CHAPTER 1

HAZARDS OF ELECTRICITY
INTRODUCTION
Modern society has produced several generations who have grown accustomed to electricity.
This acclimatization has been made easier by the fact that electricity is silent, invisible,
odorless, and has an “automatic” aspect to it. In the late 1800s, hotels had to place signs
assuring their guests that electricity is harmless. By the late 1900s, signs had to be hung to
remind us that electricity is a hazard. In fact, the transition of electricity from a silent
coworker to a deadly hazard is a change that many cannot understand until it happens to
them. Because of these facts, the total acceptance of an electrical safety procedure is a
requirement for the health and welfare of workers. Understanding the steps and procedures
employed in a good electrical safety program requires an understanding of the nature of
electrical hazards. Although they may have trouble writing a concise definition, most people
are familiar with electric shock. This often painful experience leaves its memory indelibly
etched on the human mind. However, shock is only one of the electrical hazards. There are
two others—arc and blast. This chapter describes each of the three hazards and explains how
each affects the human body. Understanding the nature of the hazards is useless unless
protective strategies are developed to protect the worker. This chapter also includes a
synopsis of the types of protective strategies that should be used to protect the worker.
1.1 GLOSSARY
Arc (electric)
The heat and light energy release that is caused by the electrical breakdown of and
subsequent electrical discharge through an electrical insulator, such as air.
Arc energy input
The total amount of energy delivered by the power system to the arc. This energy will be
manifested in many forms including light, heat, and mechanical (pressure) energy.
Arc incident energy
The amount of energy delivered by an electric arc to the clothing or body of a worker. This
amount of energy will be somewhat less than the arc energy based on factors in the
workplace.
Arc-flash
See Arc
Arc-resistant switchgear
Metal-clad switchgear which features strengthened mechanical construction as well as
pressure relief systems. Arc-resistant switchgear is designed to minimize the probability of an
arc-flash as well as contain the energy in the event that one occurs.
Blast (electric)
The explosive effect caused by the rapid expansion of air and other vaporized materials that
are a superheated by the sudden presence of an electric arc.
Contractor muscle
A muscle whose contraction bends or closes a joint. The bicep is a flexor muscle.
Electrocution
Death caused by the passage of electricity through the body. Death caused by electric shock.
Extensor muscle A muscle whose contraction extends or stretches a body part. The tricep is
an extensor muscle.

Fibrillation
Rapid and inefficient contraction of muscle fibers of the heart caused by disruption of nerve
impulses.

Flash
See Arc
Horny layer
The commonly applied name for the stratum corneum layer of the epidermis. The stratum
corneum is called the horny layer because its cells are toughened like an animal’s horn.
Plasma
A high-temperature, electrically ionized gas. Because of the high temperatures and electrical
characteristics of a plasma, it is usually identified as a fourth state of matter. The others
including solid, liquid, and gas.
Shock circuit
The path that electric current takes through the body. If the shock circuit includes critical
organs, severe trauma is more likely than if it does not.
Shock (electric)
The physical stimulation or trauma that occurs as a result of electric current passing through
the body.
1.2 HAZARD ANALYSIS
The division of the electrical power hazard into three components is a classic approach used
to simplify the selection of protective strategies. The worker should always be aware that
electricity is the single root cause of all of the injuries described in this and subsequent
chapters. That is, the worker should treat electricity as the hazard and select protection
accordingly.
SHOCK
Description
Electric shock is the physical stimulation that occurs when electric current flows through the
human body. The distribution of current flow through the body is a function of the resistance
of the various paths through which the current flows. The final trauma associated with the
electric shock is usually determined by the most critical path called the shock circuit. The
symptoms may include a mild tingling sensation, violent muscle contractions, heart
arrhythmia, or tissue damage. Detailed descriptions of electric current trauma are included in
Chap. 8. For the purposes of this chapter, tissue damage may be attributed to at least two
major causes.
Burning.
Burns caused by electric current are almost always third-degree because the burning occurs
from the inside of the body. This means that the growth centers are destroyed. Electric-
current burns can be especially severe when they involve vital internal organs.

Cell Wall Damage.

Research funded by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) has shown that cell death
can result from the enlargement of cellular pores due to high-intensity electric fields.1 This
research has been performed primarily by Dr. Raphael C. Lee and his colleagues at the
University of Chicago. This trauma called electroporation allows ions to flow freely through
the cell membranes, causing cell death.

1.3 Influencing Factors

Several factors influence the severity of electrical shock. These factors include the physical
condition and responses of the victim, the path of the current flow, the duration of the current
flow, the magnitude of the current, the frequency of the current, and the voltage magnitude
causing the shock.
Physical Condition and Physical Response.
The physical condition of the individual greatly influences the effects of current flow. A
given amount of current flow will usually cause less trauma to a person in good physical
condition. Moreover, if the victim of the shock has any specific medical problems such as
heart or lung ailments, these parts of the body will be severely affected by relatively low
currents. A diseased heart, for example, is more likely to suffer ventricular fibrillation than a
healthy heart.
Current Duration.
The amount of energy delivered to the body is directly proportional to the length of time that
the current flows; consequently, the degree of trauma is also directly proportional to the
duration of the current. Three examples illustrate this concept:
1. Current flow through body tissues delivers energy in the form of heat. The magnitude
of energy may be approximated by
J = I2Rt (1.1)
where J = energy, joules I = current, amperes R = resistance of the current path
through the body, ohms t = time of current flow, seconds
If sufficient heat is delivered, tissue burning and/or organ shutdown can occur. Note that the
amount of heat that is delivered is directly proportional to the duration of the current (t).
2. Some portion of the externally caused current flow will tend to follow the current paths
used by the body’s central nervous system. Since the external current is much larger than the
normal current flow, damage can occur to the nervous system. Note that nervous system
damage can be fatal even with relatively short durations of current; however, increased
duration heightens the chance that damage will occur.
3. Generally, a longer duration of current through the heart is more likely to cause ventricular
fibrillation. Fibrillation seems to occur when the externally applied electric field overlaps
with the body’s cardiac cycle. The likelihood of this event increases with time.
Frequency.
Table 1.1 lists the broad relationships between frequency and the harmful effects of current
flow through the body. Note that at higher frequencies, the effects of Joule (I2t) heating
become less significant. This decrease is related to the increased capacitive current flow at
higher frequencies.

It should be noted that some differences are apparent even between DC (zero Hz) and
standard power line frequencies (50 to 60 Hz). When equal current magnitudes are compared
(DC to AC rms), DC seems to exhibit two significant behavioral differences:
1. Victims of DC shock have indicated that they feel greater heating from DC than from AC.
The reason for this phenomenon is not totally understood; however, it has been reported on
many occasions.
2. The DC current “let-go” threshold seems to be higher than the AC “let-go” threshold.
In spite of the slight differences, personnel should work on or near DC power supplies with
the same level of respect that they use when working on or near AC power supplies. This
includes the use of appropriate protective equipment and procedures.
Note:
Unless otherwise specifically noted, the equipment and procedures suggested in this
handbook should be used for all power frequencies up to and including 400 Hz.
Voltage Magnitude. Historically, little attention was paid to the effect that voltage magnitude
has on an electrical trauma. It was assumed that a 200-V source would create the same
amount of physical trauma that a 2000-V source would—assuming that the current magnitude
is the same. In fact, higher voltages can be more lethal for at least three reasons:
1. At voltages above 400 V the electrical pressure may be sufficient to puncture the
epidermis. Since the epidermis provides the only significant resistance to current flow, the
current magnitude can increase dramatically.
2. The degree of electroporation is higher for greater cellular voltage gradients. That is, the
higher voltages cause more intense fields, which in turn increase the severity of the
electroporation.
3. Higher voltages are more likely to create electrical arcing. While this is not a shock trauma
per se, it is related to the shock hazard since arcing may occur at the point of contact with the
electrical conductor.
Parts of the Body.
Current flow affects the various bodily organs in different manners. For example, the heart
can be caused to fibrillate with as little as 75 mA. The diaphragm and the breathing system
can be paralyzed, which possibly may be fatal without outside intervention, with less than 30
mA of current flow. The specific responses of the various body parts to current flow are
covered in later sections.
1.7 ARC
Caution:
The calculation and formulas in this section are shown to illustrate the basic concepts
involved in the calculation of arc parameters including current, voltage, and energy. The
calculation of actual values for specific field conditions is a complex, safety-related
procedure, and should be done only under the direction of experienced engineers.

1.8 Definition and Description

ANSI/IEEE Std 100-1988 defines arc as: “A discharge of electricity through a gas, normally
characterized by a voltage drop in the immediate vicinity of the cathode approximately equal
to the ionization potential of the gas.”
A similar definition, perhaps more useful in the discussion of electrical safety is given in the
glossary of this handbook as: “The heat and light energy release that is caused by the
electrical breakdown of and subsequent electrical discharge through an electrical insulator
such as air.”
Electric arcing occurs when a substantial amount of electric current flows through what
previously had been air. Since air is a poor conductor, most of the current flow is actually
occurring through the vapor of the arc terminal material and the ionized particles of air. This
mixture of super-heated, ionized materials, through which the arc current flows, is called a
plasma.
Arcs can be initiated in several ways:
● When the voltage between two points exceeds the dielectric strength of the air. This can
happen when overvoltages due to lightning strikes or switching surges occur.
● When the air becomes superheated with the passage of current through some conductor.
For example, if a very fine wire is subjected to excessive current, the wire will melt,
superheating the air and causing an arc to start.
● When two contacts part while carrying a very high current. In this case, the last point of
contact is superheated and an arc is created because of the inductive flywheel effect.
Electric arcs are extremely hot.Temperatures at the terminal points of the arcs can reach as
high as 50,000 kelvin (K). Temperatures away from the terminal points are somewhat cooler
but can still reach 20,000 K. Although the specific results of such temperatures will vary
depending on things such as distance from the arc, ambient environmental conditions, and arc
energy; anecdotal evidence supported by experimental results developed by the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) clearly shows the following:
● The heat energy of an electrical arc can kill and injure personnel at surprisingly large
distances. For example, second-degree burns have been caused on exposed skin at distances
of up to 12 feet (ft) or (3.6 meters [m]) and more.
● Virtually all types of clothing fibers can be ignited by the temperatures of electrical arcs.
Clothing made of non-flame resistant fibers will continue to burn after the arc source has
been removed and will continue to cause serious physical trauma. Table 1.5 shows the
ignition temperature of various fabrics and identifies those that will support combustion after
the arc energy is gone.

The amount of energy, and therefore heat, in an arc is proportional to the maximum available
short circuit volt-amperes in the system at the point of the arc. Calculations by Ralph Lee
indicate that maximum arc energy is equal to one-half the available fault volt-amperes at any
given point.3 Later research by Neal, Bingham, and Doughty show that while the maximum
may be 50 percent, the actual value will usually be somewhat different depending on the
degree of distortion of the waveform, the available system voltage, and the actual arc power
factor.4 The same research also shows that enclosing the arc to create a so-called “arc in the
box” focuses the incident arc energy and increases its effect by as much as threefold.
The arc energy determines the amount of radiated energy and, therefore, the degree of injury.
The arc energy will be determined by the arc voltage drop and the arcing current. After the
arc is established, the arc voltage tends to be a function of arc length; consequently, the arc
energy is less dependent on the system voltage and more dependent on the magnitude of the
fault current. This means that even low voltage systems have significant arc hazard and
appropriate precautions must be taken. Figures 1.2 and 1.3 show the results of two
experiments that were conducted with manikins exposed to electric arcs. As can be seen, both
high and low voltages can create significant burns.
1.9 Arc Energy Release
Arc energy is released in at least three forms—light, heat, and mechanical. Table 1.6 describes the
nature of these energy releases and the injuries that they cause. Note that light and heat tend to cause
similar injuries and will, therefore, be treated as one injury source in later calculations. Also note that
mechanical injuries are usually categorized as blast injuries, even though the ultimate cause is the
electric arc.
To be conservative in arc energy release calculations, two assumptions must be made:
1. All arc energy is released in the form of heat measured in cal/cm2or J/cm2. The reader should
remember that this assumption is made solely for the purpose of analyzing electric arc thermal injury.
Other hazards such as shock and blast are considered separately.
2. Every arc is fed by a sinusoidal source, thereby creating the maximum amount of energy release.
CHAPTER – 2

Electrical Safety Equipment

GENERAL INSPECTION AND TESTING REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTRICAL
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
Each of the types of electrical safety equipment described in this chapter has specific
inspection and testing requirements. These requirements are identified in each of the
individual sections. In addition to specific requirements, the following precaution should
always be observed:
Always perform a detailed inspection of any piece of electrical safety equipment before
it is used. Such an inspection should occur at a minimum immediately prior to the
beginning of each work shift, and should be repeated any time the equipment has had a
chance to be damaged.
Where possible, the guidelines for wearing and/or using the various types of safety equipment
discussed in this chapter are based on existing industry standards. In any event, the guidelines
used in this book should be considered minimum. Requirements for specific locations should
be determined on a case-by-case basis using current industry standards.
FLASH AND THERMAL PROTECTION
The extremely high temperatures and heat content of an electric arc can cause extremely
painful and/or lethal burns. Since an electric arc can occur at any time in electrical equipment
that has not been placed in an electrically safe work condition, the worker must take
precautions and wear protection when exposed to potential arc hazards. Note that these
sections address equipment for electrical hazard. Fire protection equipment has slightly
different requirements and is not covered.
Table 2.1 itemizes the type of equipment required to protect the worker from the thermal
hazards of electric arc. The next sections describe the type of equipment used and will
identify when and how to use that equipment,
A Note on When to Use Thermal Protective Clothing
The usage directions given in this chapter should be used as minimum guidelines only.
Modern technology has enabled the calculation of actual incident arc energies. When these
arc energies are compared to the Arc Thermal Performance Value (ATPV) discussed later in
this chapter, the exact weight and type of thermal clothing can be determined.
If workers are required to place any part of their body within the flash boundary distance of
an energized electrical component, they must wear thermal protective clothing with an ATPV
or EBT equal to or greater than the amount of arc energy to which they might be exposed.
2.3 Thermal Performance Evaluation
Flame Resistance (FR).
Virtually all clothing will ignite when exposed to a sufficient heat source. When the heat
source is removed, normal clothing will continue to burn. Flame-resistant clothing may burn
and char when it is exposed to a heat source, but it will not continue to burn after the heat
source is removed.
The most common test for flame resistance is defined in Method 5903.1 of Federal Test
Standard 191A (Flame Resistance of Cloth: Vertical). This test suspends a 12-inch-long
specimen of fabric vertically in a holder. The fabric is enclosed and subjected to a controlled
flame on the bottom edge of the fabric for 12 seconds. Table 2.2 lists the three sets of data
that are recorded in this test.
Note that the results are gathered after the flame source has been removed. Note also that the
afterglow is not included in most of the industry standards that reference this method.
Arc Thermal Performance Value (ATPV).
Research by Stoll & Chianta2 developed a curve (the so-called Stoll curve) for human
tolerance to heat. The curve is based on the minimum incident heat energy (in kJ/m2 or
cal/cm2) that will cause a second-degree burn on human skin. Modern standards that define
the level of thermal protection required are based on the Stoll curve. That is, clothing must be
worn that will limit the degree of injury to a second-degree burn. This rating is called the Arc
Thermal Performance Value (ATPV).
Energy Break-Through (EBT ).
Some types of flame resistant materials become brittle when exposed to very high
temperatures. The combination of the brittleness and the concussion from the electrical blast
can cause the material to fail and break open. ASTM has defined this value as the average of
the five highest incident energy exposure values below the Stoll curve where the specimens
do not exhibit break open. Since the EBT is defined for values below the Stoll curve, garments
made from such materials can be safely used where exposures will be less than the energy
break-through level.
Chapter 4

Safe Use of Equipment

4.1 Hand Tools and Workshop Machines
4.1.1 Introduction
Employees should be trained in the proper use of all tools. Workers should be able to
recognize the hazards associated with the different types of tools and the safety precautions
necessary. Five basic safety rules can help prevent hazards associated with the use of hand
and power tools:
• Keep all tools in good condition with regular maintenance;
• Use the right tool for the job;
• Examine each tool for damage before use and do not use damaged tools;
• Operate tools according to the manufacturers' instructions; and
• Provide and use properly the right personal protective equipment.
Employees and employers should work together to establish safe working procedures. If a
hazardous situation is encountered, it should be brought immediately to the attention of the
proper individual for hazard abatement.

4.1.2 What are the Hazards of Hand Tools?

Employees should be trained in the proper use and handling of tools and equipment. The
greatest hazards posed by hand tools result from misuse and improper maintenance.
Some examples include:
• Using a chisel as a screwdriver, the tip of the chisel may break and fly off, hitting the user
or other employees.
• If a wooden handle on a tool is loose, splintered, or cracked, the head of the tool may fly off
and strike the user or other employees.
• If the jaws of a wrench are sprung, the wrench might slip.
• If impact tools such as chisels, wedges, or drift pins have mushroomed heads, the heads
might shatter on impact, sending sharp fragments flying toward the user or other employees.
• When working in close proximity, employees should target saw blades, knives, or other
tools away from away aisle areas and other employees. Knives and scissors must be sharp;
dull tools can cause more hazards than sharp ones. Cracked saw blades must be removed
from service.
Wrenches must not be used when jaws are sprung to the point that slippage occurs. Impact
tools such as drift pins, wedges, and chisels must be kept free of mushroomed heads.
Iron or steel hand tools may produce sparks that can be an ignition source around flammable
substances. Where this hazard exists, spark-resistant tools made of non-ferrous materials
should be used where flammable gases, highly volatile liquids, and other explosive
substances are stored or used.

4.1.3 What are the Dangers of Power Tools?

Power tools are determined by their power source: electric, pneumatic, liquid fuel, hydraulic,
and powder-actuated. Power tools should be equipped with guards and safety switches.
Personal protective equipment such as safety goggles and gloves should be worn to protect
against hazards that may be encountered while using power tools.
To prevent hazards associated with the use of power tools, workers should observe the
following general precautions:
 Never carry a tool by the cord or hose.
 Never yank the cord or the hose to disconnect it from the receptacle.
 Keep cords and hoses away from heat, oil, and sharp edges.
 Disconnect tools when not using them, before servicing and cleaning them, and when
changing accessories such as blades, bits, and cutters.
 Keep all people not involved with the work at a safe distance from the work area.
 Secure work with clamps or a vise, freeing both hands to operate the tool.
 Avoid accidental starting. Do not hold fingers on the switch button while carrying a
plugged-in tool.
 Maintain tools with care; keep them sharp and clean for best performance.
 Follow instructions in the user's manual for lubricating and changing accessories.
 Be sure to keep good footing and maintain good balance when operating power tools.
 Wear proper apparel for the task. Loose clothing, ties, or jewelry can become caught
in moving parts.
Remove all damaged portable electric tools from use and tag them: "Do Not Use."

4.1.4 Guards
The exposed moving parts of power tools need to be safeguarded. Belts, gears, shafts,
pulleys, sprockets, spindles, drums, flywheels, chains, or other reciprocating, rotating, or
moving parts of equipment must be guarded.
Appropriate machine guards must be provided to protect the operator and others from the
following:
• Point of operation;
• In-running nip points;
• Rotating parts; and
• Flying chips and sparks.
Safety guards must never be removed when a tool is being used. Portable circular saws
having a blade greater than 5.08 centimeters in diameter must be equipped at all times with
guards. An upper guard must cover the entire blade of the saw. A retractable lower guard
must cover the teeth of the saw, except where it makes contact with the work material. The
lower guard must automatically return to the covering position when the tool is withdrawn
from the work material.

4.1.5 Operating Controls and Switches

The following hand-held power tools must be equipped with a constant-pressure switch or
control that shuts off the power when pressure is released:
• drills;
• tappers;
• fastener drivers;
• horizontal, vertical, and angle grinders with wheels more than 5.08 centimeters in diameter;
• disc sanders with discs greater than 5.08 centimeters; belt sanders; reciprocating saws;
• saber saws, scroll saws, and jigsaws with blade shanks greater than 0.63 centimeters wide;
and
• other similar tools.
These tools also may be equipped with a "lock-on" control, if it allows the worker to also shut
off the control in a single motion using the same finger or fingers.
The following hand-held power tools must be equipped with either a positive "on-off" control
switch, a constant pressure switch, or a "lock-on" control:
• disc sanders with discs 5.08 centimeters or less in diameter;
• grinders with wheels 5.08 centimeters or less in diameter;
• platen sanders, routers, planers, laminate trimmers, nibblers, shears, and scroll saws; and
• jigsaws, saber and scroll saws with blade shanks a nominal 6.35 millimeters or less in
diameter.
Circular saws having a blade diameter greater than 5.08 centimeters, chain saws, and
percussion tools with no means of holding accessories securely must be equipped with a
constant pressure switch.

4.1.6 Electric Tools

Electrical shocks, which can lead to injuries such as heart failure and burns, are among the
major hazards associated with electric powered tools. In certain instances, even a small
amount of electric current can result in fibrillation of the heart and death.
Electric tools must have a three-wire cord with a ground and be plugged into a grounded
receptacle, be double insulated, or be powered by a low-voltage isolation transformer. Three-
wire cords contain two current-carrying conductors and a grounding conductor. Any time an
adapter is used to accommodate a two-hole receptacle, the adapter wire must be attached to a
known ground. Never remove the third prong from the plug.
Double-insulated tools provide protection against electrical shock without third-wire
grounding. On double-insulated tools, an internal layer of protective insulation completely
isolates the external housing of the tool.
The following general practices should be followed when using electric tools:
• Operate electric tools within their design limitations;
• Use gloves and appropriate safety footwear when using electric tools;
• Store electric tools in a dry place when not in use;
• Do not use electric tools in damp or wet locations unless they are approved for that purpose;
• Keep work areas well lighted when operating electric tools; and
• Ensure that cords from electric tools do not present a tripping hazard.
In the construction industry, employees who use electric tools must be protected by ground-
fault circuit interrupters or an assured equipment-grounding conductor program.
4.1.7 Portable Abrasive Wheel Tools
Abrasive wheel tools must be equipped with guards that:
(1) cover the spindle end, nut, and flange projections;
(2) maintain proper alignment with the wheel; and
(3) do not exceed the strength of the fastenings.
An abrasive wheel should be:
• Inspected for damage and should be sound- or ring tested to ensure that it is free from
cracks or defects; and
• Tested by tapping gently with a light, non-metallic instrument. A stable and undamaged
wheel, when tapped, will give a clear metallic tone or "ring."
To prevent an abrasive wheel from cracking, it must fit freely on the spindle. The spindle nut
must be tightened enough to hold the wheel in place without distorting the flange. Always
follow the manufacturers recommendations. Take care to ensure that the spindle speed of the
machine will not exceed the maximum operating speed marked on the wheel.
An abrasive wheel may disintegrate or explode during start-up. Allow the tool to come up to
operating speed prior to grinding or cutting. Never stand in the plane of rotation of the wheel
as it accelerates to full operating speed. Portable grinding tools need to be equipped with
safety guards to protect workers not only from the moving wheel surface, but also from flying
fragments in case of wheel breakage.
When using a powered grinder:
• Always use eye or face protection;
• Turn off the power when not in use; and
• Never clamp a hand-held grinder in a vise.

4.1.8 Pneumatic Tools

Pneumatic tools are powered by compressed air and include chippers, drills, hammers, and
sanders.
There are several dangers associated with the use of pneumatic tools. First and foremost is the
danger of getting hit by one of the tool's attachments or by some kind of fastener the worker
is using with the tool.
Pneumatic tools must be checked to see that the tools are fastened securely to the air hose to
prevent them from becoming disconnected. A short wire or positive locking device attaching
the air hose to the tool must also be used and will serve as an added safeguard.
If an air hose is more than 12.7 millimeters in diameter, a safety excess flow valve must be
installed at the source of the air supply to reduce pressure in case of hose failure.
In general, the same precautions should be taken with an air hose that are recommended for
electric cords, because the hose is subject to the same kind of damage or accidental striking,
and because it also presents tripping hazards.
When using pneumatic tools, a safety clip or retainer must be installed to prevent attachments
such as chisels on a chipping hammer from being ejected during tool operation.
Pneumatic tools that shoot nails, rivets, staples, or similar fasteners and operate at pressures
more than 6,890 kPa, must be equipped with a special device to keep fasteners from being
ejected, unless the muzzle is pressed against the work surface.
Airless spray guns that atomize paints and fluids at pressures of 6,890 kPa or more must be
equipped with automatic or visible manual safety devices that will prevent pulling the trigger
until the safety device is manually released.
Eye protection is required, and head and face protection is recommended for employees
working with pneumatic tools.
Screens must also be set up to protect nearby workers from being struck by flying fragments
around chippers, riveting guns, staplers, or air drills.
Compressed air guns should never be pointed toward anyone. Workers should never "dead-
end" them against themselves or anyone else. A chip guard must be used when compressed
air is used for cleaning.
Use of heavy jackhammers can cause fatigue and strains. Heavy rubber grips reduce these
effects by providing a secure handhold. Workers operating a jackhammer must wear safety
glasses and safety shoes that protect them against injury if the jackhammer slips or falls. A
face shield also should be used.
Noise is another hazard associated with pneumatic tools. Working with noisy tools such as
jackhammers requires proper, effective use of appropriate hearing protection.

4.1.9 Liquid Fuel Tools

The most serious hazard associated with the use of fuel-powered tools comes from fuel
vapours that can burn or explode and also give off dangerous exhaust fumes. The worker
must be careful to handle, transport, and store gas or fuel only in approved flammable liquid
containers.
Before refilling a fuel-powered tool tank, shut down the engine and allow it to cool to prevent
accidental ignition of hazardous vapors. When a fuel-powered tool is used inside a closed
area, effective ventilation and/or proper respirators such as atmospheresupplying respirators
must be utilized to avoid breathing carbon monoxide. Fire extinguishers must also be
available in the area.

4.1.10 Powder-Actuated Tools

Powder-actuated tools operate like a loaded gun and must be treated with extreme caution.
When using powder-actuated tools, an employee must wear suitable ear, eye, and face
protection. Select a powder level that is suitable for the powder-actuated tool and necessary
to do the work.
The muzzle end of the tool must have a protective shield or guard centered perpendicular to
and concentric with the barrel to confine any fragments or particles that are projected when
the tool is fired. A tool containing a high-velocity load must be designed not to fire unless it
has this kind of safety device.
To prevent the tool from firing accidentally, two separate motions are required for firing. The
first motion is to bring the tool into the firing position, and the second motion is to pull the
trigger. The tool must not be able to operate until it is pressed against the work surface with a
force of at least 2.2 kg greater than the total weight of the tool.
If a powder-actuated tool misfires, hold the tool in the operating position for at least 30
seconds before trying to fire it again. If it still will not fire, hold the tool in the operating
position for another 30 seconds and then carefully remove the load in accordance with the
manufacturer instructions. This procedure will make the faulty cartridge less likely to
explode. The bad cartridge should then be put in water immediately after removal. If the tool
develops a defect during use, it should be tagged and must be immediately removed from
service.
Safety precautions that must be followed when using powder actuated tools include the
following:
• Do not use a tool in an explosive or flammable atmosphere.
• Inspect the tool before using it to determine that it is clean, that all moving parts operate
freely, and that the barrel is free from obstructions and has the proper shield, guard, and
attachments recommended by the manufacturer.
• Do not load the tool unless it is to be used immediately.
• Do not leave a loaded tool unattended, especially where it would be available to
unauthorized persons.
• Keep hands clear of the barrel end.
• Never point the tool at anyone.
When using powder-actuated tools to apply fasteners, several additional procedures must be
followed:
• Do not fire fasteners into material that would allow the fasteners to pass through to the other
side.
• Do not drive fasteners into very hard or brittle material that might chip or splatter or make
the fasteners ricochet.
• Always use an alignment guide when shooting fasteners into existing holes.
• When using a high-velocity tool, do not drive fasteners more than 7.62 centimeters from an
unsupported edge or corner of material such as brick or concrete.
• When using a high velocity tool, do not place fasteners in steel any closer than 1.27
centimeters from an unsupported corner edge unless a special guard, fixture, or jig is used.
4.1.11 Hydraulic Power Tools
The fluid used in hydraulic power tools must be an approved fire resistant fluid and must
retain its operating characteristics at the most extreme temperatures to which it will be
exposed. The exception to fire-resistant fluid involves all hydraulic fluids used for the
insulated sections of derrick trucks, aerial lifts, and hydraulic tools that are used on or around
energized lines.
Do not exceeded the manufacturer's recommended safe operating pressure for hoses, valves,
pipes, filters, and other fittings.
All jacks - including lever and ratchet jacks, screw jacks, and hydraulic jacks - must have a
stop indicator, and the stop limit must not be exceeded. Also, the manufacturer's load limit
must be permanently marked in a prominent place on the jack, and the load limit must not be
exceeded.
Never use a jack to support a lifted load. Once the load has been lifted, it must immediately
be blocked up. Put a block under the base of the jack when the foundation is not firm, and
place a block between the jack cap and load if the cap might slip.
To set up a jack, make certain of the following:
• The base of the jack rests on a firm, level surface;
• The jack is correctly centred;
• The jack head bears against a level surface; and
• The lift force is applied evenly
All jacks must be lubricated regularly, additionally, each jack must be inspected according to
the following schedule:
• for jacks used continuously or intermittently at one site - inspected at least once every 6
months;
• for jacks sent out of the shop for special work- inspected when sent out and inspected when
returned; and
• for jacks subjected to abnormal loads or shock inspected before use and immediately
thereafter.
4.1.12 General Requirements of Safety in Workshops Policy
The following rules apply to all workshop personnel, whether they are permanently employed
in the workshop or just occasional users:
 Keep the workshop clean and tidy at all times.
 Always seek instruction before using an unfamiliar piece of equipment.
 Only use tools and machines for their intended purpose.
 Report all damaged equipment and do not use it until it has been repaired by a
qualified person.
 Where machine guards are provided, they must be kept in place.
 Never distract the attention of another staff member when that person is operating
equipment and never indulge in horseplay.
 Always use the appropriate personal protective devices and check that they are clean
and in good repair before and after use.
 Long hair needs to be restrained by either a tie or hat.
 Never use compressed air for cleaning clothing and machinery.
 Report all hazards and unsafe conditions and work practices.

4.1.13 Machinery Installation

Inspect machinery, plant and equipment on delivery to ensure its safety features comply with
the requirements of the department. Inspect each machine prior to commencement of work to
ensure that all guards are correctly fitted.
Install machinery, plant and equipment so as to ensure that sufficient space and safe footholds
are provided around an individual machine to allow for normal operation, group instruction,
adjustment and ordinary repairs.

4.1.14 Machine Controls

Machine controls should be in accordance with the following requirements:
• Start-stop controls of the push button type easily visible, readily accessible and
incorporating both no-volt and overload release.
• Start buttons should be shrouded or recessed, colored green and the word "START" shall be
indicated on or near the button. Starting levers and handles should have a provision for
automatic retention in the "off" position.
• Stop buttons shall be long, easy to locate, colored red and clearly marked with an
identifying symbol or the word "STOP". Each machine shall have a stop control for
disconnecting power and the control should be readily and safely accessible to the operator
from the normal operating position.
• Emergency stop buttons of the mushroom-head type, prominently and suitably labeled,
should be installed at selected positions so that pressing any one of the buttons will
immediately operate the circuit breaker and disconnect the supply from the machines.