SUMMARY/ABSTRACT

Hardness is generally referred to as material’s property that indicates resistance to

surface penetration. The general concept of hardness as a quality of matter having to do
with solidity and firmness of outline is easily comprehended, but no single measure of
hardness, universally applicable to all materials, has yet been devised. A number of
different arbitrary definitions of hardness from the theoretical base from which the
various hardness testing procedures now performed and derived:

1. Resistance to permanent indention under static or dynamic loads (indention

hardness).
2. Energy absorption under impact loads (rebound hardness).
3. Resistance to scratching (scratch hardness).
4. Resistance to abrasion (wear hardness).
5. Resistance to cutting or drilling (machine ability).

The principle behind the hardness test involves the idea that hardness is measured
by the resistance to indentation and serves as the basis for a variety of instruments. The
indenter, either a ball or plain or truncated cone or pyramid, is usually made of hard steel
or diamond and is ordinarily used under a static load. Either the load that produces a
given depth of indentation or the indentation produced under a given load can be
measured. In the rebound test, as in the scleroscope, a dynamic or impact load is dropped
onto the surface of the rest specimen. The amount of rebound determines the hardness of
the specimen. This is a rebound type test.

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 Probably the most common used hardness tests for metals in this country are the
Brinell and Rockwell tests. But, on our hardness experiment, we only select Brinell
testing. The Brinell test involves pressing a hardened steel ball into a test specimen. The
Brinell test can be made in a universal testing machine WP300 by using an adapter for
holding the ball. First, screw the desire indenter which in this case 10 mm sphere
hardened steel ball is being used. Then the force was applied to the specimen by rotating
the hand wheel that powered by hydraulic systems. Wait for the force to stabilize, the
specimen is then removed for diameter measurement. These values are then used for
further calculation, for example to find the Brinell hardness value. The result may not
exactly similar with the theoretical but it can give us the real performance of the material.

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STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

1. To study the hardness of different material.

2. To understand the principles of Brinell Testing method.
3. To understand and differentiate Rockwell, Brinell, Knoop and Shore hardness
testing method.
4. To recognize expected hardness test results.
5. To relate the general procedures used in conducting a hardness test.

THEORY

A three-dimensional stress forms in the sample beneath the penetrating test body.
Lasting impressions can be achieved in very hard and brittle materials without resulting
in cracks. This distinguishes hardness testing from tensile testing in which only a mono-
axial stress generated in the sample and no plastic deformation is possible with hard
materials.

One advantages aspect of hardness testing is that, in contract to tensile testing,

material properties can be determined without destroying the sample, apart from the
relatively small impression made by the test body (incoming goods testing).

On the other hand, the disadvantage of hardness testing is that it is only possible
to give a number of corresponding to strength, which depends on the method used, but
not the strength itself. For this reason, the test method used must always be specified.

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 For hardness testing according to Brinell a ball made of hardened steel is used as
the test body. The ball is pressed onto the sample with a defined test force, which depends
on the diameter of the ball and the test material. After a certain time, the diameter of the
remaining impression of the ball is measured.

Average diameter:

d= d1 + d2

Brinell hardness is calculated from the test force F and the surface area of the
impression AB cause by the ball. With the ball diameter D and the diameter impression, d
this then produces,

AB = 0.5 πD [ D - √(D2 – d2 )]
Brinell hardness Number, HB = 0.102F / AB

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 The factor 0.102 is an historical one and takes into account the conversion from
kp/mm2 to N/mm2. If the impression of the ball is not circular, the average from two
vertically superimposed measurements should be used. To ensure that the hardness
number for various material, sample forms and the ball diameters are comparable, certain
rules must be observed.

Ball diameter

The ball diameter 10 mm are standardized

Application time

The test force should be applied to the sample for at least 10 to 15 seconds and with
creeping materials 30 seconds or more. The increasing in the test force to its maximum
should last at least 5 seconds.

Load factor

In order to obtain a legible, reproducible ball impression, the diameter of the impression
should be between d= 0.2 and 0.7D. In order to adhere to this for various hard materials,
various pressures per unit of area are recommended, i.e. the force and the square of the
ball diameter must be at a certain ratio to one another. This ratio is termed load factor x.

Load Factor, x = 0.102F / D2

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 Below show the factor 0.102 results from the conversion from kp to N. the
following table lists the load factor for experimental specimens.

Load factor, x 10 5

Measurable hardness range HB 22……315 11…..158

Material Brass, copper Aluminum

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EQUIPMENT

The WP 300 material testing device is robust unit design especially for technical
instruction and is one of the classical material testing devices in material science. The
flexible design of the unit permits a wide range of different tests requiring tensile or
compressive force.

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The basic unit essentially consists of the following elements:

Machine Description/functions
parts

Machine  Made of cast iron, thus forms the foundation and ensures the
base stability of the test unit in connection with 4 rubber feet.

 Supports the hydraulics and the frame

Support  The posts and the cross-head form the fixed support of the test unit

 The various fixed sample receptacles are fastened to the cross head

 The mobile load frame is mounted on it in low-friction linear ball

bearings

Load frame  Consists of the upper and the lower cross-member and the guide
rods

 The load frame transmits the test force from the hydraulic main
cylinder to the relevant sample

 The load frame is slide-mounted in the cross head of the support

 Tensile samples are clamped between the upper cross-member and

the cross-head, while compressive samples are clamped between
the lower cross-member and the cross-head.

Hydraulic  To generate the test force

system
 A piston in the master cylinder actuated via the hand wheel and the
threaded spindle creates a hydrostatic pressure, which induces the
test force in the main cylinder

Gripping  Are designed for tensile samples with an M10 threaded head
heads
 Flat compression pads are provided for compressive testing

Table: Parts and functions of WP 300 machine

Hardness testing

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The basic unit includes a device for hardness testing according Brinell. Hardness testing
is performed with a hardened steel ball with diameter 9.5mm. Metal plates 10 x 30 x
30mm made of materials aluminum, copper and brass are used as samples.

Specimen Dimension:

PROCEDURE

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 Samples of 3 different materials are tested. For all materials, a load factor of 10 is
selected. Steel for example, a load factor of 30 is recommended in accordance with te
table 1. However the necessary test on force 29kN cannot be applied with the WP300. As
the Brinell hardness of the steel sample is undoubtedly less than HB315, the load factor
of 10 is still permissible.

Part A

1 : The test piece on the lower pressure plate is positioned at least 20 mm from the
edge so that the center of the test ball.
2 : The test ball is carefully lowered by rotating the hand wheel onto the sample.
3 : The test force of 10kN is smoothly applied with the hand wheel. The force is
applied slowly. The increase to the maximum level should take at least 5 seconds.
4 : The test force is hold for around 10-15 sec and then released.
5 : The sample is removed and then the diameter of the impression is measured twice
by using a measuring magnifier. The reading are recorded.
6 : The experiment is repeated with other test pieces.

Part B

The Part A (1-6) is repeated by using the center position of the test ball 6 mm from the
edge. The readings are noted.

DATA AND OBSERVATION

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Data:

Part A

Specimen
Force Diameter Average Diameter, Load
Material (kN) d (mm) HB Factor ,x
d1 d2
(mm) (mm)

Brass 10 3.94 3.90 3.92 81.1340 10.2

Copper 10 3.14 3.34 3.24 120.3781 10.2

Aluminum 10 3.60 3.54 3.57 98.5422 10.2

Table: Data observed from experiment part A

Part B

Specimen
Average
Force Diameter Load
Diameter,
Material (kN) d1 d2 HB Factor ,x
d (mm)
(mm) (mm)

Brass 10 4.12 4.10 4.11 73.4854 10.2

Copper 10 3.70 3.70 3.70 91.4987 10.2

Aluminum 10 3.40 3.42 3.41 108.3401 10.2

Table: Data observed from experiment part B

Observations:

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 1. It is observed that the shape of the indenter is like a ball indenter with a sphere
shape indentation that normally made of hardened steel. The diameter of the ball
is 9.5 mm and the steel ball is hold by the holder.
2. This hardness testing equipment is manual, with the specimen being mounted at
the correct position, conventional manual force need to apply with the hydraulic
pump to force the indenture against the specimen.
3. With the “softer” specimen, it can be observed that the indentation is very clear
compared to the “harder” specimen. The diameter of the indentation (steel ball
indenture) can be measured. The diameter of the “softer” specimen will have a
bigger diameter compared to the “harder” specimen with the same load.

Analysis and Results

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AB = 0.5 πD [ D - √(D2 – d2 )]
Brinell hardness Number, HB = 0.102F / AB
Load Factor, x = 0.102F / D2

Calculations:

Load Factor, x = 0.102F / D2

= 0.102(10000) / 102
= 10.2

Part A:

Force applied, F = 10 kN
The diameter of the hardened steel ball, D = 10 mm

Brass:

The surface area of the impression, AB = 0.5 πD [ D - √(D2 – d2 )]

= 0.5 π(10) [10 - √(10 2 – 3.92 2 )]
= 12.5718 mm2

Brinell hardness Number, HB = 0.102F / AB

= 0.102 ( 10000) / 12.5718
= 81.1340 N /mm2

Copper:

The surface area of the impression, AB = 0.5 πD [ D - √(D2 – d2 )]

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 = 0.5 π(10) [10 - √(10 2 – 3.24 2 )]
= 8.4733 mm2

Brinell hardness Number, HB = 0.102F / AB

= 0.102 ( 10000) / 8.4733
= 120.3781 N /mm2

Aluminum:

The surface area of the impression, AB = 0.5 πD [ D - √(D2 – d2 )]

= 0.5 π(10) [10 - √(10 2 – 3.57 2 )]
= 10.3509 mm2

Brinell hardness Number, HB = 0.102F / AB

= 0.102 ( 10000) / 10.3509
= 98.5422 N /mm2

Part B:

Force applied, F = 10 kN
The diameter of the hardened steel ball, D = 10 mm
The centre position of the ball is 6 mm from the edge.

Brass:

The surface area of the impression, AB = 0.5 πD [ D - √(D2 – d2 )]

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 =
= 0.5 π(10) [10 - √(10 2 – 4.112 )]
13.8803 mm2

Brinell hardness Number, HB = 0.102F / AB

= 0.102 ( 10000) / 13.8803
= 73.4854 N /mm2

Copper:

The surface area of the impression, AB = 0.5 πD [ D - √(D2 – d2 )]

= 0.5 π(10) [10 - √(10 2 – 3.702 )]
= 11.1477 mm2

Brinell hardness Number, HB = 0.102F / AB

= 0.102 ( 10000) / 11.1477
= 91.4987 N /mm2

Aluminum:

The surface area of the impression, AB = 0.5 πD [ D - √(D2 – d2 )]

= 0.5 π(10) [10 - √(10 2 – 3.412 )]
= 9.4148 mm2

Brinell hardness Number, HB = 0.102F / AB

= 0.102 ( 10000) / 9.4148
= 108.3401 N /mm2
DISCUSSIONS

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 From the results we obtained, from the Table: Data observed from experiment part
A and Table: Data observed from experiment part B, it is obvious to show that Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN) for brass is the highest then follow by aluminum and lastly is
copper. We can see that all of the values are still in the measurable hardness of the
apparatus setting. The load factor that applied to the above experiment is set to 11.30.

For part 1, where the specimen was located 20 mm from edge with applied load
factor accounting to 10.20. The results mainly shown (HB) that brass was the highest
point with then follow by aluminum with while copper remain the last with the Brinell
number usually falls within 100 to 500 for ordinary steel, with higher numbers indicating
greater hardness. We can conclude that brass remain the most hardness if we compare
among the specimens.

For part 2, where the specimen located 6 mm from edge with applied load
accounting to 10.20. The results mainly shown (HB) that brass was the highest point then
followed by aluminum with while copper with the Brinell number usually falls within
100 to 500 for ordinary steel, with higher numbers indicating greater hardness. We can
conclude that brass remain the most hardness if we compare among the specimens.

Hardness testing of Brinell is using indenter of 10 mm sphere of steel or tungsten

carbide. The formula for hardness number is stated as:

BHN = 2P
πD (D -√D2-d2)
where, P = load

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 D = Indenter’s diameter

d = diameter of the indentation

Brinell hardness testing technique is suitable for plastic material to very hard
material like harden steel or diamond.

Assumption & Error Analysis

A few assumptions were made in the calculation and analysis of the outcome of
the experiment. Because of the assumption, small errors exist in the calculations and
below were some of the assumptions that made in the analysis of the experiment.

a) Temperature was kept constant throughout the experiment

b) Quasi-static process- every part of specimen was sharing the same temperature and
they reached the temperature at once, not decrease slowly.
c) No change of shape or no plastic deformation of the steel ball during the experiment.

There are some errors involve in the measuring technique, some can be avoided
and some cannot be avoided:

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 1. Calibration errors: these are the errors that originate in the calibration process.
This type of errors may be cause by uncertainty in standards, uncertainty in the
calibration process and randomness in the calibration process. Such as hysteretic
and nonlinearity.
2. Data acquisition errors: these are the errors that introduced into the
measurement when measuring system is used to make specific measurement.
Example, random variation of the measurement, installation effects such as
measuring loading and precision errors in recording or indicating devices.
3. Data reduction errors: these are the errors that cause by a variety of errors and
approximations that are used in the data reduction process. Examples,
interpolations, curve fits, readability of scale of the gauge.
4. Apparatus setup errors: these are the errors that cause by the wrong doing of the
experiment, mainly about the setup error. These errors are normally because of
lack of understanding on the function and instruction of setting up the apparatus.
Examples, vibration of table and experiment test bed.

CONCLUSION

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 From the data we obtain from table 3 and 4, we can conclude that the material we
are dealing with is steel in the categories of ordinary steel. It is because the range for
ordinary steel is around 100 to 500 by using Brinell number. The Brinell hardness
number is nominally the pressure per unit area, in kilogram per square millimeter, of
indentation that remains after the load is removed. It is obtained by dividing the applied
load by the area of the surface indentation, which is assumed to be spherical.

From the experiment also, it is clear that Brass is harder then Aluminum and
follow by Copper. Of cause the experiment results may not be exactly equal to the
theoretical value (because unknown impurities of the specimen and other source of
errors), but it can give us a real performance of the material.

References

Books

 Ferdinand P. Beer and E. Russell Johnston, JR., Mechanics of materials 3rd

Edition in SI Units. 21 Neythal Road, Singapore 2262. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
pp 142, 198-202.

 William F. Smith, Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 3rd

Edition. 21 Neythal Road, Singapore 2262. McGraw-Hill Book Co.
pp 246-248

Appendices

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Part A:

Specimen Diameter
Material Force (kN)

d1 (mm) d2 (mm)

Brass 10 3.94 3.90

Copper 10 3.14 3.34

Aluminum 10 3.60 3.54

Part B:

Specimen Diameter
Force (kN)
Material d1 (mm) d2 (mm)

Brass 10 4.12 4.10

Copper 10 3.70 3.70

Aluminum 10 3.40 3.42

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