Boiler - Air Requirements Determination

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Determining Total Air Requirements

And The Suitability Of Combustion Control
Strategies For A Given Saudi Aramco Application
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Instrumentations For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: PCI20103 J.L. Sprague
Engineering Encyclopedia Instrumentations
Contents Pages
INFORMATION .................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
CALCULATING THE TOTAL AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC

CONDITIONS AND EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS FOR A GIVEN FUEL OF
KNOWN COMPOSITION ................................................................................................... 2
Combustion Chemistry and Products of Combustion.................................................. 2
Carbon Combustion Formula ......................................................................... 2
Hydrogen Combustion Formula ..................................................................... 2
Fuel Combustion Equation............................................................................. 3
By-products of Incomplete Combustion and Resulting Inefficiency ............................ 4
Partial Combustion of Carbon ........................................................................ 4
Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide............................................................. 5
Excess Combustion Air ............................................................................................. 5
Purpose of Excess Combustion Air ................................................................ 5
Flue Gas Analysis to Determine Excess Air Requirements .............................. 5
Percent O2 versus Percent CO2 to Determine Excess Air Requirements........ 6
Total Air Flow Requirements ......................................................................... 6
EVALUATING A COMBUSTION CONTROL STRATEGY FOR A GIVEN SAUDI
ARAMCO APPLICATION .................................................................................................. 7
Combustion Control Objectives ................................................................................. 7
Single Boiler Firing Rate Demand.............................................................................. 9
Single Element (Pressure Control) ................................................................. 9
Two Element (Pressure Control with Steam Flow Feedforward) ...................10
Steam Pressure, Boiler Inputs, and Steam Flow Trends ............................................13
Multiple Boiler Firing Rate Demand .........................................................................15
Single Element (Pressure Control) ................................................................15
Two Element (Pressure Control with Steam Flow Feedforward) ...................16
Two Element (With Automatic Gain)............................................................16
Types of Combustion Control Systems .....................................................................19
Furnace Input Control Strategies...................................................................19

Fuel Flow Control Strategies.........................................................................23

Typical Furnace Input Control Strategy.........................................................28
EVALUATING A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR A COMBUSTION AUXILIARY
SYSTEM FOR A GIVEN SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION ...........................................30
Fuel Delivery System................................................................................................30
Oil ................................................................................................................30
Fuel Atomization ..........................................................................................30
Supply Pressure ............................................................................................30
Fuel Temperature..........................................................................................30
Fuel temperature must be controlled within a specific range to produce
the desired fuel viscosity. Fuel oil must be heated to reduce its viscosity
so that it may be burned. ...............................................................................30
Recirculation.................................................................................................30
Gas...............................................................................................................30
Pressure........................................................................................................31
Burners.........................................................................................................31
Swirlers ........................................................................................................31
Fuel Injection................................................................................................31
Register Adjustments ....................................................................................31
Soot Blowing ...........................................................................................................31
Purpose ........................................................................................................31
Types............................................................................................................31
Operation......................................................................................................32
THREE FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL STRATEGIES AND THE STRATEGY
FOR PREVENTING IMPLOSION PER NFPA 85C AND NFPA 8501...............................33
Furnace Pressure Control Strategies .........................................................................33
Simple Feedback Control ..............................................................................33
Feedforward-Plus-Feedback Control.............................................................34
Implosion Protection Strategy ..................................................................................34
Directional Blocking .....................................................................................35
MFT Feedforward Signal ..............................................................................35
WORK AIDS ......................................................................................................................36

WORK AID 1: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE TOTAL REQUIRED

AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC CONDITIONS AND EXCESS AIR
REQUIREMENTS FOR A GIVEN FUEL OF KNOWN COMPOSITION..........................36
Work Aid 1A: Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation
Handbook (Course Handout 7).................................................................................36
Work Aid 1B: Fuel Analysis Data.............................................................................36
Work Aid 1C: Flue Gas Analysis Data......................................................................36
Work Aid 1D: Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in Flue Gas .......36
WORK AID 2: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO EVALUATE THE SUITABILITY OF
A COMBUSTION CONTROL STRATEGY.......................................................................37
Work Aid 2A: Functional Diagram and P&ID...........................................................37
Work Aid 2B: SAES-J-602, Section 5 (Course Handout 1) ......................................37
Work Aid 2C: ANSI/ISA S77.41 (Course Handout 4)..............................................37
WORK AID 3: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO EVALUATE A CONTROL
STRATEGY FOR COMBUSTION AUXILIARIES............................................................38
Work Aid 3A: P&ID ................................................................................................38
Work Aid 3B: SAES-J-602, Section 5 (Course Handout 1) ......................................38
Work Aid 3C: ANSI/ISA S77.41 (Course Handout 4)..............................................38
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................39

Table of Figures Pages
Figure 1. Formula for Complete Combustion of Carbon (C)....................................... 2

Figure 2. Formula for Complete Combustion of Hydrogen (H) .................................. 3
Figure 3. Calculation of Theoretical Air Requirements............................................... 4
Figure 4. Incomplete Combustion (Insufficient Air) ................................................... 4
Figure 5. Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide ......................................................... 5
Figure 6. Boiler Outlet Steam Flow (Saturated Steam) .............................................. 8
Figure 7. Boiler Outlet Steam Flow (Superheated Steam) .......................................... 8
Figure 8. Boiler Firing Rate Demand ......................................................................... 9
Figure 9. Boiler Firing Rate Demand ......................................................................... 9
Figure 10. Single Element (Pressure Control) ...........................................................10
Figure 11. Two Element (Pressure Control with Steam Flow Feedforward) ..............11
Figure 12. Two Element Pressure Control ................................................................12
Figure 13. Effects of Two Element Pressure Control Feedforward Signal .................12
Figure 14. Effects of Two Element Pressure Control Feedforward Signal .................13
Figure 15. Header Pressure Exercise.........................................................................14
Figure 16. Single Element Pressure Control - Multiple Boilers..................................15
Figure 17. Two Element Pressure Control - Steam Flow Feedforward - Multiple
Boilers......................................................................................................16
Figure 18. Two Element Pressure Control - Multiple Boilers with Automatic
Gain .........................................................................................................18
Figure 19. Parallel Positioning Control Strategy........................................................19
Figure 20. Parallel Metered System with Cross Limiting Control Strategy.................20
Figure 21. Parallel Meter System with Cross Limiting and Fuel Air Ratio on
Demand....................................................................................................21
Figure 22. Parallel Metered System with Fuel Air Ratio and Decharacterization
Control.....................................................................................................22
Figure 23. Parallel Metered System with Carbon Monoxide Control .........................23
Figure 24. Dual Fuels with One Base Loaded ...........................................................24
Figure 25. Dual Fuels with Either Automatic ............................................................25
Figure 26. Dual Fuels with Individual Controllers, Either Base Loaded .....................26
Figure 27. Dual Fuels with Preferential Firing ...........................................................27
Figure 28. Fuel BTU Correction...............................................................................28
Figure 29. Furnace Input Control - Typical System...................................................29

Figure 30. Simple Feedback Furnace Pressure Control Strategy................................33

Figure 31. Feedforward-Plus-Feedback Pressure Control Strategy............................34

INFORMATION
INTRODUCTION
This module discusses combustion chemistry, products of combustion, byproducts of combustion,

and excess combustion air. In this module combustion control objectives are discussed along with
the application of different combustion control strategies and their ability to meet combustion
control objectives. This module also addresses furnace pressure control strategies and the
prevention of furnace implosion.
The sections of this module include:

• Calculating the total air flow to meet stoichiometric conditions and excess air
requirements for a given fuel of known composition.
• Evaluating a combustion control strategy for a given Saudi Aramco application.
• Evaluating a control strategy for a combustion auxiliary system for a given Saudi
Aramco application.
• Three furnace pressure control strategies and the strategy for preventing implosion per
NFPA 85C and NFPA 8501.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

CALCULATING THE TOTAL AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC

CONDITIONS AND EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS FOR A GIVEN FUEL OF
KNOWN COMPOSITION
Combustion Chemistry and Products of Combustion
Combustion is the process in which hydrogen, carbon, and sulfur in a fuel become oxidized by
being combined with oxygen from the air. Of these elements, carbon and hydrogen are the major
sources of heat when oxidized. Sulfur oxidation is more significant as a source of corrosion and
pollution. The products of complete combustion include water, carbon dioxide, and nitrous oxides
and sulfur oxides that pollute the air. The products of incomplete combustion include water,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, carbon, aldehydes, nitrous oxides, and sulfur oxides.
Complete combustion can occur when the exact amount of air necessary to furnish the oxygen for
complete combustion of a fuel's carbon and hydrogen is present. Incomplete combustion occurs
because of insufficient combustion air and/or incomplete turbulence for complete mixing of fuel
and air. Table 5-7 on page 63 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow
(Course Handout 8) provides a list of common chemical reactions in combustion with molecular
weights.
Carbon Combustion Formula
Figure 1 illustrates the formula for complete combustion of carbon. One mole of carbon (weighing
12 pounds) combines with one mole of oxygen (containing 2 atoms and weighing 32 pounds) to
produce one mole of carbon dioxide weighing 44 pounds and containing 14,093 BTU per pound
C of heat energy.
(Carbon) + (Oxygen) = (Carbon Dioxide)
C + O2 = C O2 + 14,093 BTU/lb C
12 lbs + 32 lbs = 44 lbs
Figure 1. Formula for Complete Combustion of Carbon (C)
Hydrogen Combustion Formula
Figure 2 illustrates the formula for the complete combustion of hydrogen. Two moles of hydrogen
weighing 4 pounds combine with one mole of oxygen weighing 32 pounds to produce 2 moles of
water weighing 36 pounds and containing 61,100 BTU per pound H2 of heat energy.

(Hydrogen) + (Oxygen) = (Water)
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + 61,100 BTU/lb H2
4 lbs + 32 lbs = 36 lbs
Figure 2. Formula for Complete Combustion of Hydrogen (H)
Fuel Combustion Equation
The exact amount of air required to furnish the oxygen for complete combustion of a fuel's
hydrogen, carbon, and sulfur content is called the theoretical air. Given the combustion chemistry
formulas, given the known content of oxygen in air, and given a known fuel analysis, the
theoretical air requirement can be calculated. An example of this calculation is illustrated in Figure
3. This example uses a formula developed from the combustion equations along with the known
content of oxygen in air. Additionally, the calculation shows the amount of air theoretically
required to produce 10,000 BTUs.

O2
lbsair/lbfuel = 11.53C + 34.34 H2 - + 4.29S
8
Fuel analysis for #6 fuel oil:
90.2% by weight of Carbon (C)

12.0% by weight of Hydrogen (H)
3.5% by weight of Sulfer (S)
lbsair/lbfuel = (11.53 x 0.902) + 34.34 0.12 - 0 + 4.29 x 0.035

8
10.40 + 4.12 + 0.15 = 14.67
10,000 x 14.67
lbs air/10,000 BTU = = 7.9
18,500* (Oil)
*This value is for pure C.
Figure 3. Calculation of Theoretical Air Requirements

By-products of Incomplete Combustion and Resulting Inefficiency
Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Carbon are byproducts of incomplete combustion.
Partial Combustion of Carbon
Figure 4 illustrates a formula for the incomplete combustion of carbon. Two moles of carbon
combine with one mole of oxygen to produce two moles of carbon monoxide and 4,000 BTU per
pound C of heat energy. Some of the potential heat energy is in the carbon monoxide.
(Carbon) + (Oxygen) = (Carbon Monoxide)
2C + O2 = 2CO + 4,000 BTU/lb C
24 lbs + 32 lbs = 56 lbs
Figure 4. Incomplete Combustion (Insufficient Air)

Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide
Given the right conditions and more oxygen, carbon monoxide can be converted to carbon
dioxide to release the remaining heat energy. The formula for the conversion of carbon monoxide
to carbon dioxide is shown in Figure 5.
(Carbon + (Oxygen) = (Carbon Dioxide)

Monoxide)
2CO + O2 = 2CO2 + 4,435 BTU/lb CO
56 lbs + 32 lbs = 88 lbs
Figure 5. Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide
Excess Combustion Air
Purpose of Excess Combustion Air
In reality, if just the theoretical amount of air needed to burn a fuel were supplied, it would not be
enough to complete the combustion. A certain amount of additional or excess air is required to
ensure complete mixing and optimum heat-release characteristics. Excess air is also necessary
from a safety perspective. If the amount of oxygen at the burner drops below the theoretical
amount, an explosion may occur because of the buildup of unburned hydrocarbons.
Flue Gas Analysis to Determine Excess Air Requirements
Flue gas percentages of O2, of opacity, and of CO2, CO, SO2, and NOx in the flue gas can be all
used to determine excess air requirements. Most commonly used to determine the percentage of
excess air are the percentage of O2 and the percentage of CO2.
Percent O2 - The Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in Flue Gas (Work Aid
1D) describes the calculations necessary to determine the percent of excess oxygen and carbon
dioxide in boiler flue gas, on a dry basis. The inputs required for these calculations include the
measured oxygen in flue gas and the measurement basis (i.e., wet vs. dry), an ultimate (elemental)
analysis of the fuel, and the absolute humidity in the air.
Percent opacity - This is a function of incomplete combustion and/or the amount of particulate
matter in the plume. A dark plume coming out of the stack usually indicates incomplete
combustion. A white plume typically is the result of sulfuric acid in the gas.

Percent CO2 and PPM CO - Percent carbon dioxide, CO2, and percent carbon monoxide, CO,
are a function of how much carbon in the fuel is converted to CO2.
PPM SO2 and Nox - Sulfur present in fuel oils is converted to either sulfur dioxide (SO2) or
sulfur trioxide (SO3). Nitrogen in combustion air and/or nitrogen in the fuel is converted to
nitrogen oxides (NO or NO2).
Percent O2 versus Percent CO2 to Determine Excess Air Requirements
The measurement of O2 is preferred over the measurement of CO2 to determine excess air
requirements. One reason for the preference is that greater precision of measurement is required
for CO2 than for O2 to determine excess air requirements with the same degree of precision.
Another reason is that the presence of oxygen always indicates the presence of excess air because
oxygen is a component of air. With a given CO2, there may be one of two different percentages
of total air. Typically most controllers are 'reverse', because the process itself is 'direct'.
Total Air Flow Requirements
The Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in Flue Gas (Work Aid 1D) describes
the necessary calculations to determine the percent excess oxygen and carbon dioxide in boiler
flue gas, on a dry basis. The inputs required for these calculations include the measured oxygen in
the flue gas and the measurement basis (i.e., wet versus dry), an ultimate analysis of the fuel, and
the absolute humidity in the air.

EVALUATING A COMBUSTION CONTROL STRATEGY FOR A GIVEN SAUDI

ARAMCO APPLICATION
Combustion Control Objectives
The objectives of fuel and air control are as listed below.

• Match steam production to steam usage.
• Respond quickly to changes in steam usage.
• Maintain safe and efficient excess air at all load conditions.
• Cope with changes in fuel heating values.
• Allow operator intervention.
Figure 6 illustrates boiler outlet steam flow for saturated steam. Figure 7 illustrates boiler outlet
steam flow for superheated steam. The following equation will help to illustrate the relationships
between steam header pressure, energy demand, and energy supply (fuel and air):
BTU in - BTU out = dP/dt

where, BTUin = energy supply
BTUout = energy demand
P = steam header pressure

Drum
Safety
Valve
PT FE
Steam Flow
Non-return Valve
Flow Nozzle
(or Orifice)
Boiler
Drum
Figure 6. Boiler Outlet Steam Flow (Saturated Steam)
Drum Safety Superheater Inlet and

Drum Outlet Headers
TE PT FE
Steam
Flow Users
Non-return
Valve
Boiler
Drum Flow Nozzle
(Or Orifice)
Superheater
Figure 7. Boiler Outlet Steam Flow (Superheated Steam)

The equations in Figures 8 and 9 also illustrate the relationship between steam header pressure,
energy demand, and energy supply. For example, if the firing rate is more than the plant can take,
steam header pressure will increase. If the firing rate is less than what the plant demands, steam
header pressure will decrease, therefore, to maintain constant steam header pressure, boiler inputs
must equal steam requirements. The combustion control system should be designed to regulate
fuel and air to maintain a desired steam pressure.
Pressure Constant Boiler inputs equal Steam Requirements
Pressure Increasing Boiler inputs exceed steam requirements
Pressure Decreasing Steam requirements exceed boiler inputs
Figure 8. Boiler Firing Rate Demand
(Boiler Inputs - (Steam Requirements) = Rate of change of pressure
Boiler Inputs = Steam Requirements + Rate of change of pressure
Figure 9. Boiler Firing Rate Demand
Single Boiler Firing Rate Demand
Single Element (Pressure Control)
Figure 10 illustrates a SAMA diagram of a single element pressure control strategy for a single
boiler. Steam header pressure is measured and controlled by using a simple PID controller. The
PID controller compares the setpoint to the process variable and adjusts the output. If the process
variable is greater than the setpoint and the control action is direct, the PID controller will
increase the output to open the valve. If the process variable is less than the setpoint and the
control action is direct, the PID controller will decrease the output to close the valve.

Boiler Steam
PT
A
PID
A T
To Boiler Firing
Rate Demand
Figure 10. Single Element (Pressure Control)
Two Element (Pressure Control with Steam Flow Feedforward)
Figure 11 illustrates a SAMA diagram of two element steam pressure control for a single boiler
with steam flow feedforward. A steam flow measurement is added to the single element control
strategy to compensate for changes in steam flow. The drawback to this strategy is that it creates
a positive feedback signal. The strategy does not compensate for the relationship between steam
flow and steam pressure. For example, if steam flow increases, steam pressure will naturally
decrease.

Steam Steam
Pressure Flow
PT FT
A Steam
Pressure
PID Control
Reverse
Acting Σ
A T
Firing Rate Demand

to Furnace Input Control
Figure 11. Two Element (Pressure Control with Steam Flow Feedforward)
Figure 12 illustrates a two element pressure control strategy for a single boiler in which the
relationship between steam flow and steam pressure is taken into account in the feedforward
signal. The feedforward signal becomes equal to steam flow divided by steam pressure.

STEAM
PT FT
Removes
Positive
A Feedback
o Flow
o Pressure
B
A Steam
A/B
PID Pressure
Control
Σ
A T
Firing Rate Demand

to Furnace Input Control
Figure 12. Two Element Pressure Control
Figures 13 and 14 illustrate the effect the new feedforward control strategy has on the combustion
control system. In Figure 13, as steam flow increases and steam pressure decreases the
feedforward signal (steam flow divided by steam pressure) goes up correctly, calling for a higher
firing rate. In Figure 14, as steam flow decreases and steam pressure decreases the feedforward
signal (steam flow divided by steam pressure) remains the same, calling for a constant firing rate.
Steam Flow
(Demand)
Steam Pressure
Steam Flow
Steam Pressure
Figure 13. Effects of Two Element Pressure Control Feedforward Signal

Steam Flow
(Demand)
Steam Pressure
Steam Flow
Steam Pressure
Figure 14. Effects of Two Element Pressure Control Feedforward Signal
Steam Pressure, Boiler Inputs, and Steam Flow Trends
Figure 15 illustrates the relationships between steam pressure, boiler inputs, and steam flow. Fill
in the missing trend lines. For example, given a trend display that illustrates constant steam
pressure and a specific increase in boiler inputs over a period of time, fill in the trend the steam
flow will take.

Pressure
Boiler Inputs
Steam Flow ?
Time
Pressure
Boiler Inputs ?
Steam Flow
Time
Pressure
Boiler Inputs
Steam Flow ?
Time
Pressure ?
Boiler Inputs
?
Steam Flow
Time
Figure 15. Header Pressure Exercise

Multiple Boiler Firing Rate Demand
Single Element (Pressure Control)
Figure 16 illustrates single element pressure control for multiple boilers. This control strategy can
operate with both boiler masters in automatic, with one boiler master in automatic and one in
manual, or with both boiler masters in manual.
The bias is denoted by "A" and is set by the operator. The drawback of this control strategy is
that, if the operator were to increase the bias of one boiler, which would in effect increase the
boiler firing rate demand, it would take some time for the effect of this change to feedback to the
steam pressure controller, and steam pressure would increase. There would be no feedforward
signal to the steam pressure controller to indicate that there has been a change in the individual
firing rate demand.
Steam
PT
A
PID
Total Firing Rate Demand
A + Boiler A + Boiler
- #1 - #2
Master Master
A T A T
Individual Boiler
Firing Rate Demand
Figure 16. Single Element Pressure Control - Multiple Boilers

Two Element (Pressure Control with Steam Flow Feedforward)
Figure 17 illustrates two element pressure control for multiple boilers with steam flow
feedforward. The steam flow feedforward signal is added to the two element pressure control
strategy for multiple boilers. The effects of increasing an individual boiler's firing rate demand
signal are seen immediately in the steam flow feedforward signal. For example, if another steam
user were added for boiler #1, boiler #1 steam flow would decrease. This decrease in boiler #1
steam flow would cause a decrease in header pressure causing the feedforward to remain
unchanged ( by use of the divider block), and cause an increase in the steam pressure controller's
output and ultimately the total firing rate demand, which would cause steam pressure to remain
unchanged.
Steam 1 2
PT FT FT
o Flow
Steam o Pressure
A
Pressure
PID
Control w
Total Firing Rate Demand
A + A +
Boiler #1 Boiler #2
- Master - Master
A T A T
Individual Boiler
Firing Rate Demands
Figure 17. Two Element Pressure Control - Steam Flow

Feedforward - Multiple Boilers
Two Element (With Automatic Gain)
Figure 18 illustrates two element pressure control for multiple boilers with automatic gain
compensation. If there is a change in steam demand, it would be easier if all the boilers share the
demand. The problem is, how does the steam pressure controller know how many boilers there
are? For example, if there were two boiler masters and if the steam pressure controller were tuned
for one boiler, we would get twice the response.

The solution to the problem is to add an internal controller, the plant master controller. The sum
of the outputs of all the boilers is fed back to the plant master controller. Each boiler output is
multiplied by a scaling factor before it enters the summer. The scaling factor for each boiler is set
equal to the boiler full capacity divided by the total plant capacity. In effect, an energy balance is
being done around the plant master controller. The energy demanded of the individual boilers
(total firing rate demand) is compared to the total energy consumed by the individual boilers.
Should there be a discrepancy, a signal is sent by the plant master back to the individual boilers to
increase or decrease the boiler masters' setpoints. For example, given Boiler 1 = 300 lb/hr, Boiler
2 = 250 lb/hr, and Boiler 3 = 400 lb/hr, scaling factors will be K1 = 300/950 = .32, K2 = 250/950
= .26, and 400/950 = .42.
If one boiler shuts down with no change in total steam flow, the sum of the outputs of the
individual boilers will be less than the total firing rate demanded. This difference between the
individual boilers' outputs and the total firing rate demand causes the plant master controller to
increase its output and to call for the individual boiler's firing rate demand signals to increase.

Steam 1 2
PT FT FT FT
o
Steam o
A
Pressure
PID Control
w Total Firing Rate Demand
Plant w From Other

Master I Boiler(s)
. To Other
Boiler(s)
Boiler A + + Boiler + Boiler

A A
#1 - - #2 - #3
Master Master Master
A T A T A T
Individual Firing Rate Demand
Figure 18. Two Element Pressure Control - Multiple Boilers

with Automatic Gain

Types of Combustion Control Systems
Furnace Input Control Strategies
Parallel Positioning - Figure 19 illustrates furnace input control through use of parallel positioning
control strategy. Parallel positioning control systems respond to variations in steam pressure by
simultaneously adjusting both fuel and air flows. Parallel positioning control strategies are often
used on single and multiple-burner boilers. Parallel positioning allows the operator to change the
fuel to air ratio over the entire load range through either manual or automatic ratio adjustment.
One advantage of parallel positioning control is that it allows fuel and air to be adjusted
independently by using manual/auto stations. Disadvantages of the illustrated parallel positioning
control strategy are there is no O2 trim to compensate for varying BTU fuel, the control strategy
does not take into account fuel and air flow (they are not metered), and the control strategy does
not take into account sloppy linkages.
From
Firing Rate Demand
A
Fuel/Air
Ratio Adjust
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
Fuel Control Air Damper
Valve
Figure 19. Parallel Positioning Control Strategy

Parallel Metered System with Cross Limiting - Figure 20 illustrates furnace input control through use
of the parallel metered system with cross limiting control strategy. metering systems, fuel and air
flow measurements are incorporated into the combustion control strategy. Fuel and air flow
measurements serve as feedback signals to ensure that flow corresponds to demand. A parallel
metered system with cross limiting allows the boiler to operate safely, with excess air during load
changes. Hi select and low select functions are included in the parallel metered system to prevent
fuel-rich conditions on a load change. During a load increase, the low select function limits the
fuel regulator's setpoint to the actual airflow, causing air to lead fuel. During a load decrease, air
lags fuel. Airflow is not allowed to decrease until the fuel flow has decreased. The function
generator used on the air flow side is used to characterize air and fuel flows. At design O2, over
the load range of the boiler, the relationship between fuel and air is not linear, therefore, we
correct air flow to be equal in percentage to fuel.
Fuel Flow Air Flow
FT FT
From Firing
Rate Demand
f
From Fuel
Air Ratio
Trim
PV PV
SP
< >
SP
Fuel Air
PID Control PID Control
A T A T
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
Fuel Regulator Air Damper
Figure 20. Parallel Metered System with Cross Limiting Control Strategy
Parallel Metered System with Cross Limiting and Fuel Air Ratio Trim on Demand - Figure 21
illustrates a parallel metered system with cross limiting and fuel air ratio trim on demand. Fuel air
ratio trim controls optimum excess air. By keeping excess air at the minimum, effluent heat losses
can be minimized and efficiency can be maximized.

Fuel Flow Air Flow
FT FT
From Firing
Rate Demand f (x)
From Fuel
Air Ratio
Trim
PID Fuel
< > PID Air
Control Control
A T A T
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
Figure 21. Parallel Meter System with Cross Limiting and

Fuel Air Ratio on Demand
Parallel Metered System with Automatic Fuel Air Ratio - Figure 22 illustrates a parallel metered
system with fuel air ratio decharacterization control.
This system measures pressure inside the furnace cavity to control the induced draft damper
position.

Fuel Flow Air Flow Oxygen Steam
FT FT AT FT
From Firing
Rate Demand f (x) f (x)
PID
A T
PID Fuel
< > PID
Air
Control
A T Control A T
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
Figure 22. Parallel Metered System with Fuel Air Ratio

and Decharacterization Control
Parallel Metered System with CO Control - Figure 23 illustrates a parallel metered system with CO
control. The CO measurement is used in combination with the O2 signal to improve trim control.
The CO is not used as a primary control signal because it displays unusual transients during load
changes and thus limits the operator's ability to operate at high excess air levels.

Fuel Flow Air Flow Oxygen CO Steam
FT FT AT AT FT
From Firing
Rate Demand f (x) PID PID f (x)
A T
PID
< > PID
Air
Control
Fuel Control
A T A T
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
Figure 23. Parallel Metered System with Carbon Monoxide Control
Fuel Flow Control Strategies
Dual Fuels with One Base Loaded - Figure 24 shows fuel flow control through use of dual fuels with
one base loaded. In this system, the two fuel flows are totalized at the summer. One fuel can be
adjusted manually to provide base load, while the other fuel responds to load swings.

Fuel No. 1 Fuel No. 2

Flow Transmitter Flow Transmitter
FT FT From Firing
Rate Demand
Σ Total Fuel
< > To Air Flow
Cont. Set
From Air Flow
Measurement
Total
PID Fuel
A T Control A
ƒ (x) ƒ (x)
Control Valve Control Valve
Figure 24. Dual Fuels with One Base Loaded
Dual Fuels with Either Automatic - Figure 25 illustrates fuel flow control through use of dual fuels
with either fuel in automatic. This control strategy offers the following capabilities:
• Both fuel controllers can be placed in automatic mode.
• One fuel controller can be placed in manual mode (to provide base load), and the other
controller can be placed in automatic mode.
• Both controllers can be placed in manual mode.

Fuel No. 1 Fuel No. 2 From Load

FT Flow FT Flow Control
Transmitter Transmitter
Σ Total Fuel < > To Air FLow

Cont. Set
From Air Flow
Measurement
Total Fuel
PID Control
A + A +
- -
A T A T
ƒ(x) Control Valve ƒ(x) Control Valve
Figure 25. Dual Fuels with Either Automatic
Dual Fuels with Individual Controllers, Either Base Loaded - Figure 26 illustrates fuel flow control
through a strategy that uses dual fuels with individual controllers and with either base loaded. This
control strategy employs two fuel controllers that cannot be in automatic mode at the same time.

Fuel No. 1 Fuel No. 2 From Firing

Flow Transmitter Flow Transmitter Rate Demand
FT FT From
Adjusted
Air Flow
Σ Total Fuel
< > To Air FLow
Cont. Set

PID Control PID Control
A T A T
Mode
ƒ(x) Interlock ƒ(x)
Control Valve Control Valve
Figure 26. Dual Fuels with Individual Controllers, Either Base Loaded
Dual Fuels with Preferential Firing - Figure 27 illustrates fuel flow control through use of a strategy
that uses dual fuels with preferential firing. In this control strategy the prime fuel varies in
response to load demand and attempts to make up all of the load. Typically, the prime fuel is not
allowed to exceed a predetermined limit that is set by the operator. Normally, the firing rate
demand signal is transmitted as a setpoint to the primary fuel controller. The supplemental fuel
compensation summer calculates the difference between the firing rate demand and the primary
fuel flow and supplies this difference to the supplemental fuel flow controller.

Supplemental Prime PT Prime

FT FT
Fuel Fuel Fuel
Total Fuel
Σ
A
Supplemental
Fuel Flow PID
Control Air
PID Σ Flow
A Supplemental
T
Fuel Comp.
Air Flow
Demand
PID
A T From Firing
Rate Demand
Supplemental Prime
ƒ(x) ƒ(x)
Fuel Valve Fuel Valve
Figure 27. Dual Fuels with Preferential Firing
Fuel BTU Correction - Figure 28 illustrates fuel flow control through application of a strategy that
uses fuel BTU correction. This control strategy uses steam flow versus fuel flow to detect
changes in BTU. Fuel HHV is indicated at the HV correction controller by a steam flow increase.
In order to compensate for the fuel HHV increase, the fuel HV correction controller increases its
output signal to cause the fuel flow to look higher to the fuel master controller. When the fuel
master controller detects this increase in fuel flow, it adjusts (decreases) its output to the feeders.
This change will decrease fuel flow and in turn decrease steam flow.

Steam Feeder Speeds
FT ST ST ST
I
Fuel H.V.
Correction
Σ
Air
X Flow
Firing
Rate
Fuel Demand
PID Master
A + A + A +
- - -
A T A T A T
To Feeders
Figure 28. Fuel BTU Correction
Typical Furnace Input Control Strategy
Figure 29 illustrates a typical furnace input control strategy. The difference between the oil supply
and the oil return is calculated to show how much oil is being burned. Air flow temperature
compensation and oxygen as a function of steam flow are also indicated on this figure. In
addition, when the induced draft. fan goes into manual mode, all other controllers go into manual
mode because of interlocking logic.

Gas Oil Oil Firing Rate Air Air

Flow Supply Return Demand Temp Flow Steam O2
FT FT FT TE FT FT AT
ƒ(x)
+
-
Mass
Flow O2 Set PID
Point A T
•
w •
< >
X
Gas Flow Oil Flow Air Flow
PID Control PID Control PID Control
A T A T A T
Go Manual Go Manual
ƒ(x) Gas Control ƒ(x) Oil Control ƒ(x) F. D. Fan

Valve Valve Inlet Vanes
Figure 29. Furnace Input Control - Typical System

EVALUATING A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR A COMBUSTION AUXILIARY

SYSTEM FOR A GIVEN SAUDI ARAMCO APPLICATION
Fuel Delivery System
Oil
Figure 5-3 on page 53 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam G. Dukelow (Course
Handout 8) illustrates a typical fuel oil pumping and heating arrangement. Fuel oil is sometimes
transferred from storage tanks to day tanks. Typically, if the fuel oil is number 6, the oil must be
heated so that it can be pumped through the system. Normally, number 2 oil need not be heated.
Fuel Atomization
Fuel atomization gasifies fuel oil so that it can be burned. Atomization converts the oil to tiny
droplets so that it can be gasified by the furnace heat. Fuel can be atomized mechanically or by
using steam. Mechanically, oil is atomized by using oil pressure to gasify the oil. Steam atomizers
mix the oil and the steam to produce a fine spray.
Supply Pressure
From the storage tanks to day tanks, fuel oil pumps supply fuel oil at the necessary pressure for
the fuel control and atomizing system.
Fuel Temperature
Fuel temperature must be controlled within a specific range to produce the desired fuel
viscosity. Fuel oil must be heated to reduce its viscosity so that it may be burned.
Recirculation
Fuel oil must also be recirculated to keep it warm to reduce its viscosity.
Gas
Natural gas is supplied to the user through pipelines. Gas pressure is reduced at the metering and
pressure-reducing stations. Figure 5-1 on page 51 of The Control of Boilers, 2nd Edition, by Sam
G. Dukelow (Course Handout 8) illustrates a gas pressure and metering arrangement.

Pressure
Gas pressure is reduced to meet the requirements of the boiler control system. Other than
pressure reduction, gas requires no other preparation. Metering is required for billing.
Burners
The function of burners is to provide controlled, efficient conversion of chemical energy to heat
energy. Burners introduce fuel and air for combustion, mix the fuel and air, ignite the combustible
mixture, and distribute the products of combustion.
Swirlers
The function of swirlers in the burners is to increase turbulence to facilitate the mixing of fuel and
air. Some burners contain tangentially disposed doors in the air registers which increase
turbulence. Other burners contain axially disposed spin vanes used to impart swirl to the
combustion air. Another type of burner may use adjustable swirl vanes to increase turbulence.
Fuel Injection
Fuel enters the combustion chamber in a variety of ways dependent upon the type of burner being
used. Fuel in a tangentially fired system enters into the combustion chamber from all four corners
of the burner. In a horizontal fired system, fuel is mixed with combustion air in individual burner
registers.
Register Adjustments
Register adjustments are used to control air flow.
Soot Blowing
Purpose
The purpose of soot blowing is to remove foreign materials from the boiler tubes and in effect
increase conductivity. Boiler tubes get dirty from soot created by the oil. This soot build up
reduces boiler heat conductivity.
Types
The two types of soot blowers include fixed and retractable.

Operation
Fixed soot blowers, either rotating or nonrotating, are large tubes with nozzles in them that direct
steam, air, or water through nozzles against the soot accumulated on the heat transfer surfaces of
the boiler. Fixed soot blowers are typically more economical to install and operate than retractable
soot blowers.
The retractable soot blower is a long cleaning device with a few nozzles at its end that move in
and out of the boiler to clean tube banks.

THREE FURNACE PRESSURE CONTROL STRATEGIES AND THE STRATEGY FOR

PREVENTING IMPLOSION PER NFPA 85C AND NFPA 8501
Furnace Pressure Control Strategies
Simple Feedback Control
Furnace pressure control is necessary in balanced draft boilers. It is desirable to control furnace
pressure at a slightly negative pressure setpoint. Typically furnace pressure is measured on the
forced draft side of the furnace.
Figure 30 illustrates a simple feedback furnace pressure control strategy. It is preferred to use
forced draft to control air flow. In figure 31, changes in furnace draft pressure caused by air flow
changes are feedback to the furnace pressure controller, causing a series change to the induced
draft. If desired, induced draft can be used to control air flow with the series action taking place
on the forced draft. When using this feedback pressure control strategy, control action must be
reversed.
Furnace Pressure
PT
PI
Setpoint
A A A
To Either Forced or Induced Draft
Figure 30. Simple Feedback Furnace Pressure Control Strategy

Feedforward-Plus-Feedback Control
Figure 31 illustrates a feedforward-plus-feedback control strategy. The signal from the air flow
controller is added to the output of the furnace pressure controller. This feedforward control
strategy eliminates the time delay between the forced draft and the induced draft. A bias function
is added to the summer in order that the output of the furnace draft controller operates normally
in the middle of its output range.
Furnace Pressure
PT
PID
From Air
Flow
Control Σ
A T A T A
To Either To Either
Forced Draft Forced Draft
or Induced Draft or Induced Draft
Figure 31. Feedforward-Plus-Feedback Pressure Control Strategy
Implosion Protection Strategy
Furnace implosion is the result of excessive low gas side pressure, which causes the walls of the
furnace to cave in, which in turn causes equipment damage. Furnace implosion can be caused by
boiler gas flow equipment malfunction that causes the furnace to be exposed to excessive induced
draft fan capability. Furnace implosion can also be caused by rapid reduction in fuel input or
master fuel trip, which causes a rapid decay of furnace gas temperatures and pressure.

Figure 5-2.2 on page 17 of NFPA 85C, Prevention of Furnace Explosions/Implosions in Multiple

Burner Boiler-Furnaces, illustrates furnace pressure control system requirements for implosion
protection.
Directional Blocking
Directional blocking is an interlock that occurs as the result of a significant error in furnace
pressure. Directional blocking acts to inhibit the movement of all final control elements in the
direction that would increase the error. Standards NFPA 85C, Prevention of Furnace
Explosions/Implosions in Multiple Burner Boiler-Furnaces, and NFPA 8501, Single Burner Boiler
Operation, contain implosion prevention requirements.
MFT Feedforward Signal
Master fuel trip is a common cause of furnace implosion. Master fuel trip occurs as a result of the
rapid shutoff of all fuel. This loss of fuel causes the waterwall tubes to rapidly consume the
furnace heat and the flue gas temperature to suddenly decrease. The decrease in flue gas
temperature causes the furnace gas volume to decrease and a greater negative pressure may occur
in the furnace than at the fan suction, causing implosion.

WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE TOTAL REQUIRED

AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC CONDITIONS AND
EXCESS AIR REQUIREMENTS FOR A GIVEN FUEL OF
KNOWN COMPOSITION
Work Aid 1A: Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation
Handbook (Course Handout 7)
Directions: The Combustion Engineering Fuel Burning and Steam Generation Handbook
contains fuel analysis data. Use this Work Aid to complete Exercise 1.
Work Aid 1B: Fuel Analysis Data
Directions: Use the fuel analysis data to complete exercise 1.
A. Carbon, C = 64.84% by Weight

B. Hydrogen, H2 = 20.85% by Weight
C. Oxygen, O2 = 1.41% by Weight
D. Nitrogen, N2 = 12.90% by Weight
E. Sulfur, S2 = 0% by Weight
F. Ash = 0% by Weight
G. Water, H2O = 0% by Weight
H. Carbon Dioxide, CO2 = 0% by Weight
Work Aid 1C: Flue Gas Analysis Data
Directions: Use the following flue gas analysis data to complete exercise 1.
Measured oxygen in flue gas = 4.0% (Wet measurement basis)
Absolute Humidity in Air = 0.013 Lb. H2O per Lb. Dry Air
Work Aid 1D: Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in Flue Gas
Directions: Use the Procedure to Calculate Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in Flue Gas in
Exercise 1.

WORK AID 2: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO EVALUATE THE SUITABILITY OF

A COMBUSTION CONTROL STRATEGY
Work Aid 2A: Functional Diagram and P&ID
Directions: The Functional Diagram and the P&ID attached illustrates a combustion control
strategy. Use the functional diagram and the P&ID in performing Exercise 2.
Work Aid 2B: SAES-J-602, Section 5 (Course Handout 1)
Directions: SAES-J-602 contains feedwater system design information. Use Work Aid 2B in
performing Exercise 2.
Work Aid 2C: ANSI/ISA S77.41 (Course Handout 4)
Directions: ANSI/ISA S77.41, Fossil Fuel Power Plant Boiler Combustion Controls contains
the minimum requirements for the functional design specification of combustion
control systems for drum-type fossil-fueled power plant boilers. Use Work Aid 2C
in performing Exercise 2.

WORK AID 3: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO EVALUATE A CONTROL

STRATEGY FOR COMBUSTION AUXILIARIES
Work Aid 3A: P&ID
Directions: The P&ID attached illustrates a combustion control strategy for combustion
auxiliaries. Use Work Aid 3A in performing Exercise 3.
Work Aid 3B: SAES-J-602, Section 5 (Course Handout 1)
Directions: SAES-J-602 contains feedwater system design information. Use Work Aid 3B in
performing Exercise 3.
Work Aid 3C: ANSI/ISA S77.41 (Course Handout 4)
Directions: ANSI/ISA S77.41, Fossil Fuel Power Plant Boiler Combustion Controls contains
the minimum requirements for the functional design specification of combustion
control systems for drum-type fossil-fueled power plant boilers. Use Work Aid 3C
in performing Exercise 3.

GLOSSARY
air The mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and other gases that constitutes the
atmosphere of the earth.
atomization A process that gasifies fuel oil for it to be burned. Atomization converts
the oil to tiny droplets so it can be gasified by the furnace heat. Pressure-
atomizing burners use oil pressure to gasify the oil.
balanced draft A system that uses a forced draft fan to blow combustion air into the
furnace and an induced draft fan to remove the hot flue gases while
creating a furnace pressure that is in the range of one inch column of
vacuum. The negative pressure prevents flue gases from leaking through
the boiler casing and into the boiler room.
BTU British Thermal Unit.
burner Burners provide controlled, efficient conversion of chemical energy to
heat energy. Burners introduce fuel and air for combustion, mix the fuel
and air, ignite the combustible mixture, and distribute the products of
combustion.
carbon dioxide A product of the complete combustion of carbon.
carbon monoxide A product of the incomplete combustion of carbon.
combustion The chemical process that produces heat as a result of the combination of
oxygen with a fuel.
directional blocking An interlock that, upon detection of significant error in furnace pressure,
acts to inhibit the movement of all appropriate final control elements in a
direction that would increase the error.
excess air The air not used or needed for the total combustion of fuel.
flue gas The products of combustion.
fuel A combustible substance that is burned to produce heat.
furnace Combustion chamber of a boiler.
implosion In a furnace, the result of excessive low gas side pressure, which causes
equipment damage.
induced draft fan A fan used to produce a flow of air through the boiler furnace by creating
a lower pressure. An induced draft fan is commonly used to aid the
exhaust of flue gases.

NFPA National Fire Protection Association.

nitrogen oxides Products of combustion.
opacity The quality that makes an object impervious to light.
sulfur dioxide A product of combustion.
sulfur trioxide A product of combustion.
theoretical air The quantity of air required for perfect combustion.

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Determining Total Air Requirements

Chapter : Instrumentations For additional information on this subject, contact

CALCULATING THE TOTAL AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Fuel Flow Control Strategies.........................................................................23

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

WORK AID 1: RESOURCES REQUIRED TO CALCULATE TOTAL REQUIRED

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Table of Figures Pages

Figure 1. Formula for Complete Combustion of Carbon (C)....................................... 2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Figure 30. Simple Feedback Furnace Pressure Control Strategy................................33

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

This module discusses combustion chemistry, products of combustion, byproducts of combustion,

The sections of this module include:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

CALCULATING THE TOTAL AIR FLOW TO MEET STOICHIOMETRIC

Combustion Chemistry and Products of Combustion

Carbon Combustion Formula

(Carbon) + (Oxygen) = (Carbon Dioxide)

12 lbs + 32 lbs = 44 lbs

Figure 1. Formula for Complete Combustion of Carbon (C)

Hydrogen Combustion Formula

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

(Hydrogen) + (Oxygen) = (Water)

2H2 + O2 = 2H2O + 61,100 BTU/lb H2

4 lbs + 32 lbs = 36 lbs

Figure 2. Formula for Complete Combustion of Hydrogen (H)

Fuel Combustion Equation

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Fuel analysis for #6 fuel oil:

90.2% by weight of Carbon (C)

lbsair/lbfuel = (11.53 x 0.902) + 34.34 0.12 - 0 + 4.29 x 0.035

10.40 + 4.12 + 0.15 = 14.67

*This value is for pure C.

Figure 3. Calculation of Theoretical Air Requirements

Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen, and Carbon are byproducts of incomplete combustion.

Partial Combustion of Carbon

(Carbon) + (Oxygen) = (Carbon Monoxide)

2C + O2 = 2CO + 4,000 BTU/lb C

24 lbs + 32 lbs = 56 lbs

Figure 4. Incomplete Combustion (Insufficient Air)

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide

(Carbon + (Oxygen) = (Carbon Dioxide)

2CO + O2 = 2CO2 + 4,435 BTU/lb CO

56 lbs + 32 lbs = 88 lbs

Figure 5. Carbon Monoxide to Carbon Dioxide

Excess Combustion Air

Purpose of Excess Combustion Air

Flue Gas Analysis to Determine Excess Air Requirements

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Percent O2 versus Percent CO2 to Determine Excess Air Requirements

Total Air Flow Requirements

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

EVALUATING A COMBUSTION CONTROL STRATEGY FOR A GIVEN SAUDI

Combustion Control Objectives

The objectives of fuel and air control are as listed below.

BTU in - BTU out = dP/dt

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Figure 6. Boiler Outlet Steam Flow (Saturated Steam)