Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 30, No.

6
Paper ID GTJ100653
Available online at: www.astm.org
TECHNICAL NOTE

Kandiah Pirapakaran1 and Nagaratnam Sivakugan1

A Laboratory Model to Study Arching within a

Hydraulic Fill Stope

ABSTRACT: A simple laboratory apparatus, to study the effects of arching within a hydraulic fill mine stope, was developed. Four different
model stopes, two circular and two square, made from Perspex, were used in the study. A dry hydraulic fill obtained from a local mine was used in the
study. The model was filled in 100-mm layers, and the fractions of the fill weight, carried by the bottom and the wall of the stope, were separately
measured. From these measurements, the variation of average vertical stress with depth could be computed. These experimental values were com-
pared against those obtained from numerical modeling using FLAC and FLAC3D, and the agreement was excellent, thus validating the numerical
model.
KEYWORDS: arching, stopes, backfill, axisymmetric, mining, overburden

Introduction
Mining industry plays a key role in the economy of countries such
as Australia, Canada, South Africa, China and others. In the process
of mining, where the objective is to extract the minerals from the
ore body, large underground voids are created. These voids have to
be backfilled to provide regional stability for adjacent mining ac-
tivities. In addition, the backfilling of the underground voids pro-
vides a means for disposing of the unwanted waste rock generated
from the mining operation. The waste rock, often crushed into
smaller grains, can be placed back into the underground voids in
the form of hydraulic fills, paste fills, cemented paste fills, and ag-
gregate fill extractions, etc. Hydraulic fills are one of the most
popular mine backfill used in Australia and worldwide. Hydraulic
filling of underground mines have been discussed in more detail by
Sivakugan et al. (2005, 2006) and Rankine et al. (2006).
The underground voids, known as stopes, can be approximated
as rectangular prisms. They can have plan dimensions of 20– 60 m
and heights as much as 200 m. Horizontal access drives of 3 – 5-m
width and height are provided at various levels to facilitate the ore
removal. These access drives have to be blocked by barricades dur-
ing the backfilling operation to avoid flooding the rest of the mine
with wet slurry. Failure of barricades can be catastrophic, leading to
flooding of the mines, trapping the miners and machinery within.
Several accidents in mines, due to barricade failures, have been re-
ported in the past decade worldwide.
To minimize barricade failures, it is necessary to properly un-
derstand the stress development within hydraulic fill stope. Anec-
dotal evidence shows that the stresses at the bottom of the mine
stopes are significantly less than what one computes as the product
of unit weight 共␥兲 of the fill and the depth 共z兲. Due to the arching
Manuscript received May 26, 2006; accepted for publication April 5, 2007;
published online June 2007.
1
Ph.D. student and Associate Professor and Head, respectively, Civil & Envi-
ronmental Engineering, School of Engineering, James Cook University, Towns-
ville, Queensland 4811, Australia, e-mail: Kandiah.Pirapakaran@jcu.edu.au,
siva.sivakugan@jcu.edu.au
mechanism, at any depth within the fill, the vertical normal stress is
less than ␥z. In the absence of any rational estimate of the vertical
normal stress at a depth, the general tendency is to assume that the
vertical stress is equal to the entire overburden pressure 共␥z兲. In
reality, a significant fraction of the overburden may be transferred
to the wall, and therefore the vertical stress can be substantially
less.
The objective of this paper is to introduce a laboratory model for
demonstrating the arching effects within minefill stopes and mea-
surements are used to validate the numerical model. The new ex-
perimental setup developed at James Cook University, to study the
arching phenomenon, is discussed along with laboratory test
results.
Arching in Geomechanical Applications —
Physical Models
Arching is a well known phenomenon which has been identified in
many geotechnical applications such as earth pressure on retaining
walls (Handy 1985; Take and Valsangkar 2001), vertical stress and
support requirements above tunnels and other underground situa-
tions (Terzaghi 1943; Ladanyi and Hoyaux 1969; Iglesia et al.
1999), piled embankments (Low et al. 1994), loading on conduit
(Spangler 1962; Handy 1985; McCarthy 1988), and a hard rock
mine to assess sillmat behavior during undercut mining (Euler and
Aldrich 2002).
Arching within minefill occurs when the fill tends to move rela-
tive to the surrounding rock walls, thereby transferring a fraction of
the self-weight to the rock wall, in the form of shear stress. Gener-
ally mining operations are more complicated processes when com-
pared to other geotechnical work because of their large depth below
the ground surface. Moreover, it is very difficult to mobilize in-situ
testing instruments for performing the standard penetration or cone
penetration tests within a mine. Therefore, field records related to
arching effects are very rare. Arching has been studied analytically
using limit equilibrium methods, numerical models, and physical

Copyright © 2007 by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. 1
2 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL
FIG. 1—Schematic diagram of cohesionless sand in trapdoor rig.
models. Marston (1930) developed the first analytical model to
quantify arching within a narrow trench backfilled with granular
soil. This was later modified by Terzaghi (1943) to investigate the
effect of cohesion. Bloss (1992) developed a finite element model,
using TVIS, a finite element software, to study the stress develop-
ments within cemented hydraulic fill at Mount Isa, Australia. Pierce
(2001) and Rankine et al. (2001) used FLAC3D to carry out similar
studies in pastefills. Aubertin et al. (2003) and Li et al. (2003) de-
veloped two-dimensional numerical models for hydraulic fill
stopes using PHASE2 and FLAC. Pirapakaran and Sivakugan
(2007) extended the analytical models proposed by Marston (1930)
to circular, square, and rectangular stopes and used FLAC to model
these numerically and the predictions compared very well. They
suggested that Marston theory worked well provided that the wall-
fill friction angle 共␦兲 is assumed as 0.67␾ and the lateral earth pres-
sure coefficient is assumed as Ko. Some physical models used by
previous researchers to study arching phenomenon in some geo-
technical applications are briefly discussed below.
Terzaghi’s Model (1943)
The first ever rational approach to quantify arching was made by
Terzaghi (1943). He studied arching in sands in a “trap-door” prob-
lem, schematically shown in Fig. 1. A layer of dry cohesionless
sand of depth H is placed on platform containing a trap door ab.
The height of the sand above the platform H is significantly greater
than the width of the trap door ab. The bottom of the platform is
FIG. 2—Particle size distribution of sample C3.
instrumented to measure the vertical pressure distribution on it.
When the trap door is closed (Fig. 1(a)), the pressure is the same
共␥H兲 everywhere and the distribution is uniform. When the trap
door is opened, the rectangular prism of sand held directly above
the trap door tends to descend, but is resisted by the shear stresses
along vertical boundaries above the trap door ac and bd. This re-
sults in the transfer of pressure from the soil above the trapdoor to
the adjacent regions in the platform, leading to a redistribution of
the vertical normal pressures as shown in Fig. 1(b). The self weight
of the sand contained in the wedge abdc was resisted by the shear
stresses along ac and bd.
Low et al. Model’s (1994)
Low et al. (1994) conducted centrifuge model tests in piled em-
bankments, to investigate the arching effects on soft ground placed
on piles. They developed theoretical solutions for the above case,
which agreed well with the experimental model results. Sand with
density between 1390 and 1430 kg/ m3 and relative density of 33
and 49% respectively was used as filling material. They defined
three parameters that govern arching within the soils, which were
used on the basis for the analysis.
Take and Valsangkar’s Model (2001)
Take and Valsangkar (2001) carried out a series of centrifuge tests
on instrumented model fascia retaining walls in an attempt to study
the lateral earth pressures on unyielding retaining walls of narrow
backfill widths. They used 0.4-mm diameter uniform sands as the
backfill, and the tests were conducted at relative densities of 34 and
79%. The measured values of lateral earth pressures and the theo-
retical estimates were in good agreement.
Euler and Aldrich’s Model (2002)
Euler and Aldrich (2002) carried out centrifuge tests on model
pastefill stopes, to quantify the effects of arching on the behavior of
sillmat during undercut mining. Sillmat is simply pastefill, mixed at
much higher cement content, placed at the bottom of the stope to a
thickness of at least the width of the stope. It is meant to support the
pastefill above, when excavation is carried out underneath. The
model studies indicated that arching and sillmat stability develop as
 PIRAPAKARAN AND SIVAKUGAN ON MODEL STUDY TO ARCHING 3

TABLE 1—Physical properties of hydraulic fill C3.

Properties Value
Maximum void ratio 共emax兲 1.622
Minimum void ration 共emin兲 0.661
Fill void ratio (e) 1.410
Specific gravity 共Gs兲 3.65
Relative density 共Dr兲 22%
D60 共µm兲 134.12
D30 共µm兲 55.50
D10 共µm兲 12.10
Cu 11.1
Cc 1.9

a function of frictional effects and of cohesion between the fill and

rock. While friction and cohesion increased with increases in
binder content and cure time, friction effects and, thus, degree of
arching also increased with the increase in wall roughness and
stope wall closure.

Experimental Setup
To improve the safety in the mines, it is necessary to have some
means to predict the stresses acting on barricades. However, before
attempting to understand the stresses within the drives, it is neces-
sary to thoroughly understand the stresses within the stopes. The
laboratory model proposed herein is solely for studying the stresses
within the stopes. This is a simple instrument to investigate stress
developments within mine stopes, and works by the mechanism
similar to Terzaghi’s trapdoor problem.
The objective of this paper is to present the design and fabrica-
tion of the laboratory apparatus that can be used for studying the
stress developments within minefills, and to quantify arching. The
apparatus is essentially a scaled model of a mine stope, made of
Perspex, filled with dry hydraulic fills, and instrumented with a bal-
ance and a load cell to measure the loads transferred to the bottom
of the stope and to the walls of the stope separately.

Hydraulic Fill Characteristics

One of the several hydraulic fill samples, studied at James Cook
University, was used in this experimental program. The grain size
distribution of the hydraulic fill is shown in Fig. 2 and the physical
properties are summarized in Table 1. The geotechnical character-
istics of the hydraulic fills in general are discussed in detail in
Rankine et al. (2006) and Sivakugan et al. (2005).

Apparatus
The scaled diagram of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 3 and a pho-
tograph is shown in Fig. 4. The model stope, made of Perspex, is
placed on top of the balance and suspended from a frame such that
the self-weight of the stope is carried partly by the metal frame and
FIG. 3—The scaled diagram of the apparatus.
partly by the balance (AND model FS-KL 60; Precision 0.02 kg).
Threaded metal rods were used to raise and lower the stope. A high
precision load cell (Manufacturer: Revere Transducers Europe, ior) and tailings were poured from the top of the stope model. A
Type 9363-D3-100kg-20T1; Precision= 1 g) was placed between thin metal tray supported by wooden legs was placed between the
the model stope assembly and the metal frame and was connected model stope and the balance, which was firmly supported on a con-
to the digital readout unit. The apparatus was made so that the crete slab. Therefore, it was ensured no vertical movement of the
model stope was held firmly as a rigid body (similar to rock behav- stope during the tests.
4 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL
FIG. 4—Photograph of the arching effects apparatus.
A pouring arrangement, shown in Fig. 5, was developed to place
the dry hydraulic fill at desired relative density. The relative density
can be controlled by varying the height of fall. Four different Per-
spex models, two circular and two square in plan, were used in this
study. The square stopes had dimensions of 100 mm by 100 mm by
600 mm (height) and 150 mm by 150 mm by 900 mm (height).
The circular stopes had dimensions of 100-mm diameter by
600 mm and 150-mm diameter by 900 mm. The reason for using
circular stope in the experimental setup is to compare the results
with numerical modeling, where FLAC was used to model the cir-
cular stopes and FLAC3D was used to model the square stopes.
Generally, FLAC being a two-dimensional software is much faster
than its three-dimensional counterpart FLAC3D for the similar
stope dimensions. Using FLAC and FLAC3D, Pirapakaran and Si-
vakugan (2006) showed clearly that vertical stresses in square and
circular stopes of the same base dimension compare well. They also
showed that the numerical model predictions compare well with the
analytical solutions originally proposed by Marston (1930), pro-
vided ␦ = 2 / 3␾ and K = Ko where K and Ko are the lateral earth pres-
sure coefficient and coefficient of earth pressure at rest, respec-
tively. The proposed laboratory model would be an effective means
to validate the numerical and analytical solution.
Methodology and Interpretation
The threaded metal rod was used to lower the model stope until the
stope was about to transfer some load to the bottom balance. At this
moment, there was less than 0.5-mm clearance between the thin
metal tray and the model stope. It was ensured that the stope was
FIG. 5—Schematic diagram of a pouring device.
fully supported by the metal frame with no possibility for any ver-
tical movement. The reading of the load cell and the balance were
initialed to zero. The hydraulic fill used in the tests are fully dry.
The geotechnical characteristics of the fill are given in Table 1 and
the grain size distribution is shown in Fig. 2. These fills are gener-
ally placed in the form of slurry in the mine stopes, typically at
water content of about 30 % and allowed to drain. Dry hydraulic fill
was placed into the model stope using the pouring arrangement
shown in Fig. 4 to achieve specific relative densities. During the
tests, the authors have allowed sufficient time between readings for
consolidation of the sample and observed any changes in reading
due to movement of the stope model.
During Filling—At a given time, when the stope is filled
partially to a height of z, the mass of the fill poured into the stope is
m; the readings from the balance and load cell are mb and ms, re-
spectively. The fill weight is transferred to the bottom of the stope
and to the stope walls, which were reflected by the measurements
mb and ms, respectively, 共m = mb + ms兲. Therefore, the fraction of the
fill weight that is carried by the base is mb / m and the fraction that is
carried by the wall is ms / m. In other words, when the fill is placed
to a height of z, the average vertical normal stress acting at the bot-
tom of the stope is given by:
mb
␴v = ␥z (1)
m
This stress would be approximately equal to the average vertical
stress at a depth of z within a stope, when filled to any height
greater than z.
 PIRAPAKARAN AND SIVAKUGAN ON MODEL STUDY TO ARCHING 5

TABLE 2—Input parameters for the sample C3 in the FLAC and FLAC3D
models.

Material Properties Values Units

Density, ␳m 1753 kgm−3
Friction angle, ␾ 35 Degrees
Young’s modulus, E 30 MPa
Poisson’s ratio, ␯ 0.25 …
Dilation angle, ␺ 0–10 Degrees

When Filled—When the stope is filled, the mass of hydraulic

fill required to fill the stope is M, the balance reading is MB and the
load cell reading is MS 共M = MB + MS兲, and the height of the stope is
H. When the stope is partially filled, to a certain height of z, it is
useful to know the additional vertical normal stress transferred to
the bottom of the stope by continuing the filling until the stope is
full. This can be obtained by:

MB mb
␴v,additional = ␥H − ␥z (2)
M m

Numerical Modeling Using FLAC and FLAC3D

Recent trends toward the use of numerical models in geotechnical
applications have significantly increased compared to analytical so-
lutions and physical models. There are several software packages
available to solve complicated geotechnical problems, for example,
slope stability problems, and foundation and mining applications.
FLAC and FLAC3D are two finite difference packages that are ca-
pable of investigating two- and three-dimensional problems, re-
spectively. In this research, the effect of arching in circular stopes
was studied using a two-dimensional axisymmetric model in FLAC
for the diameters of 100 mm and 150 mm with 600-mm and
900-mm heights respectively. Square stopes were studied using a
three-dimensional model in FLAC3D for the same dimensions as
circular stopes where stopes sections are square instead of circular.
Table 2 shows the input parameters for the sample C3 in the FLAC
and FLAC3D models.
Boundary conditions for the square and circular stopes were ap-
plied to the perimeter walls and the base of the model using
FLAC3D and FLAC, respectively. No interface elements were used
in the model construction. Fig. 6(a) shows the boundary conditions
for the quarter grid consisting of fixed conditions at the outer pe-
rimeter walls and roller supports on the vertical faces created by the
planes of symmetry. Roller supports were placed on these walls,
because symmetrical loading restricted displacement along these
walls to be in the Z-direction only. The two-dimensional FLAC
models have been developed so that they take advantage of the axi-
symmetric situation by only modeling the elements along a radius.
Attach commands were used to connect the sub-grids between rock
and backfill regions. The boundary conditions on the axisymmetric
model can be seen in Fig. 6(b).
Interpretation of Results
Tables 3(a–d) show test data, vertical stresses, and additional
stresses within the model computed using Eq 1 and 2 for 100-mm
diameter by 600-mm height circular stope, 100-mm width by
600-mm height square stope, 150-mm diameter by 900-mm height
FIG. 6—Schematic diagram of boundary conditions applied (a) three-
dimensional model for square stope, (b) two-dimensional model for circular
stope.
circular stope, and 150-mm width by 900-mm height square stope,
respectively. The variation of vertical stress with depth within a full
stope, as predicted during filling from Eq 1, is shown in Fig. 7. The
straight line variation is for the overburden pressure, given by ␴v
= ␥z, which is the case if the wall is smooth and there is no arching.
For the same stope width or diameter, the vertical stresses for cir-
cular stopes were slightly lower than those of for the square stopes.
The experimental data for the two square and two circular stopes
were very consistent in trend and the vertical normal stress values
for circular stopes were around 87 % of the square stopes through-
out the filling height as well as clearly showing that there is signifi-
cant arching taking place within the stopes. Less than 30 % of the
self-weight of the hydraulic fill is transferred to the bottom of the
stope in the form of normal stress when the stope is full. The rest of
the self weight is carried by the walls, in the form of shear stress.
The analytical solutions proposed by several researchers (Marston
1930; Terzaghi 1943; Aubertin et al. 2003; Pirapakaran and Si-
vakugan 2007) clearly show that the degree of arching and, hence,
the vertical normal stresses within the stopes, are influenced by the
frictional characteristics of the wall-fill interface.
When the stope is filled to a certain height z, the additional ver-
tical normal stress that can be expected at the bottom of the stope by
continuing the filling can be obtained from Eq 2. The computed
values, for the two square and two circular stopes are shown in Fig.
8. When the stope is filled to a depth that is equal to the width, most
6 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL

TABLE 3—Test data, vertical stresses and additional vertical stresses within the model stope. (a) — 100-mm diameter by 600-mm circular stope.

z (mm) m (g) mb (g) ms (g) ␴v (Pa)a ␴v,add (Pa)b

0 0 0 0 0 0
100 1352 1080 272 1373.7 171.1
200 2613 1380 1233 1816.4 360.2
300 3945 1580 2365 2066.3 521.0
400 5251 1700 3551 2227.0 770.8
500 6477 1820 4651 2416.1 1213.5
600 7737 1940 5797 2587.2 2587.2
(b): 100-mm width by 600-mm square stope
z (mm) m (g) mb (g) ms (g) ␴v (Pa)a ␴v,add (Pa)b
0 0 0 0 0 0
100 1691 1440 251 1464.4 209.6
200 3647 2240 1407 2112.5 437.1
300 5420 2460 2960 2341.6 575.0
400 7324 2640 4684 2479.5 804.1
500 8894 2800 6094 2707.0 1452.2
600 10401 2940 7461 2916.6 2916.6
(c) — 150-mm diameter by 900-mm circular stope.
z (mm) m (g) mb (g) ms (g) ␴v (Pa)a ␴v,add (Pa)b
0 0 0 0 0 0
100 2745 2320 425 1453.4 116.1
200 5602 3940 1662 2419.0 276.5
300 8440 4540 3900 2775.2 427.8
400 11514 5200 6314 3106.6 594.1
500 14285 5500 8785 3310.6 798.1
600 16975 5720 11255 3476.9 1129.5
700 19708 5940 13768 3628.2 1485.7
800 22369 6160 16209 3788.6 2451.3
900 25051 6320 18731 3904.7 3904.7
(d) — 150-mm width by 900-mm square stope.
z (mm) m (g) mb (g) ms (g) ␴v (Pa)a ␴v,add (Pa)b
0 0 0 0 0 0
100 3795 3340 455 1513.5 212.8
200 6140 4340 1800 2431.1 392.8
300 10719 6340 4379 3051.5 572.8
400 15163 7380 7783 3348.0 790.0
500 18993 7940 11053 3594.6 1036.6
600 22359 8260 14099 3811.8 1333.2
700 26658 8840 17818 3991.9 1953.5
800 31382 9620 22104 4171.9 2871.1
900 40382 11440 28942 4384.6 4384.6
a
From Eq 1
b
From Eq 2

of the self-weight is transferred to the bottom of the stope as normal
stress. Above this height, as filling progresses, most of the addi-
tional fill weight is carried by the walls in the form of shear stresses.
The numerical modeling carried out using FLAC for circular stopes
and FLAC3D for square stopes show very good agreement with the
experimental results. The main use of the proposed model is to
verify the prediction from numerical and analytical models. Pirapa-
karan and Sivakugan (2007) have proposed analytical solutions for
the narrow, circular, and square stopes and compared the predic-
tions with the values obtained from the numerical models using
FLAC and FLAC3D.
Conclusion
Arching is a very important phenomenon in mine backfilling that
needs to be properly understood so that the stresses within the stope
can be estimated realistically. So far, numerical models and analyti-
cal solutions have been used to study arching and for validation of
each other. The main objective of this technical note was to discuss
the development of a unique laboratory test apparatus to simulate
the filling process within a mine stope and measure the average ver-
tical normal stress at the bottom of the stope. This laboratory model
is very useful in validating the analytical solution and numerical
model developed previously to study the arching effects in minefill
stopes.
Two circular (100 mm by 600 mm and 150 mm by 900 mm)
and two square (100 mm by 600 mm and 150 mm by 900 mm)
model stopes, made out of Perspex, were used in the tests. A hy-
draulic fill, obtained from a local mine, was placed dry at 22 %
relative density in all four stopes. The vertical stress at the bottom
of the stope (Eq 1) and the additional vertical stress applied at the
bottom of the stope by completing the filling (Eq 2) were computed
 PIRAPAKARAN AND SIVAKUGAN ON MODEL STUDY TO ARCHING 7

FIG. 7—Variation of vertical stress with model height for 100-mm by 600-mm and 150-mm by 900-mm square (S) and circular (C) stopes for sample C3.

FIG. 8—Variation of additional vertical stress with model height for 100-mm by 600-mm and 150-mm by 900-mm square (S) and circular (C) stopes for sample C3.

and compared with the values obtained from numerical modeling.
Finally, the vertical stresses within the stope, as measured using the
laboratory model, were verified by the numerical predictions, ob-
tained using FLAC and FLAC3D for circular and square stopes, re-
spectively, and excellent agreement was observed.
innovation statement, Backing Australia’s Ability. The authors also
thank to JCU technical staff, Mr. Warren O’Donnell, for his ongo-
ing assistance and support.
References

Acknowledgments Aubertin, M., Li, L., Arnoldi, S., and Simon, R., 2003, “Interaction
between Backfill and Rock Mass in Narrow Stopes,” Proceed-
This project is partially supported by the International Science ings, 12th Pan American Conference on Soil Mechanics and
Linkages program established under the Australian Government’s Geotechnical Engineering, and the 39th US Rock Mechanics
8 GEOTECHNICAL TESTING JOURNAL
Symposium, MIT, pp. 1157–1164.
Bloss, M. L., 1992, “Prediction of Cemented Rock Fill Stability
Design Procedures and Modelling Techniques,” Ph.D. Thesis,
Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Univer-
sity of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
Euler, D. S. and Aldrich, P. E. D., 2002, “Arching Effects and Sill-
mat Behaviour,” Proceedings, 104th Annual General Meeting of
the Canadian Institute of Mining Metallurgy and Petroleum, pp.
102–107.
Handy, L. R., 1985, “The Arch in Soil Arching,” J. Geotech.
Engrg., Vol. 111, No. 3, pp. 302–318.
Iglesia, G. R., Einstein, H. H., and Whitman, R. V., 1999, “Deter-
mination of Vertical Loading on Underground Structures Based
on an Arching Evolution Concept,” Geo-Engineering for
Underground Facilities, C. Fernandez and R. A. Bauer, Eds.,
Geo-Institute of ASCE, Reston, VA, pp. 495–506.
Ladanyi, B. and Hoyaux, B., 1969, “A Study of the Trap-door Prob-
lem in a Granular Mass,” Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 6, No. 1,
pp. 1–14.
Li, L., Aubertin, M., and Simon, R., 2003, “Modelling Arching
Effects in Narrow Backfilled Stopes with FLAC,” Proceedings,
3rd International Symposium on FLAC and FLAC 3D Numeri-
cal Modelling in Geomechanics, Ontario, Canada, pp. 211–219.
Low, B. K., Tang, S. K., and Choa, V., 1994, “Arching in Piled
Embankments,” J. Geotech. Engrg., Vol. 120, No. 11, pp. 1917–
1937.
Marston, A., 1930, “The Theory of External Loads on Closed Con-
duits in the Light of Latest Experiments,” Bulletin No. 96, Iowa
Engineering Experiment Station, Ames, IA.
McCarthy, D. F., 1988, Essentials of Soil Mechanics and Founda-
tions: Basic Geotechnics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Pierce, M. E., 2001, “Stability Analysis of Paste Back Fill Exposes
at Brunswick Mine,” Proceedings, 2nd International FLAC
Symposium, Lyon, France, pp. 147–156.
Pirapakaran, K. and Sivakugan, N., 2006, “Numerical and Experi-
mental Studies of Arching Effects Within Mine Fill Stopes,”
Proceedings, 6th International Conference on Physical Model-
ling in Geotechnics, Hong Kong, Vol. 2, pp. 1519–1525.
Pirapakaran, K. and Sivakugan, N., 2007, “Arching Within Hy-
draulic Fill Stopes,” Geotech. Geologic. Eng., Springer, Vol. 25,
No. 1, pp. 25–35.
Rankine, K. J., Sivakugan, N., and Cowling, R., 2006, “Emplaced
Characteristics of Hydraulic Fills in a Number of Australian
Mines,” Geotech. Geologic. Eng., Springer, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp.
1–14.
Rankine, R. M., Rankine, K. J., Sivakugan, N., Karunasena, W., and
Bloss, M., 2001, “A Numerical Analysis of the Arching Mecha-
nism in Paste Fills throughout a Complete Mining Sequence,”
Proceedings, First Asian Pacific Congress on Computational
Mechanics, Sydney, pp. 461–466.
Sivakugan, N., Rankine, K. J., and Rankine, R. M., 2005, “Geo-
technical Aspects of Hydraulic Filling of Underground Mine
Stopes in Australia,” Chapter 18, Ground Improvements Case
Histories, B. Indraratne and J. Chu, Eds., Elsevier, U.K., pp.
515–540.
Sivakugan, N., Rankine, R. M., Rankine, K. J., and Rankine, K. S.,
2006, “Geotechnical Considerations in Mine Backfilling in
Australia,” J. Cleaner Prod., Elsevier, Vol. 14, pp. 1168–1175.
Spangler, M. G., 1962, “Culverts and Conduits,” Chapter 11, Foun-
dation Engineering, G. A. Leonards, Ed., McGraw-Hill, NY,
pp. 965–999.
Take, W. A. and Valsangkar, A. J., 2001, “Earth Pressures on
Unyielding Retaining Walls of Narrow Backfill Width,” Can.
Geotech. J., Vol. 38, No. 6, pp. 1220–1230.
Terzaghi, K., 1943, Theoretical Soil Mechanics, John Wiley &
Sons, New York.