Lecture notes on Electrostatics (ES201A)

Electrostatic Induction

Electrostatics, as its name suggests, is that branch of physics which deals with study of the electric
charges at rest. On the other hand, induction implies the process or action of bringing about or giving
rise to something. It implies that electrostatic induction is basically the redistribution of electrical
charge in an object, caused by the influence of nearby charges. When a charged body is placed in
vicinity of any insulated conductor, positive charge is developed at one end and negative charge on
the other end. It is also responsible for the attraction of light nonconductive objects, such as balloons,
paper or styrofoam scraps, to static electric charges. This phenomenon can be understood clearly from
Figure 1.

Figure 1. Electrostatic induction: (a) Distribution of charge in a electrically neutral body when kept near a positive charge;
(b) When its other side is grounded, positive charges will disappear as electrons will flow in the given direction; (c) When
conductor B is away from external charge, negative charge will spread uniformly in it.

Electric charge & voltage

Charge (SI unit: Coulomb) is the fundamental property of forms of matter that
exhibit electrostatic attraction or repulsion in the presence of other matter. Coulomb is defined as the
quantity of charge that has passed through the cross section of an electrical conductor carrying
one ampere within one second. 1 coulomb is equivalent to about 6.242×1018 e (where e is the charge
of a proton). This implies that the charge of an electron is approximately −1.602×10−19 C.

Voltage (Electric potential difference/ Electric pressure/ Electric tension) is the difference in electric
potential between two points per unit electric charge. The voltage between two points is equal to
the work done per unit of charge against a static electric field to move the test charge between two
points. This is measured in units of volts (a joule per coulomb). Potential due to a charge Q placed at a
distance x from it is given as:

1 𝑄
𝑉= .
4𝜋𝜀 𝑥

Coulomb’s Law

Statement: The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point
charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of charges and inversely

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 Lecture notes on Electrostatics (ES201A)
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The direction of force will be along the
straight line joining two charges.

If q1 and q2 be the magnitude of two charges (in C) and r12 be the distance of separation, then the
expression of force can be given as:
𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹∝  𝐹 = 𝑘. {k - Proportionality constant}
𝑟2 𝑟2

When the charges are placed in a medium with relative permittivity of εr the value of k is given
1
mathematically as 4𝜋𝜖 where εo = 8.854X10-12 C2N-1m-2. For free space (or air), εr ≈ 1 and k will be
𝑜 𝜖𝑟
equal to 9X109 Nm2C-2.

Electric Field & Field intensity

An electric charge is surrounded by an electric field produced by that charge (as given in Figure 2).
This field will exert a force, either repulsive or attractive, on any other electric charge placed in its
vicinity (expressed by Coulomb’s law). In other words, electric field can be defined as the region/
space in the vicinity of any charge where the effect of electric lines of force will come to play when
any external charge enters that region. Electric field intensity at a point is a point x, 𝐸⃗ (𝑥) is defined as
the force (𝐹 (𝑥)) exerted on a stationary test particle of unit positive charge placed at that point. For
some charge q placed in 𝐸⃗ , the relation 𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸⃗ is valid.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Electric lines of forces (b) Between a positive and negative charge & (b) Between two positive charges

Electric flux & Flux density

Electric flux is the measure of flow of the electric field through a given area and is proportional to the
number of electric field lines going through a normally perpendicular surface. Electrical flux
has SI units of volt meters (Vm) or Coulombs. Electric flux density is a measure of the strength of an
electric field generated by a free electric charge, corresponding to the number of electric lines of force
passing through a given area. As its name suggests, it is the amount of electric flux, the number of
lines of forces passing through a given area and is often denoted by 𝐷 ⃗ . The relation between 𝐸⃗ & 𝐷 ⃗
⃗ = 𝜀𝐸⃗ . Electric Flux Density has units of Coulombs per meter square or V/m.
can be given as: 𝐷

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 Lecture notes on Electrostatics (ES201A)

Absolute & Relative Permittivity

Permittivity or absolute permittivity (denoted by ε) is the measure of resistance encountered during

the formation an electric field in a particular medium. It describes the amount of charge needed to
generate one unit of electric flux in a particular medium. So, a charge will yield more electric flux in a
medium with low permittivity than that with high permittivity. Thus, it is the measure of a material's
ability to resist an electric field, not its ability to permit it. SI unit for permittivity is Farad per meter
(F/m). Permittivity of free space (ε0) will be equal to 8.8542X10-12 F/m. Permittivity of a
homogeneous material (ε) is usually given relative to that of free space, as a relative permittivity εr
𝜀
such that εr = 𝜀 .
0

Gauss’s Theorem

Gauss's law (also termed as Gauss's flux theorem) is a law relating the distribution of electric
charge to the resulting electric field. It is possible to derive Coulomb’s law from Gauss’s law & vice-
𝟏
versa. It can be stated as: The net electric flux through any hypothetical closed surface is equal to ∈
times the net electric charge within that closed surface.

𝑄
Mathematically, electric flux through a closed surface S enclosing any volume V, Φ= = ∮𝑆 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑆
𝜀

where, Q- Total charge enclosed within V, ε- Permittivity of the region, 𝐸⃗ - Electric field & 𝑑𝑆-
infinitesimal element of area of the surface S.

Potential Gradient

Potential gradient is the local rate of change of the potential (V) with respect to displacement (x).
∆𝑉 𝑑𝑉
Mathematically it is given as 𝑜𝑟 . For three dimensional space, it is expressed as ∇⃗ 𝑉 = 𝜕𝑉 𝑎
̂𝑥 +
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎̂ + 𝑎
̂.
𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧

Since,
1 𝑄 1 𝑄 𝑑𝑉 −1 𝑄
𝑉= . and E= .  = . = −𝐸
4𝜋𝜀 𝑥 4𝜋𝜀 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 4𝜋𝜀 𝑥 2

Hence, the negative of potential gradient is equal with electric field intensity. Mathematically,

𝐸⃗ = −∇
⃗𝑉

Electric Dipole

Electric dipole is a pair formed by oppositely charged particles such that the charges are separated by
a small infinitesimal distance (l). A electric dipole is given in Figure 3.

Figure 3. An electric dipole

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Dipole moment (p) is a measure of the separation of positive and negative electrical charges within a
system, i.e. a measure of the system's overall polarity. The electric field strength of any dipole is
proportional to the magnitude of dipole moment. The SI units for electric dipole moment
are coulomb-meter (C·m), however the most commonly used unit is the debye (D). Mathematically, it
is given as the product of charge magnitude (q) and distance of separation (2a).

Electric Polarization

It is the slight relative shift of positive and negative electric charge in opposite directions within
an insulator (or dielectric), when placed in an external electric field. It occurs when an electric field
distorts the negative cloud of electrons around positive atomic nuclei in a direction opposite the field.
This slight separation of charge makes one side of the atom somewhat positive and the opposite side
somewhat negative.

Figure 4. Dielectric polarization in non-polar molecules

Capacitance and capacitors

The ability of a body to store electric charge is called capacitance which can be sub-divided as either
self or mutual capacitance. For an isolated conductor, self capacitance can be defined as the amount of
charge that must be added to an isolated conductor to raise its electric potential by 1V. Mutual
inductance is the capacitance between two adjacent conductors separated by suitable dielectric
material. The concept of self and mutual capacitance can be understood clearly by Figure 5. The SI
unit of capacitance is Farad (F). The inverse of capacitance is electrical elastance having SI unit of
inverse Farad (F-1).

Figure 5. Mutual and Self capacitance

Due to this electric charge, a potential difference is developed across it and thereby storing energy in
form of electric field. The capacitor is a component which has the ability of ‘capacitor’ to store energy
across its plates. In the most basic form, a capacitor comprises of two or more parallel conductive
(metal) plates which are not connected or touching each other, but is electrically separated either by

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 Lecture notes on Electrostatics (ES201A)
air or by some suitable dielectric (insulating material such as waxed paper, mica, ceramic, plastic or
some form of a liquid gel as used in electrolytic capacitors).

Mathematically, the relation between capacitance (C), charge within the conductor (q) and developed
voltage (V) is given as:

C= Q*V

For a 1F capacitor, a potential difference of 1V is developed across its plates when it is charged with
1C of charge. Capacitance of any capacitor is a function of design geometry (area of X-section of
plates and distance of separation of plates) and permittivity of dielectric material present in a
capacitor. If ‘d’ and ‘A’ be the distance of separation between plates and area of X-section of plates
respectively, then capacitance (C) will be:
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝐶 ∝ 𝑑
 𝐶 = 𝜀 𝑑  𝐶 = 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑑

For a given capacitor, design geometry can’t be changed and thus it can be said that capacitance is
dependent on permittivity of dielectric material (ε) only. For many dielectric materials, the
permittivity and thus the capacitance, is independent of the potential difference between the
conductors and the total charge on them.

Different types of capacitors

This section briefly discusses the construction of various types of capacitors.

i. Parallel plate capacitors: As the name suggests, it comprises of two plates separated by air
or any other dielectric material. A parallel plate capacitor is given in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Parallel plate capacitor

ii. Cylindrical capacitors: In this type of capacitors, two concentric cylindrical surfaces are
separated by suitable dielectric or air. A cylindrical capacitor with air as dielectric is
given in Figure 7. For some dielectric with permittivity ε, ε0 will be replaced by ε in the
expression of capacitance.

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Figure 7. Cylindrical capacitor

iii. Spherical capacitors: In this type of capacitors, two concentric spheres are separated by
suitable dielectric material. Cut-sectional view of a spherical capacitor is given in Figure
8. Capacitance of a capacitor containing dielectric material with permittivity ε will be
expressed as:
𝑎𝑏
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀
𝑏−𝑎

Figure 8. Cut section view of a spherical capacitor

iv. Multi-plate capacitors: In many cases it is important to increase the capacitance of a

capacitor by keeping same size. This is possible by employing multi-plate capacitors as
given in Figure 9. For ‘n’ number of plates, capacitance of the capacitor will be given as:
𝜀𝐴
𝐶 = (𝑛 − 1) ∗
𝑑

Figure 9. Multi-plate capacitor

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v. Variable capacitors: From the previous discussions, it is clear that capacitance of any
capacitor can be varied by varying ‘ε’, ‘A’ and ‘d’. This principle can be used to form
variable capacitors. Three possible types of variable capacitors based on change in ‘d’,
‘A’ and ‘ε’ is given in Figure 10 (A), 10 (B) and 10 (C).

Figure 10. Different types of variable capacitors: (A) Change in displacement; (B) Change in area of X-
section and (C) Change in permittivity

Dielectric materials

It is an electrical insulator which gets polarized in an applied electric field. Due to dielectric
polarization, positive charges are displaced in the direction of the field and negative charges shift in
the opposite direction. This results in an internal electric field that reduces the overall field within the
dielectric. Dielectric materials can be solids, liquids, or gases. Solid dielectrics are most commonly
used dielectrics, and many solids are very good insulators. It includes porcelain, glass, and
most plastics. Air, nitrogen and sulphur hexafluoride are the most commonly used gaseous dielectrics.
Mineral oil is used extensively inside electrical transformers as a fluid dielectric and to assist in
cooling. Dielectric fluids with higher dielectric constants, such as electrical grade castor oil, are often
used in high voltage capacitors to help prevent corona discharge and increase capacitance.

Dielectric strength

As the name suggests, it gives the strength of dielectric i.e. the voltage which a dielectric can
withstand without causing its breakdown. The field strength at which breakdown occurs is dependent
on the respective geometries of the dielectric (insulator) and the electrodes with which the electric
field is applied, as well as the rate of increase at which the electric field is applied. As dielectric
materials usually contain minute defects, the practical dielectric strength will be a fraction of the
intrinsic dielectric strength of an ideal, defect-free, material. Dielectric breakdown potential, as the
name suggests, is the minimum voltage at which breakdown will occur in a dielectric.

Dielectric losses and loss angle

There are two types of losses in any dielectric material (except vacuum). The first type of loss is
conduction loss, which represents the flow of actual charge through the dielectric. Another type of
loss is dielectric loss which is due to movement or rotation of the atoms or molecules in an alternating
electric field. Dielectric losses in water are the reason for food and drink getting hot in a microwave
oven. The basic circuit model for a capacitor is shown in Figure 11. Any conductor, whether straight
or wound in a coil, has inductance, and the capacitor inductance is represented by an equivalent series
inductance LESL. The effects of conductor resistance and dielectric losses are represented by an
equivalent series resistance RESR. Leakage current through the capacitor at dc flows through a parallel

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 Lecture notes on Electrostatics (ES201A)
resistance Rleakage. The dissipation factor (DF) can be defined as the value of the tendency of dielectric
materials to absorb some of the energy when an AC signal is applied.

Figure 11. Equivalent circuit of a capacitor

Loss factor or loss tangent is associated with each dielectric material. This loss tangent is numerically
equal to DF and is a measure of loss in the dielectric of the capacitor. It is obvious that RESR will be a
considerable value in lossy capacitors and thus current passing through it will be something less than
90̊. Loss tangent (tan δ) is the tangent of the difference of angle between the current passing through
an ideal capacitor and a lossy capacitor as illustrated in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Phasor representation of loss angle

Quality Factor (Q) of a capacitor is a fundamental expression of the energy losses in a resonant
system. For a capacitor, it is the ratio of the energy stored to that dissipated per cycle. For any
capacitor, the following mathematical relationship is valid.

1 𝐸𝑆𝑅
tan 𝛿 = 𝐷𝐹 = =
𝑄 𝜔𝐶

Dielectric stress

In case of any underground cable, the cable conductor is provided with an insulation of suitable
thickness so as to avoid leakage of current. The path for leakage current is radial, as shown in Fig.
13(a), through the insulating material. Thus an inherent capacitance will creep in these cables. The
opposition offered by the insulation to the flow of leakage current is called the insulation resistance.

(b)
(a)

Figure 13. (a) Leakage current in single core cable; & (b) Capacitance in 3-core cable

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A single core cable can be considered as a two coaxial cylinders with inner diameter of core d and
outer diameter or inner diameter of lead sheath (at earth potential) D. A dielectric material with
permittivity εr is placed between the core and the lead sheath. Under normal operating conditions, the
insulation of a single core cable is subjected to electrostatic stress, which is termed as dielectric stress.
Potential gradient (g) at any point i.e. the rate of increase of potential at that point will be same as the
dielectric stress at that point. As a single core cable is in the form a cylindrical capacitor, therefore,
electric intensity at a distance x from the centre O of the cable will be:
1 Q Q D V
E= g= ∗ V= ln g = D V/m
2πε x 2πε d x ∗ln
d

Since g varies inversely as x  g will be maximum for minimum x (x = d/2) and will be minimum
when x is maximum (x = D/2).
2V 2V gmax D
Therefore, g max = D V/m and g min = D V/m  =
d∗ln D∗ln gmin d
d d

The variation of g within a single core cable is given in Figure 14. It is to be noted that the above
relations are valid only for smooth cylindrical conductors. With the ordinary stranded conductors, the
dielectric stresses near the conductor are increased by about 20 per cent due to the greater curvature of
the surface of the individual wires. This, however, can be avoided by covering the conductor with a
thin smooth metal sheath. In high voltage single core cables, g will be in the highest possible limit so
as to reduce the overall diameter. But there is a rapid increase in the dielectric losses with increase in
g. This limits gmax to only about 20% of the breakdown value (typically within 4-5 kV/mm).

Figure 14. Variation of g within a single core cable

Energy stored in capacitors

When a capacitor is connected across a voltage source, charges (and thereby energy) will be stored in
the capacitor plates. The process of storing the energy in a capacitor is a gradual process & comprises
of multiple steps. When the charge within the capacitor is zero, the potential across it will be zero. At
the time of switching, the entire source voltage will be applied across the capacitor & a positive

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charge (q) will get stored in the positive plate of the capacitor. But no work is done for this charge q
as capacitor will have zero voltage across it.

Due to this initial charge q, a finite voltage is developed across the capacitor plates. When the next
charge will come to positive plate, it is repelled by the first charge. Since the source voltage is larger
than developed voltage, this charge will get stored in the capacitor. But at this stage, a little work is
done to store this charge and voltage developed across the capacitor plates will increase further. This
process continues until voltage developed across the capacitor plates becomes equal to source voltage
& there is a gradual increase in work done to store the charge (due to increase in voltage developed
across the capacitor plates).

Let us suppose that a small work (dW) is done to store a charge q to positive plate of the capacitor
with voltage developed across the capacitor = dV.

Therefore, dW= qdV= CVdV

𝑉 𝑉 1 1 𝑄2
 Total work done, W= ∫0 𝑑𝑊 = ∫0 𝐶𝑉𝑑𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2 = 𝐶𝑉 =
2 2 2𝐶

This work will get converted to energy & thus energy stored in capacitor is given by the expression at
given above.

Charging and Discharging of capacitors

For the given series R-C circuit in Figure 15, let us consider VR & VC be the voltage across R & C
respectively. When switch is closed, the relationship, VS= VR + VC holds true. From the previous
discussions, it is clear that VC is zero at t= 0s i.e. at the switching instant & thus current drawn by the
circuit will be VS/R. The voltage across the capacitor will gradually increase which in turn reduces the
current drawn by it. When the capacitor is fully charged, VC=VS i.e. current will now be zero. This
implies that a capacitor will be short circuited when it is uncharged. But as it get charged, it tends to
behave as open circuited.

Figure 15. Charging of capacitor

dV dV
Since, VS = iR + vC = RC + vC (i = C dt )
dt

t
−
Solving we get, vC = VS (1 − e RC ) Volts, where RC being the time constant.

dvC V − t
The expression of charging current will be given as, i = C = e RC Amperes
dt R

V
At t= 0s, vC = 0V & i =
R

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 Lecture notes on Electrostatics (ES201A)
At t→∞, vC → VS & i→ 0

The variation of vC & i with time is given in Figure 16.

Figure 16. Variation of voltage across capacitor & charging current with time
It is obvious that the energy stored in a capacitor can be discharged only when the energy can be
dissipated. As any resistance can dissipate the energy as heat, the circuit as given in Figure 17 is used
for discharging a capacitor. When the switch is closed with v= V, the relation v= iR is valid & thus
V
discharging current ( ) will be maximum. As time progresses, v reduces thus decreases the
R
discharging current.

Figure 17. Discharging of a capacitor

t
dV
Since, v= iR  v= −RC dt (Since i is -ve)  v = Ve−RC Volts

t
v V
&i=− = − R e−RC Amperes
R

The variation of v & i with time is given in Figure 18.

Time

Figure 18. Variation of voltage across capacitor & discharging current with time

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Leakage and conduction currents in capacitors

As no dielectric is perfect, it contains some free electrons and thus behaving like an insulator of high
resistance value. So, when a voltage is applied across the plates of a capacitor, a small current
(leakage current) will flow due to these free electrons. Obvious the current is of such a small value
that it can be neglected for practical purposes. If a capacitor is fully charged and the supply is
switched off, then capacitor should store that charge until t→∞. But from Figure 11, it is clear that the
closed path comprising of Rleakage and C forms a discharging circuit & the capacitor will discharge
after a considerable time (say few hours). This slow rate of discharge is due to high time constant
(Rleakage being quite large). The concept of conduction current can be understood from the circuit
arrangement given in Figure 19.

Figure 19. Circuit for understanding the concept of conduction current

For the arrangement given in Figure 19, there are two paths for the flow of electrons. In the first path,
the electrons will move from the positive plate of C1 to negative plate of C2 through the battery. There
is a simultaneous transfer of electrons from positive plate of C2 to negative plate of C1 which
constitutes the second path. The flow of current in the second path which do not pass through the
battery is referred to as conduction current.

Series & Parallel combination of capacitors

Let us consider two capacitors C1 & C2 which are connected in series to a voltage source V. If V1 and
V2 be the voltage across capacitors C1 & C2 respectively then, V= V1 + V2. In series arrangement,
same charge will be stored in two capacitors. The equivalent capacitance of the combination (CEq) can
be computed as given below. An N-capacitor series connected system and its corresponding
equivalent capacitance is given in Figure 20.
Q Q Q 1 1 1 C C
 C1V1 = C2V2 and =C +C C = C + C  CEq = C 1+C2
CEq 1 2 Eq 1 2 1 2

C2 C1
V1 and V2 are dependent on V as: V1 = × V and V2 = C ×V
C1 +C2 1 +C2

Figure 20. An N-capacitor series connected system

When two capacitors C1 & C2 are connected in parallel to a voltage source V, charge stored in the
capacitors will be different (say q1= C1V & q2 = C2V respectively). The equivalent capacitance of the
combination (CEq) can be computed as given below.

Total charge stored in the system, q = q1+q2  CEqV = C1V + C2V  CEq = C1 + C2

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Figure 21. Parallel combination of capacitors

Capacitor banks

A capacitor bank is a group of several capacitors of the same rating, connected in series or parallel
with each other to store electrical energy. It can serve the following purposes:

i. To counteract or correct a power factor lag or phase shift in an alternating current (AC)
power supply
ii. Used in a direct current (DC) power supply to reduce the ripple content & smoothen
output waveform of the power supply
iii. To increase the overall amount of stored energy

Static capacitor bank can be sub-divided as shunt and series capacitors which are divided according to
the methods of connecting capacitor bank with the system. Among these two, shunt types are more
popular in the power system of all voltage levels. Connection arrangement of a series & shunt
capacitor bank is given in Figure 22 (a) & (b) respectively.

(a)

(b)

Figure 22. Capacitor bank: (a) Series type & (b) Shunt type
Characteristics of capacitors

Any capacitor is defined by using a number of characteristics. Some of the important characteristics
are discussed briefly.

i. Nominal capacitance (C): This is the most important characteristics of any capacitor. It is
measured in pico-Farads (pF), nano-Farads (nF) or micro-Farads (µF) and is marked onto
the body of the capacitor as numbers, letters or coloured bands.
ii. Working voltage (WV): It is the maximum continuous voltage either DC or AC (RMS)
that can be applied to the capacitor without failure during its working life. Common

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working DC voltages are 10V, 16V, 25V, 35V, 50V, 63V, 100V, 160V, 250V, 400V and
1000V and are printed onto the body of the capacitor.
iii. Tolerance (±%): The tolerance value is the extent to which the actual capacitance is
allowed to vary from its nominal value and can range anywhere from -20% to +80%. For
a 100µF capacitor with a ±20% tolerance, capacitance may vary from 80µF to 120µF.
Generally it is expressed as a plus-or-minus value either in picofarad’s (±pF) for low
value capacitors generally less than 100pF or as a percentage (±%) for higher value
capacitors generally higher than 100pF.
iv. Leakage current: Capacitor leakage current is an important parameter in amplifier
coupling circuits or in power supply circuits. For such cases, Teflon or other plastic
capacitor types (polypropylene, polystyrene, etc.) are better choice as lower will be the
dielectric constant, higher will be the insulation resistance. Though electrolytic-type
capacitors have high capacitance, leakage current is considerable due to their poor
isolation resistance. So, they are therefore not suited for storage or coupling applications.
v. Working temperature (T): There is a considerable effect of temperature on dielectric
materials. This may result in significant change in capacitance of the capacitor. The
normal working range for most capacitors is -30°C to +125°C with nominal voltage
ratings.
vi. Temperature coefficient (TC): It is the maximum change in its capacitance over a
specified temperature range. The temperature coefficient of a capacitor is generally
expressed linearly as parts per million per degree centigrade (PPM/°C), or as a percent
change over a particular range of temperatures. In some capacitors, capacitance increases
with temperature rise i.e. positive temperature coefficient (P). But for some capacitors,
capacitance decreases with temperature rise i.e. negative temperature coefficient (N). If
capacitance of a capacitor remains constant over a certain temperature range, temperature
coefficient is zero & is denoted by NPO.
vii. Polarization: It is associated with electrolytic capacitors only. Incorrect polarization will
result in breakdown of the oxide layer inside the capacitor. This will cause very large
currents flowing through the device resulting in destruction. That is why majority of
electrolytic capacitors have their negative terminal clearly marked with a black stripe/
band/ arrows/ chevrons down one side of their body, to prevent any incorrect connection
to the DC supply.
viii. Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR): ESR defines the energy losses of the equivalent
series resistance of a capacitor. It determines the heating losses occurring in a capacitor
especially when used in power and switching circuits. Capacitors with a relatively high
ESR will have lesser ability to pass current to and from its plates to an external circuit due
to their longer charging and discharging RC time constant. Capacitors with very low ESR
ratings are best suited when using the capacitor as a filter.

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