- The energy transferred between a

system and its environment

because of the difference in their
temperatures.

+Q, if a system gains energy

-Q, if a system loses energy
- When two objects with different
temperatures are in contact with
each other, heat flows from the
hotter system to the colder one.

An increase or decrease in mechanical energy in a

system always accompanies an equal decrease or
increase of heat, respectively.
1.) SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (C)
– the amount of heat energy necessary to
raise the temperature of an object by one
degree.

Units:
J/KgCo , cal/gCo , Btu/slug Fo ….
Q = mc∆T Note:
1J = 2.39x10-4Kcal
Where: 1Btu = 252 cal = 1.055KJ = 778.2ftlb
m = mass of the substance
∆T = change in temperature
= the final temperature of the substance minus its initial
temperature before the heat was added or removed
The calorie is defined as the amount of energy
required to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree.
(This energy is slightly dependent upon the temperature of the water,
so the temperature change is usually defined from 14.5 degrees to
15.5 degrees Celsius.)

The U.S. engineering unit of heat is the British thermal

unit (BTU). It is related to the calorie and the joule:
BTU = 252 calories = 1.055 kJ.

These reversible conversions of heat energy and work

are called the mechanical equivalent of heat.
Note that the temperature interval for Kelvins is the same as that for
Celsius degrees. For this reason, you can calculate T in Kelvins or in
degrees Celsius.
 EXAMPLES:
1.) In a half hour, a 65kg jogger can
generate 8x105 J of heat. This heat is
removed from the jogger’s body by a
variety of means. If the heat were not
removed, how much would the body
temperature increase? Cbody = 3500
J/kgCo

Ans: 3.5C°
 EXAMPLES:
2.) You wish to take a bath and will
need to warm 160Kg of water by
14oC. How much heat is
required?
CH20 = 4180 J/KgCo

Ans: Q = 9.4x106J
 EXAMPLES:
3.) A 30Kg child has a temperature
of 39oC. How much heat must be
removed from the child’s body to
lower his temperature to 37oC?
 EXAMPLES:
4.) A 60 Kg person consumes about
2000Kcal of food in one day. If
10% of this food energy is
converted to thermal energy and
cannot leave the body, calculate
the temperature change of the
person.
 EXAMPLES:
5.) An insulated aluminum can whose mass
is 0.2Kg contains 0.3Kg of water at 25oC.
A 0.1Kg metal block whose
temperature is 80oC is lowered into the
water. The final temperature of the
water, can & block is 30oC. What is the
specific heat capacity of the metal
block?
Cal=900J/KgCo
CH20=4180J/KgCo

Ans: C = 1434 J/kgC°

 EXAMPLES:
6.) A 300g insulated aluminum
calorimeter holds 150g of water.
The water & aluminum are initially
at 20oC; 100g of ethanol at 55oC is
added to the water. Calculate the
final temperature of the mixture.
Cethanol=2480J/KgCo

Ans: T = 27.6°C
 EXAMPLES:
7.) A 150g insulated aluminum
calorimeter containing 250g of
water is initially at 20oC. A 200g
metal block at 60oC is added to
the water, resulting in the final
temperature of 22.8oC. Calculate
the specific heat capacity of the
block.
 EXAMPLES:
8.) An insulated bowl containing
0.3Kg of soup at 40oC is cooled by
adding 10oC water. Calculate the
mass of the water that must be
added so that the mixture has a
final temperature of 35oC. Ignore
the heat transfer to the bowl.
Csoup = 3,800J/kgC°
3,800J/kgC°
2.) LATENT HEAT OF FUSION (Lf)
– the amount of heat needed to melt or freeze a
substance at its melting or freezing
temperature.
To melt a solid:
Where:
Q = heat needed to melt or
Q = mLf freeze a substance
Lf = latent heat of fusion
To freeze a liquid: m = mass of the substance
Units:
J/Kg , cal/g , Btu/slug ….
Q = -mLf Note: a substance does not change temperature
while it is melting or freezing, thus the
melting or freezing temperature of a
substance are the same.
Heat Fusion of Some Substances:

Substances Lf (kJ/kg)
Water 335
Ethanol 1042
Hydrogen (H2) 58.6
Oxygen (O2) 13.8
Nitrogen (N2) 25.7
Aluminum 398.4
Copper 134
Iron 272.1
Phase changes of water as heat is added:

In regions I, III, and V, the

addition of heat energy
increases the temperature
of the sample.

However, in regions II and IV,

additional heat does not
cause a change in
temperature because heat is
required to change the state.
 EXAMPLES:
1. Suppose that a certain substance melts and
freezes at 400°
400°C. Imagine a block of this
material whose mass is 1.535 kg, and it is
entirely solid at 400°
400°C. It is subjected to heating,
and it melts. Suppose that it takes 142,761 cal
of energy to melt the substance entirely into
liquid at 400°
400°C. What is the heat of fusion for
this material?

Ans: 93 cal/g
 EXAMPLES:
2. Suppose that you are camping in the
mountains. You need to melt 1.50 kg of snow at
0.0
0.0°°C and heat it to 70.0
70.0°°C to make hot cocoa.
How much heat will be needed?
Cwater = 4180J/kgCo , Lfwater = 334kJ/kg

Ans: 940 kJ
 EXAMPLES:
3. How much heat is absorbed by 100 g of ice at
-20.0
20.0°°C to become water at 0.0 0.0°°C?
Cice = 2060J/kgCo , Lfwater = 334kJ/kg
 EXAMPLES:
4. Your 500mL soda is at 20°20°C so you add 100g of
ice from the -20
20°°C freezer. What is the final
temperature?
Cice = 2090J/kgCo , Lfwater = 333kJ/kg
Cwater = 4190J/kgCo
3.) LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION (Lv)
– the amount of heat needed to vaporize a
substance at its boiling temperature.

To vaporize a liquid: Where:

Q = heat needed to vaporize
a substance
Lv = latent heat of vaporization
Q = mLv m = mass of the substance

Units:
J/Kg , cal/g , Btu/slug ….
4.) LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION (Lc)
– the amount of heat needed to condense a
substance at its condensation temperature.

Where:
To condense a gas:
Q = heat needed to condense
a substance
Lf = latent heat of condensation
Q = -mLc m = mass of the substance
Units:
J/Kg , cal/g , Btu/slug ….

Note: the boiling temperature is the same as the

condensation temperature.
Heat of Vaporization or Condensation of Some
Substances

Substances Lv/Lc (kJ/kg)

Water 2256
Ethanol 854
Hydrogen (H2) 452
Oxygen (O2) 213
Nitrogen (N2) 201
Aluminum 10,500
Copper 3,100
Iron 6,364
 EXAMPLES:
1. How much heat is required to change 200mL of
ice at -20.0
20.0°°C into steam?

ρice = 920kg/m3 , Lfwater = 333kJ/kg,

Cice = 2090J/kgCo , Cwater = 4190kJ/kgC°
4190kJ/kgC°
Lvwater = 2260kJ/kg

Ans: 562 kJ
 EXAMPLES:
2. How much heat is needed to change 300g of ice
at 30.0°
30.0°C to steam at 130.0°
130.0°C?

Cice = 2060J/kgCo , Lfwater = 334kJ/kg,

Cwater = 4180J/kgCo , Lvwater = 2260kJ/kg
Csteam = 2020J/kgCo

Ans: 940 kJ
 EXAMPLES:

3.) Find the heat required to

evaporate 20g of ethanol.
 EXAMPLES:
4.) A kettle containing 0.75Kg of
boiling water absorbs heat from
a gas stove at a rate of 600J/s.
How much time is required for
the water to boil away, leaving a
charred kettle?