Directional Forces2 4

The structure shall be reinforced with stirrups or ties to resist general anchorage zone bursting forces and directional forces
due to total post-tensioning forces anchored at a section in accordance with the provisions of Article 26.5.2.3 and
Article 26.10.2.
26.10.3.3 Stress in Reinforcement for Bursting Forces3
Reinforcement for bursting forces shall be designed for maximum jacking forces at time of stressing with
fs = 0.6 fsy where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

26.10.3.4 Post-Tensioning
Post-tensioning may be provided to supplement reinforcement restraint against anchorage bursting or directional forces.
26.10.4 REINFORCEMENT DETAILING (1996)
Reinforcement may be in the form of spirals, stirrups, orthogonal reinforcement, or combinations of these. Groups of
anchorages shall be restrained by reinforcement stirrups or lateral post-tensioning enclosing the entire group. All orthogonal
reinforcement must be mechanically anchored around reinforcement running parallel with tendons. All spirals, stirrups, or
orthogonal reinforcement shall have sufficient extra length to develop full bond with the concrete, or shall be mechanically
anchored by 135 degrees bends around reinforcement. The clear distance between bars or pitch of spirals used as anchorage
zone reinforcement shall be at least the maximum size of the coarse aggregate plus 1/2 inch but not less than 1-1/2 inches.
26.10.5 ANCHORAGES IN SPECIAL BLISTERS (1996)
26.10.5.1 Design
In addition to reinforcements provided for tensile stresses perpendicular to the tendon trajectory, blisters shall also be designed
for shear and bending between the blister and web/flange interface. For these purposes, the strut-and-tie models of Section
26.8, Shear and Torsion, or the rules for shear friction and special provisions brackets and corbels as set out in Part 2,
Reinforced Concrete Design shall be applied. The reinforcement required for anchorage zone tensile stress may also be used
for shear friction calculations if full bond development or mechanical anchorage within the web and slab is provided for the
reinforcement.
26.10.5.2 Local Bending
When blisters are used, a check shall be made for the localized bending induced into the web and/or flange in the region
surrounding the anchorage. Reinforcement shall be provided equivalent to the force represented by the concrete tensile stress
block proportioned at a stress of not more than 0.6 fsy, where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi.
26.10.5.3 Local Tensile Stresses Behind Anchorage Blisters
Blisters should preferably be located at the juncture of the flange and the web. Calculations shall be made to assure that
sufficient residual compression exists behind anchorage blisters that no localized tensile stresses occur, or sufficient
reinforcement shall be provided at an allowable stress of 0.6 fsy (maximum value of fsy to be 60 ksi) to take all the tensile
force. Use of anchorage blisters projecting from one surface only, such as a flange, should preferably be restricted to
anchorage of small tendons and bars. Blisters shall preferably be located sufficiently far from a joint to allow dispersal of local
tensile stress effects through the reinforced slab. Minimum reinforcement shall be provided to carry 25-50% of the anchor load
into the concrete behind the anchor. The amount of reinforcement provided shall be based on evaluation of the compressive
stress level due to other tendons or loads in the local area behind the anchor, and shall increase to an amount of reinforcement
sufficient to carry 50% of the tendon force whenever local net tensile stresses might be generated behind the anchorage.
26.10.6 ANCHORAGES IN DIAPHRAGMS (1996)
Reinforcement shall be provided to ensure a full transfer of shear load from the diaphragm to the webs and flanges. The
diaphragm shall be designed and reinforced for any localized bending effects due to concentrated anchorage loads. Anchorage
zones in diaphragms shall be reinforced in accordance with Article 26.10.2.
26.10.7 ANCHORAGE BEARING REACTION FORCE (1996)
In situations where the anchorage reaction force is not parallel to the longitudinal axis of the beam, it is necessary to take into
account the magnitude and direction of the anchorage bearing reaction. Reinforcement or post-tensioning shall be provided as
© 2013,

required to contain the component of the anchorage reaction perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the girder. The
reinforcement stress may be taken as 0.6 fsy but not greater than 36 ksi (for Grade 60 steel).
26.10.8 DEVIATION SADDLES (1996)
26.10.8.1 General
Deviation saddles are blisters external to the webs and flanges, normally on the inside of a box at the junction of web and
flange where tendons placed external to the concrete are deviated in direction to produce the required tendon profile.
26.10.8.2 Design
Reinforcement shall be provided in the form of fully anchored reinforcement and bent bars in webs or flanges to take the
* from the deviated tendon(s) at a service stress of 0.5 f . Additional reinforcement
resultant pull out force computed at f su sy
shall be provided to take any out of balance longitudinal forces by shear friction action according to the ACI 318-86 Standard
Building Code, Article 11.7. Reinforcement shall also be provided to take any localized bending and axial effects transmitted
from the deviation saddles to the webs and/or flanges.
26.10.8.3 Detailing
All reinforcements shall have a full effective development length measured from the tendon axis or shall otherwise be fully
mechanically anchored around longitudinal reinforcement located at the outside of the (box) section. Consideration shall be
given to constructibility and clearances between reinforcement for adequate concrete compaction. Not more than two
reinforcing bars shall be bundled and the clear distance between reinforcement shall be at least 1/2 inch greater than the 1
maximum coarse aggregate size and in no case less than 1-1/2 inches.
26.10.8.4 Localized Effects on Transverse Design
The transverse design of the section shall be checked for the transverse force imparted through deviation saddles, including
any unsymmetrical effects due to sequential post-tensioning. Additional bonded reinforcement proportioned at a tensile stress
of 0.6 fsy, where fsy shall not be taken as greater than 60 ksi, or transverse post-tensioning shall be provided equivalent to the 3
tensile force induced in the slab.
SECTION 26.11 PROVISIONAL POST-TENSIONING DUCTS AND ANCHORAGES

4
26.11.1 GENERAL (1996)
In accordance with Article 26.11.2, the design of ducts and anchorages for bridges with internal tendons shall provide for
increases in the post-tensioning force at selected locations along the bridge during construction to compensate for excessive
friction and wobble losses during stressing. For bridges with either internal or external tendons, the design shall provide for
future addition of external unbonded tendons in accordance with provisions of Article 26.11.3 as an allowance for addition of
future dead load, or to adjust for deflection of the bridge.
26.11.2 BRIDGES WITH INTERNAL DUCTS (1996)1

At intervals of not more than three segments, provisional anchorage and duct capacity for negative and positive moment
tendons located symmetrically about the bridge centerline shall provide for an increase in the post-tensioning force. The total
provisional force potential of both positive and negative moment anchorages and ducts shall not be less than 5% of the total
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

positive and negative moment forces, respectively, and shall be distributed uniformly at three segment intervals along the
length of the bridge. At least one empty duct per web shall be provided with anchorages at appropriate locations. Except for
non-continuous bridges, and the minimum empty duct capacity noted above, provisional positive moment duct and anchorage
capacity shall not be required for 25% of the span length either side of pier supports. Any provisional ducts not utilized for
adjustment of the post-tensioning force shall be grouted at the same time as other ducts in the span.
26.11.3 PROVISION FOR FUTURE DEAD LOAD OR DEFLECTION ADJUSTMENT (1996)1

Specific provisions shall be made for access and for anchorage attachments, pass through openings, and deviation block
attachments to permit future addition of unbonded external tendons symmetrically about the bridge centerline for a post-
tensioning force of not less than 5% of the total positive moment and negative moment post-tensioning force.
SECTION 26.12 DUCT DETAILS
26.12.1 MATERIAL THICKNESS (1996)

26.12.1.1 Metal Ducts2
Metal ducts shall be galvanized corrugated semi-rigid conduit. For strand and wire tendons, the duct thickness shall be 26 gage
up to 2-5/8 inches diameter. Ducts larger than 2-5/8 inches diameter shall be 24 gage. For bar tendons, the duct thickness shall
not be less than 31 gage.
26.12.1.2 Polyethylene Duct3
Polyethylene duct or rigid pipe used as external duct shall be high density polyethylene conforming to ASTM D3350. Internal
polyethylene duct shall have spiral corrugations. Rigid pipe may be manufactured in accordance with ASTM D2447, ASTM
F714, or ASTM D2239. Material thickness shall be as follows:
a. Internal polyethylene duct = 0.050 inches ± 0.010 inch.
b. External polyethylene duct shall have a minimum external diameter to wall thickness ratio of 21 or less.
26.12.2 DUCT AREA (1996)4
Duct for strand and wire tendons shall be sized so that the area of the duct is at least 2-1/2 times the area of the prestressing
steel it contains.
26.12.3 MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE (1996)5
a. Tendon ducts shall preferably be installed with a radius of curvature of 20 feet or more. Ducts with sharper curvature
down to a minimum of 10 feet shall have confinement reinforcement detailed to tie the duct into the concrete. Duct
curvature with radii less than 10 feet may be approved by the Engineer based on review of test data. The minimum
radius for corrugated polyethylene duct shall be 30 feet. The confinement reinforcement shall be proportioned to resist
radial forces calculated as:
Fr = P/R
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
4 See Commentary
5 See Commentary
© 2013,

where:
P = the tendon force in pounds per foot

R = the radius of curvature, in feet
Fr = the radial force in pounds per foot
Confinement reinforcement shall be proportioned at 0.6 fsy where fsy shall not exceed 60 ksi. Spacing of confinement
reinforcement shall not exceed 12 inches. Closer spacing shall be used for duct with radius of curvature less than 15
feet.
b. When the tendon profile radius of curvature is less than 20 feet, design consideration shall also be given to lateral
forces exerted by multistrand tendons on thin webs due to bunching of the strand at the top or bottom of circular ducts.
Confinement reinforcement, preferably in the form of spirals, shall be provided whenever the nominal shear stress due
to tendon jacking forces in the concrete cover beside the tendon exceeds 2 f c' .
26.12.4 DUCT SUPPORTS (1996)
26.12.4.1 Internal Supports1
a. Internal ducts shall be rigidly supported by ties to reinforcing steel as follows:
(1) Transverse slab tendons in metal duct: 2 feet.

1
(2) Transverse slab tendons in polyethylene duct: 2 feet.
(3) Longitudinal slab or web tendons in metal duct: 4 feet.
(4) Longitudinal slab or web tendons in polyethylene duct: 2 feet.

3
26.12.4.2 External Ducts2
External ducts shall have a maximum unsupported length of 25 feet unless a vibration analysis is made.
26.12.5 DUCT SIZE, CLEARANCE AND DETAILING (1996)
a. Maximum size of ducts shall not exceed 0.4 × web thickness. 4

b. Where two curved tendons run parallel such that the outer one is bearing inwards toward the inner one, a minimum
clearance of one duct diameter shall preferably be maintained between the ducts. If this is not possible, reinforcement
shall be provided between the ducts to fully restrain the outer tendon if it has to be stressed before the inner tendon has
been stressed and grouted. In cases where longitudinal tendons cross each other, at least one-half duct diameter but not
less than 2 inches clear space shall be provided. This restriction does not apply to transverse ducts crossing longitudinal
ducts at approximately 90 degrees.
c. Curved tendons should not be placed around re-entrant corners or voids. If this is unavoidable, then the tendons must
be provided with well anchored, full reinforcement restraint proportioned as per Article 26.12.6.1. In no case shall the
distance between the re-entrant corner or void and the edge of the duct be less than 1.5 duct diameters.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

26.12.6 DUCT CONFINEMENT REINFORCEMENT (1996)
26.12.6.1 Ducts in Webs of Curved Bridges
a. When curved tendons are located in thin webs or close to internal voids reinforcement shall be provided to prevent the
tendon from bursting through the concrete into the void whenever the nominal shear stress in the cover beside the
tendon due to tendon jacking forces exceeds 2 f c' . The area of steel required may be estimated from:
A s = P/(R × 0.6 f s y )
where:
Asy = Area of steel required, inches2/foot
b. The lateral force exerted on the concrete by the tendons may be calculated by dividing the tendon force by the radius of
curvature in accordance with Article 26.12.3.
26.12.6.2 Ducts in Flanges1
a. Ducts in bottom slabs shall be located between top and bottom layers of transverse and longitudinal slab reinforcement.
For ducts in the bottom flanges of variable depth segments, nominal confinement reinforcing shall be provided around
the duct at each segment face. The reinforcement shall not be less than two rows of #4 hairpin bars at both sides of each
duct with vertical dimensions equal to the slab thickness less top and bottom cover dimensions.
b. When closely spaced transverse or longitudinal ducts are located in top or bottom flanges, the top and bottom
nonprestressed reinforcement mats shall be tied together with vertical reinforcement consisting of #4 hairpin bars with
spacing not to exceed 18 inches or 1-1/2 times the slab thickness in each direction, whichever is the lesser.
SECTION 26.13 COUPLERS (1996)2
Not more than 50% of the longitudinal post-tensioning tendons shall be coupled at one section. The spacing between adjacent
coupler locations shall not be closer than the segment length or twice the segment depth. The void areas around couplers shall
be deducted from the gross section area and moment of inertia when computing stresses at the time of application of the post-
tensioning force.
SECTION 26.14 CONNECTION OF SECONDARY BEAMS (1996)3
a. The load from secondary beams connected to the main beam (indirect support) shall be resisted by suspension stirrups
or inclined bars. Not less than 2/3 of this suspension reinforcement shall be located in the immediate area of the
intersection. The entire load shall be transmitted within the intersection zone specified in Figure C-8-26-8. Existing
shear reinforcement within the intersection zone may be considered as part of the suspension reinforcement provided
that the secondary beam extends for the full height of the main beam. Suspension stirrups and inclined bars shall be
anchored in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.21.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
© 2013,

b. Detailing of the connection may be accomplished by use of the strut-and-tie procedures outlined in Article i.
Figure 8-26-8. Reinforcement Details
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 26.15 CONCRETE COVER AND REINFORCEMENT SPACING
26.15.1 COVER AND SPACING (1996)
Reinforcement cover and spacing shall conform to Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Section 2.6 and to Article 26.15.2.
26.15.2 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR ERECTION LOADS (1996)1
The transverse analysis of the box girder shall include an evaluation of the quantity Z of Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design,
Section 2.39, EQ 60, for any loads applied prior to attainment of full design strength. The value of Z calculated for flanges and
webs shall not exceed 130 kips per inch.
SECTION 26.16 INSPECTION ACCESS (1996)
Inspectability of the structure shall be assured by providing secured access hatches with minimum dimensions of 2′-6″ × 4′-0″.
Interior diaphragms shall be provided with openings larger than the dimensions specified for access hatches. The box section
shall be vented by drains or screened vents in webs at intervals not greater than 50 feet. Such venting is to prevent the build up
of potential hazardous gas which might endanger inspection personnel.
SECTION 26.17 BOX GIRDER CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS AND DETAILS
26.17.1 MINIMUM FLANGE THICKNESS (1996)2
Top and bottom flange thickness shall not be less than any of the following:
a. 1/30 the clear span between webs or haunches, a lesser dimension will require transverse ribs at a spacing equal to the
clear span between webs or haunches.
b. Top flange, 9 inches where transverse post-tensioning is anchored. Transverse post-tensioning or pretensioning shall be
used where the clear span between webs or haunches is 15 feet or larger. Strand used for transverse pretensioning shall
be 0.5 inch diameter or less.
26.17.2 MINIMUM WEB THICKNESS (1996)3
a. Webs with no longitudinal or vertical post-tensioning tendons – 8 inches.
b. Webs with only longitudinal (or vertical) post-tensioning tendons – 12 inches.
c. Webs with both longitudinal and vertical post-tensioning tendons – 15 inches.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
© 2013,

26.17.3 LENGTH OF TOP FLANGE CANTILEVER (1996)
The cantilever length of the top flange measured from the centerline of web should preferably not exceed 0.45 the interior span
of the top flange measured between the centerline of the webs.
26.17.4 OVERALL CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS (1996)1
Overall dimensions of the box girder cross section should preferably not be less than required to limit live load plus impact
deflection calculated using the gross section moment of inertia and the secant modulus of elasticity to 1/1800 of the span. The
live loading shall be in accordance with Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.3c. The live loading shall be
considered to be uniformly distributed to all longitudinal flexural members.
COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 26, Recommendations for the Design
of Segmental Bridges. In the numbering of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article
being explained.
C - SECTION 26.1 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND MATERIAL

1
C - 26.1.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. Segmental bridges contemplated under this Article include but are not limited to those erected by the following
methods:
(1) Balanced cantilever

3
(2) Span-by-span with truss or falsework
(3) Span-by-span lifting
(4) Incremental launching
(5) Progressive placement 4

b. The span length of bridges considered by these specifications ranges to approximately 800 feet. Bridges supported by
stay cables are not specifically covered although many of the specification provisions are applicable to cable-stayed
bridges.
c. Lightweight concrete has been infrequently used for segmental bridge construction. Provision for the use of
lightweight aggregates represents a significant complication of both design and construction specifications. For these
reasons, as well as questions concerning the economic benefit of use of lightweight aggregates for segmental bridges,
their use is not explicitly covered in these specifications.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 26.1.5 SEGMENTAL BRIDGES, DESIGN REINFORCEMENT (1996)
a. Special corrosion protection is considered necessary for all bridge deck reinforcement in areas of contamination or
where de-icer or other harmful chemicals may be applied. Corrosion protection should also be provided for all
reinforcement of bridges located in coastal areas or over sea water, or in heavily industrialized areas.
b. See the ACI Committee 222 report “Corrosion of Metals in Concrete” (Reference 3) for a comprehensive discussion of
methods of corrosion protection.
C - SECTION 26.2 METHODS OF ANALYSIS
C - 26.2.1 GENERAL (1996)
Results of elastic analyses should be evaluated with consideration of possible variations in the modulus of elasticity of the
concrete, and variations on the concrete creep and shrinkage properties, as well as the impact of variations in the construction
schedule on these (and other) design parameters.
C - 26.2.2 STRUT-AND-TIE-MODELS (1996)
Strut-and-tie models provide one means of analyzing areas near concentrated loads, bearing areas, diaphragms, corners, bends,
openings, anchorage zones for post-tensioning tendons, and other areas where non-linear strains exist, as well as the cracked
global structural system. Morsch proposed an extension of this concept in 1989. (Reference 18, 56 and 85)
The procedures of Article 3-10.2 of the 1983 Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code provides an equation for determining the
effective flange width for use in calculating bending resistances and bending stresses.
C - 26.2.3.2 Effective Flange Width for Analysis, and for Calculation of Section Capacity and Stresses
a. Note that b as used in this Article is the flange width on either side of the web. (b1, b2, or b3 in
Figure C-8-26-1).
b. The pattern of stress distribution in Figure C-8-26-4 is intended only for calculation of stresses due to anchorage of
post-tensioning tendons, and may be disregarded in the general analysis to determine design moments, shears and
deflections.
c. Superposition of local slab bending stresses due to track loads (two-way slab action) and the primary longitudinal
bending stresses is not normally required.
C - 26.2.4 TRANSVERSE ANALYSIS (1996)
See references (Reference 73 and 86) for background on transverse analysis of concrete box girder bridges.
a. Analysis of concrete segmental bridges requires consideration of variation of design parameters with time, as well as a
specific construction schedule and method of erection. This, in turn, requires the use of a computer program developed
to trace the time-dependent response of segmentally erected prestressed concrete bridges through construction, and
under service loads. Among the many programs developed for this purpose, several are in the public domain, and may
be purchased for a nominal amount. (Reference 21, 46 and 90)
© 2013,

b. A comprehensive series of equations for evaluating the time-related effects of creep and shrinkage is presented in the
ACI Committee 209 report, “Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures.”
(Reference 2) A procedure based on graphical values for creep and shrinkage parameters is presented in the CEB-FIP
Model Code. (Reference 15)
c. Recent research results (Reference 14) have suggested that the ACI 209 predictions underestimate the creep and
shrinkage strains for the large scale specimens used in segmental bridges. The ACI 209 creep predictions were
consistently about 65% of the experimental results in these tests. The report suggests modifications of the ACI 209
equations based on the size or thickness of the members.
C - SECTION 26.3 DESIGN LOADS
C - 26.3.2 DEAD LOADS (1996)
a. The use of lightweight concrete is not covered in these specifications for the reasons outlined in the commentary to
Article 26.1.1.
b. The value of 155 pcf for the unit weight of concrete is intended to provide for more heavily reinforced sections than
would be anticipated in more conventional concrete superstructures.
C - 26.3.3 ERECTION LOADS (1996)
Erection loads may be imposed on opposing cantilever ends by use of the Formtraveler, diagonal alignment bars, a jacking
tower, or by external weights. Cooling of one cantilever with water has also been used to provide adjustment of misalignment.
1
Any misalignment of interior cantilevers should be corrected at both ends before constructing either closure. The frame
connecting cantilever ends at closure pours should be detailed to prevent differential vertical movement between cantilevers
due to forces including thermal gradient until the final structural connection is complete. The magnitude of closure forces
should not induce stresses in the structure in excess of those stipulated in these specifications.
C - 26.3.4.3 Thermal Coefficient 3

For major bridges, tests or use of previous test data to determine more precise thermal coefficients is recommended.
C - 26.3.4.4 Differential Temperature
a. Additional field research is recommended to verify the temperature gradients specified in the referenced NCHRP
report for four temperature zones in the United States. Railroad bridges differ from highway bridges when the deck is 4
ballasted and require special attention. While the need for consideration of thermal gradients in design of concrete box
girder bridges has been clearly demonstrated, opinion is divided as to the need for use of complex gradients and
relatively high temperature differentials outlined in NCHRP Report 276. However, the use of the provisions of
Appendix A of NCHRP Report 276 is conservative and is recommended for unballasted decks until such time as
additional research data on thermal gradients and temperature differentials becomes available.
b. Transverse analysis for the effects of differential temperature outside and inside box girder Articles is not considered
generally necessary. However, such an analysis may be necessary for relatively shallow bridges with thick webs.
(Reference 43, 49, 50 and 73) In that case, a ±10 degrees F temperature differential is recommended. Additional field
research is recommended to determine temperature differentials between the inside and outside surfaces of segmental
concrete box girder Articles in U. S. temperature zones.
C - 26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)

a. A variety of computer programs and analytical procedures have been published to evaluate creep and shrinkage effects
in segmental concrete bridges. (Reference 2, 15, 21, 27, 46 and 90)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. For permanent loads, the behavior of segmental bridges after closure may be approximated by use of an effective
modulus of elasticity, Eeff, which may be calculated as:
E eff = E cm /φ c
where:
φc = the creep coefficient

Ecm = the 28 day secant modulus of elasticity of the concrete calculated from:
E cm = 57, 000 f c'
where:
Ecm, Eeff and f c' are all in psi.
C - 26.3.5 CREEP AND SHRINKAGE (1996)

Prestress losses vary significantly with different values of the creep coefficient, type of prestressing steel (low relaxation steel
is recommended), and with the creep model (ACI 209 or CEB-FIP). Further, the prestress losses vary significantly at different
sections along the superstructure.
C - SECTION 26.4 LOAD FACTORS
C - 26.4.3 STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS (1996)

a. The values of φf and φv presented in Article 26.4.3 are based on consideration of relatively limited test results
(Reference 4, 47 and 76 and Figure C-8-26-1) and are considered interim provisions until further comprehensive tests,
analyses, and experience with completed structures are obtained.
b. The proposed φf values for flexure for segmental bridges with fully bonded tendons with cast-in-place concrete joints,
wet concrete joints or epoxy joints are based on the current AASHTO value of 0.95 for monolithic post-tensioned
construction. This specification assumes the practice of requiring epoxy for all joints having internal tendons passing
through them is valid. Comprehensive tests (Reference 95) of a large continuous three span model of a twin cell box
girder bridge built from precast segments with fully bonded internal tendons and epoxy joints indicated that cracking
was well distributed throughout the segment lengths, no epoxy joint opened at failure, and the load-deflection curve
was identical to that calculated for a monolithic specimen. The complete ultimate strength of the tendons was
developed at failure. The model had substantial ductility and full development of calculated deflection at failure.
Recent tests (Reference 40 and 76) on single span segmental girders with varied tendon arrangements (internal, mixed
and external tendons) and with dry joints indicate that the deflection at failure was less than would be expected for
monolithic girders. Flexural cracking concentrated at joints, and final failure came with a central joint opening widely
and crushing occurring at the top of the joint. The somewhat limited ductility is reflected in the reduced φ factors for
Type B (dry) joints as well as reduced φ factors with unbonded tendons which allow the concentration of articulation at
a single joint opening. The reduction in nominal strength for unbonded construction is adequately reflected in the
determination of unbonded tendon stress at ultimate using AREMA calculation procedures.
c. The proposed φv values for shear utilize the current AREMA value of 0.85 for monolithic construction as the accepted
value for Type A joints (cast-in-place, wet concrete or epoxy joints) in bonded tendon construction based on the very
favorable experience in the ultimate shear tests reported in Reference 95. Comparative shear tests of epoxy and dry
joints indicate the epoxied joints develop the full strength of monolithically cast specimens. However, dry joints
developed less strength and allowed appreciable slip along the joint. Because of this, lower φv factors are specified for
dry joints (Type B).
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-1. Relative Joint Displacement Shear Key Behavior 1

(Reference 4)
d. The development length computation for defining a bonded tendon assumes that the duct is completely filled with
grout and the grout completely surrounds all the strands. Therefore, the development length of a tendon is similar to
that of an individual strand.
C - 26.4.4.1 Erection Loads During Construction 3

The differential load between cantilevers is to allow for possible variations in cross-section weight.
C - SECTION 26.5 ALLOWABLE STRESSES
C - 26.5.2.3 paragraph b 4
The bell anchor for threadbar tendons is an example of a confinement anchorage device that has demonstrated satisfactory
performance over many years on major bridge projects. Other confinement anchorages which have demonstrated satisfactory
performance utilize spiral reinforcement in conjunction with plate or casting type anchorages which do not comply with the
bearing stress limitations of Article 26.5.2.3a.
C - 26.5.2.3 paragraph c
a. NCHRP Project 10-29, “Anchorage Zone Reinforcement for Post-Tensioned Concrete Girders” is now underway at the
University of Texas at Austin to develop more comprehensive recommendations for proportioning reinforcement for
anchorage splitting stresses. Previous work at the University of Texas at Austin (Reference 70, 95 and 96) includes
recommendations for design of anchorage zone reinforcement that may be utilized until NCHRP Project 10-29 is
completed.
b. Bursting or splitting forces occur in front of individual anchors inside the local zone. The magnitude of these forces
depends on the shape and design of the particular anchor. For plate type anchors these bursting forces and the required
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

reinforcement can be determined by computation or by test. For confinement anchors, bursting forces in the local zone
are normally not accessible by computations. Their adequacy can only be determined by representative tests. It is the
suppliers responsibility to determine the required bursting reinforcement in the local zone for such special anchors.
c. General zone bursting forces exist beyond the individual tendon local zones. The general zone bursting forces are
dependent primarily on the overall concrete dimensions and the magnitude, direction and location (eccentricity) of
total prestressing force anchored and not on the particular anchor design. The reinforcement for these general zone
bursting forces is part of the overall structural design, and is the responsibility of the Engineer. For design purposes, it
may be conservatively assumed that any local zone reinforcement provided does not contribute to the strength of the
general zone.
C - SECTION 26.7 FLEXURAL STRENGTH
C - 26.7.1 GENERAL (1996)
a. The minimum reinforcement provisions of Part 17, Prestressed Concrete were developed to avoid a brittle failure in a
grossly under-reinforced simple span precast, prestressed section. Application to segmental concrete bridges results in
requirements of more bonded reinforcement for bridges with more conservative (arbitrary) design tensile stress levels
which is contrary to load requirements. Minimum reinforcement requirements are adequately covered by the allowable
stresses and load factor requirements of these specifications.
b. * unbonded members. The German DIN Specification

Additional research is recommended to verify the value of f su
allows a stress increase of only 6 ksi for unbonded cantilever tendons, and no stress increase for fully continuous
unbonded tendons.
C - SECTION 26.8 SHEAR AND TORSION
C - 26.8.1 SCOPE (1996)
All design for shear and torsion of prestressed concrete segmental bridges is based on ultimate load conditions because little
information is available concerning actual shear stress distributions at working or service load levels.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph b
Regions with beam-type action are basically those where the Bernoulli hypotheses that linear strain profiles exist are valid. See
B-regions in Figure C-8-26-2, Figure C-8-26-3, and Figure C-8-26-4.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph c
Discontinuity regions, where the assumption that strain profiles are linear is invalid, usually exist for about a distance h from a
concentrated load or point of geometrical discontinuity. See D-regions in Figure C-8-26-2, Figure C-8-26-3, and Figure C-8-
26-4. Moving wheel loads need not be considered as large concentrated loads. The use of strut-and-tie models in design is well
described in “Towards a Consistent Design of Structural Concrete,” by J. Schlaich, K. Schafer, and M. Jennewein, Vol. 32, No.
3 PCI Journal, May/June 1987, pp. 74–150. (Reference 85) Note that a structure can be made up of both beam-type and
discontinuity regions. The strut-and-tie model procedures must be used in the discontinuity regions. Either the traditional
beam approach of the strut-and-tie approach can be used in the beam-type regions.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph d
a. In addition for obvious checks for shear transfer when dissimilar materials are utilized, adequate shear transfer
reinforcement must be provided perpendicular to the vertical planes of web/slab interfaces to transfer flange
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-2. Stress Trajectories in a B-Region and Near Discontinuities (D-Regions)1
Figure C-8-26-3. Beam with Direct Supports1
1 Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp. 74-150.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(a) real structure
(b) loads and reactions applied in

accordance with Bernoulli
hypothesis
(c) self equilibrating state of stress,

and
(d) real structure with B- and

D-regions
Figure C-8-26-4. T-beam1
Figure C-8-26-5. Longitudinal Shear Transfer by Bottom Slab to Web Haunches1
1
Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3 May-June 1987, p. 1.
© 2013,

longitudinal forces at ultimate conditions. This shear transfer shall account for the shear force, F, as shown in Figure C-
8-26-5, as well as any localized shear effects due to prestress anchorages at that Article.
b. Article 11.7 of ACI 318 is generally termed the “shear-friction” method but does provide in Article 11.7.3 that a wide
range of shear transfer design methods may be utilized. In some cases, the designer may find the strut-and-tie method
of Article i useful in proportioning transverse reinforcement to assist in transfer of horizontal shear between elements.
C - 26.8.1 paragraph f
a. The shear effect of moving vehicle loads may be considered by development of maximum factored shear envelopes
and the use of these values in determining the factored ultimate live load shear on the section.
b. Prestressing is considered as an applied load with a carefully controlled magnitude and direction. The components of
the prestress force can add to or subtract from the shear on a cross section. In cantilevered segmental construction, the
prestress vertical component can reverse the applied shear direction near the supports.
C - 26.8.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS (1996)
C - 26.8.2 paragraph f
The limitation on the effective diagonal tension and aggregate interlock components of shear strength contributed by the
concrete has been adopted by ACI Committee 318.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph h 1
Research is recommended on the transfer length of 0.6 inch diameter strand.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph i
A simplified determination of Vc is presented which eliminates the need to check Vci and Vcw as in the present AREMA
Specifications and which eliminates the complex V u d /M u term. This expression has been checked against a wide range of test 3
data and has been found to be a conservative yet simpler expression.
C - 26.8.2 paragraph v
In place of requiring additional longitudinal reinforcement for shear as indicated by the mechanics of the truss model, the
requirement of extending all flexural reinforcement beyond the theoretical bend or cut off points for a distance of h/2
automatically satisfies this need. Since actual shear and torsion may vary from the assumed calculation, it is also 4
recommended that transverse reinforcement be provided for the same distance beyond the zone theoretically required.
C - 26.8.3 TRADITIONAL SHEAR AND TORSION DESIGN FOR PLANE SECTION TYPE
REGIONS (1996)
This Article is a simplified version of the present AREMA approach for section design in beam-type regions. It is based on the
simplified Vc term introduced in Article 26.8.2l. Provision of a “traditional” but less complex approach for beam-type regions
is desirable since designers may find its application easier than strut-and-tie models for moving loads.
C - 26.8.3 paragraph h
In determining the required amount of longitudinal reinforcement, the beneficial effect of longitudinal prestressing may be
taken into account by considering it equivalent to an area of reinforcing steel with a yield force equal to the effective
prestressing force.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - i. The area of additional longitudinal torsion reinforcement in the flexural compression zone may be reduced by an amount
equal to Mu/(0.9d fsy) where Mu is the factored bending moment acting at that section except that the reinforcement
provided shall not be less than required by Article 26.8.2t.
This Article combines the recommendations of Schlaich, Schafer, and Jennewein with recommendations of Marti
(Reference 56) as developed by ACI Committee 318, Subcommittee E for a future edition of the ACI Building Code. The
proposed stress limits on struts and nodes may be subject to further refinement.
C - i paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-6 (Reference 85) and Figure C-8-26-7 (Reference 85) illustrate the analysis using strut-and-tie models.
Figure C-8-26-8 (Reference 85) shows a compression strut in a web with a tension tie in the stirrups. Figure C-8-26-9
(Reference 85) gives examples of basic types of nodes. An inclination angle φ (Figure C-8-26-6) of 30 to 35 degrees is
recommended for the inclined compressive struts in prestressed members.
C - 26.8.5.2 Diaphragms and Deep Beams
C - 26.8.5.2 paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-10 (Reference 85) illustrates application of the strut-and-tie model to analysis of forces in the diaphragm of a
box girder bridge.
C - 26.8.5.2b paragraph (1)
Figure C-8-26-11 (Reference 85) shows application of the strut-and-tie model to analysis of deep beams.
C - 26.8.5.3 paragraph a
Figure C-8-26-12 (Reference 85) illustrates application of strut-and-tie models to analysis of corbels.
C - SECTION 26.9 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS
C - 26.9.1 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR BONDED NONPRESTRESSED

REINFORCEMENT (1996)
Calculation of fatigue stress limits in bonded reinforcement is necessary only for cracked sections.
C - 26.9.2 FATIGUE STRESS LIMITS FOR PRESTRESSED REINFORCEMENT (1996)
Bridges designed under the allowable stresses of this specification should be uncracked at service load levels. Fatigue of
prestressed reinforcement will not occur in uncracked sections due to the related small stress range. Fretting fatigue due to
rubbing between duct and strand also does not occur in uncracked sections.
C - SECTION 26.10 DESIGN OF LOCAL AND GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES,

ANCHORAGE BLISTERS AND DEVIATION SADDLES
C - 26.10.1 GENERAL (1996)
See Article 26.5.2.3a for allowable local zone bearing stresses under anchorage plates, and allowable general zone tensile
stress in reinforcement for the anchorage splitting force. The Commentary to Article 26.5.2.3a provides references for
anchorage zone analysis and design. The pattern of splitting stresses due to bearing plate anchorages the same width as the
web is illustrated by Figure C-8-26-13. Note that the maximum splitting stress occurs at 1/4 d to 1/2 d in front of the anchor.
© 2013,

(a) Model
(b) Distribution of inner

1
forces
(c) Magnitude of inner

forces derived from
equilibrium of a
beam element 3
Figure C-8-26-6. Truss Model of a Beam with Cantilever1
1
Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp. 74-150.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(a) and (b) Most frequent and useful

strut-and-tie Models
(c), (d), and (e) variations of above
Figure C-8-26-7. The Two Most Frequent and Most Useful Strut-and-Tie Models1
1
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-8. The Compression Strut in the Web with the Stirrups1
1 Republished through the courtesy of the Prestressed Concrete Institute, PCI Journal, V. 32, No. 3, May-June 1987, pp. 74-150.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(a) CCC-nodes. Idealized “hydrostatic” singular nodes transfer the concentrated loads from an anchor plate
(a1) or bearing plate (a2) into (bottle shaped) compression fields
(b) CCT-nodes. A diagonal compression strut and the vertical support reaction are balanced by
reinforcement which is anchored by an anchor plate behind the node (b1), bond with the node (b2), bond
within and behind the node (b3), bond and radial pressure (b4)
Figure C-8-26-9. Examples of the Basic Types of Nodes1
© 2013,

(a) D-regions and model of the web near the diaphragm

(b) Diaphragm and model
(c) Prestressing of the web and the diaphragm
Figure C-8-26-10. Diaphragm of a Box Girder Bridge1
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(a) Strut-and-tie model of uniformly loaded deep beam
(b) Fan-shaped stress field
(c) Strut-and-tie system for equivalent single load R replacing distributed load q
(d) Continuous fan developed from discrete strut
Figure C-8-26-11. Fan Action1
1
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-12. Different Support Conditions Lead to Different Strut-and-Tie Models and Different
Reinforcement Arrangements of Corbels1
3
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

The value of the total bursting force in Article 26.10.2a is an approximation of the area under the splitting stress curve in
Figure C-8-26-13.
C - 26.10.2 FORCES AND REINFORCEMENT IN GENERAL ANCHORAGE ZONES (1996)
a. The strut-and-tie approach suggested by Schlaich et al. (Reference 85) will give a good approximation of the
reinforcement quantity and distribution required to counteract the general anchorage zone tensile forces set up both
directly in advance of the anchorages (see Figure C-8-26-7) and in the outer regions of general anchorage zones with
eccentrically located anchorages (see Figure C-8-26-14). The anchorage local zone becomes a node for the strut-and-
tie model and the adequacy of the node must be checked by appropriate analysis or full scale testing as required under
Article 26.5.2.3b.
b. The center of the bursting force is located approximately 3/8 of the depth of the section in front of the anchorage (see
Figure C-8-26-13).
c. Tendon inclination, tendon curvature, and the blockout to achieve tendon inclination at the face of the anchorage all
increase the bursting stresses. (Reference 70)
C - 26.10.3.2 General Anchorage Zone Bursting and Directional Forces
Local anchorage zone reinforcement supplied as part of a proprietary post-tensioning system shall be shown on post-
tensioning system shop drawings. Adjustment of general anchorage zone tensile reinforcement due to reinforcement supplied
as part of a proprietary post-tensioning system may be considered as part of the shop drawing approval process. The
responsibility for design of general anchor zone reinforcement remains with the Engineer of Record.
C - 26.10.3.3 Stress in Reinforcement for Bursting Forces
For flange thickness ranging from 5 to 9 inches, an upper limit of 12 - 1/2 inches φ 270 k strand is recommended for tendons
anchored in blisters supported only by the flange. The anchorage force of 347 kips for a tendon of this size must be carefully
distributed to the flange by reinforcement.
C - SECTION 26.11 PROVISIONAL POST-TENSIONING DUCTS AND ANCHORAGES
C - 26.11.2 BRIDGES WITH INTERNAL DUCTS (1996)
Excess capacity may be provided by use of oversize ducts and oversize anchorage hardware at selected anchorage locations.
C - 26.11.3 PROVISION FOR FUTURE DEAD LOAD OR DEFLECTION ADJUSTMENT

(1996)
This provides for future addition if internal unbonded post-tensioning tendons draped from the top of the diaphragm at piers to
the intersection of the web and bottom slab at midspan. Tendons from adjacent spans have to be lapped at opposite faces of the
diaphragm to provide negative moment capacity. The requirement of a force of 5% of the total positive moment and negative
moment post-tensioning force is an arbitrary value. Provision for larger amounts of post-tensioning might be developed as
necessary to carry specific amounts of additional dead load as considered appropriate for the structure.
C - SECTION 26.12 DUCT DETAILS
C - 26.12.1.1 Metal Ducts
Thickness of metal duct material is related to duct diameter and the method of installing the tendon. Strand tendons are
normally installed in the duct after the concrete is placed, requiring a stiffer duct. Bar tendons are preassembled inside small
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-13. Bursting Stresses Under Bearing Plate Anchorages1
(a) Elastic trajectories
(b) Elastic stresses
(c) Strut-and-tie models
Figure C-8-26-14. A Typical D-Region1
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

diameter ducts and placed as a unit. The bar fills most of the void and helps to prevent duct damage. The use of epoxy coated
metal duct is not recommended due to questionable bond characteristics.
C - 26.12.1.2 Polyethylene Duct
a. Ontario Ministry of Transportation tests indicate a tendency for air entrapment for ducts with concentric corrugations.
b. ASTM D2239 relates to rigid pipe manufactured by a process based on controlled inside diameter. ASTM D2447 and
ASTM F714 relate to rigid pipe manufactured by a process based on controlled outside diameter. All three
specifications produce pipe satisfactory for bridge applications.
C - 26.12.2 DUCT AREA (1996)
Placement of tendons by the pull-through method requires duct area of 2-1/2 times the prestressing steel area specified for
grouting.
C - 26.12.3 MINIMUM RADIUS OF CURVATURE (1996)
Polyethylene duct abrades at curvature radii less than 30 feet.
C - 26.12.4.1 Internal Supports
It is recommended that duct support requirements be stipulated or shown in the contract documents.
C - 26.12.4.2 External Ducts
External ducts are normally polyethylene.
C - 26.12.6.2 Ducts in Flanges
a. The hairpin bars tie the slab together in event of spalling forces at slab joints.
b. Ducts spaced closer than 12 inches on center in either direction should be considered as closely spaced. The hairpin
bars are provided to prevent slab delamination along the plane of the post-tensioning ducts. The hairpin bars are not
required in areas where duct congestion does not exist.
C - SECTION 26.13 COUPLERS (1996)
European experience indicates that the prestressing force decreases locally in the region of a coupler. This is believed to result
partially from increased creep caused by high compressive stresses in the reduced concrete Article due to coupling of tendons.
Cracking has not been observed in bridges where the number of tendons coupled at an Article has been limited to 50% of the
total number of tendons.
C - SECTION 26.14 CONNECTION OF SECONDARY BEAMS (1996)
Figure C-8-26-15 and Figure C-8-26-16 (Reference 49) provides schematic illustration of various methods of transmitting
load from secondary beams to the main beam.
© 2013,

C - SECTION 26.15 CONCRETE COVER AND REINFORCEMENT SPACING
C - 26.15.2 REINFORCEMENT DETAILS FOR ERECTION LOADS (1996)
The quantity Z provides reinforcement detailing that will reasonably control flexural cracking. Crack potentials are largest
when handling and storing segments for precast construction and when stripping forms and supports from cast-in-place
construction.
C - 26.17.1 MINIMUM FLANGE THICKNESS (1996)
a. The top flange thickness of 9 inches is preferable in the area of anchorages for transverse post-tensioning tendons.
b. Further research is recommended on the transfer length of 0.6 inch diameter strand before such strand is used for
transverse pretensioning in thin sections of segmental bridges.
C - 26.17.2 MINIMUM WEB THICKNESS (1996)
Ribbed webs may be reduced to 7 inches thickness.
C - 26.17.4 OVERALL CROSS SECTION DIMENSIONS (1996)
Girder depth and web spacing determined in accordance with the following will generally provide satisfactory deflection
behavior: 1
a. Constant depth girder
1/15 > d o /L > 1/30 (optimum 1/18 to 1/20)
where:
3
do = girder depth, feet
L = span length between supports, feet
In case of incrementally launched girders, the girder depth should preferably be between the following limits:
L = 100 feet, = 1/15 < d o /L < 1/12 4

L = 200 feet, = 1/13.5 < d o /L < 1/11.5
L = 300 feet, = 1/12 < d o /L < 1/11
b. Variable Depth Girder with Straight Haunches
at pier 1/16 > d o /L > 1/20 (optimum 1/18)
at center of span 1/22 > d o /L > 1/28 (optimum 1/24)
NOTE: A diaphragm will be required at the point where the bottom flange changes direction.
c. Variable Depth Girder with Circular or Parabolic Haunches
at pier 1/16 > d o /L > 1/20 (optimum 1/18)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

at center of span 1/30 > d o /L > 1/50
d. Depth to Width Ratio
A single cell box should preferably be used when
d o / b ≥ 1/6
A two cell box should preferably be used when
d o /b < 1/6
where:
b = width of the top flange
If in a single cell box the limit of depth to width ratio given above is exceeded, a more rigorous analysis is required and
may require longitudinal edge beams at the tip of the cantilever to distribute loads acting on the cantilevers. An
analysis for shear lag should be made in such cases. Transverse load distribution is not substantially increased by the
use of three or more cells.
© 2013,

Figure C-8-26-15. Schematic Drawing of Different Types of “Hanger” Reinforcement1
Figure C-8-26-16. Extent of the Intersection Zone for the Connection of Secondary Beams1
1
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 27
Concrete Slab Track
8
— 2011 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
27.1 Scope and Notations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3

27.1.1 Scope (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.1.2 Notations (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3
27.2 Application and Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3

27.2.1 Application (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-3 1
27.2.2 Definitions (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-5
27.3 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6

27.3.1 Introduction (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-6
27.3.2 Loading Conditions (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
3
27.4 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.1 General (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.2 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-7
27.4.3 Stabilized Subbase (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.4.4 Concrete Slab (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.4.5 Metal Reinforcement (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.5 Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8

27.5.1 Design Considerations (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-8
27.5.2 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.3 Subbase (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.4 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.5.5 Drainage (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-9
27.6 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10

27.6.1 Subgrade (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.2 Subbase (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.3 Construction Methods (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.4 Reinforcement Placement (1999). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-10
27.6.5 Concrete Placement (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11
27.6.6 Curing (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11
27.6.8 Installation of Fastener Inserts (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-11

TABLE OF CONTENTS
27.6.9 Testing Anchor Inserts (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-13

27.6.10 Placement of Rail Fasteners (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.6.11 Installation of Running Rail (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.7 Direct Fixation Fastening System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14

27.7.1 Rail Fastening Requirements (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-14
27.7.2 Types of Rail Fasteners (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-15
27.7.3 Design Features (2011). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.7.4 Laboratory Testing of Fasteners for Acceptance (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.8 Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16

27.8.1 Transition Areas (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-16
27.8.2 Treatment at Slab Ends (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-17
27.8.3 Continuity of Slab Track Over Bridge Deck (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-19
27.8.4 Modification of Existing Tunnel Concrete Invert to Slab Track (1999) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-19
27.8.5 New Tunnel - Slab Track (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-20
Commentary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-24
LIST OF FIGURES
8-27-1 Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab Track System (Typical). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-4

8-27-2 Fastener Insert Attachment to the Slab Track (Typical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-12
8-27-3 Restrained Test (Not to Scale) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-13
8-27-4 A Typical Direct Fixation Fastener Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-15
8-27-5 Detail for Termination of Slab Track at Approach to a Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-18
8-27-6 Typical Direct Fixation Fastener System for Existing Tunnel Invert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-21
8-27-7 Single-Pour Method for New Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-22
8-27-8 New Tunnel Floating Slab Track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-23
LIST OF TABLES
C-8-27-1 Example of Computer Static Analysis of Concrete Slab Track. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-27-26
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
SECTION 27.1 SCOPE AND NOTATIONS
27.1.1 SCOPE1 (2011)
a. These recommendations for design and construction of continuously reinforced concrete slab track system provide
guidelines to railroads, rail transit systems, public agencies, consultants, contractors and other interested professionals.
A typical continuously reinforced concrete slab track system is shown in Figure 8-27-1.
27.1.2 NOTATIONS (2011)
CWR = Continuous Welded Rail
CRC = Continuously Reinforced Concrete
ks = Modulus of Subgrade Reaction, lb/in³ (N/mm³)
DFF = Direct Fixation Fastener
K = Fastener Vertical Spring Rate, lb/in (N/mm)
u = Track Modulus, lb/in/in (N/mm/mm)
SECTION 27.2 APPLICATION AND DEFINITIONS
a. The concrete slab track system described herein is suitable for:

3
(1) At-grade guideways
(2) Existing or new embankments
(3) Existing or new tunnels 4

b. These recommendations state minimum performance requirements and are applicable for both moderate rolling stock
speed up to 125 mph (200 km/h), and high speed over 125 mph (200 km/h), low axle loads (light rail transit, rail transit
system), medium axle loads (commuter rail-electric or diesel system) and heavy axle loads (freight).
c. Other types of concrete2 slab tracks which have been used but are not addressed in these recommendations include:
(1) Cast-In-Place Unreinforced or Conventionally Reinforced
(2) Cast-In-Place Post-Tensioned
(3) Precast Reinforced
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-27-1. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Slab Track System (Typical).

Concrete Slab Track
(4) Precast Reinforced
(5) Floating Slab
(6) Embedded Slab
(7) Independent Dual Block
The following terms are defined for general use in Part 27.
BROKEN RAIL - The fracture of a continuous welded rail which has been directly fastened to the concrete slab.
CROSS TIE - A transverse component of a track system whose functions are the control of track gage and the
transmitting of rail loads to ballast.
CONVENTIONAL TRACK - Two rails seated on tie plates or pads fastened to ties embedded in a ballast layer.
CONCRETE SLAB TRACK SYSTEM - A continuously reinforced concrete (CRC) slab supported on a stabilized
subbase and compacted subgrade.
CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL - Running rails that act as a continuous structural element as a result of full
penetration welding and connection of individual sections of rail in lengths of 400 feet (122m) or longer. 1
DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM - A group of components of track structure which directly attaches the
rail to the concrete slab.
FLEXURAL STRENGTH - The maximum resistance to bending of a given cross section.
INSERT - A component of the fastening system which is embedded in the concrete slab. The insert may be installed 3
by presetting it in the formwork prior to placement of concrete, or inserting it in a hole either drilled, cored or formed
in the slab, after concrete has hardened.
LATERAL LOAD - A load or a component of a load at the gage side of the rail parallel to the transverse axis of the
slab and perpendicular to the rail. The lateral load shall be assumed to be applied at the base of rail.
LONGITUDINAL LOAD - A load acting along the longitudinal axis of a rail. The longitudinal load shall be assumed 4
to be applied at the base of rail.
MODULUS OF SUBGRADE REACTION (ks) - The modulus of subgrade reaction (also soil "spring" constant or
coefficient of subgrade reaction) is expressed as:
ks = q/y with units of force/length³, lb/in³ (N/mm³)
where q = intensity of contact pressure, psi (MPa)
y = soil deformation, in (mm)
The modulus of subgrade reaction can be obtained by performing a plate load test (ASTM D1196) and plotting a curve
of q versus y.
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE TIE - A tie utilizing precompressed concrete and prestressing tendons.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

RAIL SEAT - The area of the slab surface on which the rail rests.
TRACK MODULUS (u) - is defined as:

1 Pd ⎞ 4
⎛ ------
u= --- 3 ⁄ ( EI ) lb/in/in (N/mm/mm)
4 ⎝Y ⎠
o
where,
Pd = Dynamic wheel load, lb (N)
E = Modulus of elasticity of rail steel, psi (MPa)
I = Moment of Inertia of Rail Section, in4 (mm4)
Yo = Maximum rail deflection under single wheel load, in (mm).1
VERTICAL LOAD - A load or a component of a load at right angles to a line joining the two opposite rail seats, and
normal to the longitudinal axis of the rail.
SECTION 27.3 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
27.3.1 INTRODUCTION2 (1999)
a. In supporting and guiding railway rolling stock, the track structure shall be adequate to sustain repeated longitudinal,
vertical and lateral forces. Hence, in the design of a concrete slab track system, the concrete slab shall be considered
interconnected with other components of the track structure.
b. Items to consider in the design of the concrete slab track system are:
(1) The concrete slab, rail, fasteners, subbase and subgrade.
(2) The quality of each component, method of manufacture, installation and maintenance.
(3) The direction, magnitude and frequency of traffic induced loads, the effect of environmental factors such as
temperature and weather.
(4) The need to adequately support and safely guide railway rolling stock while sustaining repeated longitudinal,
vertical and lateral forces.
(5) Overall economics of installation and maintenance.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
27.3.2 LOADING CONDITIONS (1999)
27.3.2.1 Load Distribution
a. A properly designed concrete slab track system shall distribute the load uniformly through a layered system of three
distinct materials: compacted subgrade (low stiffness), stabilized subbase (medium stiffness), and reinforced concrete
slab (high stiffness).
27.3.2.2 Rail, Lateral and Longitudinal Loads
a. Rail, lateral and longitudinal loads shall be as formulated in AREMA Manual Chapter 30, Part 4, Concrete Ties, and
modified as deemed appropriate by the Engineer.
27.3.2.3 Slab Dimensions1
a. The width of the slab is a function of the number of tracks, the distance between tracks, and the gage of the tracks.
Other components such as third rail for electrification may affect the width of the slab. For a single track layout with
standard gage, a minimum width dimension of 10.5 feet (3.2 m) is recommended. The thickness of the slab shall be
based on requirements stated in Article 27.5.4.
27.3.2.4 Subbase Pressure
a. The subbase pressure on stabilized asphaltic subbase shall not exceed 30 psi (0.2MPa).
1
27.3.2.5 Subgrade Pressure2
a. The subgrade pressure on well compacted subgrade shall not exceed 20 psi (0.14MPa).
27.3.2.6 Impact Factor3
a. An impact factor of 200 percent shall be used for design of continuously reinforced concrete slab track. 3
27.4.1 GENERAL (1999)
a. The properties and characteristics of the existing foundation conditions shall be investigated as specified in Part 22,
4
Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation.
27.4.2 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. The subgrade material shall preferably be cohesionless, gravel-sand well draining material. The top 24 inches (610
mm) shall be free from organic material, and be suitable to distribute the loads to stratum below. In case of
construction on either existing or new embankment, it is recommended to limit the sandy material to a 1/4 inch (6 mm)
maximum size. However, the No. 200 fines shall be limited to a maximum of 15 percent by weight to reduce
possibility of pumping action and to mitigate frost heave in cold regions.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

27.4.3 STABILIZED SUBBASE (1999)
a. Stabilized subbases that have been used successfully include stabilized bituminous (asphalt). Some of the other types
of subbase materials which have been used and may be appropriate, are the following:
(1) Crushed Stone.
(2) Granite Stone.
(3) Lean Concrete.
(4) Cement-Treated Gravel.
(5) Cement-Treated Crushed Stone.
(6) Expanded Polystyrene Concrete.
27.4.4 CONCRETE SLAB (1999)
a. The minimum 28-day compressive strength of concrete shall be 4000 psi (28MPa) as determined by ASTM C39.
b. Cement shall be portland cement and shall meet the requirements of ASTM Specification C150. Aggregates and mix
water shall meet the requirements of Part 1, of Chapter 8. Air entraining admixtures shall be used in freeze-thaw
environments. Admixtures containing chloride ions shall not be used.
c. Based on requirements of Part 1, consideration shall be given to selection of concrete ingredients and properties that
affect the durability of the concrete slab. These include alkali-aggregate reaction, freezing and thawing, air entraining
agents and other admixtures, and sulfate and adverse chemical reactions.
27.4.5 METAL REINFORCEMENT (1999)
a. Reinforcement shall meet the requirements as stipulated in Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
b. When the concrete is subjected to aggressive environments, the top mat of reinforcing steel shall be provided with a
corrosion protection system.
SECTION 27.5 DESIGN
27.5.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS1 (1999)
a. The design procedures shall be as per Part 2, Reinforced Concrete Design. Moreover, the design of the continuously
reinforced concrete (CRC) slab shall be based on the existing construction technology available in North America for
CRC highway and airfield pavements.
b. The design can be formulated by using the modulus of subgrade reaction (ks), and elastic theory analytical techniques.
The slab track system generally involves three distinct materials. The compacted subgrade with a low stiffness is
overlaid with a stabilized subbase followed by the CRC slab, which is a stiff structure. This will ensure that the
stresses induced by the rolling stock are minimized in the various layers, enabling the entire track system to perform
satisfactorily. However, in case of subgrade material being sound rock2, the subbase can be eliminated.
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
c. The following design considerations should be established for any concrete slab track system:
(1) Track must be structurally adequate and capable of maintaining alignment and profile.
(2) The system must be capable of being constructed efficiently and economically.
(3) A fastening assembly with the capability of allowing lateral and vertical adjustments shall be utilized.
(4) Concrete slab must have provision for attaching contact (third) rail assembly for electrification, if required or
expected in the future.
27.5.2 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. A minimum of 350 lb/in³ (0.09 N/mm³) is suggested as the modulus of subgrade reaction (ks) for subgrade, on which
the slab track is to be constructed.
27.5.3 SUBBASE1 (1999)
a. A subbase of one of the types listed in Article 27.4.3 shall be provided between the concrete slab and the finished
subgrade.
27.5.4 CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB2 (2011)
a. The thickness of the concrete slab shall be established by considering both the fatigue effect and the static wheel load,
1
for 50,000 Cooper E-80 (EM-360) loadings for 50 years, or loading as deemed appropriate by the Engineer.
b. In calculating the longitudinal bending stiffness (EI) of the concrete slab about the neutral axis of the slab cross section,
the tensile strength of concrete shall be assumed to be zero.
c. Slab thickness shall be computed so as to be adequate and rigid enough to withstand: 3

(1) Bending and shear stresses produced by wheel loads (live load plus impact).
(2) Longitudinal stresses induced as a result of anchoring continuous welded rail (CWR) to the concrete slab.
(3) Warping stresses (temperature differential between the top and bottom of the slab).
4
d. Adequate reinforcement shall be provided to ensure that the cracks in concrete do not exceed 0.012 inch (0.30 mm), so
that the passage of water or moisture to reinforcement is minimized. In addition, longitudinal reinforcement shall be
sufficient to maintain aggregate interlock for transfer of the load at the crack locations.
27.5.5 DRAINAGE (1999)
a. The slab track shall be designed to provide for transverse drainage to the edges of the slab. To reduce infiltration of
water under the slab, a paved ditch shall be provided between individual slab tracks.
b. Drainage water shall be collected in a paved ditch. Water shall be discharged through sub-invert pipes to an external
discharge system for an at-grade concrete slab.
2
Rock quality shall be as defined in Part 22, Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation, sub-article 22.4.3 (d), of Chapter 8.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

c. For concrete slab on embankment, drop inlets shall be provided in the embankment discharging to a positive drainage
system. To reduce embankment erosion, paved ditches shall be installed adjacent to the slab.
d. In tunnel construction, a trough shall be provided in the center of the slab with a longitudinal slope to drain through
sub-invert pipe(s), which discharge to a positive drainage system.
27.6.1 SUBGRADE (2011)
a. All materials susceptible to frost heave shall be removed to at least 24 inches (610 mm) depth below subbase and
replaced with frost free cohesionless material. The subgrade should be compacted in order to achieve a minimum ks
value of 350 lb/in³ (0.09 N/mm³).
b. If the construction is on a new embankment, the top 24 inches (610 mm) at a minimum shall be granular material. Soil
for embankment shall be placed in layers not thicker than 9 inches (230 mm) and compacted to 95 percent of maximum
density obtained by the Standard Proctor Method (ASTM 698). Soils having a moisture content in excess of 2 percent
above optimum moisture content as determined by Modified Proctor Method (ASTM 1557), shall be unacceptable as
an embankment material. When the construction entails placement on an existing embankment, all load bearing soil
material in the frost zone shall be removed and replaced with cohesionless granular material. The top 24 inches (610
mm) shall be compacted to achieve the specified ks value.
27.6.2 SUBBASE (1999)
a. A minimum 4 inches (100 mm) thick subbase material as determined by geotechnical evaluation, shall be laid over the
finished subgrade. The subbase shall project 2 feet (610 mm) beyond each side of the concrete slab.
27.6.3 CONSTRUCTION METHODS (2011)
a. The contractor should be responsible for means and methods of construction. There are basically two types of
construction methods used for installing direct-fixation fastener system on concrete surfaces: “Bottom-Up” and “Top-
Down”.
The bottom-up construction is generally used when the concrete slab track has already been poured. This conventional
approach involves installing formwork and reinforcements in place, placing concrete, coring/drilling for fastener
inserts, fitting rail fasteners to cast concrete and shimming/adjusting rail to final position.
The top-down construction entails pre-assembling (skeletonized) track and setting the rail and the fasteners to a final
line and surface on temporary supports, and then pouring the concrete as a final operation.
27.6.4 REINFORCEMENT PLACEMENT (1999)
a. Steel reinforcement shall be placed on chairs in two layers, with the main longitudinal reinforcement divided between
the bottom and top layers. Longitudinal steel shall be spliced in tension only as specified under Part 2, Reinforced
Concrete Design, of Chapter 8. Transverse bars shall be spaced as necessary in the top and bottom layers. Steel
reinforcing bars shall be placed so as to be clear of the drilling/coring areas, using special templates for marking hole
locations, both before and after concrete placement. This technique will minimize damage or cutting of reinforcing
steel which may be encountered during the concrete drilling or coring operation.
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
27.6.5 CONCRETE PLACEMENT (2011)
a. It is recommended that in order to achieve the proper tolerances, conventional highway paving forms be utilized. For
large projects, the use of slipform paving equipment may be warranted, for obtaining higher production rates for
concrete placement. Paving equipment shall include vibrating screed and associated components necessary to obtain
the required slab cross section. The paving equipment train can be mounted on adjustable screed rails, accurately set
by a surveyor for both horizontal and vertical alignments. Concrete should be consolidated by internal vibrators.
b. In order to minimize shimming and/or grinding of concrete, it is recommended that tight vertical tolerance of +0 inches
(+0 mm) and -1/4 inches (-6 mm) be required of the finished concrete. Careful attention should be paid to obtain the
required finish tolerances when using slipform paving equipment.
c. The concrete can be placed either in a single pour method, a two separate pour sequence, or a recessed two pour
method, which can maximize clearance in tunnel construction.
d. The two pours (sections) shall be adequately attached to each other by dowels and an adhesive bonding material.
27.6.6 CURING (1999)
a. The curing of concrete shall be as specified under Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements.
a. The following provisions shall be specified, when construction joints are required at the end of a day's concrete 1
placement.
(1) Construction joints shall not be closer than 5 feet (1.5 m) from splices in longitudinal reinforcement.
(2) Transverse reinforcement shall be doubled for a 10 feet (3 m) distance each side of a construction joint.
(3) Longitudinal reinforcement shall be increased by one third for a 10 feet (3 m) distance each side of a construction
3
joint.
(4) Formed keys or dowel bars can also be used to prevent differential settlement.
27.6.8 INSTALLATION OF FASTENER INSERTS (1999)

4
a. Inserts may be installed by presetting them in the formwork, by means of a template, prior to the placement of
concrete. Accurately locate female inserts, into which fastener hold down bolts can be threaded, prior to casting the
slab. After casting, the tops of the inserts must be flush with the slab surface. The surface around the inserts shall be
smooth and flat, providing a satisfactory bearing area for the rail fasteners. A variation of this method would be, to
cast-in-place rail holding devices (shoulders).
b. An alternative method is the installation of inserts after placement and curing of concrete, either by drilling or coring
holes. Percussion drilling is not permitted. Precision must be exercised in locating and drilling/coring of holes, into
which inserts (or anchor bolts) are installed.
c. It is recommended that slab drilling or coring for fastener inserts be performed after the initial shrinkage of the
concrete has occurred and the 28 day specified compressive strength has been obtained. Slight adjustment in spacing of
inserts may be permitted to avoid existing shrinkage cracks.
d. The inserts shall be held plumb in the hole, either by templates or other means, and the hole filled with an adhesive
material. Fastener inserts may be epoxy coated to provide additional electrical insulation.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

e. Figure 8-27-2 depicts fastener insert attachment to the slab track.
Figure 8-27-2. Fastener Insert Attachment to the Slab Track (Typical).
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
27.6.9 TESTING ANCHOR INSERTS (2011)
a. The inserts which attach the rail fastener to the slab track are subject to pull-out forces generated by bolt torque,
vertical uplift forces produced by a passing train, and forces produced by thermal conditions.
27.6.9.1 Insert Pull-Out Testing
a. For rail fastener bolts, or female inserts that are embedded in concrete and rely on concrete tensile strength for pull-out
resistance, the tensile stress in the concrete at maximum pull-out load shall not exceed 6 percent fc’, where fc’ =
compressive strength of concrete, psi (MPa).
b. In order to determine the load capacity of an anchoring system, tests shall be performed in accordance with ASTM
E1512. A mock-up test shall be required to simulate the in-situ conditions, with satisfactory results.
c. A minimum of 10 percent of the inserts shall be randomly tested for a pull-out force of not less than 14,000 lb (62,300
N). In case of inserts failing pull-out testing, the percentage of inserts being tested shall be increased, as per judgement
of the Engineer. The test load shall be applied in three equal increments. The final load shall be held constant for one
minute and the epoxy, concrete and insert inspected for distress.
d. If no drop in gage pressure occurs after one minute, the insert shall be accepted. If the insert fails to meet the pull-out
strength, then it shall be cored out and replaced with a new insert. The pull-out tests shall be performed using the
Restrained Test as shown in Figure 8-27-3.
Figure 8-27-3. Restrained Test (Not to Scale).
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

27.6.9.2 Insert Torque Testing
a. Screw anchor bolt into insert, tight against lock nut. Apply 600 foot-pounds (813 N-m) torque to the anchor bolt head.
b. The insert shall be considered acceptable, if it shows no evidence of rotational movement in the concrete.
27.6.10 PLACEMENT OF RAIL FASTENERS (1999)
a. After installation of inserts, the finished surface of concrete shall be surveyed, and if necessary, grinding the high spots
of concrete may be required. If the concrete finished surface is lower than that required, then shim pads up to a
maximum height of 3/8 in (9 mm) can be placed under the fastener at the discretion of the Engineer. The inserts
(anchor bolts) shall be checked for vertical plumbness and correct location prior to the placement of rail fasteners. Rail
fasteners shall then be installed.
27.6.11 INSTALLATION OF RUNNING RAIL1 (1999)
a. Continuous welded rail (CWR), the weight and type to be determined by the individual agency, may be delivered on
work trains with factory welded sections and shall be carefully placed on the fasteners. As an alternative, the rail can
be entirely field welded at the project site to form continuous welded rails.
b. Changes in temperature of CWR will develop stresses in the rail and the concrete slab. Rail is typically installed at a
high neutral temperature, to reduce the risk of rail buckling at high temperatures and rail pull-apart at low
temperatures.
c. The suggested procedure, during low temperatures, is that each section of the CWR be heated at installation to a
predetermined temperature, in order to ensure that the rail will remain in tension a large percentage of the time. The
base of the rail shall be secured to the direct fixation fastener, with elastic clips.
d. It is suggested that the Engineer should refer to the detail guidelines of Chapter 5, Track, for the handling, transporting,
laying and construction of CWR.
SECTION 27.7 DIRECT FIXATION FASTENING SYSTEM
27.7.1 RAIL FASTENING REQUIREMENTS (1999)
a. Rail fasteners for installation under the continuous welded rail shall satisfy the following:
(1) Allow for vertical and lateral adjustment, if required.
(2) Provide resilience that will reduce the effect of dynamic impact on the track structure, minimize vibrations, absorb
energy and reduce noise.
(3) Maintain a consistent clamping force on the rail to provide resistance to rail creep, and maintain rail alignment.
(4) Provide the required electrical insulation for electrified and/or signalized railways.
(5) Exhibit resistance to track environment (weather, oil, etc.).
1
See Commentary
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
27.7.2 TYPES OF RAIL FASTENERS1 (2011)
a. There are a variety of rail fasteners of different design and capabilities available. It is recommended that for slab track
construction the direct fixation fasteners with satisfactory in-service performance history be installed. As an
alternative, new direct fixation fasteners which have satisfactory passed extensive laboratory testing may be used.
b. The type of direct fixation fastener to be specified shall be a function of the slab track operating environment (main
line, yard, etc.), axle load, train speeds and maintenance considerations. Figure 8-27-4 shows a typical direct fixation
fastener envelope.
Figure 8-27-4. A Typical Direct Fixation Fastener Envelope.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

27.7.3 DESIGN FEATURES (2011)
27.7.3.1 Fastener Vertical Spring Rate1
a. The vertical spring rate, K, of direct fixation fasteners normally ranges from 90,000 pounds/inch (15.8 kN/mm) which
is considered as soft pad to 300,000 pounds/inch (52.5 kN/mm) which is considered a hard pad. The slope of the load-
deflection curve (the fastener spring rate) shall be within 20 percent of a constant slope calculated at each 1000 pounds
(4450 N) increment (secant modulus between two given load points).
b. The selection of a spring rate for a fastener shall be determined by the individual railroad based on its operating needs,
requirements and practice.
27.7.3.2 Elastic Clips2
a. Elastic clips shall be used in combination with direct fixation fasteners, in order to attach the base of the rail to the
fasteners.
b. The recommended toe load for elastic clips shall be in the range of 2200 pounds (9800 N) to 3200 pounds (14,240 N).
27.7.4 LABORATORY TESTING OF FASTENERS FOR ACCEPTANCE (1999)
a. The laboratory testing requirements are comprehensively covered in AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering,
Chapter 30, Part 4, Concrete Ties.
b. It is recommended that the Engineer adhere to Chapter 30, with modifications as deemed appropriate.
SECTION 27.8 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS
27.8.1 TRANSITION AREAS3 (2011)
a. Transition areas such as behind abutments at bridge approaches or at change of track structure from slab track to wood
tie track require special considerations.
b. Factors to be considered in the design of transition areas are: susceptibility of backfill soil material to settlement
behind bridge abutments, difference in track modulus between stiff (concrete slab) track, and soft (wood tie) track,
respectively.
c. In the case of bridge abutments, a sub-surface approach slab adequately reinforced and varying in thickness from 18 in
(450 mm) at bridge abutment to 12 in (300 mm) at the opposite end, for a length of 25 feet (7.5 m), may be installed as
detailed in Figure 8-27-5.
d. Where change of track structure from concrete slab to wood tie track occurs, a sub-surface concrete slab of similar
design features as in (c) above, may be installed starting from the end of the concrete slab track and carried below the
wood track structure a length of at least 20 ft (6 meters).
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary
3 See Commentary
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
27.8.2 TREATMENT AT SLAB ENDS (1999)
a. Expansion joints are recommended at slab ends to handle slab movements at bridge sites and at ends of the slab track
construction.
b. The slab track can be terminated 25 feet (7.5 m) from bridge abutment approaches, if the bridge is at the end of the slab
track. Transverse reinforcing steel shall be doubled for a 15 feet (4.5 m) distance from slab ends. A galvanized
structural steel inverted T-section shall be installed in a 10 feet (3 m) long reinforced concrete slab that supports one
end of the slab track. The structural steel inverted T-section shall have expansion joints that permit up to a 3 in (75
mm) expansion and a 2 in (50 mm) contraction. Expansion material shall be installed in the expansion joints. Refer to
Figure 8-27-5 as one example for design details.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-27-5. Detail for Termination of Slab Track at Approach to a Bridge.

Concrete Slab Track
27.8.3 CONTINUITY OF SLAB TRACK OVER BRIDGE DECK1 (1999)
a. This section is applicable to straight, simply supported concrete deck bridges of spans up to 75 feet (23 m). If it is
required to continue the concrete slab track over a bridge deck, the following provisions shall be addressed:
(1) In order to minimize slab cracking and to permit sliding of bridge deck under the concrete slab track, it is
imperative to reduce friction at the interface between the bottom of the slab track and top of the bridge deck
concrete.
(2) Provide two layers of bituminous material separated by two sheets of polyethylene between slab and bridge
decking.
(3) As an alternative, teflon may be used as a friction reducing material, if additional cost considerations are
acceptable.
27.8.4 MODIFICATION OF EXISTING TUNNEL CONCRETE INVERT TO SLAB TRACK

(1999)
a. In existing tunnels, the following two types of track structures are generally encountered:
(1) Type (A) Concrete tunnel invert with ballast and ties.
(2) Type (B) Half wood ties embedded in concrete tunnel invert.
1
b. The following reconstruction methodology can be used to modify the tunnel invert:
(1) Type (A) Tunnel Invert:
(a) Remove ballast and cross ties.
(b) If additional vertical clearance is required or the top section of concrete invert consists of unsuitable or 3
deteriorated concrete, it shall be removed until sound matrix of concrete is reached. If reinforcing steel is
encountered, remove the steel and replace it with new bars.
(c) Apply bonding material.
(d) If required by the Engineer, drill and grout vertical dowels into existing concrete for mechanical anchorage.
4
(e) Place concrete grouting material to achieve the required elevation.
(f) Drill or core holes for anchor bolts.
(g) Install fasteners, lay rail and secure clips as stipulated in the previous sections.
(2) Type (B) Tunnel Invert:
(a) Remove the embedded ties and concrete section to at least one inch (25mm) below the ties.
(b) Follow the same procedure as detailed above in Type (A) Concrete Tunnel Invert.
1
See Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

One type of Direct Fixation Fastener System for modifying existing tunnel invert is depicted in
Figure 8-27-6.
27.8.5 NEW TUNNEL - SLAB TRACK (2011)
Slab Track in a new tunnel can be constructed in any of the following four ways:
a. Single-pour method
b. Recessed single-pour method
c. Two-pour method
d. Recessed two-pour method
Figure 8-27-6 shows Direct Fixation Fastener System for modifying existing Tunnel Invert.
Figure 8-27-7 shows Single-Pour method of construction of a new Tunnel Slab Track.
Figure 8-27-8 shows a New Tunnel Floating Slab Track.
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
Figure 8-27-6. Typical Direct Fixation Fastener System for Existing Tunnel Invert.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-27-7. Single-Pour Method for New Tunnel.
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
Figure 8-27-8. New Tunnel Floating Slab Track.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - COMMENTARY
C - 27.1.1 Scope (2011)
A concrete slab track can provide improvements over a conventional track system, and solutions to the problems of costly
track maintenance, increasing axle loads, and faster operating speed.
A concrete slab track system consisting of a continuously reinforced concrete slab, supported on a subbase and compacted
subgrade, is one example of an improved track structure.
A slab track system provides the following advantages:
(1) Elimination of those components with inherent weakness that require periodic maintenance such as ballast, ties, tie
plates and spikes.
(2) Rail fasteners with better lateral and longitudinal restraint characteristics are used.
(3) Load is distributed more uniformly on the subgrade, thus settlement is reduced.
(4) Proper line and surface are maintained, thus reducing need for surfacing and lining.
(5) When combined with continuous welded rail, ride quality is improved, and faster operating speeds are possible.
(6) Reduced maintenance results in less traffic disruption.
(7) Due to improved track structure, rolling stock encounters less wear and tear, and thus, requires less maintenance.
C - 27.2.1 (c) Other Types of Concrete Slab Tracks (2011)
A Floating slab design incorporates elastomeric pads which separate, and therefore isolate and dampen, the rail support slab
from the underlying concrete sub-slab. Floating slab track system as show in Figure 8-27-8 is an effective and reliable
solution for mitigating mechanical vibrations and ground-borne noise generated by rolling stock.
An Embedded Slab Track system, consists of dual tie blocks, set in rubber boots using microcellular pads locked-in with a
second pour of concrete.
Some of the slab track systems in use are proprietary in nature, such as: Individual Dual Block Track and Precast Reinforced
and Precast Pretensioned both developed in Europe and used in various systems around the world.
C - 27.2.2 Definitions (1999)
Track Modulus (u)
The value of modulus of elasticity of rail support (u) for directly fixed track is dependent upon the moment of inertia of the rail
section and the amount of deflection obtained by the compression of the fastener pad.
The allowable deflection of a rubber pad is limited to 15 percent of it s uncompressed thickness. Direct fixation fasteners
presently in service use 1/2 in (12 mm) pads. These pads allow a maximum deflection of 0.075 in (2 mm).
Track Modulus for slab track systems are generally in the range of 8,000 lb/in/in (55 N/mm/mm) to 10,000 lb/in/in (70
N/mm/mm).
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
C - 27.3.1 Introduction (1999)
The concrete slab as part of the track structure system, is subjected to loads from the rails through the direct fixation fastening,
and in turn concrete slab transfers loads to the subbase and subgrade.
C - 27.3.2.3 Slab Dimensions (2011)
The use of a 10.5-ft (3.2-m) wide slab is recommended. This will minimize or eliminate the development of punchout failure,
which is predominantly due to edge loading. For the 10.5-ft. (3.2-m) wide slab track, the loading under the rail is about 34
inches (863 mm) from the slab edge and this loading is considered an interior loading condition, which is far less damaging
than an edge load. Also, this loading is channeled, that is, the loading is always maintained along the same location within the
slab. There is no lateral wander of the loading, for example, as for highway CRC pavements. However, if the slab width were
less, a concern may develop due to the edge loading conditions. Edge loading conditions include higher concrete stresses and
higher slab deflections. These may lead to progressive cracking in the slab and deflection related failures such as slab
settlement.
C - 27.3.2.5 Subgrade Pressure (1999)
Due to the reduction of number of load pulses on subgrade, a well constructed slab track structure minimizes the subgrade
pressure.
C - 27.3.2.6 Impact Factor (2011)
The requirements are based on calculations including an assumed impact factor. This factor is a percentage increase over
static vertical loads, intended to estimate the dynamic effect of wheel and rail irregularities. The Impact Factor is comparable
1
to that used in Chapter 30, for Concrete Ties.
The following criteria provide a guideline for slab track system design:
3
(1) Rail vertical deflection not to exceed 0.25 inches (6 mm).
(2) Rail bending stress not to exceed 11000 psi (77 MPa).
(3) Subbase pressure not to exceed 30 psi (0.21 MPa).
(4) Subgrade pressure not to exceed 20 psi (0.14 MPa). 4
C - 27.5.3 SUBBASE (1999)
A subbase shall be provided to serve the following functions:
(1) Prevent mud pumping
(2) Increase the modulus of subgrade reaction.
(3) Serve as a working platform for erection of concrete slab formwork.
(4) Distribute pressure to subgrade more uniformly.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - 27.5.4 CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB TRACK (1999)
Computer Analysis (1999)
The static analysis of the concrete slab track is based on a longitudinal structure which is represented as a continuous beam
(rail) on a continuous uniform support (resilient fasteners) in turn resting on another continuous beam (concrete slab) resting
on another continuous uniform support (stabilized subbase and compacted subgrade).
Reference numbers 26 and 57 in the References refer to the computer program which was written to facilitate the analysis.
The outputs from the program include rail deflection and bending moment, fastener deflection and loads, slab deflection and
bending moment, and subgrade deflection and bearing pressure.
For illustration purpose, based on the computer program, in case of 35000lb (155,750 N) wheel load, 136 lb (61.2 kg) rail and
6 foot (1.8 m) axle spacing, the output in Table C-8-27-1 on the following page was obtained:
Table C-8-27-1. Example of Computer Static Analysis of Concrete Slab Track
Given: 8 foot (2.4 m) slab, ks = 500lb/in3 (0.135 N/mm3 )

Fastener spacing = 30 in (762mm)
Slab
Slab Rail Peak Rail Slab Slab Slab Bearing
Stiffness
Depth Deflection Stress Deflection Stress Pressure
EI
inches inches psi inches psi psi
lb-in2
(mm) (mm) (MPa) (mm) (MPa) (MPa)
(N-m2)
6 516 x 107 0.047 9600 0.022 1025 10.85

(152) (1.19) (67.2) (0.55) (7.17) (0.076)
(1.48 x107)
18 13,380 x107 0.044 9150 0.018 800 9.15

(457) (1.11) (64.0) (0.46) (5.6) (0.064)
(3.971 x107)
Design Procedure (1999)
The following is a guideline for a simplified design procedure for the major design elements:
Background: A continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP) is a portland cement concrete pavement with continuous
longitudinal reinforcement and no intermediate expansion or contraction joints. Transverse reinforcement is also required at
intervals corresponding to the rail fastener spacing to absorb the loads transmitted into the slab at the rail fastener attachment
points. It also aids in construction by supporting and maintaining longitudinal reinforcement spacing.
Slab thickness and longitudinal reinforcement design must be considered simultaneously in a continuously reinforced concrete
pavement. If too small an amount of steel is used, transverse cracks will open an excessive amount and aggregate interlock
will be lost, resulting in appreciable slab deflections and ultimate slab deterioration and failure.
A properly designed CRC slab typically develops regularly spaced, hairline transverse cracks at 3 feet (0.9 m) to 10 feet (3 m)
intervals. The resultant pavement is composed of a series of short slabs held tightly together by the longitudinal
reinforcement. With a sufficient amount of reinforcement, a high degree of shear transfer across the cracks is assured because
the cracks are held tightly closed.
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
Slab Bending Stiffness (EI) (1999)

Compute bending stiffness, assuming slab width, depth, fc' and weight of concrete.
Reference number 57 has additional information on bending stiffness trade-offs (deeper concrete section versus less
percentage of reinforcement), and track structure cost as a function of bending stiffness.
Stresses in Slab (2011)

Assume: 50,000 Cooper E-80 (or equivalent) loading for 50 years.
Say spacing between fasteners is 24 inches (610 mm) to 30 inches (760 mm). Use contact area between rail fastener
and slab as 7 inches (178 mm) x 14 inchs (356 mm).
Use fc' = 4000 psi (28 MPa), MR = 475 psi (3.3 MPa)
Assume ks = 450 lb/in3 (12451.5 N/mm3), includes
4 in (102 mm) stabilized bituminous subbase.
Using "Influence charts for concrete pavements", ASCE, Vol.116, and "Thickness design for concrete pavements", PCA,
compute
• pavement thickness
• stresses in slab
1
Longitudinal Reinforcement (2011)
Selection of percentage of steel should be based on the following considerations:
• The reinforcement should help the slab resist train loads. 3

• Crack width not to exceed 0.012 inch (0.30 mm), in order to limit corrosion by minimizing passage of water or
moisture to reinforcement.
• Given contraction of the slab, the tensile stresses in the reinforcement should be within elastic range.
a. Longitudinal reinforcement to resist train loads. 4

Use Mstatic, ft-lbs (N-m)
Add 200% impact
Therefore, M = (Mstatic)(3), ft-lbs (N-m)
Say: fc' = 4000 psi (28 MPa), n = 7.5,

total slab thickness = Say 12 inches (305 mm)
d = 12 inches (305 mm) - 3 inches (76 mm) = 9 inches (229 mm)
fs = 20,000 psi (140 MPa)
Using trial and error:
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Say fc = 0.3 fc'

f ck
Compute k, p = -------
- , As, and Moment M, ft-lbs (N-m)
2f s
When Moment available = Moment Imposed
Use that area of reinforcement (% steel) at the bottom of slab.
Use 2/3 of lower reinforcement to resist negative moment at top.
Total percent steel = percent steel at bottom + percent steelat top.
b. Longitudinal reinforcement to prevent cracks from widening and reinforcement at the crack location must be less than
its yield point, say fsy = 60,000 psi (420 MPa).
Based on the axle loads, operating considerations, and if mitigation of noise and vibrations along the right-of-way is
required, the use of softer pads may be more desirable However, if the track structure is subjected to higher axle loads,
and the objective is to minimize fastener replacement cycles and associated costs, then the selection of harder pads may
be more appropriate.
C - 27.6.11 (b) Installation of Runnng Rail (2011)
The neutral temperature is defined as the temperature at which the axial forces in a rail are zero. Usually it is the rail
temperature at which the stressless rail is anchored to the track.
Given that the rail in tunnels is not exposed to a wide range of temperature variations being underground as compared to at-
grade or elevated structures, the thermal effects of CWR are considerably less.
C - 27.7.2 TYPES OF RAIL FASTENERS (2011)
Proprietary products primarily developed for transit, commuter, and high speed application drive the direct fixation fastener
market. These fasteners are comprised of elastomeric pads, steel plates, insulating components, and anchoring devices. Direct
fixation fasteners are either unbonded or bonded. An unbonded fastener is made of a steel plate resting on an elastomeric pad.
Whereas a bonded fastener utilizes one or two steel plates bonded to an elastomeric pad. Some of the new designs developed
come from the containment design philosophy. Unlike the typical sandwich type DFF that depends on the rubber-to-metal
bond to secure the top plate to the base plate, this design contains the top plate inside an outside containment frame. While the
elastomer bonds the two castings together there are internal design features to restrain the top plate in all lateral and
longitudinal directions.
As a general criteria for slow speeds and light axle loads, a light duty single plate fastener with or without bonded elastomer
can be used. However, for higher axle loads and faster operating speeds, it is recommended that heavy duty fasteners with a
double plate and bonded elastomer be utilized. Elastic clips are recommended to hold the base of running rail to the fasteners.
C - 27.7.3.1 Fastener Vertical Spring Rate (1999)
Based on the axle loads, operating considerations, and if mitigation of noise and vibrations along the right-of-way is required,
the use of softer pads may be more desirable. However, if the track structure is subjected to higher axle loads, and the
objective is to minimize fastener replacement cycles and associated costs, then the selection of harder pads may be more
appropriate.
© 2013,

Concrete Slab Track
C - 27.7.3.2 Elastic Clips (1999)
In the selection of the elastic clips, it should be recognized that the clip toe load requirement must be adequate to
longitudinally restrain the rail under braking or tractive forces of rolling stock wheels, and also in case of rail breakage be
capable of resisting the pull-apart forces in continuous welded rail, and thus prevent a potential derailment condition.
C - 27.8.1 TRANSITION AREAS (1999)
These installations will help in minimizing maintenance costs generally associated with these transition areas, and also provide
continuity of ride comfort to train passengers.
C - 27.8.3 CONTINUITY OF SLAB TRACK OVER BRIDGE DECK (1999)
In case of long bridges, horizontally curved bridges, etc. an independent analysis should be undertaken and appropriate design
features incorporated.
C - 27.8.4 MODIFICATION OF EXISTING TUNNEL CONCRETE INVERT TO SLAB TRACK

(2011) C - 27.8.5 NEW TUNNEL - SLAB TRACK (2011)
Some of the considerations in selection of the final design option are:
(a) Clearances
1
(b) Tolerances during construction
(c) Construction equipment mobility
(d) Maintenance considerations in terms of CWR and DFF renewals
3
FINAL ACCEPTANCE (2011)
At the completion of slab track project, Rail properties having access to a Track Geometry Car (TGC), can employ the TGC as
a quality control, as part of the final acceptance of slab track construction, to check track gauge, alignment, cross level,
superelevation, and profile.
4
ADDITIONAL REFERENCES (2011)
1 Slab Track Field Test and Demonstration Program for Shared Freight and High Speed Passenger Service,
PCA, R & D Serial No. 2988, 2007.
2 Performance of Direct-Fixation Track Structure, Design Guidelines, Battelle, Ohio, April 1999.
3 Paving Alternatives to Ballasted Track, Heiner H. Moehren, AREA, Volume 98, Bulletin 762, December
1997.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

8
Part 28
Temporary Structures for Construction
8
— 2002 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
28.1 General ............................................................................... 8-28-2

28.1.1 Scope (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.2 Criteria (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.3 Responsibility (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-2
28.1.4 Types of Temporary Structures (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-3
1
28.2 Information Required . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.1 Field Surveys and Records (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.2 Soil Investigation (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.3 Loads (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.4 Drainage (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4
28.2.5 Soil Properties (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-4 3
28.3 Computation of Lateral Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.4 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5 Design of Shoring Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5

28.5.1 Design of Cantilever Sheet Pile Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-5
28.5.2 Design of Anchored Sheet Pile Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-6
28.5.3 Design of Cantilever Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-7
28.5.4 Design of Anchored Soldier Beam with Lagging Walls (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-8
28.5.5 Design of Braced Excavations (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-10
28.5.6 Design of Cofferdams (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-10
28.6 Design of Falsework Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-14

28.6.1 Review and Approval of Falsework Drawings (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-14
28.6.2 Design Loads (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-15
28.6.3 Design Stresses, Loadings, and Deflections (2002). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-16
28.6.4 Special Conditions (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-18
28.6.5 Falsework Construction (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-19
28.6.6 Removing Falsework (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-19
Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-20

LIST OF FIGURES
8-28-1 Lateral Earth Pressure - Granular Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-6

8-28-2 Apparent Earth Pressure Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-9
28.1.1 SCOPE (2002)
a. These specifications provide a recommended practice for the design of the most commonly used temporary structures.
Other types of temporary structures may be used with the approval of the Engineer. These specifications are intended
for SERVICE LOAD DESIGN only.
b. Temporary structures are defined as those structures used to facilitate the construction of a permanent structure. The
temporary structures addressed by these specifications are primarily shoring and falsework systems.
c. All temporary structures anticipated to be in service for more than an 18-month period are not within the scope of these
specifications.
d. Temporary bridges to carry railroad traffic shall be designed as permanent structures and are not included in these
specifications.
28.1.2 CRITERIA (2002)
a. All temporary structures shall be designed and constructed to provide safe and adequate rigidity and support for the
loads imposed.
b. All temporary structures shall be constructed with minimal interference to the operating tracks.
28.1.3 RESPONSIBILITY (2002)
a. The Contractor shall be solely responsible for the design, construction and performance of the temporary structure.
b. The Contractor shall submit to the Engineer working drawings and design calculations for the temporary structures.
The drawings and calculations shall be signed and sealed by a registered professional engineer having a minimum of
five years experience in the design of temporary structures and licensed in the jurisdiction in which the work is being
constructed. The temporary structure(s) shall follow the lines, grades and location as shown on the plans. The
temporary structure(s) shall be designed to conform to the right-of-way and easement restrictions provided and shall
protect existing and proposed utilities shown on the plans.
c. Acceptance by the Engineer of the designs and working drawings shall in no way relieve the Contractor of full
responsibility for the temporary structure, or its effect upon other adjacent structures.

28.1.4 TYPES OF TEMPORARY STRUCTURES (2002)
28.1.4.1 Shoring Systems
a. A cantilever sheet pile wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from
passive resistance of the soil in which the sheet pile is embedded.
b. An anchored sheet pile wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from
passive resistance of the soil in which the sheet pile is embedded and the tensile resistance of the ground anchors.
c. A cantilever soldier beam with lagging wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and
derives stability from passive resistance of the soil in which the soldier beam is embedded.
d. An anchored soldier beam with lagging wall is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and
derives stability from passive resistance of the soil in which the soldier beam is embedded and the tensile resistance of
the ground anchors.
e. For purposes of these specifications, soldier beams include steel H-piles, wide flange sections or other fabricated
sections that are driven or set in concrete in drilled holes. Lagging refers to the members spanning between soldier
beams.
f. For purposes of these specifications, ground anchors shall be cement-grouted tiebacks designed, furnished, installed,
tested and stressed in accordance with these specifications.
1
g. Anchored soldier beam with lagging walls are generally designed as flexible structures which have sufficient lateral
movement to mobilize active earth pressures and a portion of the passive pressure.
h. A braced excavation is a structure designed to provide lateral support for a soil mass and derives stability from passive
resistance of the soil in which the vertical members are embedded and from the structural capacity of the bracing
members.
3
i. For purposes of these specifications, the vertical members of the braced excavation system include steel sheet piling or
soldier beams comprised of steel H-piles, wide flange sections, or other fabricated sections that are driven or installed
in drilled holes. Wales are horizontal structural members designed to transfer lateral loads from the vertical members
to the struts. Struts are structural compression members that support the lateral loads from the wales.
j. A cofferdam is an enclosed temporary structure used to keep water and soil out of an excavation for a permanent
structure such as a bridge pier or abutment or similar structure. Cofferdams may be constructed of timber, steel, 4
concrete or a combination of these. These specifications consider cofferdams primarily constructed with steel sheet
piles.
28.1.4.2 Falsework
a. Falsework is defined in general terms as a temporary construction work on which a main or permanent work is wholly
or partially supported until it becomes self-supporting.
b. Falsework for roll-in/roll-out construction methods is not covered in these specifications.
28.1.4.3 Types of Falsework Systems
a. Conventional falsework typically consists of timber posts and caps, timber bracing, and either timber or steel stringers
and timber joists. Foundation support is usually provided by timber pads or sills set on the surface of the ground,
although poor soil conditions may require the use of concrete footings, or by steel sills designed to distribute the loads
to adequate timber pads or cribbing.

b. Large-diameter, typically 20 inches (508 mm) or more, welded steel pipe columns are occasionally used to support
steel caps and girders. When properly braced, pipe columns may provide an economical design when falsework is
high and spans are long.
c. Patented steel shoring typically consists of individual components that may be assembled into modular units and
erected in place to make any desired falsework configuration. When erected, the shoring consists of a series of
internally-braced steel towers which, either directly or through a cap system, support the longitudinal load-carrying
members.
d. Depending on load-carrying capacity, steel shoring systems are classified as pipe-frame shoring, heavy-duty shoring or
intermediate strength shoring. For bridge falsework the use of pipe-frame shoring is limited to installations where
tower leg loads do not exceed 11 kips (49 kN). In contrast, a properly designed heavy-duty shoring system will be
capable of supporting loads of 100 kips (490 kN) per tower leg. Intermediate strength shoring will have a load carrying
capacity of up to 25 kips (111 kN) per tower leg. Typically, timber caps and stringers are used with pipe-frame
intermediate strength systems, whereas rolled-beams or welded plate girders will be more economical for the longer
spans which are possible with heavy-duty shoring. Pipe-frame shoring is usually supported on timber pads; however,
the larger leg loads associated with heavy-duty shoring will require, depending on soil conditions, solid timber cribbing
or reinforced concrete footings.
28.2.1 FIELD SURVEYS AND RECORDS (2002)
a. Sufficient information shall be furnished in the form of profiles and cross sections, or topographical maps to determine
general design and structural requirements. Existing and proposed grades and alignment of tracks and roads shall be
indicated together with records of: reference datum, maximum and minimum high water, minimum and mean low
water, existing ground water level, location of utilities, construction history of the area, indication of any conditions
which might hamper proper installation of the piling, soldier beams, ground anchors, depth of scour, allowance for
overdredging, and wave heights.
28.2.2 SOIL INVESTIGATION (2002)
a. The characteristics of the foundation soils shall be investigated as indicated in Part 22, this Chapter with the
investigation being done specifically for the temporary structure being designed.
28.2.3 LOADS (2002)
a. Loads shall be as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.3, this Chapter.
28.2.4 DRAINAGE (2002)
a. Drainage shall be as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.4, this Chapter.
28.2.5 SOIL PROPERTIES (2002)
a. Soil properties shall be determined and soils classified as indicated in Part 20, Article 20.2.5, this Chapter.

SECTION 28.3 COMPUTATION OF LATERAL FORCES
a. Computation of lateral forces shall be as indicated in Part 20, Section 20.3, this Chapter.
SECTION 28.4 STABILITY
a. The stability of the system shall be investigated as indicated in Part 20, Section 20.4, this Chapter.
SECTION 28.5 DESIGN OF SHORING SYSTEMS
28.5.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS (2002)
28.5.1.1 Restrictions of Use1
a. Cantilever sheet pile walls shall not exceed 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and shall be used only in granular soils or stiff
clays.
1
b. If used for shoring adjacent to an operating track the wall should be at least ten feet (3 m) away from the centerline of
track, and its maximum height shall not exceed ten feet (3 m).
28.5.1.2 Depth of Embedment2
a. The total depth embedment D shall be found by assuming rigid body rotation of the sheet pile wall about a point x
located at a distance Z above the pile tip elevation. The resulting active and passive pressures are shown schematically 3
in Figure 8-28-1 for a granular soil. The actual lateral pressure distributions shall be determined as specified in
Part 20, Section 20.3 of this Chapter. The passive resistance shall include a factor of safety of 1.5 and be reduced by
multiplying Kp by 0.66. The requirements for static equilibrium (the sum of the forces in the horizontal direction must
be zero and the sum of the moments about, say the pile tip elevation, must be zero) may be expressed in terms of Z and
D. The two equations obtained may be solved simultaneously for D, or a trial and error process may be used.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

Figure 8-28-1. Lateral Earth Pressure - Granular Soil
b. Conditions such as unrealistically short penetration requirements into relatively strong layers, potential for overall
instability, scour or erosion shall be taken into account, and the depth of embedment increased to not less than the
height of the wall.
28.5.1.3 Maximum Moment1
a. Determine the depth at which the shear in the wall is zero by starting from the top of the wall and finding the point at
which the areas of the driving and resisting pressure diagrams are equivalent. Calculate the maximum bending
moment at the point of zero shear.
(1) Sheet Pile Section: 2/3 tensile yield strength for new steel. Allowable stresses shall be reduced depending on the
extent of usage for reused material.
(2) All other structural material to comply with applicable parts of AREMA specifications.
28.5.2 DESIGN OF ANCHORED SHEET PILE WALLS (2002)
a. The design of anchored sheet pile wall systems shall be as indicated in Part 20, this Chapter. Requirements of
Article 28.5.4.1, 28.5.4.2, 28.5.4.3, 28.5.4.5, and 28.5.4.6 shall be satisfied as applicable to the anchored sheet pile
walls.
1
See Commentary

28.5.3 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SOLDIER BEAM WITH LAGGING WALLS (2002)
28.5.3.1 Restrictions of Use1
a. Cantilever soldier beam with lagging walls shall not exceed 12 feet (3.7 m) in height and shall be used only in granular
soils or stiff clays.
b. If used for shoring adjacent to an operating track the wall should be at least 13 feet (4.0 m) away from the centerline of
track, and its maximum height shall not exceed eight feet (2.4 m).
28.5.3.2 Depth of Embedment2
a. The total depth of embedment D shall be determined using the guidelines given in Article 28.5.1.2 except that the
pressure distribution on the soldier piles below the excavation elevation shall be adjusted based on their equivalent
width. The equivalent width shall be assumed to equal the width of the soldier pile multiplied by a factor of 3 for
granular soils and a factor of 2 for cohesive soils. The width of the soldier piles shall be taken as the width of the
flange or diameter for driven sections and the diameter of the concrete-filled hole for sections encased in concrete.
Also, when determining the passive pressure distribution on the soldier piles, a depth of 1.5 times the width of the
soldier pile in soil, and a depth of one foot in rock below the excavation elevation shall not be considered in providing
passive lateral support.
b. Conditions such as unrealistically short penetration requirements into relatively strong layers, potential for overall
instability, scour or erosion shall be taken into account, and the depth of embedment increased to not less than the
height of the wall. 1
28.5.3.3 Maximum Moment
a. Determine the depth at which the shear in the soldier piles is zero by starting from the top of the wall and finding the
point at which the areas of the driving and resisting pressure diagrams are equivalent. Calculate the maximum bending
moment at the point of zero shear.
3
(1) Sheet Pile Section: 2/3 tensile yield strength for steel. Allowable stresses shall be reduced depending on the extent
of usage for reused material.
4
(2) All other structural material to comply with applicable parts of AREMA specifications.
28.5.3.5 Lagging
a. The design load on the lagging is the theoretical pressure computed to act on it. When arch action can form in the soil
behind the lagging (e.g., in granular or stiff cohesive soils where there is sufficient space to permit the in place soil to
arch and the back side of the soldier piles bear directly against the soil) the moment computed based on simple end
supports may be reduced by one third.
b. Well compacted fill shall be provided behind the lagging.
1
See Commentary
2
See Commentary

28.5.4 DESIGN OF ANCHORED SOLDIER BEAM WITH LAGGING WALLS (2002)
28.5.4.1 Qualifications
a. The performance of anchored soldier beam with lagging walls is strongly influenced not only by the methods and
materials used but also the experience of the Contractor. The specifications presented herein are intended for
evaluating earth pressure loading, tieback anchor design, wall facing design, stability considerations and corrosion
protection requirements.
b. The Contractor or the Subcontractor selected for the design and construction shall be prequalified as a specialty
Contractor for the design and construction of anchored soldier beam with lagging walls in order for the contract to be
awarded. The Contractor shall submit proof of 5 anchored soldier beam with lagging walls successfully completed
within the past 5 years. The Contractor's staff shall include an engineer with at least 5 years of experience in the design
and construction of permanently tied back structures. The use of a manufacturer's representative by the contractor will
not meet this qualification.
28.5.4.2 Submittals
a. The drawings shall include all details, dimensions, cross-sections, and sequence of construction necessary to construct
the wall. The drawings and calculations shall include, but not be limited to:
(1) A description of the tieback installation including drilling, grouting and stressing information.
(2) Anchor capacity, type of tendon, anchorage hardware, minimum unbonded lengths, minimum anchor lengths,
angle of installation and tieback locations and spacings.
(3) Testing schedule and procedures for tiebacks.
(4) An elevation view indicating the elevation at the top and bottom of the wall including all horizontal and vertical
dimensions.
(5) A plan view of the wall indicating the offset from the construction centerline to the face of the wall at all changes
in horizontal alignment.
(6) All details for construction of drainage facilities associated with the wall shall be clearly indicated.
(7) Relationship between existing and proposed utilities.
28.5.4.3 Design Criteria
a. The lateral earth pressures shall be computed as indicated below:
(1) For cantilevered conditions, and single tier anchored walls, lateral earth pressures shall be computed using Part 20.
(2) For masses which do not have a history of sliding, the magnitude of lateral pressures on multi-tiered anchored
walls shall be computed following the guidelines on Figure 8-28-2.
b. Where soldier beams are used, the width shall be assumed to be equal to the width of the flange for driven sections and
the shaft diameter of the drilled sections. The resultant passive resistance of a soldier beam assumes that passive
resistance is mobilized across an equivalent width described in Article 28.5.3.2, Paragraph a. The effects of backfill
compaction and surcharge loads applied to the surface behind the wall shall be considered in the design earth pressure.
The design stresses shall be in accordance with the current edition of Chapter 15.

c. The unbonded tendon length shall extend beyond the critical failure surface and be a minimum of 15 feet (4.6 m) in
length. The critical failure surface starts at the bottom of the excavation. The wall-anchor system shall be checked for
adequate stability. The overall stability of the earth mass being retained shall be checked and shall have a minimum
factor of safety of 1.3.
1
Figure 8-28-2. Apparent Earth Pressure Diagram
28.5.4.4 Soldier Beam Installation
a. Installation Method
3
(1) Soldier beams may be installed by driving with impact or vibration hammers or set in predrilled holes and encased
with concrete below subgrade elevation and with lean concrete backfill above subgrade elevation. Encasement
below subgrade level shall be concrete with a minimum 28-day compressive strength of 3,000 psi (20.7 MPa).
Methods and equipment used for soldier beam installations shall be determined by the Contractor.
(2) For driven soldier beams, leads or spuds shall be centered in such a manner as to afford freedom of movement to
the hammer and shall be rigged to hold the soldier beam and hammer in alignment during driving. The soldier 4
beam shall be driven with equipment which will ensure a properly distributed hammer impact on the soldier beam
and prevent damage while driving.
(3) For drilled-in soldier beams, side wall stability shall be maintained during drilling. If required by soil and water
conditions, provide casing for hole excavation. Provide casing of sufficient strength to withstand handling
stresses, lean concrete backfill pressure and surrounding earth and/or water pressure. Drilling mud may also be
used to maintain side wall stability of soldier beam holes subject to the approval of the Railroad. Pump water from
drill holes. Contractors may use tremie methods in lieu of pumping water.
The soldier beam shall be fully encased in lean concrete backfill after completion of soldier beam hole excavation.
The soldier beam may be set prior to, or after, lean concrete backfill placement at the option of the Contractor.
Free fall lean backfill may be used. Vibrating of lean backfill mix is not required.
(4) Soldier beams may be furnished in full-length sections or may be spliced according to the method of splicing as
shown on the plans. Field welding will be allowed only in accordance with the requirements for welding as
specified in AWS D1.1, except as amended on the plans.

(5) Structural welding of steel, steel reinforcement and soldier beams shall be made by personnel qualified to perform
the type of welding involved in accordance with the qualification procedure of AWS D1.1, except as amended on
the plans.
(6) Any field welder will be required to present a certificate stating that he/she has been qualified in accordance with
the requirements on these specifications within the previous 24-month period. A welder having a certificate which
expired within the last 12 months may be permitted to commence welding provided a retest specimen is submitted
immediately. The engineer may require a confirming qualification test during the progress of the work.
28.5.4.5 Ground Anchors (Tiebacks)
a. Unless otherwise directed, the Contractor shall select the tieback type and the installation method, and determine the
bond length, anchor length and anchor diameter.
b. Ground anchor materials shall be in accordance with current "Recommendations for Prestressed Rock and Soil
Anchors" from the Post-Tensioning Institute or as specified on the shoring plans.
c. Ground anchors shall be designed, fabricated, stored, handled, installed, tested and locked off in accordance with
current "Recommendations for Prestressed Rock and Soil Anchors" from the Post-Tensioning Institute or as specified
on the shoring plans.
a. Ground anchor components shall comply with current "Recommendations for Prestressed Rock and Soil Anchors"
from the Post-Tensioning Institute.
b. Allowable stresses and factors of safety for all other wall structural components shall be in accordance with the
applicable sections of the Manual.
28.5.5 DESIGN OF BRACED EXCAVATIONS (2002)
a. Braced excavations shall be designed using the apparent earth pressure diagram shown in Figure 8-28-2.
28.5.6 DESIGN OF COFFERDAMS (2002)
28.5.6.1 General
a. This section deals primarily with cofferdams constructed with steel sheet piles. This section applies to the case where
the water level lies above the soil or rock level such as in rivers, lakes and bays.
b. A single-wall cofferdam consists of a single wall of sheet piling driven in the form of a box. Single-walled cofferdams
shall be designed as flexible sheet pile bulkheads or braced excavations.
c. A double-walled cofferdam consists of two rows of steel sheet piling driven parallel to each other and tied to each other
with anchors and wales. Double wall cofferdams shall be designed similar to single-wall cofferdams. The two rows of
sheet piles shall not be assumed to share equally in resisting the outside pressure unless concrete fill or rigid bracing is
used between them. The need for double-wall cofferdams over single-wall cofferdams is usually to provide increased
watertightness.
d. A cellular cofferdam consists of soil-filled interconnected circular or diaphragm cells constructed of steel sheet piling.
Cellular cofferdams are designed as gravity retaining structures.

28.5.6.2 Required Data
a. The required information about the site includes the following:
•High water elevation
•Velocity of water flow
•Wave height and period
•Ice conditions
•Scour
•Groundline cross-sections and profiles
•Existing soil types, layer thicknesses, and properties
•Properties of backfill materials
•Flow net
•Vessel impact
28.5.6.3 Design Stresses and Factors of Safety

1
a. The maximum stresses for cofferdam materials shall not exceed 125% of the allowable stresses used for the design of
permanent structures. The minimum factors of safety for stability of cofferdams shall be 1.25. The factors of safety
shall be calculated as the sum of the resisting forces or moments divided by the sum of the driving forces or moments.
The factors of safety may be calculated on a unit length of cofferdam. A flow net analysis shall be conducted to
determine the stability of the bottom of the excavation. 3
28.5.6.4 Driving Forces
a. In determining the stability of cofferdams, the driving forces shall include the following as applicable:
•Hydrostatic water pressure

4
•Seepage force
•Stream flow pressure
•Wave forces
•Active earth pressure
•Vessel impact
•Ice forces

28.5.6.5 Equivalent Width
a. The stability of cellular cofferdams may be determined using an equivalent width. The equivalent width of a
cofferdam is defined as the width of an equivalent rectangular section having an area equal to that of the actual
cofferdam.
28.5.6.6 Saturation Line
a. The location of the line of saturation or phreatic surface within a cofferdam cell may be taken as a straight line sloping
downward from the water surface level on the outboard side to the inboard side. The slope of the saturation line may
be assumed as shown below. A horizontal line representing the average level of saturation may be assumed for
stability calculations.
Cell Fill Material Slope (Horizontal to Vertical)

Free draining coarse grained 1 to 1
Silty coarse grained 2 to 1
Fine grained 3 to 1
28.5.6.7 Sliding
a. Cofferdams shall be investigated for sliding at the base. The resisting forces shall consist of the frictional resistance of
the soil along the bottom of the cofferdam, the passive resistance of soil on the inboard face, and the passive resistance
of a berm, if any, on the inboard face. The unit weight of the soil below the saturation line shall be the submerged unit
weight.
28.5.6.8 Overturning
a. Cofferdams shall be investigated for overturning about the inboard toe. The resultant of the driving forces and the cell
weight shall lie within the middle one-third of the cofferdam.
28.5.6.9 Piling Uplift
a. Cofferdams shall be investigated for uplift of the outboard piling. The moments shall be summed about the inboard
toe. The resisting moments shall be those due to the frictional forces on the inner and outer surfaces of the outboard
sheeting plus the effective passive resistance of the soil and berm, if any, on the outboard face. The weight of the cell
fill shall not be used for resisting moment.
28.5.6.10 Vertical Shear
a. Cofferdam cells shall be investigated for vertical shear failure on the centerline of the cells. The total shearing force,
Q, on the neutral plane at the centerline of the cell shall be as follows:
Q = 3M/2E
Q = total shearing force per unit length of cofferdam
M = net overturning moment per unit length of cofferdam
E = equivalent width of cofferdam

b. The shearing force, Q, shall be resisted by vertical shear within the cell fill and friction in the interlocks of the sheeting.
In computing the vertical shear resistance of the fill material, the coefficient of earth pressure shall be as follows:
2
cos φ -
K = ----------------------
2
2 – cos φ
φ = angle of internal friction of cell fill
c. The total centerline shear force resistance of the cell fill per unit length of cofferdam shall be the resultant lateral force
due to soil fill material times tanφ. The frictional resistance of the sheet pile interlocks per unit length of cofferdam
shall be the interlock tension times the coefficient of friction of the interlocks.
28.5.6.11 Horizontal Shear
a. Cofferdam cells shall be investigated for tilting failure through horizontal shear in the cell fill material. The resisting
moments shall be those due to the lateral resistance of the cell fill, the frictional resistance of the sheet pile interlocks,
and the passive resistance of the berm if one is used.
b. The lateral resisting moment, M, of the cell fill about the base of the cofferdam shall be:
(H - Etanφ) (Etanφ)2 + (Etanφ)3

M = gs [ 2 3
]
M = resisting moment per unit length of cofferdam
1
H = height of cofferdam
E = equivalent width of cofferdam
gs = submerged unit weight of fill material

3
φ = angle of internal friction of fill material
c. The resisting moment due to frictional resistance of the interlocks shall be the interlock tension times the coefficient of
friction of the interlocks times the equivalent width of the cofferdam.
28.5.6.12 Interlock Tension

4
a. The hoop or interlock forces for circular cells and connecting arcs shall be calculated by the following equation:
T = PR
T = hoop or interlock force
P = maximum lateral pressure from cell fill and water
R = radius of circle or arc
b. The maximum lateral pressure may be taken as maximum at 1/4 the height from the mudline to the top of the
cofferdam.
c. The interlock force at the connection of arc to circular cell shall be calculated by the following equation:
Tc = PLsec Φ

Tc = hoop or interlock force at connection
P = maximum lateral pressure from cell fill and water
L = ½ the center-to-center distance of full circular cells
Φ = angle between centerline of cells and a line from center of cell to point on cell
periphery where connecting arc is attached.
d. The interlock tension shall not exceed the manufacturer's recommended values.
e. The maximum coefficient of friction of steel on steel at the interlocks shall not exceed 0.3.
28.5.6.13 Construction Requirements
a. Cofferdams for foundation construction shall be carried well below the bottom of the excavation or as near the bottom
of the excavation as foundation conditions will permit and shall be well braced and as watertight as practical. The
interior dimensions of cofferdams shall provide sufficient clearance inside the wales for constructing forms, driving
piles, pumping outside the forms, and inspection.
b. Cofferdams which are tilted or moved out of position by any causes during the process of construction shall be righted
or enlarged so as to provide the necessary clearances.
c. No shoring will be permitted in cofferdams which will induce stress, shock, or vibration in the permanent structure.
d. Cellular cofferdams with diaphragm walls shall be filled equally on each side of the diaphragm walls to avoid
distortion of the cells.
e. After completion of the construction, the cofferdams with all sheeting and bracing shall be removed as directed by the
Engineer or as shown on the plans. Such removal shall be done in a manner that will not disturb or mar the permanent
structure.
SECTION 28.6 DESIGN OF FALSEWORK SYSTEMS
28.6.1 REVIEW AND APPROVAL OF FALSEWORK DRAWINGS (2002)
a. Falsework design drawings and calculations covering falsework adjacent to or over Railroad's operating tracks shall be
certified to be complete and satisfactory to the submitting public agency prior to being submitted to the Railroad.
b. There shall be sufficient detail in the drawings to permit a complete stress analysis. In particular, the drawings shall
show the size of all load-supporting members; all lateral and longitudinal bracing, including connections; the method
of adjustment; and similar design features.
c. All design-controlling dimensions shall be shown, including, but not limited to, beam length; beam spacing; post
location and spacing; vertical distance between connectors in diagonal bracing; overall height of falsework bents; and
similar dimensions critical to the analysis.
d. The falsework drawings shall include a superstructure placing diagram showing the concrete placing sequence and
construction joint locations. When a schedule of placing concrete is shown on the contract plans, no deviation will be
permitted without the approval of design engineer.

e. When footing type foundations are to be used, the Contractor shall determine the bearing value of the soil and shall
show the values assumed in the design of the falsework on the falsework drawings.
f. Anticipated total settlements of the falsework and forms shall be shown on the falsework drawings.
g. Falsework footings shall be designed to carry the load imposed upon them without exceeding the estimated soil
bearing values and anticipated settlements. Refer to Part 3 of this Chapter for allowable soil pressures of various
material and settlements.
h. When falsework will be supported on pile bents, the required pile capacity and the maximum allowable driving
tolerances shall be shown.
i. The support systems for form panels supporting concrete deck slabs and overhangs on girder bridges shall also be
considered to be falsework and designed as such.
j. The falsework drawings shall show all openings which are required through the falsework. Horizontal and vertical
clearances shall be adequate and be shown on the plans.
k. Temporary bracing shall be provided to all falsework bents adjacent to the operating tracks, and shall be designed to
withstand all imposed loads during erection, construction and removal. Wind loads shall be included in the design of
such bracing.
l. In addition to the falsework drawings, the design engineer shall submit a copy of design calculations. The design
calculations shall show the stresses and deflections of all load-supporting members, calculations furnished by the
design engineer are for information only, rather than for review and acceptance. Accordingly, design and/or
1
construction details which may be shown in the falsework in the form of sketches on the calculation sheets shall be
shown on the falsework drawings as well; otherwise the drawings will not be complete.
a. The design loads for falsework shall consist of the sum of dead and live vertical loads, and the assumed horizontal 3
load. The minimum total design load for any falsework shall be not less than 100 pounds per square foot (4.8 kPa) for
the combined live and dead load regardless of slab thickness.
b. Dead load shall include the weight of concrete, reinforcing steel, forms and falsework. The weight (mass density) of
concrete, reinforcing steel and forms shall be assumed to be not less than 160 pounds per cubic foot (2563 kg/m3 ) for
normal concrete.
4
c. Live loads shall consist of the actual weight of equipment to be supported by the falsework applied as concentrated
loads at the points of contact and a uniform load of not less than 20 pounds per square foot (958 Pa) applied over the
area supported, plus 75 pounds per linear foot (1095 N/m) applied at the outside edge of deck overhangs.
d. The assumed horizontal load to be resisted by the falsework bracing system shall be the sum of the actual horizontal
loads due to equipment, construction sequence or other causes and an allowance for wind, but in no case shall the
assumed horizontal load to be resisted in any direction be less than 2 percent of the total dead load.
e. The falsework shall be designed so that it will have sufficient rigidity to resist the assumed horizontal load without
considering the weight of the concrete.
f. The minimum horizontal load to be allowed for wind on each heavy-duty steel shore having a vertical load carrying
capacity exceeding 30 kips (133 kN) per leg shall be the sum of the products of the wind impact area, shape factor, and
the applicable wind pressure value for each height zone. The wind impact area is the total projected area of all the

elements in the tower face normal to the applied wind. The shape factor for heavy-duty shoring shall be taken as 2.2.
Wind pressure values shall be determined from the following table:
WIND PRESSURE
Height Zone Shores Adjacent to At Other Locations
Distance above ground Traffic Openings
0 to 30 ft. (0 to 9 m) 20 psf (958 Pa) 15 psf (718 Pa)
30 to 50 ft. (9 to 16.4 m) 25 psf (1197 Pa) 20 psf (958 Pa)
50 to 100 ft. (16.4 to 30 m) 30 psf (1436 Pa) 25 psf (1197 Pa)
Over 100 ft. (30 m) 35 psf (1676 Pa) 30 psf (1436 Pa)
g. The minimum horizontal load to be allowed for wind on all other types of falsework, including falsework supported on
heavy-duty shoring, shall be the sum of the products of the wind impact area and the applicable wind pressure value for
each height zone. The wind impact area is the gross projected area of the falsework and any unrestrained portion of the
permanent structure, excluding the areas between falsework posts or towers where diagonal bracing is not used. Wind
pressure values shall be determined from the following table:
WIND PRESSURE VALUE

Height Zone For Members over and Bents Adjacent to At Other Locations
(Feet above ground) Traffic Openings
0 to 30 (0 to 9 m) 2.0 Q psf (Pa) 1.5 Q psf (Pa)
30 to 50 (9 to 16.4 m) 2.5 Q psf (Pa) 2.0 Q psf (Pa)
50 to 100 (16.4 to 30 m) 3.0 Q psf (Pa) 2.5 Q psf (Pa)
Over 100 (30 m) 3.5 Q psf (Pa) 3.0 Q psf (Pa)
The value of Q in the above tabulation shall be determined as follows:
Q = 1 + 0.2W (Q = 1 + 0.656W); but shall not be more than 10
In the preceding formula, W is the width of the falsework system in feet (meters), measured in the direction of the wind
force being considered.
h. The entire superstructure cross-section, except railing, shall be considered to be placed at one time. If the concrete is to
be prestressed, the falsework shall be designed to support any increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing
forces.
28.6.3 DESIGN STRESSES, LOADINGS, AND DEFLECTIONS (2002)
a. The maximum allowable design stresses and loadings listed are based on the use of undamaged, high-quality structural
grade material. Stresses and loadings shall be reduced by the design engineer if lesser quality materials are to be used.
b. The maximum allowable stresses, loadings and deflections used in the design of the falsework shall be as follows:

28.6.3.1 Timber
a. Compression perpendicular to the grain 450 psi (3,100 kPa).
b. Compression parallel to the grain 480,000/(L/d)2 psi (33,000/(L/d)2 MPa), but not to exceed 1,600 psi (11.0 MPa).
c. Flexural stress 1,800 psi (12.4 MPa) reduced to 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa) for members with a nominal depth of 8 inches
(20 mm) or less.
d. Horizontal shear 140 psi (965 kPa).
e. Axial tension 1,200 psi (8.3 MPa).
f. Deflection due to the weight of concrete only L/240 of the span irrespective of the fact that the deflection may be
compensated for by camber strips.
g. In the foregoing formulas, L is the unsupported length, d is the least dimension of a square or rectangular column, or
the width of a square of equivalent cross-sectional area for round columns.
h. The maximum modulus of elasticity, E, for timber shall be 1.6 x 106 psi (11.0 x 103 MPa).
i. Timber piles, maximum loading 45 tons (400 kN).
j. Timber connections shall be designed in accordance with the stress and loads allowed in the National Design
Specification of Wood Construction, as published by the National Forest Products Association except that (1)
1
reductions in allowable loads required therein for high moisture condition of the lumber and service conditions shall
not apply, and (2) the design value of bolts in two member connections (single shear) when used for falsework bracing
shall be 0.75 of the tabulated design value.
28.6.3.2 Steel
3
a. For identified grades of steel, design stresses, except stresses due to flexural compression, shall not exceed those
specified in the Manual of Steel Construction as published by the AISC.
b. When the grade of steel cannot be positively identified, design stresses, except stresses due to flexural compression,
shall not exceed either those specified in said AISC Manual for ASTM Designation A36 steel or the following:
c. Tension, axial and flexural 22,000 psi (151.7 MPa). 4

d. Compression, axial16,000-0.38 (L/r)2 psi (110.3-0.38(L/r)2 MPa) except L/r shall not exceed 120.
e. Shear on gross section of web 14,500 psi (100 MPa).
f. Web crippling for rolled shapes 27,000 psi (186 MPa).
g. For all grades of steel, design stresses and deflections shall not exceed the following:
h. Compression, flexural 12,000/(Ld/bt) psi (82,000/(Ld/bt) MPa), but not to exceed 22,000 psi (151.7 MPa) for
unidentified steel or steel conforming to ASTM Designation A36 nor 0.6 Fy, for other identified steel.
i. Deflection due to the weight of concrete only L/240 irrespective of the fact that the deflection may be compensated for
by camber strips.

j. In the foregoing formulas, L is the unsupported length; d is the least dimension of rectangular columns, or the width of
a square of equivalent cross-sectional area for round columns, or the depth of beams; b is the width and t is the
thickness of the compression flange; and r is the radius of gyration of the member. All dimensions are expressed in
inches (millimeters). Fy is specified minimum yield stress in psi (MPa), for the grade of steel used.
k. The modulus of elasticity, E, used for steel shall be 30x106 psi (2.07x103 MPa).
28.6.3.3 Manufactured Assemblies
a. The maximum loadings and deflections used on jacks, brackets, columns, joists and other manufactured devices shall
not exceed the manufacturer's recommendations except that the dead load deflection of such joists used at locations
other than under deck slabs between girders shall not exceed L/240. If requested by the Engineer, the design engineer
shall furnish engineering data from the manufacturer verifying the manufacturer's recommendations or shall perform
tests as necessary to demonstrate the adequacy of any such device proposed for use.
28.6.4 SPECIAL CONDITIONS (2002)
a. In addition to the minimum requirements specified in Section 28.6.2 falsework over or adjacent to the railroad tracks
which are open to traffic shall be protected from impact by motor vehicles and construction equipment. The falsework
design shall include, but not be limited to, the following minimum provisions:
b. The vertical load used for design of falsework posts and towers, but not footings, which support the portion of the
falsework over openings, shall be the greater of the following:
(1) 150 percent of the design load calculated in accordance with the provisions for the design load previously
specified but not including any increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing forces, or
(2) The increased or readjusted loads caused by the prestressing forces.
c. Falsework posts adjacent to railroads shall consist of either steel with a minimum section modulus about each axis of
9.5 inches cubed (155,700 mm3) sound timbers with a minimum section modulus about each axis of 250 inches cubed
(4,097,000 mm3).
d. Each falsework post adjacent to railroad shall be mechanically connected to its supporting footing at its base, or
otherwise laterally restrained, so as to withstand a force of not less than 2,000 pounds (8.90 kN) applied at the base of
the post in any direction except toward the railroad track. Such posts also shall be mechanically connected to the
falsework cap or stringer. Such mechanical connection shall be capable of resisting a load in any horizontal direction
of not less than 1,000 pounds (4.45 kN).
e. For falsework spans over railroads all stringers shall be mechanically connected to falsework cap or framing. Such
mechanical connections shall be capable of resisting a load in any direction, including uplift on the stringer, of not less
than 500 pounds (2.22 kN).
f. When timber members are used to brace falsework bents which are located adjacent to railroads, all connections for
such timber bracing shall be bolted type using 5/8 inch (16 mm) diameter or larger bolt.
g. Falsework bents adjacent to tracks shall have a minimum horizontal clearance of twelve feet (3.7 m) from centerline of
track. Falswork to be sheathed solid on the side adjacent to track between 3 feet (0.9 m) and 17 feet (5.2 m) above the
top of rail elevation. Sheathing shall consist of plywood not less than 5/8 inch (16 mm) thick or lumber not less than
one inch thick (25 mm), nominal. Bracing on such bents shall be adequate so that the bent will resist the required
assumed horizontal load or 5,000 pounds (22.2 kN) whichever is greater. Collision posts and sheathing shall not be
required if horizontal clearances to falsework is 18 feet (5.5 m) or greater.

h. A minimum vertical clearance of 22'-6" (6.9 m), or as established by the Railroad, above top of higher rail shall be
maintained at all times.
28.6.5 FALSEWORK CONSTRUCTION (2002)
a. The falsework shall be constructed to conform to the falsework drawings. The materials used in the falsework
construction shall be of quality necessary to sustain the stress required by the falsework design. The workmanship
used in falsework construction shall be of such quality that the falsework will support the loads imposed on it without
excessive settlement or take-up beyond that shown on the falsework drawings.
b. Falsework shall be founded on solid footings, safe against undermining, protected from softening, and capable of
supporting the loads imposed on it. When requested by the Engineer, the Contractor shall demonstrate by suitable load
tests that the soil bearing values assumed for the design of the falsework do not exceed the supporting capacity of the
soil.
c. When falsework is to be supported on piles, the piles shall be driven until the required pile capacity is obtained as
shown on the falsework drawings.
d. For falsework over or adjacent railroad tracks, all details of the falsework system which contribute to the horizontal
stability and resistance to impact, except for bolts in bracing, shall be installed at the time each element of the
falsework is erected and shall remain in place until the falsework is removed.
e. Falsework shall be designed to compensate for falsework deflection, vertical alignment and anticipated structure
deflection. 1
f. Contractor shall provide tell-tales attached to the soffit forms and readable from the ground in enough systematically
placed locations to determine the total settlement of the entire portion of the structure where concrete is being placed.
28.6.6 REMOVING FALSEWORK (2002)
a. Falsework supporting any span of a simple span concrete bridge shall not be released before 10 days after the last 3
concrete, excluding concrete above the bridge deck, has been placed in that span and in the adjacent portions of each
adjoining span of a length equal to at least ½ the length of the span where falsework is to be released.
b. Falsework for cast-in-place prestressed portions of structures shall not be removed until after the prestressing tendons
have been tensioned and released.
c. Falsework supporting any span of a continuous or rigid frame bridge shall not be removed until all required
4
prestressing has been completed in that span and in the adjacent portions of each adjoining span for a length equal to at
least ½ the length of the span where falsework is to be removed.
d. Falsework supporting overhangs, deck slabs between girders and girder stems which slope 45 degrees or more off
vertical shall not be removed before 7 days after the deck concrete has been placed.
e. In addition to the above requirements, no falsework for bridge spans shall be removed until the supported concrete has
attained a compressive strength of 2,600 pounds per square inch (17.9 MPa) or 80 percent of the specified strength,
whichever is higher.
f. When falsework piling are used to support falsework within the limits of the railroad right-of-way, such piling within
this area shall be removed to at least 2 feet (0.6 m) below the finished grades.
g. All debris and refuse resulting from the work shall be removed and the premises left in a neat and presentable
condition.

COMMENTARY
C - SECTION 28.5 DESIGN OF SHORING SYSTEMS
C - 28.5.1 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SHEET PILE WALLS (2002)
C - 28.5.1.1 Restrictions of Use
A cantilever wall derives support from the passive resistance below the excavation line to support the active pressure from the
soil above excavation elevation without an anchorage. Cantilever walls undergo large lateral deflections, and the member
stresses increase rapidly with height. Therefore, it is important to restrict the maximum height of the wall and require good
quality soil below the excavation line that can provide adequate passive resistance.
C - 28.5.1.2 Depth of Embedment
The large moment and deflections that need to be resisted in cantilever type walls may require quite large penetration depths.
C - 28.5.1.3 Maximum Moment
See Steel Sheet Piling Design Manual, US Steel, 1975, for charts that may be used to obtain preliminary values for the depth of
penetration D and the maximum moment for the case of a cantilever sheet pile wall in homogeneous granular soil and in a
cohesive soil with granular soil behind above the excavation elevation. The D values obtained from the charts shall be
increased by 20 percent.
C - 28.5.3 DESIGN OF CANTILEVER SOLDIER BEAM WITH LAGGING WALLS (2002)
C - 28.5.3.1 Restrictions of Use
A cantilever soldier pile wall behaves similarly to a cantilever sheet pile wall. The active soil pressure and surcharge loadings
are transmitted through the lagging to the soldier piles above the excavation elevation. Below the excavation the soldier piles
utilize the soils passive resistance to resist the driving pressures. Due to the rapid increase in deflections and moments with the
wall height, maximum height restrictions needed to be imposed.
C - 28.5.3.2 Depth of Embedment
The depth of embedment of the soldier piles must be sufficient to mobilize the passive resistance. The arching capability of
soils allows the use of an equivalent width for the soldier pile below the excavation.

8
Part 29
Waterproofing
8
— 2005 —
TABLE OF CONTENTS
29.1 General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4

29.1.1 Purpose (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.1.2 Scope (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4
29.2 Waterproofing (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-4

1
29.3 Dampproofing (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4 Specific Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5

29.4.1 Abutments and Retaining Walls (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4.2 Short Single-Span Arches and Box Culverts (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-5
29.4.3 Pedestrian Subways (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6 3
29.4.4 Arches – Long Single-Span and Multiple-Span with Spandrel Fill (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.5 Precast Slabs for Bridge Decks and Floors (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.6 Cast-in-Place Concrete Bridge Decks or Floors (1994). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.7 Pump Pits for Subways and Basements (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.8 Pipe Manholes and Pipe Tunnels (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.9 Water Containers (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.10 Walls and Floors of Buildings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-6
29.4.11 Platforms, Walkways and Roadways (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.4.12 Grain Elevator Pits and Similar Underground Structures (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.4.13 Scale Pits and Other Similar Structures Below Grade (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.5 Terms (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7
29.6 Applicable ASTM Designations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8

29.6.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.2 ASTM D41 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.3 ASTM D43 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.4 ASTM D173 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.5 ASTM D226 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.6 ASTM D227 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.7 ASTM D312 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-8
29.6.8 ASTM D449 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-9
29.6.9 ASTM D450 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-9

29.6.10 ASTM D517 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10

29.6.11 ASTM D692 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.12 ASTM D946 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.13 ASTM D1187 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.14 ASTM D1190 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.15 ASTM D1227 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.16 ASTM D1327 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-10
29.6.17 ASTM D1668 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.18 ASTM D2178 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.19 ASTM D2823 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.20 ASTM D3515 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.21 ASTM D4215 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.22 ASTM D4479 (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-11
29.6.23 ASTM D4586 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.6.24 ASTM D6134 (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.7 General Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12

29.7.1 Design (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.7.2 Types (1996). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-12
29.8 Primers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.8.1 General (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.8.2 Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

29.9.1 Asphalt for Mopping (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.2 Coal-Tar Pitch for Mopping (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.3 Fabric (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13
29.9.4 Felt (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-14
29.9.5 Butyl Rubber (Butyl-based IIR) or EPDM (Ethylene-propylene-diene-monomers) (2001) . . . . . . 8-29-14
29.9.6 Adhesive (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.7 Cement (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.8 Butyl Gum Tape (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.9 Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-15
29.9.10 Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane (2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-16
29.10 Membrane Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17

29.10.1 Portland Cement Concrete (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.10.2 Asphalt Plank (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.10.3 Asphaltic Panels (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
29.11 Sealing Compounds for Joints and Edges of Membrane Protection (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.12 Anti-Bonding Paper (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.13 Inspection and Tests (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
29.14 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20

29.14.1 General (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-20
© 2013,

Waterproofing
29.14.2 Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-21

29.14.3 Membrane (2001). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-21
29.14.4 Protective Cover (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-26
29.15 Introduction to Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27

29.15.1 Damproofing Scope (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16 Materials for Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27

29.16.1 Asphalt Primer (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16.2 Creosote Primer (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-27
29.16.3 Woven Cotton Fabrics (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.4 Coal-Tar Saturated Organic Felt (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.5 Asphalt (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.6 Coal-Tar Pitch (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.7 Emulsified Asphalt Coatings (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.8 Emulsified Asphalt Protective Coating (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.9 Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coatings (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.10 Asbestos-Free Asphalt Roof Coating (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
29.16.11 Inspection and Tests (1994) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-28
1
29.17 Application of Damproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.1 Preparation of Surfaces (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.2 Temperature (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
29.17.3 Method of Application (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
C - Commentary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-29
3
LIST OF FIGURES
8-29-1 Joint Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-7

8-29-2 Lapping of Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-22
8-29-3 Recommended Butyl Membrane Field Seam Assembly Recommended in Order Listed for Field Assembly 8-29-24
4
LIST OF TABLES
8-29-1 ASTM D6134 Physical Requirements for Vulcanized Rubber Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-14
8-29-2 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-16
8-29-3 Performance Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-17
8-29-4 Degree of Resistance to Penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-19
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

SECTION 29.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES
29.1.1 PURPOSE (2001)
These recommended practices are intended to be used for work carried out by railroad companies or their selected contractors
when requested by the Engineer. These recommended practices apply to bridges and other structures constructed of either
concrete or steel.
29.1.2 SCOPE (2005)
These recommended practices describe the selection, sampling and testing of materials to be used, material properties and
construction requirements under specific conditions. They also apply to materials and construction methods for impervious
membranes and auxilliary components to protect structures or parts of structures, except roofs of buildings, from the harmful
effects of water.
SECTION 29.2 WATERPROOFING (2001)
a. Adequate and effective drainage should be provided to remove free water and lessen the possibilities of the
development of a hydrostatic pressure head.
b. Where the range of temperature varies from above freezing to below freezing, the disintegrating effect of frost action
on water-saturated concrete and masonry should be recognized and adequately protected against.
c. All surfaces of concrete, masonry, or steel structures that are or will be in contact with ballast, fill or water or will be
inaccessible for inspection, shall be considered for waterproofing to eliminate the corrosive action of liquids upon the
structural members.
d. All waterproofing materials shall be applied when surface and air temperature are both above 40 degrees F (4 degrees
C) and rain is not likely before completion of material application, unless specifically recommended by the material
manufacturer and with written approval of the Engineer.
e. The materials for waterproofing and the methods of application must ensure that the bond is permanently maintained to
the concrete, masonry, or steel interface.
f. Where the waterproofing membrane is subject to potential injury or violation from abrasion, pressure, puncture, or
other job-site abuse, a protection course is required.
g. Waterproofing shall be applied where required to protect and extend the service life of the structure.
h. The type of waterproofing should be determined by the use and probable life of the structure as related to the potential
future cost of renewal of the waterproofing.
i. Waterproofing of the most durable and effective type should be used on all concrete, steel and masonry structures:1
(1) In locations subject to water or other liquids under a hydrostatic head.
(2) Where repair or removal is impractical or prohibitive in cost.
1
See C - Commentary
© 2013,

Waterproofing
(3) Where certainty of watertightness must be positive because of heavy damage if water enters.
(4) For the protection of structural members from corrosive action caused by liquid infiltration.
j. Waterproofing specially designed for the purpose should be used where the structure must be protected against liquids
containing corrosive or deleterious substances.
k. A waterproofing membrane on the surface adjacent to the water source is the most effective externally applied
waterproofing.
SECTION 29.3 DAMPPROOFING (1994)
a. Dampproofing is effective in preventing the accumulation of surface moisture from condensation only in proportion to
its temperature-insulating value.
b. Dampproofing is not effective where masonry is subject to moisture saturation accompanied by cycles of freezing and
thawing.
c. Dampproofing is not effective where cracks may occur in concrete or masonry walls as it does not have the ability to
bridge those cracks.
1
d. A frequent fault of one-coat dampproofing is failure to produce a continuous covering free from pin holes. This should
be considered in deciding upon the number of coats that should be applied.
e. The purpose and character of dampproofing should not require special protection or covering. Where protection or
covering is necessary, the conditions will usually warrant the use of a waterproofing membrane.
f. A prime requisite of a dampproof coating is that it must remain in place. Bond with the surface is therefore essential. 3
g. The selection of materials for dampproofing should include consideration of the effect of temperature extremes, the
effect of ultraviolet exposure, and the physical and chemical effects of the liquid to which they will be subjected.
4
SECTION 29.4 SPECIFIC APPLICATION
29.4.1 ABUTMENTS AND RETAINING WALLS (2001)
Once effective drainage has been provided, waterproofing on the back of an abutment or retaining wall is generally not
necessary, but dampproofing should be provided above the footings. Where it is desired to prevent the passage of water
through expansion joints, contraction joints or construction joints, a suitable waterstop shall be installed.
29.4.2 SHORT SINGLE-SPAN ARCHES AND BOX CULVERTS (1994)
Short single-span arches and box culverts should be dampproofed on the surfaces in contact with the fill.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.4.3 PEDESTRIAN SUBWAYS (1994)
Pedestrian subways should be waterproofed on surfaces in contact with the fill.
29.4.4 ARCHES – LONG SINGLE-SPAN AND MULTIPLE-SPAN WITH SPANDREL FILL

(1994)
Long single-span arches and arches of multiple span with spandrel fill should be fully waterproofed on all surfaces in contact
with the fill, including the parapets. Special attention should be given to the drainage and to the position of the fill in order to
prevent the pocketing of water.
29.4.5 PRECAST SLABS FOR BRIDGE DECKS AND FLOORS (2001)
a. The top surface of reinforced slabs and the backs of parapets should be dampproofed or waterproofed. When
construction is over streets or walkways, waterproofing shall be applied.
b. Prior to the application of hot-poured rubberized asphalt joint sealing material in joints between precast units, a heat-
resistant backer rod should be inserted to a minimum depth of 1/2 inch (13 mm) below the slab surface ss shown in
Figure 8-29-1. The remaining reservoir should then be filled with hot-poured rubberized asphalt joint sealing
compound. Fill flush with the slab surface. The joint width should be twice the joint depth.
29.4.6 CAST-IN-PLACE CONCRETE BRIDGE DECKS OR FLOORS (1994)
a. The top surface of slabs and the backs of parapets should be waterproofed or dampproofed and the construction joints
closed with suitable waterstops, where the slab is an integral part of the structure, as in rigid frames or girderless flat
slabs, or where it is the main load-carrying element, as in simple or continuous slabs.
b. When the slab is supported on steel beams, all construction joints should be closed with suitable waterstops and
membrane waterproofing applied.
29.4.7 PUMP PITS FOR SUBWAYS AND BASEMENTS (1994)
Pump pits should be waterproofed or dampproofed on all exterior surfaces.
29.4.8 PIPE MANHOLES AND PIPE TUNNELS (1994)
Pipe manholes and concrete pipe tunnels should be dampproofed or waterproofed on all exterior surfaces.
29.4.9 WATER CONTAINERS (1994)
The walls and floors of water containers, such as reservoirs and tanks, should be made of dense concrete to insure
watertightness. Special attention should be given to the waterproofing of all joints and a suitable waterstop shall be
installed.
29.4.10 WALLS AND FLOORS OF BUILDINGS (2001)
a. The walls and floors of all buildings subject to hydrostatic pressure should be waterproofed on the pressure surfaces.
b. If not subject to hydrostatic pressure, all exterior walls should be dampproofed below ground.
© 2013,

Waterproofing
Figure 8-29-1. Joint Preparation
c. Dampproofing should be applied to the back and top (under coping) of parapet walls and to the back and to the
embedded surfaces of architectural masonry trim; also, to the inside of exterior masonry walls if plaster is to be directly
applied.
d. Special attention should be given to all joints and to places where pipes or other facilities pass through walls.
1
29.4.11 PLATFORMS, WALKWAYS AND ROADWAYS (1994)
Platforms, walkways and roadways over rooms or spaces used as adjuncts to building should be waterproofed.
29.4.12 GRAIN ELEVATOR PITS AND SIMILAR UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES (1994) 3
Grain elevator pits and similar underground structures should be made watertight by design and construction and waterproofed
on the exterior.
29.4.13 SCALE PITS AND OTHER SIMILAR STRUCTURES BELOW GRADE (1994)
4
Scale pits and other similar structures below grade should be made watertight by design and construction as well as
waterproofed or dampproofed, subject to the following conditions:
• The walls and floors of all pits subject to hydrostatic pressure should be waterproofed.
• If not subject to hydrostatic pressure, all exterior walls should be dampproofed below grade.
• Utility openings that pass through these walls shall be given special attention to prevent water infiltration or leakage.
SECTION 29.5 TERMS (2001)
The following terms are defined in the Chapter 8 Glossary located at the end of this Chapter:
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Asphaltic Panels for Waterproofing Protection
Butyl Rubber
Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane
EPDM
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane
SECTION 29.6 APPLICABLE ASTM DESIGNATIONS
29.6.1 GENERAL (2001)
These descriptions are offered as an assist to railway Engineers as a capsulized summary of their intended usage; whether it be
on grade, above grade or whether they be used in structures horizontally or vertically, to include railway bridges and
structures.
29.6.2 ASTM D41 (2001)
Covers asphaltic primers suitable for use with asphalt in dampproofing and waterproofing below or above ground level, for
application to concrete, masonry and metal surfaces.
29.6.3 ASTM D43 (2001)
Covers coal tar primers suitable for use with coal-tar pitch in dampproofing and waterproofing below or above ground level,
for application to concrete and masonry surfaces.
29.6.4 ASTM D173 (2001)
Covers woven cotton fabrics saturated with either asphalt or coal-tar pitch and suitable for use with asphalts conforming to
D449 or D312 and coal-tar pitch conforming to D450 in the membrane system of waterproofing.
29.6.5 ASTM D226 (2001)
Covers asphalt-saturated organic felts, either with or without perforations, 36 inches (915 mm) in width, suitable for use with
mopping asphalts conforming to D449 in the membrane system of waterproofing, and with mopping asphalts conforming to
D312 in the construction of built-up roofs.
29.6.6 ASTM D227 (1994)
Covers coal-tar-saturated organic felt for use with coal-tar pitches conforming to the appropriate requirements of D450 in the
construction of built-up roofs and in the membrane system of waterproofing.
29.6.7 ASTM D312 (2001)
Covers four types of asphalt intended for use in built-up roofing construction. This is intended for general classification
purposes only and does not imply restrictions on the slope in which an asphalt must be used.
© 2013,

Waterproofing
• Type I. Includes asphalts that are generally susceptible to flow at roof temperatures, with good adhesive and “self-
healing properties.” They are generally used in slag or gravel surfaced roofs on inclines up to 2%, or 1/4 inch per
foot (20 mm/m) slope.
• Type II. Includes asphalts that are moderately susceptible to flow at roof temperatures. They are generally for use
with built-up roof construction on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 8%, or 1 inch
per foot (80 mm/m) slope.
• Type III. Includes asphalts that are generally not susceptible to flow at roof temperatures for use in the construction
of built-up roof construction on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 25%, or 3 inches
per foot (250 mm/m) slope.
• Type IV. Includes asphalts that are generally not susceptible to flow at roof temperature, for use in the construction of
built-up roofing on inclines from approximately 2%, or 1/4 inch per foot (20 mm/m) to 50%, or 6 inches per foot
(500 mm/m) slope. These asphalts may be useful in areas where relatively high year-round temperatures are
experienced.
29.6.8 ASTM D449 (2001)

Covers three types of asphalts suitable for use as a mopping coat in dampproofing; or as a plying or mopping cement in the
construction of membrane waterproofing systems with felts conforming to D226; fabrics conforming to D173 or D1668
(asphalt types); asphalt-impregnated glass mat conforming to D2178 and with primer conforming to D41.
• Type I. A soft, adhesive, “self-healing” asphalt that flows easily and is suitable for use below grade under uniformly
moderate temperature conditions both during the process of installation and during the service. 1
NOTE: Type I asphalt is suitable for foundations, tunnels, subways, etc.
• Type II. An asphalt somewhat less susceptible to flow than Type I with good adhesive and “self-healing” properties,
suitable for use above grade where it will not be exposed to temperatures exceeding 122 degrees F (50 degrees C).
NOTE: Type II asphalt is suitable for railroad bridges, culverts, retaining walls, tanks, dams, conduits, spray decks, 3
etc.
• Type III. An asphalt less susceptible to temperature than Type II, with good adhesive properties, and suitable for use
above grade on vertical surfaces exposed to direct sunlight or temperatures above 122 degrees F (50 degrees C).
29.6.9 ASTM D450 (2001)

4
Covers three types of coal-tar pitch suitable for use in the construction of built-up roofing, dampproofing and membrane
waterproofing systems.
• Type I. Suitable for use in built-up roofing, dampproofing, and membrane waterproofing systems with felts
conforming to the requirements of D227 or as specified by the manufacturer.
• Type II. Suitable for use in dampproofing and in membrane waterproofing systems with primers conforming to the
requirements of D43, felts conforming to the requirements of D227, and fabrics with coal-tar saturant conforming to
the requirements of D173, D1327, or D1668 or in systems using any combination of components specified by the
manufacturer.
• Type III. Suitable for use in built-up roofing, dampproofing, and membrane waterproofing systems but having less
volatile components than Types I or II.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.6.10 ASTM D517 (1994)

Covers asphalt plank of two types as used for bridge floors:
• Type I. Plain asphalt plank.
• Type II. Mineral-surfaced asphalt plank.
29.6.11 ASTM D692 (1994)
Covers crushed stone, crushed hydraulic-cement concrete, crushed blast-furnace slag, and crushed gravel suitable for use in
bituminous paving mixtures, as described in D3515 or D4215.
29.6.12 ASTM D946 (1994)
Covers asphalt cement for use in the construction of pavements and covers the following penetration grades:
• 40 - 50.
• 60 - 70.
• 85 - 100.
• 120 - 150.
• 200 - 300.
29.6.13 ASTM D1187 (2001)
Covers emulsified asphalt suitable for application in a relatively thick film as a protective coating for metal surfaces.
• Type I. Quick-setting emulsified asphalt suitable for continuous exposure to water within a few days after
application and drying.
• Type II. Emulsified asphalt suitable for continuous exposure to the weather, only after application and drying.
29.6.14 ASTM D1190 (2001)
Covers concrete joint sealants of the hot-pour elastic type, intended for use in sealing joints and cracks in concrete pavements,
bridges and other structures.
29.6.15 ASTM D1227 (2001)
Covers emulsified asphalts suitable for use as a protective coating for built-up roofs and other exposed surfaces with inclines
of not less than 4%, or 1/2 inch per foot (40 mm/m).
• Types II and III. Emulsified asphalt prepared with mineral colloid emulsifying agents and not containing asbestos.
29.6.16 ASTM D1327 (2001)
a. Covers woven burlap fabrics, saturated with either asphalt or refined coal-tar, as specified by the Engineer, for use in
the membrane system of roofing or waterproofing or as specified by the manufacturer.
© 2013,

Waterproofing
b. Asphalt-saturated burlap fabric shall be used with asphalt-based cement; a mopping asphalt conforming to D312,
D449, or appropriate solvent bearing bitumen materials.
c. Coal-tar-saturated burlap fabric shall be used with coal-tar-based cement; a coal-tar pitch conforming to ASTM D450,
which is an appropriate solvent bearing bitumen material.
29.6.17 ASTM D1668 (2001)
Covers finished treated (coated) woven glass fabrics, coated with either asphalt, coal-tar pitch, or an organic resin compatible
with the waterproofing system, as specified by the Engineer.
• Type I, Asphalt Treated. Is suitable for use with all asphalts and asphalt based compounds.
• Type II, Coal Tar Pitch Treated. Is suitable for use with all coal-tar pitches and coal tar based compounds.
• Type III, Organic Resin Treated. The Engineer and supplier shall agree on an organic resin which is compatible with
or suitable for the plying materials. The organic resins shall not be water soluble.
29.6.18 ASTM D2178 (2001)
a. Covers glass felts impregnated to varying degrees with asphalt, that may be used with asphalts conforming to the
requirements of D312 in the construction of built-up roofs, and with asphalts conforming to the requirements of D449
in the membrane system of waterproofing.
1
b. Asphalt-impregnated glass felts, 36 inches (914 mm) wide, covered by this Designation are Types III, IV and VI.
29.6.19 ASTM D2823 (2001)
Covers asphalt roof coatings of brushing or spraying consistency.
• Type I. Is made from asphalts characterized as self-healing, adhesive and ductile, conforming to the requirements of 3
D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.
• Type II. Is made from asphalts characterized by a high softening point and relatively low ductility, conforming to the
requirements of D312, Type II or III; or D449, Type III.
29.6.20 ASTM D3515 (2001) 4

Covers hot-mixed, hot-laid asphalt, tar, emulsified asphalt, and recycled bituminous paving mixtures for base, binder, leveling,
and surface covers.
29.6.21 ASTM D4215 (2001)
Covers cold-mixed, cold-laid and recycled cold-mixed, cold-laid bituminous paving mixtures for base, binder, leveling, and
surface covers.
29.6.22 ASTM D4479 (1994)
Covers asbestos-free asphalt roof coatings of brushing or spraying consistency.
• Type I. Made from asphalts characterized as self-healing, adhesive, and ductile, and conforming to the requirements
of D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

• Type II. Is made from asphalts characterized by high softening point and relatively low ductility, conforming to the
requirements of D312, Types II or III; or D449, Type III.
29.6.23 ASTM D4586 (2001)
Covers asbestos-free asphalt roof cement suitable for trowel application to roofings and flashings.
• Type I. Made from asphalt characterized as self-healing, adhesive, and ductile, conforming to the requirements of
D312, Type I; D449, Types I or II; or D946.
• Type II. Made from asphalt characterized by high softening point and relatively low ductility, and conforming to
D312, Types II or III; or D449, Types II or III.
29.6.24 ASTM D6134 (2001)
Covers unreinforced, vulcanized rubber sheets made from ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) or butyl (IIR), used in
waterproofing systems.
SECTION 29.7 GENERAL PRACTICES
29.7.1 DESIGN (2005)1
a. Section 29.2, Waterproofing (2001) and Section 29.3, Dampproofing (1994) enumerate the principles which shall
govern the waterproofing of railway structures. Structures which require waterproofing shall be designed so that they
can be waterproofed by the methods and with the materials specified herein. Special care shall be taken to provide
flexibility in the waterproofing membrane or in the joints between sections of membrane at expansion joints or at those
locations where deflection deformation may cause excessive stretching of the membrane. Care shall be taken to seal
effectively or flash all places where the waterproofing membrane terminates, such as along the webs of girders.
b. Right-angle bends should be avoided by using rounded or chamfered edges on outside corners and suitable fillet on
inside corners. An underlayment of portland cement concrete or bituminous mastic may be used under the membrane
waterproofing on bridge deck to cover rough or uneven surfaces or to provide slope for drainage.
c. Requirements affecting details of waterproofing as may be included in this Chapter or in Chapter 6, Buildings and
Support Facilities; Chapter 7, Timber Structures; Chapter 15, Steel Structures; AAR Scale Handbook (included in this
manual) – should be observed in the design of the structure.
29.7.2 TYPES (1996)
The membrane shall consist of one of the following types, as illustrated:
a. Two layers of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and three moppings of bitumen (Figure 8-29-2, Type A).
b. Three layers of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and four moppings of bitumen (Figure 8-29-2, Type B).
c. Two layers of bitumen-treated felt, one middle layer of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and four moppings of bitumen
(Figure 8-29-2, Type C).
1
See C - Commentary
© 2013,

Waterproofing
d. Four layers of bitumen-treated felt, one middle layer of bitumen-treated cotton fabric and six moppings of bitumen
(Figure 8-29-2, Type D).
e. One layer of butyl rubber or EPDM secured as indicated with an approved adhesive (Figure 8-29-3).
f. Rubberized asphalt with plastic film or preformed board membrane.
g. Multiple layers of cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane with an approved primer.
SECTION 29.8 PRIMERS
29.8.1 GENERAL (1994)
Bitumen shall consist of asphalt or coal-tar pitch. The mopped-on material shall be asphalt for use with asphalt-saturated felt
or fabric and coal-tar pitch for use with coal-tar-saturated felt or fabric.
29.8.2 PRIMER (2001)
a. Asphaltic Primer. Asphaltic primer shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D41.
b. Coal Tar Primer. Coal tar for priming for use with coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation 1
D43.
c. Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane Primer. Primer shall be of the type compatible with the substrate and
membrane type as recommended by the manufacturer.
d. Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board. Primer shall be cold-applied as recommended by the
manufacturer.
3
SECTION 29.9 MEMBRANES

4
29.9.1 ASPHALT FOR MOPPING (2001)
Asphalt shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D449. This Designation requires a choice of Types I, II or III based
on conditions relating to use. Type II asphalt shall be used for membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
29.9.2 COAL-TAR PITCH FOR MOPPING (2001)
Coal-tar pitch shall meet requirements of ASTM designation D450. The use of this Designation requires a choice of Types I, II
or III based on conditions relating to use. Type I coal-tar pitch shall be used for membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
29.9.3 FABRIC (2001)
Fabric shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D173 covering woven cotton fabrics saturated with a bituminous
substance. The use of this Designation requires a choice of asphalt meeting ASTM designation D449 or coal-tar pitch meeting
the requirement of ASTM designation D450 as a saturant.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.9.4 FELT (2001)
a. Felts for use with an asphalt mopping shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D226. This Designation offers
a choice of two types of felt. Type I shall be used for construction of membranes on ballasted-deck railroad bridges.
b. Felt for use with coal-tar pitch moppings shall meet the requirements of ASTM designation D227.
29.9.5 BUTYL RUBBER (BUTYL-BASED IIR) OR EPDM

(ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE-DIENE-MONOMERS) (2001)
a. Membrane shall be 0.060 inch, 0.090 inch, or 0.120 inch (1.5, 2.3 or 3.1 mm) thick at the Engineer’s option.
b. Membrane shall conform to the properties found in Table 8-29-1.
Table 8-29-1. ASTM D6134 Physical Requirements for Vulcanized Rubber Sheets
Type EPDM Butyl

Thickness, minimum inch (mm) .054 (1.37) .054 (1.37)
Hardness, durometer A 60 +/- 10 60 +/- 10
Tensile strength, minimum psi (MPa) 1,300 (9) 1,200 (8.3)
Elongation, ultimate minimum % 300 300
Tensile set, maximum % 10 10
Tear resistance, minimum lbf./in. (kN/m) 150 (26.2) 150 (26.2)
Brittleness temperature, maximum degress F (degrees C) -49 (-45) -49 (-45)
Heat aging at 240 degrees F (116 degrees C):
Tensile strength, minimum psi (MPa) 1200 (8.3) 900 (6.2)
Elongation, ultimate minimum % 210 210
Linear dimensional change, maximum % +/- 1 +/- 2
Water absorption maximum, mass % 4 2
Factory seam strength, minimum psi (MPa) 50 (8.8) 50 (8.8)
2)
Water vapor permeance, maximum perms (mg/pasm .06 (3.5) .0025 (.14)
Resistance to soil burial (% change, maximum in original value):
Breaking factory 10 10
Elongation at break 10 10
Puncture resistance lbs. (Kg) 70 (32) 95 (43)
© 2013,

Waterproofing
29.9.6 ADHESIVE (1994)
Adhesive for securing membrane and the protective cover shall be in accordance with the recommendations of the membrane
manufacturer.
29.9.7 CEMENT (2001)
Cement for splicing either membrane shall be a self-vulcanizing butyl rubber compound conforming to the following
requirements:
a. Viscosity at 77 degrees F (25 degrees C) Brookfield Viscometer (#3 Spindle at 10 rpm) 1,700-3,400 cps. Total Solids
30% (min).
b. Applied to both mating surfaces at 2 gallons/150 square foot (5.4 liters/m2).
29.9.8 BUTYL GUM TAPE (2001)
Butyl gum tape for splicing either membrane shall be black, vulcanizable butyl rubber with an 8 mil (200 μm) polyethylene
film backing. The tape shall be 30 (+4) mils (750 (+100) μm) thick, including the backing.
29.9.9 RUBBERIZED ASPHALT WITH PLASTIC FILM OR PREFORMED BOARD

MEMBRANE (2001)
1
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic film or preformed board membrane shall consist of a preformed layer of highly rubberized
asphalt formed on plastic film or preformed board, with cold applied primer and/or mastic.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

a. Performance Requirements, Properties. See Table 8-29-2.
Table 8-29-2. Performance Requirements
Property Requirements Test Methods

Membrane Thickness, minimum - inches 0.060 (1.5)
(mm)
Permeability, maximum - perms 0.1 (5.72 x 10-10) ASTM E96
(g.Pa-1.S-1.m-2)
Accelerated aging, 400 h minimum no decline ASTM D822 and ASTM G23
(procedure 4)
Exposure to fungi in soil, 16 weeks unaffected GSA-PBS-407121 (spec)
Peel Adhesion, 7 days dry, +7 days at l20 5.0 (0.9) TT-S-00230 Modified
degrees F (49 degrees C), +7 days dry -
lb/in (N/mm) of width - minimum
Peel Adhesion - lb./inch of width (N/mm) 5.0 (0.9) minimum TT-S-00230 Modified
after 7 days dry, and 7 days at 120
degrees F (49 degrees C), and 7 days
of water immersion
Crack bridging on Application 1/4 inch (6 100 TT-S-00230 Modified and TT-S-
mm) cycling at -15 degrees F (-26 227 Modified
degrees C) (crack opened and closed
from 0 to 1/4 inch (0 to 6 mm)) -
minimum cycles
Puncture Resistance - minimum pounds (N) 40 (180) ASTM E154
b. Certification. Manufacturer shall furnish certification that materials meet requirements.
c. Samples. A one square foot (0.1 m2) sample shall be furnished for testing, when required, from each production run of
membrane to be supplied.
29.9.10 COLD LIQUID-APPLIED ELASTOMERIC MEMBRANE (2005)1
The membrane shall be 100% reactive spray-applied material.
a. Performance Requirements, Properties. See Table 8-29-3.
For a product to be accepted, it must meet all tests detailed below within the manufacturer’s recommended thickness
which is not to be less than 80 mils (2.0 mm) dry film thickness.
1
See C - Commentary
© 2013,

Waterproofing
Table 8-29-3. Performance Requirements
Property Requirements Test Method

Water Vapor Transmission Equal to or less than 0.2 perms, ASTM E96, procedure B or BW
which is 0.1 grains/ft2/h
(1.14x10-8g/Pa.s.m2)
Elongation at Break Minimum 80% ASTM D638
Minimum Tensile Strength 930 psi (6.4 MPa) ASTM D638
Adhesion to Steel 290 psi (2.0 MPa) ASTM D4541
Adhesion to Concrete 100 psi (0.7 MPa) ASTM D4541
Crack Bridging Meet the low temperature flexibility and ASTM C836
crack bridging requirements of 10 cycles of
1/8 inch (3.2 mm) at -15 degrees F (-26
degrees C)
b. Certification. Manufacturer shall furnish certification from an approved independent testing agency that the supplied
material meets designated test performance requirements. Manufacturer, if requested, shall supply the infrared
spectrometer analysis (finger print) of the product from which the tests were conducted. The owner may, for quality
assurance purposes, wish to corroborate material tested versus material received by means of sampling and further
Infrared Spectrometer mapping.
SECTION 29.10 MEMBRANE PROTECTION1
29.10.1 PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE (2001)

3
a. Materials for portland cement concrete shall meet the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. The concrete shall be air entrained, have a minimum cement content of 564 lbs. per cubic yard (334
kg/m3) and a maximum water to cement ratio of 0.53 by weight (mass). The maximum size of coarse aggregate shall
be 3/4 inch (20 mm).
b. The concrete shall be reinforced with wire fabric which shall meet the requirements of ASTM A185. The minimum
gage of wires shall be No. 12 (2.7 mm) and the wire shall have a maximum spacing of 6 inches (150 mm) in both 4
directions.
29.10.2 ASPHALT PLANK (2001)
Asphalt plank shall meet the requirements of ASTM D517. Asphalt plank used for protection of waterproofing membranes
shall be plain and have a minimum total thickness of 1 inch (25 mm) using one or more layers. Edges of asphalt planks to be
applied in a single layer shall be supplied with shiplapped joints.
29.10.3 ASPHALTIC PANELS (2001)
Asphaltic panels shall meet the following requirements:
1
See C - Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.10.3.1 Manufacture
a. Each panel is formed as a 5-layer member, including a core of a selected blend of asphalt and inorganic mineral filler
particles, a bottom reinforcing cover of asphalt-saturated felt and on the top, a cover of asphalt-saturated felt or fiber
glass mat that is weather coated and has bond breaking film or coating.
b. Asphalt and inorganic mineral filler particles shall be blended to form the core, with the asphalt forming the matrix of
the blend to carry the particles. The mineral filler particles function to impart increased density and enhance stiffness
and body in the core.
c. The inorganic mineral filler particles constitute an aggregate bound in the asphalt matrix which will permit points of
ballast rock to penetrate a short distance into the core to secure a good seating position. The aggregate will then resist
further penetration and will support the ballast rock.
29.10.3.2 Workmanship
The protection course shall be free from defects affecting its serviceability and appearance; it shall have straight edges and
square corners.
29.10.3.3 Properties
a. Asphaltic panels shall have the dimensions specified or shown on the plans. Tolerance of ± 1/16 inch (1.5 mm) in
thickness, ± 1/8 inch (3 mm) in width and ± 1/4 inch (6.5 mm) in length shall be permitted.
b. Weight (mass) minimum for 0.375 inch (9.5 mm) thickness, 2.60 pounds per square foot (12.7 kg/m2).
c. Weight (mass) minimum for 0.50 inch (13 mm) thickness, 3.50 pounds per square foot (17.1 kg/m2).
d. Water absorption, max, ASTM D545, 1.0%.
e. Thickness of asphalt weather-coating, rivuleted average, 0.020 inch (0.5 mm) minimum.
f. Asphalt saturated felt liners maximum 15 lb per 100 square foot (0.7 kg/m2) after saturation.
g. Asphalt content 50-60% by weight (mass).
h. Inorganic mineral filler particle contents minimum 25% by weight (mass).
i. Resistance to deterioration from organisms and substances in contacting soil, ASTM E154. No effect.
j. Flexibility, No cracking or breaking.
k. Brittleness at 39-43 degrees F (4 to 6 degrees C), ASTM D994. No cracking or shattering.
l. Heat distortion ASTM D994, 0.3125 inch (7.9 mm) maximum.
m. Mineral Filler, Carefully selected and graded inorganic mineral filler particles shall be blended with the asphalt to form
the matrix of each panel.
n. Weathercoating, Asphaltic weathercoating shall be flowed on the exterior top surface of the protection course. This
coating shall be of sufficient thickness to provide complete dimensional stability to the material, when stored outdoors
in direct sunlight. A suitable bond breaking film or coating shall be applied, to function as a release sheet. During
installation, the asphalt-saturated felt side shall be placed against the membrane waterproofing; the side with the bond
breaking film or coating shall be exposed to the ballast rock.
© 2013,

Waterproofing
o. Resistance to Penetration, Dynamic Loading.
(1) The degree of resistance to penetration, when tested in accordance with ASTM D1883, modified as described
below, shall meet the requirements found in Table 8-29-4.
Table 8-29-4. Degree of Resistance to Penetration
Temperature Dynamic Load Penetration
Deg. F Deg. C lbs. kN ins., max. mm, max.

100 38 225 1.00 0.10 2.54
77 25 350 1.56 0.10 2.54
40 4 600 2.67 0.10 2.54
(2) Pertinent modifications to ASTM D1883:
(a) Section 5.1 Loading Machine – as described, except that the movable head is capable of traveling at a uniform
rate of 0.025 inch per minute (0.61 mm/minute).
(b) Section 5.7 Penetration Piston – as described, except that the diameter of the piston shall be 1.0 +/- 0.005 inch
(25.4 +/- 0.13 mm).
1
(c) Section 5.8 Gages - as described.
(d) Section 6 Sample - Test three specimens 6 × 6 inches (152.4 x 152.4 mm), cut from each board sample.
(e) Section 7 Preparation of Test Specimens - The test specimens shall be conditioned in a chamber maintained at
the selected test temperature (±3 F degrees ±1.7 C degrees) for a minimum of 2 hours prior to testing.
3
(f) Section 8.1 - The test specimen, after conditioning, shall be immediately placed on the platform of the loading
machine and the piston placed in the center of the specimen.
(g) Section 8.2 - As described.
(h) Section 8.3 - Apply the load on the penetration piston so that the rate of penetration is approximately 0.025
inch per minute (0.61 mm/minute). The penetration shall be recorded at an applied load reading of 40 lb (178 4
kN) intervals, except where the load increases too fast to record (40 degrees F test (4 degrees C test)).
p. Inspection. Sample from each lot shall be examined for appearance, straightness of edges and squareness of corners,
and measured for width and length. They shall be calibered at four standard points each, with a micrometer having flat
bearing surfaces at both contact points of not less than 3/4 inch (19 mm) diameter. The average of the readings shall be
considered the thickness of the protection course.
q. Flexibility Test
(1) Three specimens 3 × 12 inches (75 x 305 mm) shall be conditioned at 770 ± 50 degrees F (400 ± 28 degrees C) for
not less than 2 hours immediately prior to being subjected to test.
(2) Place specimen with the 12 inch (305 mm) dimension perpendicular to and centered over the axis of a horizontal
cylinder having a diameter of 19 ± 1 inch (483 ± 25 mm).
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(3) Clamp one end and grasp the other end of the samples and bend around the cylinder at the uniform rate to
complete bend in 60 ± 10 seconds until the specimen is in full contact with the surface of the cylinder.
(4) Examine for any cracking or breaking of the sample.
SECTION 29.11 SEALING COMPOUNDS FOR JOINTS AND EDGES OF MEMBRANE

PROTECTION (2001)
a. Hot-poured elastic-type joint sealer shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1190.
b. Plastic cements for cold application for sealing joints and edges are generally proprietary products. The literature of the
several manufacturers should be studied, and the Engineer shall select a material which will best serve the purpose as
governed by conditions of use.
c. For types of plastic cement, refer to Section 29.16 for material description and conformance.
SECTION 29.12 ANTI-BONDING PAPER (2001)
Anti-bonding paper shall be a tough paper that shall be impervious to the bituminous material applied to the membrane. It shall
have a weight (mass) not less than 5 lb per 100 square foot (0.25 kg/m2).
SECTION 29.13 INSPECTION AND TESTS (1994)
a. Materials shall be sampled and tested by the current methods recommended by ASTM.
b. The acceptance of any material by the inspector shall not be a bar to their subsequent rejection if found defective.
Rejected material shall be promptly removed from the job and replaced with acceptable material.
c. No material shall be used until it has been accepted by the Engineer.
29.14.1 GENERAL (2001)
a. Bituminous membranes and Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic film or Preformed Board shall not be applied when
atmospheric temperatures are below 50 degrees F (10 degrees C). Butyl Rubber Membrane shall not be applied when
atmospheric temperature is below 10 degrees F (-12 degrees C) without written permission of the Engineer. Surfaces to
be waterproofed shall be clean, smooth, dry, and free of fins, sharp edges, oil, grease and loose or foreign materials.
New concrete shall have cured for a minimum of seven days, or for a longer period if recommended by the
manufacturer, before applying the waterproofing system. Projections or depressions on the surface on which the
© 2013,

Waterproofing
membrane is to be applied that may cause injury to the membrane shall be removed or filled as directed by the
Engineer.
b. There shall be no depressions or pockets in horizontal surfaces of the finished waterproofing. The membrane shall be
carefully turned into drainage fittings. Special care shall be taken to make the waterproofing effective along the sides
and ends of girders and at stiffeners, gussets, etc.
c. Cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane shall be applied when substrate temperatures are in the range of 32–104
degrees F (0–40 degrees C) providing that the substrate is above the dew point. The condition of the substrate shall
meet the Manufacturer’s recommendations and be approved by the Engineer. Material shall be sprayed on horizontal or
vertical surfaces up to, around or into details.
29.14.2 PRIMER (2001)
a. Surfaces to be protected with asphalt waterproofing shall be given one coat of asphaltic primer before the first mopping
of asphalt. Surfaces to be protected with coal-tar-pitch waterproofing shall be given one coat of creosote primer before
the first mopping of coal-tar pitch. A minimum of 1 gal of primer per 100 square foot (4 liters/10 m2) of surface shall
be used. The primer shall be applied approximately 24 hr before applying the waterproofing membrane.
b. At expansion joints, the primer shall be omitted for a width of 9 inches (230 mm) of each side of the joint, and a strip of
anti-bonding paper 18 inches (450 mm) wide laid thereon before the membrane is applied.
c. Surfaces to be protected with a cold liquid-applied elastomeric membrane shall be given one coat of Manufacturer
approved primer prior to the application of the membrane. The primer shall be applied by either spray, brush, roller or 1
a method approved by the Manufacturer.
29.14.3 MEMBRANE (2001)
29.14.3.1 Bituminous Membrane
a. Coal-tar pitch shall not be heated above 300 degrees F (150 degrees C). Asphalt shall not be heated above 350 3
degrees F (177 degrees C).
b. The surface to be waterproofed shall be mopped in sections slightly wider than the strip of fabric or felt to be placed.
While the mopping of bitumen is hot, a strip of cotton fabric or felt shall be laid on the mopping and pressed into place.
The amount of bitumen used for each mopping shall not be less than 1/2 gallon per 100 square feet (18.3 liters/10 m2)
of surface.
4
c. Lapping of layers of felt or fabric shall be in accordance with one of the types shown in Figure 8-29-2. Ends of fabric
and felt shall be lapped a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) where necessary to splice the material in a strip.
d. On surfaces that are vertical or nearly vertical, the strips of fabric or felt shall be laid vertical or in the direction of the
slope. On other surfaces the strips shall be lapped in accordance with one of the types shown in Figure 8-29-2,
beginning at the lowest part of the surface, to be waterproofed. Sufficient fabric or felt shall be allowed for suitable lap
or anchorage at the upper edge of the surface to be waterproofed.
e. At expansion joints of bridge decks protected with bituminous membrane waterproofing, a strip of anti-bonding paper
18 inches (450 mm) wide and a sheet of 22-gage (0.76 mm) galvanized metal a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) wide
shall be laid and centered on the joint both above and below the membrane before the protective cover is applied.
f. The work shall be regulated so that at the end of the day, all fabric or felt that has been laid shall have been mopped.
g. The waterproofing membrane shall be free from punctures or folds. Patching shall be done only with permission of the
Engineer. Where patching is permitted for defective waterproofing, it shall extend a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm)
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-29-2. Lapping of Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing.
© 2013,

Waterproofing
beyond the outermost edge of the defective portion. The second and each succeeding ply of the patch shall extend at
least 3 inches (75 mm) beyond the preceding ply.
29.14.3.2 Butyl Rubber or EPDM Membrane
a. For surfaces to be waterproofed with a membrane secured with adhesive, the adhesive shall be applied to ballast
retainers and ends of deck in a solid area extending a minimum of 36 inches (915 mm). At the Engineer’s option,
adhesive may be applied to the entire surface to be waterproofed. Adhesive should be applied in a thin layer (by using
a roller or brush as recommended by the manufacturer) at a minimum rate of 1 gallon per 60 square foot (6.8 liters/10
m2) based on both mating surfaces.
b. Membrane sheets shall first be positioned and drawn tight without stretching. Half of the membrane is then uniformly
rolled up in a direction away from the starting edge or subsequent splice. Adhesive is now applied to the exposed area.
Allow adhesive to dry so as to not stick to a dry finger touch and all solvent is evaporated. The membrane is now
unrolled and pressed firmly and uniformly in place, using care to avoid trapping of air. The same procedure is repeated
for the remaining half of the membrane sheets. Wrinkles and buckles shall be avoided. Each succeeding sheet shall be
positioned to fit the previously installed sheet and spliced.
c. Splices shall be of tongue-and-groove or lap type as specified by the Engineer. Splices shall be made as shown in
Figure 8-29-3. All seam, lap and splice areas shall be cleaned with heptane, hexane, toluene, trichloroethylene or white
gasoline, using a clean cloth, mop or similar synthetic cleaning device. Cement shall be spread continuously on seam,
lap and splice areas at a uniform rate of not less than 2 gal per 150 square foot (5.4 liters/10 m2) based on both mating
surfaces. After cement is allowed to dry until it will not stick to a dry finger touch, apply butyl gum tape to cemented
area of membrane, pressing firmly into place, obtaining full contact. Bridging and wrinkles shall be avoided. Corner
splices shall be reinforced with two continuous layers of rubber membrane over one layer of butyl tape.
1
d. All projecting pipe, conduits, sleeves, etc., passing through membrane waterproofing shall be flashed with
prefabricated or field-fabricated boots, fitted coverings, etc., as necessary to provide watertight construction. Butyl
gum tape shall be used between layers of rubber membrane.
e. At expansion joints of bridge decks protected with butyl rubber membrane waterproofing, a strip of anti-bonding paper 3
18 inches (450 mm) wide and a sheet of 22-gage (0.76 mm) galvanized metal a minimum of 12 inches (305 mm) wide
shall be laid and centered on the joint both above and below the membrane before the protective cover is applied.
f. Any holes in the membrane sheeting shall be patched with a minimum overlap of 4 inches (100 mm) and in accordance
with manufacturer’s instructions.
g. During construction, care shall be exercised to prevent damage to the waterproofing membrane by men or equipment. 4
29.14.3.3 Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board
a. Surface Preparation.
(1) All concrete or masonry surfaces shall be surface dry. Surfaces shall be broom cleaned, shall be free of voids,
loose aggregate, sharp protrusions, form release agents or other contaminants. Horizontal concrete or masonry
surfaces shall be wood float finished.
(2) All concrete or masonry surfaces shall be primed with manufacturer’s recommended primer, applied by brush or
roller at the rate of 100 to 250 square foot per gal (2.5 to 6.1 m2/liter). Primer shall be dried one hour or until tack
free. Primed surfaces not covered within 36 hours shall be reprimed. Dense surfaces such as metal shall be primed,
and shall be clean, dry and free of grease, oil, dust, or other contaminants before being primed. Wood shall be
primed.
b. Application Procedures.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Figure 8-29-3. Recommended Butyl Membrane Field Seam Assembly Recommended in Order Listed
for Field Assembly
© 2013,

Waterproofing
(1) Rubber Asphalt with Plastic Film shall be overlapped 2-1/2 inches (64 mm) to adjacent material surfaces. Rubber
Asphalt with Preformed Board shall be butt-jointed with 6 inches (150 mm) gusset tape as recommended by the
manufacturer applied directly over the joints.
(2) All corners shall be double-covered with a double layer of membrane by applying an initial 12 inches (305 mm)
strip centered along the axis of the corner.
(3) Expansion joints shall be double covered with membrane. Prior to waterproofing over expansion joints, a
minimum 12 inches (305 mm) wide galvanized 16 gage (1.52 mm) steel plate shall be placed and centered on the
joint, then an inverted strip of membrane (plastic side down) 4 inches (100 mm) wider than the galvanized plate
shall be centered on the galvanized plate. This should then be covered over with a full width of membrane,
centered on the joint.
(4) The perimeter of the membrane placed in any day’s operation and all outside edges of membrane shall have a
trowelled bead of cold applied rubberized asphalt mastic applied after the membrane is placed.
(5) Areas around drains, posts, bolts, or other protrusions shall have a double layer of membrane and shall be liberally
coated with mastic adjacent to seams and protrusions after application of the membrane.
(6) Immediately before covering the membrane, a careful inspection shall be made and any ruptures, misaligned
seams or other discontinuities shall be patched with membrane.
29.14.3.4 Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane
a. Surface Preparation. 1
(1) All concrete surfaces shall be surface dry. Surfaces to be waterproofed shall be clean, smooth, dry and free of oil,
grease and loose or foreign material.
(2) The surface preparation shall be performed by means approved by the Engineer. The surface profile is not to
exceed 1/4 inch (6.3 mm), peak to valley. Test method ASTM D4541 shall be used to verify that the surface
preparation meets the required adhesion/pull off values of 100 psi (0.7 MPa) for concrete and 290 psi (2.0 MPa) 3
for steel surfaces.
(3) Steel substrates shall be cleaned and sand blasted to a near white SSPC SP-10 specification or to a condition that
exceeds the Manufacturer’s minimum requirements. Special attention shall be given to welds, bolts, rivets, etc., so
that preparation complies with Manufacturer’s recommendations. Primer is to be applied within 4 hours of
preparation.
4
(4) Other methods of surface preparation recommended by the manufacturer may be used as approved by the
Engineer.
b. Application Procedures.
(1) Immediately prior to the application of any component of the system, the surface shall be dry. Any remaining dust
or loose particles shall be removed using a vacuum or clean, dry, oil-free compressed air.
(2) Where the area to be waterproofed is vertical, the system shall be capable of being sprayed at the specified
thickness.
(3) The membrane shall be carefully sprayed around and into drainage fittings to ensure proper runoff of water.
Special care shall be taken with the spraying of the system to get full coverage along the sides and ends of girders,
stiffeners, gussets, and over welds, bolts or rivets, etc.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

(4) Where the membrane is to be joined to existing cured material the new application shall overlap the existing
material by at least 4 inches (100 mm).
(5) All overlap areas shall be wiped with a cleaner in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendation.
(6) The membrane shall be applied in a methodical manner to ensure proper coverage. Wet film thickness shall be
checked once every 100 square feet (9 m2).
(7) If required by site conditions, or for application to small areas, or touch-up the membrane can be applied by brush
or trowel in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
(8) The membrane shall be fully cured before it is covered. Membrane shall be inspected prior to covering and any
surface defects or damage shall be repaired in accordance with manufacturer’s recommendations.
(9) Protective cover in accordance with Article 29.14.4.1b shall be installed prior to ballast placement.
(10) Other application procedures may be used as recommended by the manufacturer and approved by the Engineer.
29.14.4 PROTECTIVE COVER (2001)
29.14.4.1 General
a. Protective cover shall be placed over all waterproofing membranes to eliminate damage from ballast contact as soon as
practicable within 24 hours after the membrane has been laid. Dirt and other foreign material shall be removed from
the surface of the membrane before the protective cover is placed. Protective cover shall be shielded with permanent
cover within 48 hours, unless a temporary cover, approved by the Engineer, is placed.
b. One of the following methods of protection shall be used:
(1) A layer of reinforced portland cement concrete not less than 2 inches (50 mm) thick.
(2) A layer of asphalt block or asphalt plank not less than 1 inch (25 mm) thick.
(3) A layer or layers of asphaltic panels not less than 3/4 inch (19 mm) total thickness.
29.14.4.2 Portland Cement Concrete Protection
Portland cement concrete shall be mixed in accordance with the requirements of Part 1, Materials, Tests and Construction
Requirements. It shall be reinforced with one layer of wire fabric. Traffic shall not be allowed on the concrete until it is
adequately cured as judged by the Engineer.
29.14.4.3 Asphalt Plank
a. Asphalt plank protection shall be laid in hot asphalt applied at not less than 5 gallons per 100 square foot (20 liters/10
m2). As successive planks are laid, the edges and ends of adjacent planks already laid shall be coated heavily with hot
asphalt. This shall be the same asphalt as specified for mopping in Article 29.9.1. Planks shall be held tightly against
those previously laid so that the asphalt will completely fill the joints and be squeezed out of the top. After all of the
planks have been laid, any joints not completely filled shall be filled with hot asphalt.
b. Asphalt planks for use with a butyl rubber or EPDM membrane shall be laid in a coating of bonding adhesive as
specified in Article 29.9.6. The adhesive shall be applied at a rate of not less than 1 gal per 100 square foot (4.1
liters/10 m2). Voids between the joints should be filled with a compatible material as described in Article 29.9.1.
© 2013,

Waterproofing
29.14.4.4 Asphaltic Panels
a. Asphaltic panels are available in various thicknesses. To obtain the thickness of 3/4 inch (19 mm), the recommended
application is two layers with the joints staggered. The panels shall be laid tight jointed, with or without an approved
adhesive. The adhesive shall be the same as specified in Article 29.9.1 when used with Bituminous membrane or in
Article 29.9.6 when used with Butyl rubber or EPDM membrane. Any voids between the panels shall be filled with a
material compatible to both the membrane and the panel.
b. Where edges or protrusions of asphaltic panels are exposed to prolonged sunlight exposure, coat exposed areas with
Fibre Aluminum Roof Coating meeting ASTM D2824, Type II at a rate of 12 square feet per gallon (3 m2/10 liter), for
a 1/8 inch (3 mm) thickness.
29.14.4.5 Sealing Joints and Edges
a. Joints shown on the plan to be filled with a joint sealing compound shall be filled where possible with a hot-poured
elastic-type joint sealer or with an approved hot or cold elastic-type joint sealer. Steeply sloped or vertical areas shall
be sealed with cold-applied mastic.
b. The following precaution (from ASTM D1190) should be observed in using hot-poured elastic-type joint sealer:
Some, if not all, of the known materials conforming to these recommended practices may be damaged by heating to too
high a temperature for too long a time. Care should be exercised to secure equipment for heating that is suitable for the
purpose. The material should be heated in a kettle with mechanical agitation, constructed as a double boiler, with the
space between the inner and outer shells filled with oil or other heat transfer medium. Thermostatic control for the heat
transfer medium shall be provided and shall have sufficient sensitivity to maintain sealant temperature within the
1
manufacturer’s specified application temperature range.
SECTION 29.15 INTRODUCTION TO DAMPROOFING 3

29.15.1 DAMPROOFING SCOPE (2001)
a. Dampproofings are not to be used in any area where a hydrostatic head is anticipated.
b. Dampproofings are a surface coating intended to repel free water.

4
c. These recommended practices apply to materials and methods for dampproofing concrete surfaces.
SECTION 29.16 MATERIALS FOR DAMPROOFING
29.16.1 ASPHALT PRIMER (1994)
Asphaltic primer shall meet the requirements of ASTM D41.
29.16.2 CREOSOTE PRIMER (2001)
Coal tar primer for use with coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM D43.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

29.16.3 WOVEN COTTON FABRICS (1994)
Woven cotton fabrics saturated with either asphalt or coal-tar bitumen shall meet the requirements of ASTM D173.
29.16.4 COAL-TAR SATURATED ORGANIC FELT (1994)
Coal-tar saturated organic felt shall meet the requirements of ASTM D227.
29.16.5 ASPHALT (1994)
Asphalt shall meet the requirements of ASTM D449. Three types: I, II, or III are specified. Type II asphalt shall be used for
dampproofing.
29.16.6 COAL-TAR PITCH (1994)
Coal-tar pitch shall meet the requirements of ASTM D450. Three types: I, II, or III are specified. Type I coal-tar pitch shall be
used for dampproofing.
29.16.7 EMULSIFIED ASPHALT COATINGS (2001)
Emulsified asphalt coatings shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1187, Type I.
29.16.8 EMULSIFIED ASPHALT PROTECTIVE COATING (2001)
Emulsified asphalt protective coating shall meet the requirements of ASTM D1227, Type II, Class 1.
29.16.9 ASBESTOS-FREE ASPHALT ROOF COATINGS (1994)
Asbestos-free asphalt roof coatings to be brush or spray applied shall meet the requirements of ASTM D4479. Two types: I
and II are specified.
29.16.10 ASBESTOS-FREE ASPHALT ROOF COATING (1994)
Asbestos-free asphalt roof coating to be trowel applied shall meet the requirements of ASTM D4586.
29.16.11 INSPECTION AND TESTS (1994)
a. Contractor shall supply certification that materials used are in full conformance to applicable ASTM designations. If
requested by the Engineer, sampling and testing will be completed.
b. The acceptance of any material by the inspector shall not bar their subsequent rejection if found defective. Rejected
materials shall be promptly removed from the job and replaced with acceptable material.
c. No material shall be used until it has been accepted by the Engineer.
© 2013,

Waterproofing
SECTION 29.17 APPLICATION OF DAMPROOFING1
29.17.1 PREPARATION OF SURFACES (2001)
a. The surfaces upon which a dampproofing coating is to be applied shall be cleaned of all dirt and loose or foreign
material by sandblasting, the use of wire brushes, chisels or scrapers, or washing with water.
b. Spalled, cracked, or honeycombed areas shall be repaired in accordance with Part 14, Repair and Rehabilitation of
Concrete Structures.
c. All surfaces to be dampproofed shall be dry and free from sharp projections or porous places.
29.17.2 TEMPERATURE (2001)
All dampproofing materials shall be applied when surface temperature is above 40 degrees F (4 degrees C) and rain is not
likely before completion of the project, unless specifically recommended by the material manufacturer and with written
approval of the Engineer.
29.17.3 METHOD OF APPLICATION (2001)2
a. The primer shall be applied to the concrete surface at least 24 hours in advance of applying the first mopping of
bitumen. The primer need not be heated but shall be applied in a uniform coat that completely covers the area to which
the bitumen is to be applied. 1
b. The bitumen for mopping shall be heated to permit uniform covering; however, asphalt shall not be heated above 350
degrees F (177 degrees C) and coal-tar pitch shall not be heated above 300 degrees F (150 degrees C). Two mop coats
of bitumen shall be applied, using a total of approximately 8 gallons of bitumen for 100 square feet of dampproofing
surface (32.6 liters/10 m2). If imperfections appear in the coating, additional coats shall be applied until the
imperfections are corrected.
3
c. Cover or backfill within 72 hours after application. Backfill with care to avoid damage to dampproofed areas.
C - COMMENTARY
The purpose of this part is to furnish the technical explanation of various articles in Part 29, Waterproofing. In the numbering
of articles of this section, the numbers after the “C-” correspond to the section/article being commented upon. 4
C - SECTION 29.2 WATERPROOFING (2001)
C - Paragraph i
When doing remedial waterproofing on existing railway bridges, it is possible to encounter unusual materials used as the
protection cover. These may include premoulded asphalt block, industrial or paving brick, mixed-in-place asphalt or coar tar
mastic with selected aggregates. These older methods of protection can be readily recognized and if being removed, should be
replaced with current acceptable AREMA recommended materials and practices.
1
See C - Commentary
2
See C - Commentary
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

C - SECTION 29.7 GENERAL PRACTICES
C - 29.7.1 DESIGN (2005)
a. Roll, sheet or liquid applied systems that, when applied to concrete and masonry surfaces, will prevent the ingress of
moisture in both its liquid and gaseous forms. Systems are suitable for application on and below grade as well as
railway structures of all types, including bridge structures.
b. Selected materials must be suitable for, and capable of handling, the inherent pressures of a hydrostatic head.
C - SECTION 29.9 MEMBRANES
C - 29.9.10 COLD LIQUID-APPLIED ELASTOMERIC MEMBRANE (2005)
The recommended waterproofing membrane thickness applied to the bridge deck is not to be less than recommended by the
manufacturer. The minimum required dry film thickness of 80 mils at any location on the bridge deck is to ensure adequate
coverage of substrate irregularities, and a greater thickness may be specified in order to insure that this minimum is achieved.
The absence of pin holes should be verified in accordance with ASTM D4787. The thickness of membrane applied is to be at
least equal to the thickness used by the manufacturer for the crack bridging test.
C - SECTION 29.10 MEMBRANE PROTECTION
There has been a continuing debate on the use of protection board material over cold liquid applied membrane since cold
liquid applied membrane was included in previous AREMA recommendations. The initial recommendations allowed cold
liquid applied membrane to be used without protection board, provided the membrane material passed the ballast impact test.
The use of protection board placed over cold liquid membrane material is an economic decision that an owner makes. The
AREMA recommendation gives a standard practice, but does not prohibit the use of a cold liquid applied membrane without a
protection board. The decision is a question of length of useful life (economical cost of replacement versus higher initial
capital cost).
C - SECTION 29.17 APPLICATION OF DAMPROOFING
Dampproofing is a surface coating applied to concrete or masonry that will prevent or repel water in its liquid form. May be
applied in single or multiple layers, suitable for application above and below grade.
C - 29.17.3 METHOD OF APPLICATION (2001)
Dampproofings are not to be used in any area where a hydrostatic head is anticipated.
© 2013,

8w
Chapter 8 Glossary
— 2006 —
The following Terms are listed in the various Parts of Chapter 8 Concrete Structures and Foundations and are defined here.
These definitions apply only to those Parts in which they are cited as Terms since they may have different meanings where
used in other Parts.
AASHTO
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, 444 North Capitol Street, Suite 249, Washington,
D.C. 20001. www.aashto.org. Term cited in Part 1.
Absorption
The process by which a liquid is drawn into and tends to fill permeable pores in a porous solid; also the increase in mass of
a porous solid resulting from the penetration of a liquid into its permeable pores. Term cited in Part 1.
1
Abutment
Commonly consists of a retaining wall that incorporates a bridge seat in its face. It may also be of the spill-through type, in
which the bridge seat rests on horizontal beams supported by piles or columns between which the fill is permitted to extend.
Term cited in Part 5.
3
ACI International
American Concrete Institute, P.O. Box 9094, Farmington Hills, Michigan 48333. www.aci-int.org. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture
A material other than water, aggregates, hydraulic cement and fiber reinforcement, used as an ingredient of concrete or
mortar, and added to the batch immediately before or during its mixing. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Accelerating
An admixture that causes an increase in the rate of hydration of the hydraulic cement, and thus shortens the time of setting,
or increases the rate of strength development, or both. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Air-Entraining
An addition for hydraulic cement; also an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes entrained air to be incorporated in
the concrete or mortar during mixing, usually to increase its workability and frost resistance. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Retarding
An admixture which delays the setting of cement paste and hence of mixtures such as mortar or concrete containing
cement. Term cited in Part 1.
© 2013 , American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-G-1

Admixture, Water Reducing

An admixture that either increases slump of freshly mixed mortar or concrete without increasing water content or maintains
slump with a reduced amount of water, the effect being due to factors other than air entrainment. Also known as a
plasticizer. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Water Reducing (High Range)

A water reducing admixture capable of producing large water reduction or great flowability without causing undue
retardation or entrainment of air in mortar or concrete. Also known as a superplasticizer. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Water Reducing and Accelerating

An admixture that reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency and accelerates
the setting and early strength development of concrete. Term cited in Part 1.
Admixture, Water Reducing and Retarding

An admixture that reduces the quantity of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given consistency and retards the
setting of concrete. Term cited in Part 1.
Agent, Bonding
A substance applied to a sound substrate to create a bond between it and a succeeding layer or adjacent concrete placement,
conforming to ASTM C881 Standard Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding Systems for Concrete. Term cited in
Part 1.
Aggregate
Inert material such as sand, gravel or crushed stone used with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce either concrete or
mortar. Term cited in Part 1.
Air, Entrained
Microscopic air bubbles intentionally incorporated in mortar or concrete during mixing, usually by use of a surface-active
agent; typically between 0.4 to 40 mils (10 and 1000 micrometers) in diameter and spherical or nearly so. Term cited in
Part 1.
Anchorage Blister
Build-out in the web, flange, or web-flange junction to provide area for one or more tendon anchorages. Term cited in Part
26.
Anchorage Seating
Deformation of anchorage or seating of tendons in anchorage device when prestressing force is transferred from jack to
anchorage device. Term cited in Part 17.
Approved or Approval
Approved or approval shall be understood to mean written consent. Term cited in Part 1.
Asphaltic Panels for Waterproofing Protection

Asphaltic panels that are fortified in order to protect membrane waterproofing from ballast penetration and abrasion. They
are furnished in sheet form, applied either dry or in asphalt mastic.
© 2013,
8-G-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Glossary
ASTM - International
ASTM - International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania 19428-2959. www.astm.org Term cited
in Part 1.
Bell or Underream
An enlargement at the bottom of the drilled shaft made by hand excavation or mechanical underreaming with drilling
equipment for the purpose of spreading the load over a larger area. Term cited in Part 24.
Blast-Furnace Slag
The non-metallic product consisting essentially of silicates and alumino silicates of calcium and other bases, that is
developed in a molten condition simutaneously with iron in a blast-furnace. Term cited in Part 1.
Blast-Furnace Slag, Ground Granulated

The glassy granular material formed when blast furnace slag is rapidly chilled, as by immersion in water. Term cited in Part
1.
Bleeding
The autogenous flow of mixing water within, or its emergence from, newly placed concrete or mortar (caused by the
settlement of the solid materials within the mass) also called water gain. Term cited in Part 1.
Bonded Tendon
See Tendon, Bonded. Term cited in Part 17. 1
Butyl Rubber
An elastomeric membrane sheet formed of multiple plies of rubber factory-fabricated into a single ply for waterproofing
bridge decks, foundations and tunnels. It is capable of being field spliced with appropriate adhesives, cements and butyl
gum tape.
3
Casing, Permanent
A permanent steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from excavations. It is used as a
form to contain concrete placed for a drilled shaft and remains in place. Term cited in Part 24.
Casing, Protective
Protective steel unit, usually cylindrical in shape, lowered into the excavation to protect workmen and inspectors from 4
collapse or cave-in of the side wall. Term cited in Part 24.
Casing, Temporary
A temporary steel cylinder that is installed for the purpose of excluding soil and water from the excavations. It may also be
used as a form for the shaft concrete but is withdrawn as the concrete shaft is placed. Term cited in Part 24.
Cement, Blended
Hydraulic cement consisting essentially of an intimate and uniform blend of granulated blast-furnace slag and hydrated
lime; or an intimate and uniform blend of portland cement and granulated blast-furnace slag; portland cement and pozzolan,
or portland blast-furnace slag cement and pozzolan, produced by intergrinding portland cement clinker and other materials
or by blending portland cement with other materials, or a combination of intergrinding and blending. Term cited in Part 1.
Cement, Hydraulic
A cement that sets and hardens by chemical interaction with water and is capable of doing so underwater.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-G-3

Cement, Slag
Hydraulic cement consisting mostly of an intimate and uniform blend of granulated blast-furnace slag and hydrated lime in
which the slag constituent is more than a specified minimum percentage. Term cited in Part 1.
Cementitious
Having cementing properties. Term cited in Part 1.
Centering
Falsework that may be used in the construction of a continuous or other special structure, where the entire falsework is
lowered (struck or decentered) as a unit. Term cited in Part 1.
Chemical Resistance
The ability of the material to resist attack by chemicals such as caustics, chlorides or acids (e.g. salt or diesel fuel). Term
cited in Part 1.
Closure
Cast-in-place concrete segment or segments used to complete a span. Term cited in Part 26.
Coating
Material used to protect prestressing tendons against corrosion, to reduce friction between tendon and duct, or to debond
prestressing tendons. Term cited in Part 17.
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Cold Liquid-Applied Elastomeric Membrane

A two component, resinous-based system that is brush, roll, or spray applied to form a seamless waterproof membrane,
preventing the intrusion of moisture into the concrete or steel substrate. This type of membrane provides high bond
strength to the substrate and excellent crack bridging capabilities.
Company
Company shall be understood to mean the Railroad or Railway Company. Term cited in Part 1.
Compound, Curing
A liquid that can be applied to the surface of newly placed concrete to retard the loss of water. Term cited in Part 1.
Compressive Strength
See Strength, Compressive. Term cited in Parts 1 and 2.
Compressive Strength of Concrete (f 'c)

See Compressive Strength. Terms cited in Parts 1 and 2.
Concrete
A composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are embedded particles or fragments of
aggregate, usually a combination of coarse aggregate and fine aggregate; in portland-cement concrete, the binder is a
mixture of portland cement and water. Term cited in Part 1.
© 2013,

Glossary
Concrete Curing Compound

See Curing Compound, Concrete. Term cited in Part 1.
Concrete, Cyclopean
A term describing mass concrete in which large individual aggregates (cyclopean aggregates) each of 100 pounds (45 kg)
or more are placed and embedded as concrete is deposited. Term cited in Part 1.
Concrete, Polymer
Concrete in which an organic polymer serves as the binder; also known as resin concrete; sometimes erroneously employed
to designate hydraulic cement mortars or concretes in which part or all of the mixing water is replaced by an aqueous
dispersion of a thermoplastic copolymer. Term cited in Part 1.
Concrete, Polymer Cement

A mixture of water, hydraulic cement, aggregate, and a monomer or polymer; polymerized in place when a monomer is
used. Term cited in Part 1.
Concrete, Structural Lightweight

A structural concrete made with lightweight aggregate; having an air-dry unit weight of not more than 115 lb/ft3 (1850
kg/m3). Term cited in Parts 1 and 2.
Confinement Anchorage
Anchorage device for a post-tensioning tendon that functions on the basis of confinement of the concrete in the immediate 1
anchorage zone by confinement reinforcing (stirrups, spirals or other devices to provide confinement to the concrete).
Contractor
The individual, partnership, corporation, or joint venturer undertaking performance of the work covered by the plans and
specifications and in accordance with the terms of the contract. Term cited in Part 1. 3
Couplers (Couplings)
Means by which prestressing force is transmitted from one partial-length prestressing tendon to another. Cited in Parts 17
and 26.
Creep of Concrete 4
Time-dependent deformation of concrete under sustained load. Term cited in Part 17.
Crib Wall, Cribbing

A Crib Wall consists of an earth filled assembly of individual structural units, which relies for its stability on the weight and
strength of the earth fill. The design of such walls is treated in Part 6, Crib Walls.
A Crib Wall is an earth-retaining structure made up of rigid members fabricated in the shape of open squares, open
rectangles or other open shapes, or are assembled in the shape of square or rectangular cells, or cells of other shapes. The
cells are filled with granular material. The structure of cells and soil infill act together as a gravity structure, obtaining
safety and stability from the proper proportioning of its shape and weight (mass). Crib walls can be of traditional cribbing
as described in Article 6.1.2.2, or of other units that behave in accordance with this definition. Crib wall members can be of
concrete, metal, or timber.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Cribbing also defines a traditional assembly of headers and stretchers, used to form the most common kind of crib wall.
Curing Compound, Concrete

A chemical compound which is applied to a concrete surface to prevent the loss of moisture during early stages of cement
hydration. Term cited in Part 1.
Curvature Friction
Friction resulting from bends or curves in the specified prestressing tendon profile. Term cited in Part 17.
Cyclopean Concrete
See Concrete, Cyclopean. Term cited in Part 1.
Debonding or Blanketing
Wrapping, sheathing or coating prestressing tendon to prevent bond between strand and surrounding concrete. Term cited
in Part 17.
Deformed Reinforcement
See Reinforcement.
Design Load
All applicable loads and forces or related internal moments and forces used to proportion members. For design by
SERVICE LOAD DESIGN, design load refers to loads without load factor, for LOAD FACTOR DESIGN, design load
refers to loads multiplied by appropriate load factors. Term cited in Part 2.
Design Strength
Nominal strength multiplied by a strength reduction factor Φ – See Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.30.2.
Development Length
Length of embedded reinforcement required to develop the design strength of the reinforcement at a critical section. Term
cited in Part 2.
Deviation Saddle
Build-out in the web, flange, or web-flange junction to provide for change of direction of an external tendon. Term cited in
Part 26.
Dolphin
A stand-alone unit placed upstream or downstream of a substructure element, placed to protect portions of a bridge exposed
to possible damage from impacts by floating debris or vessels. The dolphin may be a pile cluster, a filled cellular sheet pile
structure, a reinforced concrete shaft or other structural unit intended to protect the bridge. Term cited in Part 23.
Drilled Shaft
A machine and/or hand excavated shaft, concrete filled, with or without steel reinforcement, for the purpose of transferring
structural loads to bearing strata below the shaft and/or through transfer of structural load through friction between the sides
of the shaft and the adjacent material through which the shaft passes. Term cited in Part 24.
© 2013,

Glossary
Duct
Hole or void formed in prestressed member to accommodate tendon for post-tensioning. Term cited in Part 17.
Effective Prestress
Stress remaining in concrete due to prestressing after all calculated losses have been deducted, excluding effects of
superimposed loads and weight of member; stress remaining in prestressing tendons after all losses have occurred
excluding effects of dead load and superimposed load. Term cited in Part 17.
Elastic Shortening of Concrete

Shortening of member caused by application of forces induced by prestressing. Term cited in Part 17.
Embankment Installation, Negative Projecting

An embankment installation made over a pipe which is installed within a relatively narrow trench with the top of the pipe
below the natural ground or compacted fill. Term cited in Part 10.
Embankment Installation, Positive Projecting

An embankment installation made over a pipe which is installed on original ground or compacted fill with the top of the
pipe above the ground or compacted fill. Term cited in Part 10.
Embedment Length
Length of embedded reinforcement provided beyond a critical section. Term cited in Part 2.
1
Embedment Length, Equivalent (le)
End Anchorage
Length of reinforcement, or a mechanical anchor or a hook, or combination thereof, beyond the point of zero stress in the
reinforcement. Term cited in Parts 2 and 17.
3
End Block
Enlarged end section of member designed to reduce anchorage stresses. Term cited in Part 17.
Engineer 4
Engineer shall be understood to mean the Chief Engineer of the Company or the Chief Engineer’s duly authorized
representative. Term cited in Part 1.
EPDM
A sheet, elastomeric membrane formed of Ethylene-Propylene-Diene-Monomers for waterproofing bridge decks,
foundations, and tunnels. It is capable of being field spliced with appropriate adhesive, cements, and butyl gum tape.
Expansion Joint
A joint or dimensional gap between adjacent parts of a building, structure or concrete work which permits relative
movement due to temperature changes (or other conditions) without rupture or damage. Term cited in Part 1.
External Tendon
See Tendon, External. Term cited in Part 26.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Factored Load
Load, multiplied by appropriate Load Factors, used to proportion member by the LOAD FACTOR DESIGN method. Term
cited in Part 2.
Falsework
A temporary structure erected to support concrete, formwork, machinery, workers or other loads during the process of
construction; composed of shoring, posting and/or bracing. Term cited in Part 1.
Fender
A protective structure or cover placed on or around a pier or abutment face, placed as a buffer to protect portions of bridge
exposed to possible damage from impacts by floating debris or vessels. Fenders are frequently attached to the substructure
element. Term cited in Part 23.
FHWA
Federal Highway Administration, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE, Washington, D.C. 20590. www.fhwa.dot.gov. Term cited
in Parts 1 and 4.
Fineness Modulus
See Modulus, Fineness. Term cited in Part 1.
Fly Ash
The finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and which is transported from the
firebox through the boiler by flue gases. Term cited in Part 1.
Form / Formwork
The enclosures or panels which contain the fresh concrete and withstand the forces due to its placement and consolidation.
Forms may in turn be supported on shores or falsework. Term cited in Part 1.
Friction (Post Tensioning)

Surface resistance between tendon and duct in contact during stressing. Term cited in Part 17.
See also Curvature Friction and Wobble Friction.
General Bursting Forces

Bursting forces due to all of the tendons anchored at a cross section. Dependent on the overall concrete dimensions, and the
magnitude, direction and location of the total prestressing force anchored. Term cited in Part 26.
Grout Opening or Vent

Inlet, outlet, vent, or drain in post-tensioning duct for grout, water or air. Term cited in Part 17.
Heel
That portion of the footing of a cantilever retaining wall which lies beneath the retained soil mass. Term cited in Part 5.
Honeycomb
Voids left in concrete by failure of the mortar to effectively fill the spaces among coarse aggregate particles. Term cited in
Part 1.
© 2013,

Glossary
Internal Tendon
See Tendon, Internal. Term cited in Part 26.
Jacked or Tunneled Installation

A pipe installation that is made without removal of the ground above the pipe. Term cited in Part 10.
Jacking Force
Temporary force exerted by device that introduces tension into prestressing tendons. Term cited in Parts 17 and 26.
Joint, Expansion
See Expansion Joint. Term cited in Part 1.
Joint, Type A
Cast-in-place joint between previously cast concrete and wet concrete. Term cited in Part 26.
Joint, Type B
Epoxied joint or dry joint between precast units. Term cited in Part 26.
Laitance
A layer of weak and nondurable material containing cement and fines from aggregates, brought by bleeding water to the top
of overwet concrete. Term cited in Part 1. 1
Launching Bearing
Temporary bearing with low friction characteristics used for launching of bridges constructed by the incremental launching
method. Term cited in Part 26.
Launching Nose 3
Temporary assembly attached to the front of an incrementally launched bridge to reduce superstructure moments during
launching. Term cited in Part 26.
Local Zone
The region immediately surrounding each anchorage device. It may be taken as a cylinder or prism with transverse
dimensions approximately equal to the sum of the projected size of the bearing plate plus the manufacturer’s specified 4
minimum side or edge cover. The length of the local zone may also extend the length of the anchorage device plus an
additional distance in front of the anchor equal to at least the maximum lateral dimension of the anchor. Term cited in Part
26.
Loss of Prestress
Reduction in prestressing force resulting from combined effects of strains in concrete and steel, including effects of elastic
shortening, creep and shrinkage of concrete, relaxation of steel stress, friction, and anchorage seating. Term cited in Parts
17 and 26.
Low Relaxation Steel

Prestressing strand in which the steel relaxation losses have been substantially reduced by additional manufacturing
procedures (stretching at elevated temperatures). Terms cited in Parts 17 and 26.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Modulus, Fineness
A factor obtained by adding the total percentages of material in the sample that are coarser than each of the following sieves
(cumulative percentages retained), and dividing the sum by 100: No. 100 (150 micrometer), No. 50 (300 micrometer), No.
30 (600 micrometer), No. 16 (1.18 mm), No. 8 (2.36 mm), No. 4 (4.75 mm), 3/8 inch (9.5 mm), 3/4 inch (19 mm), 1-1/2
inch (37.5 mm), 3 inch (75 mm), 6 inch (150 mm). Term cited in Part 1.
Nominal Strength
Strength of a member or cross section calculated in accordance with provisions and assumptions of the LOAD FACTOR
DESIGN method before application of any strength reduction factors–See Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design,
Article 2.30.2. Term cited in Part 2.
PCI
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, 209 W. Jackson Blvd., Chicago, Illinois 60606. www.pci.org Term cited in Parts 1
and 26.
Permanent Casing
See Casing, Permanent. Term cited in Part 24.
Plain Reinforcement
See Reinforcement.
Plans
The drawings, specifications and other contract documents prepared and approved by the Engineer. Term cited in Part 1.
Plasticizer
See 'Admixture, Water Reducing'.
Post-Tensioning
Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned after concrete has hardened. Term cited in Part 17.
Pozzolan
A siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely
divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form
compounds possessing cementitious properties. Term cited in Part 1.
Precompressed Zone
Portion of flexural member cross-section compressed by prestressing force. Term cited in Part 17.
Reinforced concrete in which internal stresses have been introduced to reduce potential tensile stresses in concrete resulting
from loads. Term cited in Part 17.
Prestressing Tendon
Term cited in Parts 1, 17, and 26.
Pretensioning
Method of prestressing in which tendons are tensioned before concrete is placed. Term cited in Part 17.
© 2013,

Glossary
Protective Casing
See Casing, Protective. Term cited in Part 24.
psi
Pounds per square inch.
Reinforced Elastomeric Bearing

Reinforcement
Bars, wires, or other slender members, excluding prestressing tendons unless specifically included, conforming to Part 1,
Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements, which are embedded in concrete in such a manner that they and the
concrete act together in resisting forces.
1. Reinforcement, Deformed. Reinforcement with a manufactured pattern of surface ridges which provide a locking
anchorage with surrounding concrete.
2. Reinforcement, Plain. Reinforcement that does not conform to the definition of deformed reinforcement.
Terms cited in Parts 1 and 2.
Relaxation of Tendon Stress 1

Time-dependent reduction of stress in prestressing tendon at constant strain. Term cited in Part 17.
Required Strength
Strength of a member or cross section required to resist factored loads or related internal moments and forces in such
combinations as are stipulated in Part 2 Reinforced Concrete Design, Article 2.2.4c and Article 2.30.1. Term cited in Part
2.
3
Resistance, Chemical
The ability of the material to resist attack by chemicals such as caustics, chlorides, sulphates or acids. Term cited in Part 1.
Rubberized Asphalt with Plastic Film or Preformed Board Membrane

Consists of a layer of highly rubberized asphalt formed on plastic film or on preformed board for bridge deck, wall 4
foundation and tunnel waterproofing. It is supplied in roll or sheet form, and is capable of field splicing using an
appropriate primer, adhesive and/or gusset tape as recommended by the manufacturer.
Secondary Moment
Restraint moments induced in continuous post-tensioned structures due to forces induced by the tendons at the time of
stressing. The secondary moment changes with time only due to prestress losses. Term cited in Part 26.
Service Load
Loads and forces without load factors. Term cited in Part 2.
Sheer Boom
A longitudinal structural element or system of structural elements, generally positioned at a small angle to the direction of
stream flow, placed to protect portions of a bridge exposed to possible damage from impacts by floating debris or vessels.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

Sheer booms are generally positioned and anchored to accomodate fluctuations in water level and deflect the debris or
vessel past the substructure element. Term cited in Part 23.
Shore / Shoring
Props or posts of timber or other materials used in the temporary support of formwork; the process of erecting shores. Term
cited in Part 1.
Shrinkage of Concrete
Time-dependent deformation of concrete caused by drying and chemical changes (hydration process). Term cited in Part
17.
Sieve
A metallic plate or sheet, a woven-wire cloth, or other similar device, with regularly spaced apertures of uniform size,
mounted in a suitable frame or holder for use in separating granular material according to size. Term cited in Part 1.
Sieve Analysis
Particle size distribution; usually expressed as the weight percentage retained upon each of a series of standard sieves of
decreasing size and the percentage passed by the sieve of smallest size. Term cited in Part 1.
Sieve Number
A number used to designate the size of a sieve, usually the approximate number of openings per linear inch; applies to
sieves with openings smaller than ¼ inch (6.3 mm). Term cited in Part 1.
Silica Fume
Very fine noncrystalline silica produced in electric arc furnaces as a byproduct of the production of elemental silicon or
alloys containing silicon; also known as condensed silica fume or microsilica. Term cited in Part 1.
Slump
A measure of consistency of freshly mixed concrete or mortar; equal to the subsidence measured to the nearest 1/4 inch (5
mm) of the molded specimen immediately after removal of the slump cone. Term cited in Part 1.
Slump Cone
Mold used to form a mass of concrete for measuring the slump of freshly mixed concrete. Term cited in Part 1.
Socket
A shaft having a diameter equal or smaller to that of the main portion of a drilled shaft foundations, extended into the
bearing material. Term cited in Part 24.
Soundness
The freedom of a solid from cracks, flaws, fissures, or variations from an accepted standard; in the case of a cement,
freedom from excessive volume change after setting; in the case of aggregate, the ability to withstand the aggressive action
to which concrete containing it might be exposed, particularly that due to weather. Term cited in Part 1.
Spiral
Continuously wound reinforcement in the form of a cylindrical helix. Term cited in Part 2.
© 2013,

Glossary
Stirrup or Tie
Lateral reinforcement formed of individual units, open or closed, or of continuously wound reinforcement. The term
“stirrup” is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in horizontal members beams and the term “tie” to lateral reinforcement
in vertical members columns. Term cited in Part 2.
Strength, Compressive
The measured maximum resistance of a concrete or mortar specimen to axial compressive loading, expressed as a force per
unit cross sectional area; or the specified resistance used in design calculations. In the case of concrete, compressive
strength (f’c) is the specified strength in psi (MPa). Wherever this quantity is under a radical sign, the square root of the
numerical value only is intended, and the resultant is expressed as a force per unit cross sectional area. Term cited in Parts
1 and 2.
Strut-and-Tie Model
A structural model used for analysis of shear, torsion and other forces based on a truss analysis by assuming compression
struts in the concrete and tension ties in the concrete which must be reinforced. Term cited in Parts 17 and 26.
Superplasticizer
See ‘Admixture, Water Reducing (High Range)’.
Temperature Gradient
Variation of temperature of the concrete over the cross section. Term cited in Part 26.
1
Temperature Stick
Calibrated crayon that melt at a predetermined temperature. Term cited in Part 1.
Temporary Casing
See Casing, Temporary. Term cited in Part 24.
3
Tendon
Wire, strand, or bar, or bundle of such elements, used to impart prestress to concrete. Term cited in Part 17.
Tendon, External
Tendon located outside the flanges or webs of the structural member, generally inside the box girder cell. Term cited in Part
26. 4
Tendon, Internal
Tendon located within the flanges or webs (or both) of the structural member. All internal tendons shall be designed and
constructed as bonded tendons. Term cited in Part 26.
Toe
That portion of the footing of a cantilever retaining wall which is typically in front of the retained soil mass and is the
location of the highest soil bearing pressure. Term cited in Part 5.
Vertical section at bottom of bell. Term cited in Part 24.
Transfer
a. Act of transferring stress in prestressing tendons from jacks or pretensioning bed to concrete member.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

b. Transfer of stress in a pretensioned tendon to surrounding concrete.
Transfer Length
Length over which prestressing force is transferred to concrete by bond in pretensioned members. Term cited in Part 17.
Trench Installation and Induced Trench Installation

A pipe is installed by trench installation when it is installed in a relatively narrow trench excavated in undisturbed soil and
then covered with backfill extending to the ground surface. A pipe is installed by induced trench installation when it is
installed in a trench, backfilled with compressible material over the pipe, and then covered by a high embankment. Term
cited in Part 10.
Tunneled Installation
See Jacked or Tunneled Installation. Term cited in Part 10.
Type A Joint and Type B Joint

See Joint. Terms cited in Part 26.
USDOT
United States Department of Transportation, 1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE, Washington, D.C. 20590. www.dot.gov. Term
cited in Part 1.
Wales
Horizontal or generally horizontal structural members used to brace vertical members. Wales are often used in conjunction
with struts or other bracing elements to form a structural system. Wales may be subject to axial and lateral loads. Term
cited in Part 23.
Wall, Buttress
A retaining wall which is similar to a counterfort wall except that the vertical members, called buttresses, are exposed on
the face of the wall rather than buried in the backfill. Term cited in Part 5.
Wall, Cantilever
A retaining wall which has a cross section resembling an L or an inverted T, and which requires extensive steel
reinforcement. Term cited in Part 5.
Wall, Closed Face

A crib wall with solid-surfaced walls. Term cited in Part 6.
Wall, Counterfort
A retaining wall which consists of a reinforced vertical face slab supported laterally at intervals by vertical reinforced
counterforts extending into the backfill and supported by a reinforced base slab which usually projects in front of the face
slab to form a toe. Term cited in Part 5.
Wall, Gravity
A retaining wall which is so proportioned that no reinforcement other than shrinkage and temperature steel is required.
© 2013,

Glossary
Wall, Open Face

A crib wall with slotted openings. Term cited in Part 6.
Wall, Retaining
A structure used to provide lateral support for a mass of soil which, in turn, may provide vertical support for loads acting on
or within the soil mass. Term cited in Part 5.
Wall, Semi-Gravity
A retaining wall which is so proportioned that some steel reinforcement is required along the back and along the lower side
of the toe. Term cited in Part 5.
Water Absorption
See Absorption. Term cited in Part 1.
Water-Cementitious Material Ratio

The ratio of the mass of water, exclusive only of that absorbed by the aggregate, to the amount of material having
cementing properties in a concrete or mortar mixture. Term cited in Part 1.
Wobble friction
Friction caused by unintended deviation of prestressing sheath or duct from its specified profile. Term cited in Part 17.
Workmanship
1
Wrapping or Sheathing
Enclosure around a prestressing tendon to prevent bond between prestressing tendon and surrounding concrete. Term cited
in Part 17.
3
Yield Strength or Yield Point (fy)
Specified minimum yield strength or yield point of reinforcement in psi (MPa) generally to define the limit of elastic
behavior. Term cited in Part 2.
©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

©
© 2013,
2012, American
American Railway
Railway Engineering

81
References1
— 2013 —
The following list of references used in Chapter 8, Concrete Structures and Foundations is placed here in alphabetical order for
your convenience.
1. Anchored Bulkheads, Transactions ASCE 1954.
2. ACI 237R Self-Consolidating Concrete. Self-Consolidating Concrete for Precast, Prestressed Concrete Bridge Elements,
NCHRP Report 628, Transportation Research Board, 2009.
3. ACI Committee 209, Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Temperature Effects in Concrete Structures (ACI 209R-92).
4. ACI Committee 222, Corrosion of Metals in Concrete (ACI 222R-96). American Concrete Institute, Detroit.
1
5. ACI Committee 318. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, (ACI 318-99), American Concrete Institute,
Detroit.
6. ACI Report "Guide to Underwater Repair of Concrete, ACI 546.2R-98", American Concrete Institute.
7. API, Standard Procedure for Field Testing Water-Based Drilling Fluids, API RP 13B-1 Eleventh Edition, 1990. 3
8. API 1985 Specification for Oil-Well Drilling-Fluid Materials, API 13A Eleventh Edition.
9. AREMA Vol. I, Manual for Railway Engineering, Chapter 30, Part 12 - Concrete Ties
10. Bowles, J. E., 1982: Foundation Analysis and Design, McGraw-Hill, New York.
11. Bridge Inspectors Manual for Movable Bridges, by USDOT, FHWA.
12. Bridge Inspectors Training Manual 70, by USDOT, FHWA
13. Bridge Inspection Seminar Manual, American Railway Bridge and Building Association, Atlanta, Georgia, February 22-
24, 1993.
14. Bridge Inspector’s Training Manual/90, FHWA-PD-91-015, U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration, May, 1991
15. Bryant, Anthony A. and Chayatit Vadhanavikkit. Creep, Shrinkage – Size, and Age at Loading Effects, ACI Materials
Journal, March–April 1987.
16. CEB-FIP Model Code for Concrete Structures, Comité Euro-International de Beton (CEB), 1978, available from: Lewis
Brooks, 2 Blagdon Road, New Malden, Surrey, KT3 4AD, England.
1
References, Vol. 97, p. 108.
© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-R-1

17. Carson, A. Brinton, Foundation Construction
18. Clough, G. W., 1973: Analytical Problems in Modeling Slurry Wall Construction, FCP Res. Rev. Conf., San Francisco.
19. Collins, M.P., and D. Mitchell. Shear and Torsion Design of Prestressed and Non-Prestressed Concrete Beams, PCI
Journal, Vol. 25, No. 5, Sept.–Oct. 1980.
20. Committee on Ship-Bridge Collisions, Marine Board, Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems, National
Research Council, 1983; Ship Collisions with Bridges, The Nature of the Accidents, Their Prevention and Mitigation.
21. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement, 16, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, 1973.
22. Danon, J. R., and W.L. Gamble. Time Dependent Deformation and Losses in Concrete Bridges Built by the Cantilever
Method, Structural Research Series No. 437, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, January 1977.
23. Davisson, M. T., (1975), “Pile Load Capacity,” Proceedings, Seminar Series, Design, Construction, and Performance of
Deep Foundations, ASCE–U. of California, Berkeley.
24. Deadman Anchorages in Sand, J. E. Smith, Technical Report R199 U.S. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port
Hueneme CA 1962.
25. "Design of Continuously Reinforced Concrete for Highways", CRSI, 1981.
26. Design of Terminals for Rigid Pavements to Control End Movements: State of the Art, Special Report 173, TRB, 1977.
27. "Design Report - Non-Conventional Track Structures-Kansas Test Track", Report to Santa Fe Railway Company and U.S.
Department of Transportation, Westenhoff and Novick, Inc, Chicago, June, 1972.
28. Dilger, W. H. Creep Analysis of Prestressed Concrete Structures Using Creep-Transformed Article Properties, PCI
Journal, Jan–Feb. 1982, Vol. 27, No. 1.
29. Dunham, Clarence W., Foundation of Structures.
30. FHWA "Underwater Evaluation and Repair of Bridges Components", Instructor's Guide, Demonstration Project 98, U.S.
Department of Transportation, November, 1995.
31. Federal Highway Administration, Scour at Bridges, Technical Advisory T5140.20, 1988.
32. Federal Highway Administration, Countermeasures for Hydraulic Problems at Bridges, Publication RD 78-162, 1978.
33. Fryba, Ladislav, Dynamics of Railway Bridges, Thomas Telford Services Ltd., London, 1996.
34. Foundation Design, Wayne C. Teng, Prentice Hall Inc. 1962.
35. Foutch, Douglas A., Tobias, Daniel H., and Otter, Duane E., Analytical Investigation of the Longitudinal Loads in an
Open-Deck Through-Plate-Girder Bridge, Report R-894, Association of American Railroads, September 1996.
36. Foutch, Douglas A., Tobias, Daniel H., Otter, Duane E., LoPresti, Joseph A., and Uppal A. Shakoor, Experimental and
Analytical Investigation of the Longitudinal Loads in an Open-Deck Plate Girder Railway Bridge, Report R-905,
Association of American Railroads, November 1997.
37. Gill, S. A., 1978: Applications of Slurry Walls in Civil Engineering Projects, ASCE Preprint 3355.
8-R-2 AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

References
38. Goble, G. G. and Rausche, F. Wave Equation Analysis of Pile Driving, WEAP Program, User’s Manual, Vols. 1-4, U.S.
Department of Transportation (Report No. FHWA-IP-76-14.l)., Springfield, VA, National Technical Information Service,
1976.
39. Guide specifications for concrete subject to Alkali-Silica Recations, PCA, Publication IS415, 1994.
40. Hanna, A.N., "Technical and Economic Feasibility Study of At-grade Concrete Slab Track for Urban Rail Transit
Systems." UMTA Report UMTA-MA-06-0100-81-4, August, 1981.
41. Hoang, L. H., and M. Pasquignon. Essais de Flexion sur des Poutres en Beton Precontraintes par des Cables Exterieurs,
Vols. 1 and 2, Contrat SETRA-CEBTP 1985, Dossiers de Recherche 910017, Service d’Etude des Structures, Saint Remy
Les Chevreuse, November 1985.
42. Homberg, Helmut. Fahrbahnplatten Mit Verandlicher Dicke, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1968.
43. Homberg, Helmut, and Walter Ropers. Fahrbahnplatten Mit Veranderlicher Dicke, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1965.
44. Imbsen, R.A., D.E. Vandershaf, R.A. Schamber and R.V. Nutt. Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Structures, National
Cooperative Research Program Report 276, Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., September 1985.
45. "Influence Charts for Concrete Pavements", ASCE Transaction Vol. 116, 1951.
46. Joy, Richard, LoPresti, Joseph A., and Otter, Duane E., Longitudinal Forces in a Single-Span Ballasted-Deck Plate Girder
Bridge, Technology Digest 99-026, Transportation Technology Center, Inc., July 1999.
1
47. Ketchum, M.A. Redistribution of Stresses in Segmentally Erected Prestressed Concrete Bridges, Report No. UCB/SESM-
86/07, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California, May 1986.
48. Koseki, K., and J.E. Breen. Exploratory Study of Shear Strength of Joints for Precast Segmental Bridges, Research Report
248-1, Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin, September 1983.
49. Leonards, G. A., Foundation Engineering.

3
50. Leonhardt, Fritz, and Walter Lipproth. Conclusions Drawn from Distress of Prestressed Concrete Bridges, Beton und
Stahlbetonbau, No. 10, Berlin, October 1970, Vol. 65, pp. 231–244.
51. Leonhardt, F., G. Kolbe and J. Peter. Temperature Differences Dangerous to Prestressed Concrete Bridges, Beton and
Stahlbetonbau, 1965, No. 7, pp. 157–163. 4
52. Longi, M.S., "Innovations in Track Structures on Long Island Rail Road", Transportation Research Board, Transportation
Research record 939, 1983.
53. Longi, M.S., "Concrete Slab Track on the Long Island Rail Road", American Concrete Institute SP93-20, 1986.
54. LoPresti, Joseph A., Otter, Duane E., Tobias, Daniel H., and Foutch, Douglas A., Longitudinal Forces in an Open-Deck
Steel Bridge, Technology Digest 98-007, Transportation Technology Center, Inc., April 1998.
55. LoPresti, Joseph A., and Otter, Duane E., Longitudinal Forces in a Two-Span Open-Deck Steel Bridge at FAST,
Technology Digest 98-020, Transportation Technology Center, Inc., August 1998.
56. Manual for Maintenance Inspection of Bridges – 1978 by AASHTO.
57. Marti, P., Basic Tools of Reinforced Concrete Beam Design, ACI Journal, Jan.–Feb. 1985, Vol. 82, No. 1.
AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-R-3

58. Meacham, H.C., et al, "Studies For Rail Vehicle Track Structures", Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C.,
Report No. FRA-RT-71-45.
59. Mettler, A.R., et al, "Design, Construction, and Performance of At-grade Guideways", Concrete International, July, 1980.
60. Millet, R. A., and Perez, J. Y., 1981: Current USA Practice: Slurry Wall Specifications, Proc. ASCE, Aug. 1981.
61. NCHRP Report 226, "Damage Evaluation and Repair Methods for Prestressed Concrete Bridge Members, November,
1980.
62. NCHRP Report 280, "Guidelines for Evaluation and Repair of Prestressed Concrete Bridge Members, December, 1985.
63. Noble, C-S, McCollough, B.F., and Ma, J.C., "Nomographs for the Design of CRP Steel Reinforcement", Research Report
No. 177-16, Center for Highway Research, University of Texas, Austin, Aug, 1979.
64. Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code, Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications, Toronto, Ontario,
Canada.
65. Osterberg, J.O. and S.F. Pepper, A New Simplified Method for Load Testing Drilled Shafts, Foundation Drilling,
Association of Drilled Shaft Contractors, August 1984, pp. 9-11.
66. Otter, Duane E., LoPresti, Joseph, Foutch, Douglas A., and Tobias, Daniel H., Longitudinal Forces in an Open-Deck Steel
Deck Plate-Girder Bridge, Technology Digest 96-024, Association of American Railroads, November 1996.
67. Otter, Duane E., LoPresti, Joseph, Foutch, Douglas A., and Tobias, Daniel H., "Longitudinal Forces in an Open-Deck
Steel Deck Plate-Girder Bridge," Volume 98, Bulletin 760, American Railway Engineering Association, May 1997, pp.
101-105.
68. Otter, Duane E., and LoPresti, Joseph, "Longitudinal Forces in an Open-Deck Steel Deck Plate-Girder Bridge," Railway
Track & Structures, May 1997, pp. 14-15.
69. Otter, Duane E., and LoPresti, Joseph A., "Longitudinal Forces in Three Open-Deck Steel Bridges," Proceedings,
AREMA Technical Conference, September 1998.
70. Pavement Design and Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement Performance, Transportation Research Record, 485,
TRB, 1974.
71. PCI Committee on Prestress Losses. Recommendations for Estimating Prestress Losses, PCI Journal, Vol. 20, No. 4,
July–Aug. 1975.
72. Peck, R. B., Hanson, W.E., and Thornburn, T. H., Foundation Engineering, John Wiley and Sons, 2nd Ed., New York,
1974.
73. Portland Cement Association, "Concrete Supported Railway Track", April, 1941.
74. Precast Segmental Box Girder Bridge Manual, Post-Tensioning Institute and Prestressed Concrete Institute, Phoenix,
Arizona, Chicago, Illinois, 1978.
75. Pucher, Adolf. Influence Surfaces of Elastic Plates, Fourth Revised Edition, Springer-Verlag, New York.
76. Quinn, Alonzo DeF., Design and Construction of Ports and Marine Structures
77. Rabbat, Basile G., and Koz Sowlat. Testing of Segmental Concrete Girders with External Tendons, Journal of the
Prestressed Concrete Institute, Vol. 32, No. 2, March/April 1987.

References
78. Ramakrishnan, V., Ultimate Energy Design of Prestressed Concrete Fender Piling, Am Soc Civil Engr J Waterways and
Harbors, Nov 71; Vol 97, No WW 4, Proc Paper 8527, pp. 647-662, 4 Fig, 2 Tab,; 10 REF
79. Recording Coding Guide for Structure Inventory and Appraisal of the Nations Bridges, January, 1979, by USDOT,
FHWA.
80. Reese, L.C. Handbook on Design of Piles and Drilled Shafts Under Lateral Load, U.S. Department of Transportation,
Report No. FHWA-IP-84-11, Springfield, VA, National Technical Information Service, 1984.
81. Reese, L.C., and Wright, S.L., Drilled Shaft Manual Vols. I and II, U.S. Department of Transportation, Office of Research
and Development, Implementation Package 77-21, July 1977.
82. Renard, J., Energy Considerations on the Design of Dolphins, Acier-Stahl-Steel, No. 2-1966 pp. 80-89
83. Roadways and Airport Pavements, Publication SP-51, American Concrete Institute, 1975.
84. Rooryck, ir. R., ir. J. Renard, Dimensions and Design of Protection and Braking Systems at the Entrances and Exits of
Large Modern Locks
85. Saurin, Brendan F.1, Design Criteria for Fenders and Berthing Structures, Summary of Lecture, July 29, 1965
86. Schlaich, J., K. Schafer, and M. Jennewain. Towards a Consistent Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures, PCI Journal,
May–June 1987, Vol. 32, No. 3.
87. Schlaich, J. and H. Scheef. Concrete Box Girder Bridges, International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering,
1
Zurich, Switzerland, 1982.
88. Scordelis, A.C. Analysis of Continuous Box Girder Bridges, SESM-85/02, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
California, Berkeley, November 1987.
89. Scordelis, A.C., E.C. Chan, M.A. Ketchum and P.P. Van Der Walt. Computer Programs for Prestressed Concrete Box 3
Girder Bridges, SESM-85/02, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, March 1985.
90. Seed, H. Bolton and Idriss, Izzat M. “Simplified Procedure for Evaluating Soil Liquefaction Potential,” Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Division Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 97, No. SM9,
September 1971.
91. Shahawy, M., B. Robinson and B. deV. Batchelor. 1993. “An Investigation of Shear Strength of Prestressed Concrete 4
AASHTO Type II Girders,” Tallahassee Structures Research Center, Florida Department of Transportation.
92. Shahawy, M. and B. deV. Batchelor. 1991. “Bond and Shear Behavior of Prestressed AASHTO Type II Beams. Progress
Report No. 1,” Tallahassee Structures Research Center, Florida Department of Transportation.
93. Shushkewich, K.M. Time Dependent Analysis of Segmental Bridges, Computers and Structures (Great Britain), Vol. 23,
No. 1, 1986.
94. Smith, E. A. L. “Pile Driving Analysis by the Wave Equation,” Journal of the Soil Mechanics and Foundations Division
Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 86, No. SM4, April 1960.
95. Standard Specification for End Bearing Drilled Piers (ACI 336. 1-79) J, ACI, Sept. 1978.
1
Interpretation from notes by J. T. O’Brien and B. W. Wilson

96. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, Sixteenth Edition, 1996; American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials.
97. Standard Specifications for Seismic Design of Highway Bridges, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. 1991.
98. Stone, W.C., W. Paes-Filha and J.E. Breen. Behavior of Post-Tensioned Girder Anchorage Zones, Research Report 108-2,
Center for Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin, April 1981.
99. Stone, W.C., and J.E. Breen. Design of Post-Tensioned Girder Anchorage Zones, Research Report 208-3F, Center for
Transportation Research, The University of Texas at Austin, June 1981.
100.Structure Inventory and Appraisal Sheet – Abridged (Short Form) for Bridges not on the Federal Aid System, January,
1979, by USDOT and FHWA.
101.Subgrades and Subbases for Concrete Pavements, PCA/ACPA, Publications ISO29.03P/TB-011.OD, 1991.
102.Suggested Design and Construction Procedures for Pier Foundations Reported by ACI Committee 336 – Title No. ACI
69-42. J, ACI, Aug. 1972
103."Thickness Design for Pavements", PCA, 1966.
104.Tiebacks, U.S. Department of Transportation, FHWA, Report No. FHWA/RD-82/047 dated July 1981.
105.Tobias, Daniel, Foutch, Douglas, Lee, Kihak, Otter, Duane E., and LoPresti, Joseph A., Experimental and Analytical
Investigation of Longitudinal Forces in a Multi-span Railway Bridge, Report R-927, Association of American Railroads,
Transportation Technology Center, Inc., March 1999.
106.Tschebotarioff, Gregory P., Foundations, Retaining and Earth Structures, The Art of Design and Construction and its
Scientific Basis in Soil Mechanics.
107.Underwater Inspection and Repair of Bridge Substructures National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP)
Synthesis of Highway Practice 88, Dec. 1981 – TRB.
108.Underwater Inspection of Bridges, FHWA-DP-80-1, Federal Highway Administration, November, 1989.
109.U.S. Department of Transportation, The Performance of Pile Driving Systems: Inspection Manual, Report No. FHWA
RD-86-l60, Springfield, VA, National Technical Information Service, 1978.
110.Winterkorn, H. F. Fang, H.Y., "Foundation Engineering Handbook", Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1975.
111.Xanthakos, P. P., 1979: Slurry Walls, Published by McGraw-Hill, New York.
112.Zia, Paul, Preston, H. Kent, Scott, Norman L, Workman, Edwin B. Estimating Prestress Losses, ACI Concrete
International, June 1979, pp. 32-38.
113.Otter, D.E. and LoPresti, J.A., Longitudinal Forces in an Open Deck Steel Deck Plate Girder Bridge, Railway Track &
Structures, May 1997, pp. 14-15.
114.LoPresti, Joe; Otter, Duane; Tobias, Daniel H.; Foutch, Douglas A., Longitudinal Forces in an Open-Deck Steel Bridge,
AAR Technology Digest TD98-007, April 1998.
115.LoPresti, Joseph A. & Otter, Duane E., Longitudinal Forces in a Two-Span Open-Deck Steel Bridge at FAST, AAR
Technology Digest TD98-020, August 1998.

References
116.Otter, D E and LoPresti, J A, Longitudinal Forces in Three Open-Deck Steel Bridges, Proceedings of the AREMA 1998
Annual Conferences, Chicago IL, September 1998.
117.Joy, Richard, LoPresti, Joseph, Otter, Duane, Longitudinal Forces in a Single-Span, Ballasted-Deck, Plate-Girder Bridge,
AAR Technology Digest TD99-026, July 1999.
118.Otter, Duane, Joy, Richard, and LoPresti, Joseph A., Longitudinal Forces in a Single-Span, Ballasted Deck, Steel Plate
Girder Bridge, AAR Research Report R-935, November 1999.
119.Otter, D.E., Sweeney, R.A.P., Dick, S.M., New Rating Guidelines for Longitudinal Loads in Steel Bridges, AAR
120.Otter, D.E., Sweeney, R.A.P., Dick, S.M., Development of Design Guidelines for Longitudinal Forces in Bridges, AAR
121.Uppal, S., Otter, D., Joy, R., Doe, B., Longitudinal Forces in Bridges Due to Revenue Service Traffic, AAR Technology
Digest TD00-020, November 2000.
122.Otter, Duane E. and Sweeney, Robert, Development of Guidelines for Longitudinal Forces in Bridges, Railway Track &
Structures, February 2001, pp. 13-15.
123.Otter, Duane E., LoPresti, Joseph A., and Sweeney, Robert A.P., Longitudinal Forces in Bridges Due to Heavy Haul
Freight Operations, Proceedings, 7th International Heavy Haul Conference, 2001, International Heavy Haul Association,
pp. 565-568.
1
124.Uppal, A.S., Otter, D.E., Joy, R.B., Doe, B.E., LoPresti, J.A., Maal, D.O., Longitudinal Forces in Bridges Due to Revenue
Service Traffic, AAR Research Report R-950, July 2001.
125.Uppal, A.S., Otter, D.E., Doe, B.E., Foutch, D.A. and Kim, T. W., Longitudinal Forces in a Long Railroad Trestle,
Proceedings of the AREMA 2001 Annual Conferences, Chicago IL, September 2001.
3
126.Otter, Duane E., Uppal, A. Shakoor, Doe, Brian E., Longitudinal Forces in a Long Railroad Trestle Bridge, AAR
Technology Digest TD01-021, October 2001.
127.Uppal, A. Shakoor; Otter, Duane E.; Doe, Brian E.; Foutch, Douglas; Kim, Tae W., Investigation of Longitudinal Forces
in a Long, Concrete Railroad Trestle Subjected to Unit Coal Train Traffic, AAR Research Report R-958, August 2002.
128.Sweeney, Robert A.P. and Suthon, Felton, Design and Rating for Longitudinal Force, Proceedings of the AREMA 2002 4
Annual Conferences, Washington DC, September 2002.
129.AREMA Longitudinal Force Seminar Participant Guide, September 2004.
130.Payne, R.D. and Unsowth, J.F., Designing for Longitudinal Force, Proceedings of the AREMA 2006 Annual
Conferences, Louisville KY, September 2006.
131.Foutch, Douglas A., Kim, Tae-Wan, Otter, Duane E., and Doe, Brian E., Investigation of Longitudinal Forces in a
Concrete Railroad Trestle, ASCE Journal of Bridge Engineering, Vol. 11, No. 5, September/October 2006, pp. 618-625.


AREMA

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

AREMA

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

8

CONCRETE STRUCTURES AND

• Standard Gage Track, 1

• Speeds of freight trains up to 80 mph and passenger trains up to 90 mph.

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-i

Part/Section Description Page

1 Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-1

2 Reinforced Concrete Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

8-ii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Part/Section Description Page

2.20 Mechanical Anchorage (1992) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2-33

3 Spread Footing Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3-1

4 Pile Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4-1 4

5 Retaining Walls, Abutments and Piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-iii

Part/Section Description Page

6 Crib Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6-1

7 Mechanically Stabilized Embankment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7-1

10 Reinforced Concrete Culvert Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10-1

11 Lining Railway Tunnels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11-1

12 Cantilever Poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12-1

14 Repair and Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14-1

16 Design and Construction of Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

8-iv AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Part/Section Description Page

16.7 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16-17

17 Prestressed Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17-1

20 Flexible Sheet Pile Bulkheads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-v

Part/Section Description Page

20.5 Design of Anchored Bulkheads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20-10

21 Inspection of Concrete and Masonry Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21-1

22 Geotechnical Subsurface Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22-1

23 Pier Protection Systems at Spans Over Navigable Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-23-1

24 Drilled Shaft Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24-1

25 Slurry Wall Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-25-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

8-vi AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Part/Section Description Page

26 Recommendations for the Design of Segmental Bridges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26-1

28 Temporary Structures for Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering 8-vii

Part/Section Description Page

29.9 Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-29-13

Chapter 8 Glossary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-G-1

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association

8-viii AREMA Manual for Railway Engineering

Materials, Tests and Construction Requirements1

Section/Article Description Page

1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-6

1.3 Other Cementitious Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-10

1.4 Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-11

© 2013, American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association 8-1-1

TABLE OF CONTENTS (CONT)

1.4.4 Lightweight Coarse Aggregate for Structural Concrete (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-15

1.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.6 Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-16

1.7 Concrete Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-19

1.8 Storage of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1-20