Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Leisa Gibbons
Monash University
November 2007
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Cultural memory and online audiovisual content
Abstract
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Cultural memory and online audiovisual content
The purpose of this study is to investigate the phenomena of amateur moving image on
the internet as it pertains to the creation of cultural memory and cultural heritage.
Independent video production has found a home and an audience on the internet. New
social software sites such YouTube provide a virtual space for the uploading, watching
and sharing of video with little or no production values. The content of these videos
range from video blogging, which is the practice of recording a diary style
‘performance’, to illegally recorded TV shows, amateur video productions and
announcements by political leaders, the most famous in Australia being policy
announcements by the Prime Minister, John Howard in 2007.
These videos are embedded in dynamic web pages whose content changes all the time.
In contributing to this You Tube users are creating and re-creating the memory of
culture continuously. Through semantic web features such as tagging, users are also
defining culture and cultural identity. Traditional concepts of audiovisual and
audiovisual heritage do not fit comfortably with these new stories. Questions about
definition and identity of these stories, as well as how the label of ‘cultural heritage’ can
be applied, must be asked. The implications of for cultural heritage and collecting
cultural institutions is numerous. Who is archiving these disposable audiovisual bytes
and who cares about it?
The primary research question is: How does amateur born digital moving image used
within a dynamic online environment contribute to cultural heritage?
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Within the scope of this broad question there are many elements that must be
considered, particularly as there is little literature about this subject. One the of most
important aspects of this study is to be able to analyse the genre of these information
objects and where they might fit into current memory making theory and practice.
• What relevance does the format and medium have on these online moving
images and their preservation?
• Do these online moving images fit into the current paradigms of cultural memory
making?
• What effect does current cultural heritage collecting practices have on the ability
to define these online moving images?
Audiovisual is a hierarchical subject heading and is often coupled with such terms as
moving image, multimedia, sound and audiovisual documents. The term audiovisual
has grown out of an archival/information need to describe a collection and categorise a
subject or field of study. This means often audiovisual is defined through its application
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to a particular collection. In doing so, there are inconsistencies with the definition of
audiovisual across the literature and a trend in identifying audiovisual as “object”.
The Oxford English Dictionary definition reveals the perceptive base, “pertaining to
both hearing and vision, esp. of mechanical aids to teaching” (http://www.oed.com/
[restricted access]). This definition has been derived from a reference concerning
teaching aides in a 1959 publication and states that audiovisual involves hearing and
vision, but does not say how. It also implies that audiovisual is something that is
mechanical, but is only especially so, not specifically so. The final statement describes
audiovisual as an educational aid. The implies that one of the attributes that defines ‘a
thing’ as audiovisual is way how it can be experienced. Thus audiovisual is not a ‘thing’
or an object, but the way something else, possibly something mechanical, can be
experienced.
The above definition also reveals two quite important issues. Firstly, audiovisual
description can be highly subjective and contextual, according not only to ideology, but
also institution and practice. This dictionary reference is very general, yet is also fixed in
times and space: cultural and historical use of audiovisual shows it is most likely to be
associated with teaching aids. Secondly, that the things that is experienced as
‘audiovisual’ needs technology in order to experience it.
Audiovisual archives, such as The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Studies (AIATSIS) Audiovisual Archive, use the term ‘audiovisual’ as an
identification tool to establish the boundaries of the collection and field of study,
namely, “moving image, recorded sound and photographic materials”.
(http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/audiovisual_archives) The International Association of Sound and
Audiovisual Archives (IASA) has member countries who collect a range of audiovisual
materials including, “musical recordings, historic, literary, folkloric and ethnological
sound documents, theatre productions and oral history interviews, bio-acoustics,
environmental and medical sounds, linguistic and dialect recordings, as well as
recordings for forensic purposes.” (http://www.iasa-web.org/pages/Default.htm)
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The definition from the Online Dictionary for Library and Information Science (ODLIS)
defines audiovisual as:
This definition has been developed and applied as an information tool. The change from
this definition from the above is that audiovisual is not an experience, but a ‘work’:
audiovisual embodies sound and vision as part of its attributes. The purpose of this
definition of audiovisual is to describe a ‘thing’. Again two quite important issues are
raised by this definition. Firstly, that the ‘work’ is a creation, rather than an experience.
Secondly, there is a medium upon which the audiovisual ‘thing’ or ‘work’ is in or part
of.
Whether it is the medium that combines sound and visual images, or the work that
combines them, the definition is not clear. This distinction between medium and work is
important in understanding audiovisual as ‘object’. The medium with which the
audiovisual ‘object ‘ is made is often used as the descriptor of the object itself. For
example, video is both media and audiovisual object. The implications for the use of the
term ‘multimedia’ and other terms from internet jargon, such as ‘hypermedia’ in relation
to the use of audiovisual is significant. Deeper explorations of these issues continue on
later.
A key concept identified in this definition is that audiovisual is a type of document. The
implications of the use of the word document cannot be overlooked, particularly as a
memory making tool in genre analysis and description. Edmondson says that document
is used “used in the sense of a recording created by deliberate intent…” which includes
not only the content of the document, but the carrier as well. (2004, p. viii & p.17)
Complex web pages in a non-linear and dynamic environment, such as those studied in
this research, do not sit easily next to the concept of an identifiable “object”. This
implies a fixed content that can be lifted out from its surroundings and still have context
and relevance. This is not necessarily so.
In contrast to the concept of audiovisual as object, the term, ‘moving image' implies
what is seen rather than a carrier, it is “A medium of expression”
(http://infotree.library.ohiou.edu/single-records/2533.html). The concept of medium in this
definition refers specifically to communication and how ‘something’ can be or is
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The definition of audiovisual given by Edmondson is very similar, but differs in one
important aspect. Audiovisual must be a “object”; it must be defined by its format, either
a document or a moving image or a video etc. In context audiovisual is used to describe
a attribute of something else, for example, at the Australian Film and Sound Archive, the
archivists preserve and share “moving images” from the “audiovisual media”, referring
to the industries that create them. (http://www.screensound.gov.au/about_us/what_we_do.html)
In this study the concept of moving image is used to identify something that can be
perceived as what it is (a moving image) where ever it may be: on a computer hard
drive, ipod or on a web page. Moving image is not a document, but can be found within
a document. Moving image can be a record in itself, but also sits within a larger
contextual record.
1.2.1.1 Video
An important note must be made in consideration of the use of the term ‘video’ in this
study.
‘Video’ in this study does not come from the strict audiovisual archiving tradition or
being a technological medium, but from a more social or vernacular use of the term.
Video has had many incarnations in the past,
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Video rental stores still exist even though the media they actually rent is DVD
and they do not often rent videos at all. In this study the use of the word video
involves all these multilayered concepts of:
1. moving image media and storage format, the ‘object’ captured as bytes;
2. a synonym for moving image as a genre;
3. a socialised activity.
1.2.2 Amateur
This idea of ‘memory catching’ in these moments plays an important role in the purpose,
use and reuse of memory in moving image particularly in the context of the internet. The
amateur presents a point of view that is their own, where “their eyes” tell the story and
create a record. (Orgeron, 2006, p. 95)
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Amateur can also mean a creator who is an “unsophisticated user”(S. B. Davis & Moar,
2005, p. 159) where the intention is to show a video “ within a circle of family and
friends, rather than exhibited publicly.” (http://infotree.library.ohiou.edu/single-
records/2533.html) This aspect to the concept has some validity in this study, however
some of the moving image on YouTube is quite sophisticated and also exhibits to a very
wide audience.
The definitions need to be broadened here and be able to take into account ideas of style
and concepts of communities of practice being similar to a circle of friends and family.
These are overlapping ideas and are drawn from the culture of the internet, including
virtual communities and communities of practice and their peculiarities.
Amateur can also be a style, which has been made famous on YouTube with scandals
erupting about professional film makers creating an amateur video blog of a young
teenage girl that everyone thought was real. (http://nymag.com/arts/tv/features/19376/ ;
http://www.itpro.co.uk/blogs/categories/security/3701/lonely-girls-missed-opportunities.thtml ;
http://daily.stanford.edu/article/2006/10/4/moreLikeLyingGirl15)
Amateur in this study refers to those who are telling the small stories that are found on
YouTube as well as the style in which YouTube outputs their videos. They are the
creators who are making, re-jigging, editing, posting and sharing their moments to a
world wide audience for no profit. The idea of commercial gain is not discounted from
this definition as the purpose of exhibition may very well encompass some marketing
aspect which may give financial gain.
The concept of storytelling are primarily drawn from the concept of the ‘tale’ in Frank
Upward’s Cultural Heritage Continuum model (CHCM). (Upward, 2005b, p. 22) The
‘tale’ is the starting point of an interaction and a communication; a trace of a narrative
which draws in content and context then spreads out spatially and across time. (Upward,
2005b, p. 22) The CHCM tells the story of this ‘tale’ across space and time where action
and structure effect its immersion in society and as being identified as Cultural Heritage.
(Upward, 2005b, p. 22)
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The small story is one that is told by the amateur. It is the purpose of ‘memory catching’
that defines this concept. These small stories spread across space and time via the
internet in ways that we have not seen before. They are small, ‘memory catching(s)’ of
the individual, but at the same time contribute to the community of practice, as well as
the internet community as a whole and lastly in society as a whole at the same time.
There is a need of a term for a YouTube web page which adequately describes the
concepts of user contribution, communication as technology, systems of communication
and multimedia with hypertext elements that are constantly changing and growing.
To this end, hypermedia is also often used to describe varied computer processes such as
the human-computer interaction of the World Wide Web , or an information system such
as a knowledge management system which allows access and retrieval of documents of
varied media. (Akscyn, McCracken, & Yoder, 1988; Nürnberg, Leggett, Schneider, &
Schnase, 1996)
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Defining a YouTube page as a web page with audiovisual or moving image content,
using the definitions above, means memory is being fixed with only one possible story.
User contribution to the page is not part of this term. The phrase ‘user-contributed web
page’, derived from the concepts of Open Source, Web 2.0 and social software to which
YouTube plays a part does not, only goes some way to addressing the nature of the
richness and difference of the web pages. (http://www.opensource.org/docs/osd ;
http://web2.socialcomputingmagazine.com/the_state_of_web_20.htm ;
http://radar.oreilly.com/archives/2006/07/levels_of_the_game.html)
The phrase ‘dynamic web page’ is currently being used to describe web page navigation
where content “…(text, images, form fields, etc.) can change, in response to different
contexts or conditions.” (Dynamic web page, 2007, September 6) This seemed a likely
candidate but is very software and navigational focused rather than addressing media
and mediated content in the page.
One of the aims of this research project is to closely investigate the elements of the
YouTube webpage and the interaction by users in generating content and how moving
image within this frame can be defined. This means that a definition and concept is not
available at this time. However, during this research proposal, the term online moving
image is used frequently to describe what is being ‘looked at’ and where and at the very
least provides a working definition.
1.2.4 Memory
The concept of memory is applied in many senses in this study. From the individual
memory which has no tactile form, to cultural and shared memory in stories and
language, to recorded memory which is the ‘object’ retained in archival institutions, as
well as the action of archives “preserving the memory” for access over space and time.
(McKemmish, 1996, p. 183)
Memory is these senses are both intangible and tangible, an action and a process and can
be found in individuals and the collective, as well as in storage containers and as concept
itself.
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To this end, the concept of memory in this study is applied using the tool of the CHCM.
Traces and relationships between memory are found throughout the CHCM, however in
this study the focus is on the dimensions of the continuum framework where memory is
formed through transaction and context by individuals, group, organisational and the
collective. (McKemmish et al., 2005, p. 14)
The aspect of remembering is very important in relation to the very closely aligned
concept of forgetting. In this study these two concepts are used concept draws attention
in relation to the integrity and fragility of digital documents and their use in socialisation
and language.
1.2.4.2 Memory-making
This term is used quite frequently in this study and refers specifically to the action and
process of capturing memory. This term comes from Anthony Giddens’ writings on the
meaning of memory which involves the use of perception and ‘presencing’ a term
borrowed from Heidegger which refers to the idea of existing in a continuous present
which is constantly fading into the past. (1984, p. 45) This concept is related to the
above notion of remembering, but is distinguished by its intent; subjective memory
creation and the action of choice.
1.2.5 Culture
Culture is one of those terms, similar to memory, whose meaning in becomes clearer in
context, i.e.: popular culture, high culture, internet culture, organisational culture. An
18th century humanistic definition of culture refers to the literature, arts and music.
(Scott & Marshall, 2005) Cultural anthropologists of the 19th century began to use the
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concept of culture to describe the sum of human activity. (Scott & Marshall, 2005)
These historical definitions of culture still find their traces in the use of the term today.
The definition used in this study comes from the writings of Geert Hofestede, who
conducted a large research project into national culture differences across subsidiaries of
IBM in 64 countries between 1967-1973. (http://feweb.uvt.nl/center/hofstede/index.htm)
Hofestede says that “cultures manifest themselves, from superficial to deep, in symbols,
heroes, rituals and values.”(http://feweb.uvt.nl/center/hofstede/page4.htm) He refers to this as
“mental programming” where “patterns of thinking, feeling and potential acting which
were learned [by individuals] throughout their lifetime” are “shared with people who
live or lived within the same social environment”. (1997, p. 4&5)
Hofstede refers to the humanistic definition as “culture one” and the anthropological
definition as “culture two”. (1997, p. 4-5) This study deals with cultural memory and
heritage, where collective thought, processes and action is the primary focus. The
definition of culture by which this study looks at is the Hofstede definition of culture
(two) being, “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members
of one group or category of people from another.”. (1997, p. 5)
Cultural anthropologists divided the concept of culture into three levels. One is the
“learned patterns of behaviour.” (Scott & Marshall, 2005) Secondly, “aspects of culture
that act below conscious levels”, which refers to, as an example, the ‘knowingness’ of
how language works in a culture. (Scott & Marshall, 2005) Thirdly, “patterns of thought
and perception, which are also culturally determined.” . (Scott & Marshall, 2005)
These three ‘identities’ of culture are related to memory and perception as discussed
above and are also found throughout the CHCM, linked to memory and applied on a
dimensional level of individual, group, organisation and collective. Hofstede’s “software
of the mind” directly references the idea of memory and remembering as tool. (1997)
The term ‘cultural memory’ blends the ideas of culture and memory as defined above
and can be found in both the intangible and tangible, i.e.: language as well as artefact.
The use of the term comes from the concepts of Jung’s “collective unconscious”,
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wherein memories are shared by all people and are manifest in cultural phenomena.
(Scott & Marshall, 2005) In this study, ideas of the development of a shared language
and artefacts which are involved in this sharing are referred to as the building and
storing of ‘cultural memory’.
The concept of cultural heritage in this study takes the idea of cultural memory one step
further by bringing in the construct of the museum. This construct, as discussed by
Upward in relation to the creation of the CHCM, refers to an enshrinement or the act of
elevating in status those values, memories and ideas which are deemed worthy. (2005b,
p. 20) In using the word heritage, the concept of recordkeeping, where records are
selected and constructed through a sense of value, plays a vital part.
1.3 Methodology
This project will employ an interpretivist grounded theory method to study the use of a
particular information communications technology (ICT) in relation to cultural
storytelling by individuals, groups and societial institutions. (Williamson, 2002)
The approach will be in the form of a case study which will present qualitative data
findings of a moving image website which has user contributed material. The case study
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fits in with the development of theory in a grounded theory approach by scrutinising the
emergence of theoretical concepts and propositions as they appear through the
investigation of data and phenomena. (Williamson, 2002, p. 112)
The case study approach allows for phenomena to be scrutinised in its context.
(Williamson, 2002, p. 113) In this case, the value is derived from the studying the
particular culture and actions of the community of practice in action with the ICT.
Concepts and ideologies from the fields of communications and media will provide the
lens upon which this research is conducted. Frank Upward’s Cultural Heritage
Continuum model (CHCM), which has been offered as a adjunct to the Continuum
theory array of models, will provide the basis for which the research is structured and
designed. (Upward, 2005b)
This study aims to undertake a study of moving image content on the web and how it is
being used, accessed, shared, stored in order to build theory and concepts about the use
of moving image material online and its impact on cultural heritage processes. There are
different types of moving image exhibitors on the web, including online only film
festivals, tv channels, both commercial and non-profit as well as video sharing sites such
as entertainment site metacafe which has been around since 2003.
(http://www.metacafe.com/aboutUs/)
The video sharing website YouTube has been selected as a current example of the use of
technology as communication tool, “medium is the message”, wherein the behaviour of
the participants creating the environment, also define the role they have in it. (M.
McLuhan & Fiore, 1967) The case study subject is the technological system (ICT) itself:
YouTube. However, it is the actions of people engaging with the technology that
provide the information about its use. It is this use that drives the change in
communication and connectivity with technology by people, not the technology itself.
Unlike other moving image entertainment sites, YouTube allows its community of
registered users to contribute videos to the site; videos that the users themselves have
made in response to other videos on the site as well as to current affairs or about any
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subject they please. This socialising and amateur aspect of the subject of study is critical
to the idea of culture forming and sharing of memory and has its links in the ideas of
social software and Web 2.0 which is discussed in more detail later.
These elements mean that YouTube, like other ground breaking software platforms
before it such as Napster and eDonkey, is in the press over copyright issues and its
content and value in cultural production. (see some examples:
http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2007/09/123_9982.html ;
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/16/business/media/16jazeera.html ;
http://www.abcnews.go.com/2020/story?id=2746937&page=1 ; http://www.news.com/YouTubes-fate-
rests-on-decade-old-copyright-law/2100-1028_3-6166862.html ; http://www.evropa.bg/en/del/info-
pad/news.html?newsid=3978 ; http://www.news.com/NBC-strikes-deal-with-YouTube/2100-1025_3-
6088617.html ; http://johnkstuff.blogspot.com/2006/07/warner-bros-cartoons-hates-their-fans.html)
It would seem logical to ground the idea of cultural heritage into a place or identity.
Being also that the idea of this research is to test ideas about cultural collecting and
memory making and the role of the archives in society it would seem that the choice best
choice would be that of the researchers own archival practice: namely the Australian
tradition.
Selection of quantitative data will come from the identification of descriptive tags
assigned by users that denote cultural identity, in this case, ‘Australia’.
The scope will then to work within these identities to interview individuals and groups
who are contributing to the content to fully understand how the site and the descriptor is
being used. Further information from additional sources will need to be gathered to
understand the technology from the perspectives across the continuum of the CHCM.
Hence the research will be divided up in line with the dimensions of the model, so that
types of users within the CoP can be identified.
Research questions have thus been framed by these terms of reference. However, it must
be noted that the flexibility and the blurring of points that is so inherent in the continuum
models is somewhat diminished by this approach. Knowing this, the discussion of the
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findings in relation to the application of the model address this issue and bring back to
focus the continuum aspects of the model as a whole.
Culture and memory forming through interaction, and communication plays a great part
in what data is collected in this study.
Both qualitative and quantitative methods will be used to examine the content makers,
users and the subject itself in order to understand how complex web pages are used as a
information and communication tool.
Initial first level data collection will be undertaken as a quantitative search of the
Australian classification tag, as mentioned above. Data will then be retrieved from
counts through selection of subsets of original works, copyright breached works etc.
against the original subset. Further quantitative data will be collected on sharing and
viewing hits which can be sourced through a variety of methods including from
company publications.
1.3.4 Triangulation
One of the methods of ensuring distance and determining rigor when using the case
study approach is to gather sufficient evidence from a variety of similar circumstances
and multiple users to corroborate information. (Williamson, 2002, p. 118) In doing so
the phenomenon under examination will be a “convergence of information from a
variety of sources”, which will strengthen the creditability of the interpretive viewpoint
of the researcher. (Williamson, 2002, p. 118)
Approaching the data collection armed with multiple data collecting tools will ensure
rigor and variety of viewpoints in which to approach data analysis. Using qualitative and
quantitative methods of collection will also ensure credibility. Such tools are interviews,
surveys, field notes, random numerical samples and even the videos themselves.
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In this study the data collection will need to be collected over a period of time, and
individuals and group contributions will need to be tracked. Multiple selection of
different individuals and groups will contribute to many sources providing evidence of
shared phenomena. Furthermore, analysis of shared meanings of such concepts of the
tag, Australia, will provide different interpretations to the material, ensuring the
subjective viewpoint of the researcher is challenged.
Data analysis will need to be performed on both the quantitative and qualitative data
collected. The primary model used in this study, the CHCM will also be used as an
analytical tool. Software will be sourced to help analyse the surveys and questionnaires
as well as the interview and interpretive data.
Analysis of qualitative data will be achieved using the qualitative grounded theory
approach of Strauss and Glaser which involves coding as the data analysis tool. (Strauss
& Corbin, c1998) The procedures for coding are outlined below:
Coding Procedures
As part of this approach, analysis will begin from the creation of the interview questions,
as well as through effective listening skills. Keeping in mind analysis at all times during
the data collection process will also ensure immediacy, plus building of interpretation.
The final presentation of the case study will be presented as a story the development of
culture and possibilities of cultural heritage of online moving image content.
The CHCM will structure the research and be used as tool in analysis. How this model
can be applied to this study is discussed briefly here.
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The CHCM in particular articulates the process of memory making and culture
formation constructed by Upward as a “continuum tool for the spacetime examination of
memory as part of the process of cultural making”. (2005b, p. 20) The spatial frame of
the model, has been used for all of the Continuum models created by Upward
contributes to what Upward refers to as, “recordkeeping activity theory” (2005a, p. 86).
Recordkeeping activity theory examines the “act and the processes” by which memory is
“deeded” to the future by archival work. (Upward, 2005a, p.86) Upward puts forward a
“plurality of memory” incorporating the idea of plural meaning communities of
individuals and the multiple memory this contains, with that of sociological concepts of
memory being in recorded information. (2005a, p. 86) The “plurality of memory” for
Upward then becomes the “thing” of recorded information, as well as the processes and
objects involved in its becoming. (2005a, p.86)
The greatest strength of the CHCM model is that of the continua: multiple layers of
meaning can be construed from the continua of “motion around the intersecting point of
creation” constructing meaning through all interconnected dimensions (the rings), but
can also be unpacked and used to describe singular layers of meaning. (Upward, 2000, p.
124) The continuum is recursive. Time and place can situate process and thing at a point
on the model, yet through time and place this point is not fixed and can be blurred. The
model establishes places where the process of memory making happens, thus the logic
of the terms museum and cultural heritage containers. (Upward, 2005b, p.21) This in
turn describes a process in which a ‘thing’ moves through time and space, changing
according to description of place. (Upward, 2005b, p. 21)
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Thus a reading of the model in the first instance is used to situate the technology,
YouTube, in a time and place. Initially it would seem that YouTube, as exhibitor, falls
within the second dimension of organisation. The user’s engagement with the
technology however, promotes a complexity of organisation that exists in the third
dimension. Yet at its inception, this technology provides an impetus to create, as well as
capture. This stretching out of place across the dimensions is effected by time and has
provided the conceptual framework on which the research is built.
1.4 Conclusion
There are two primary outcomes of this research. The first outcome is to contribute to
the field of information systems knowledge concerning purpose and use of very complex
electronic documents in an online content. This outcome with contribute and build upon
research on the role of archive in society, the impact of technology on both archival
science theory and cultural memory. (Gilliland & McKemmish, 2004, p.151)
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The second outcome is to test the CHCM model in order to determine the value of its
application in theoretical frameworks concerning cultural heritage issues and electronic
documents. The structures and terminology of the model will be used to create the
research boundaries. This model draws heavily from sociology and Giddens’
structuration theory (Giddens, 1984) and has been used extensively in archival science
research in Australia. (Williamson, 2002, p. 40)
However, there is little written about the subject of cultural memory and online moving
image content and this study will explore an archival field in which very little has been
written.
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2.1 Introduction
The purpose of this literature review is to survey research discussion on born and
exhibited digital moving image as they relate to cultural memory making. There is a
distinct lack of literature in this area. This literature review attempts to describe the
potential areas of growth in this field through identifying key areas of study and research
in fields such as online and internet studies, cultural and media studies and information
management and archival studies. Current paradigms in audiovisual archiving contribute
to the concept of moving image as mediated objects. The underlying assumption implies
that audiovisual documents are ‘objects’ and like an object, can be picked up or plucked
out. Digitisation of analogue moving image material and strategies on how to create
online audiovisual archives contribute to this lens of definition.
This literature review investigates research that contribute to the generation of these
concepts in archival research and theory. This is divided into three sections; first looks at
the intersection of digital media, moving image and culture; the second explores digital
media archiving research including internet archiving, distributed databases for online
access; the third explores the literature of audiovisual archiving as cultural memory
making machine.
The term “digital media” came in existence in the early 1990s. (Castells, 2000, p. 330;
Manovich, 2000, p. 4) Digital media is often considered synonymous with the term ‘new
media’ and refers to the technology that records or transmits data as discrete,
discontinuous voltage pulses represented by the binary digits 0 and 1, called bits.
(http://infotree.library.ohiou.edu/single-records/2533.html) The computer plays an integral and
vital part in the production, distribution and exhibition of this media.
In the field of the media and visual arts studies Lev Manovich calls the advent of digital
media a “revolution in moving image culture”. (2006) The impact of digital technology
on visual culture, in particular the moving image, is described by Manovich as
“computerization” which redefines of the cultural form of visual arts including cinema.
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(2001, p. 24) The use of the term, “computerization” implies that the digital has re-
formed and dramatically changed something fundamental about the visual arts. By using
such a word as revolution, Manovich is also implying that there is a time and place
before computers, creating a time line where the rise of the digital is significant.
These implications and concepts are drawn out in the four areas concerning the
intersection of memory, moving image and digital media below. The first concerns the
universality of digital language; the second the use of the language of past cultural forms
to describe new cultural forms; thirdly, ideas of mediated culture and technology; and
finally, networked memory.
The first area of is the accessibility and relative ease that digital technology allows for
anyone, professional or amateur to create, edit, publish and store digital video.
(Manovich, 2006, p. 6) This is also applicable to those that can find, access, view and
manipulate digital content.(Manovich, 2001, p. 19)
Mats Lindquist’s contribution to Audiovisual Archives: A Practical Reader uses the term
“transcendence” which encapsulates this issue:
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The language of digital media stores memory in a way that contradicts the a concept of a
fixed point of time and space. In sociology, Manuel Castells refers to the communication
network of digital media and as a “meta-language”. (2000, p. 328) This refers
specifically to what is called, “multimedia”, where all forms of communication exist
simultaneously and side by side: a language of languages. (Castells, 2000, p. 394)
Castells talks of the “timeless time” and the “space of flows” in a new culture of make
believe and representation which he refers to as “the culture of real virtuality”. (2000, p.
406)
The implications of this is when digital media is used to create and re-create using the
forms of text, moving image, sound and interactivity and because of its loose fixity in
time and space, the concept of the ‘original’ does not exist in the same way that has done
previously. Digital data does not deteriorate, it is duplicated, so there is no actual
original and copy, rather a fluidity in ‘constant becoming’ or continuum. This does not
just effect moving image, but is the nature of all ‘documents’ created on digital media.
The second area involves the language of cultural memory and form in history. The
appropriation of forms and structures from existing cultural paradigms to describe,
analyse, and create new media and in particular, moving image uses the memory of what
existed before and influences how digital media is discussed and treated, which is
especially relevant to the field of audiovisual archiving.
The use of the screen in visual culture is one of the key points of how people see digital
technology in action: on the computer screen. The screen represents a virtual space
inside a frame that exists inside normal human space: it is a window and a reflection.
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(Manovich, 2000, p. 95) The computer screen is completely different to that of painting
or cinema screen in that it is an interface which can show\multiple images and change in
real time according to input from a person or another computer. (Manovich, 2000, p. 98
& 99)
Sociologist Manuel Castells writes of the “challenge” of audiovisual and moving image
as communication in a hierarchy of the alphabet and written word.(Castells, 2000, p.
328) The reputation of moving image is grounded in concepts of mass media and
disposable culture in opposition to literature and writing and where audiovisual has been
“relegated to the backstage of the arts”.(2000, p. 328)
The third element builds on the first two to describe the action and construct of
technology and moving image as communications medium. This deals with concepts of
mediation and use of terms such as mediated memory, computational media and
computer-mediated forms in cultural and media studies literature. (M. Davis, 1997;
Manovich, 2001, p. 19; van Dijck, 2007)
Media researcher Marc Davis founded the Garage Cinema Research group at UC
Berkeley in 2002 which focuses on the model of computational (digital) media as
process in which a new language is formed that will change the relationship between
humans and media. (1997 ) In his paper, Garage Cinema and the Future of Media
Technology (1997), Davis describes moving image as a “semasiographic writing
system” where image, symbols or pictures are the form of the language. (p. 44)
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Davis’ writing is a vision of the future, but having been written in 1997 it can be said to
have foreseen the technological change in broadband network communications which
allow software such as YouTube and the relatively easy sharing of videos, as well as
basic video software editing systems which allow amateurs to ‘craft’ a story with the
sophistication of the professional. This style of communication reflects the primary
function of Davis’ model of a semasiographic writing system.
Davis sees moving image in the language of the story and storytelling and of linguistics.
One of the most important aspects of his model is that of annotation, where moving
image information that is being accessed and re-purposed is, being added to with
“temporal, semantic and relational content” which creates layers of meaning through
each use and communication. (M. Davis, 1997, p. 47) Memory and media then
intertwine in content and use shaping its use in a continuum.
Cultural theorist José van Dijck puts forward a model of media and memory where
experiences of media help shape the meaning and use of media. (van Dijck, 2004; 2007)
Memory and media in this model are not considered separate entities where a hierarchy
of media changing, shaping and replacing memory, but,
van Dijck argues that “memory is mediated by media, but media and memory transform
each other” whether it is individual or personal memory, or cultural, social or collective
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memory or home media or mass media. (2007, p. 18&19) van Dijck is presenting the
idea that media and memory are not static objects but dynamic relationships, the
outcomes of which are expressed over time and in identity in constant process. (van
Dijck, 2007, p. 21&22)
foreshadow that of the model of mediated memory above. Giddens’ concept of time-
space distanciation wherein social structures, such as media, mediation and memory
practices are stretched out over time and space, changing and re-emerging interactions
between individuals, groups and social totalities. (Giddens, 1984) Giddens says in his
1991 publication, the “media do not mirror realities but in some part form them”
(Giddens, p. 27)
The rules and resources Giddens refers to are actions and codes that are enacted that
control and retain. In a sense Giddens is talking about storage of information, either
within the individual, collective as intangible information or stories, as well as rules and
regulation that are tangible and codified. This concept impacts on the ability of societies
to store information – rules and resources create conditions in which information is
stored and influences the ability to remember and forget. (Giddens, 1984, p. 261-262)
These two models influence how technology shapes memory and systems and present a
somewhat alternative version to “computerization” where a dynamic relationship and
recursive role is played in the creation of culture and cultural objects which places
greater emphasis on the role that storytelling and memory have on the development of
cultural practice.
Elsaesser argues that digital technology challenges the notion of time and space of
cinema history and future and does not fit into a linear structure or genealogy of “media
archaeology”;
“We seem to be on an inside for which there is no clear outside,
and we seem to be in a “now” for which there is no clear “before”
or “after.” Thus, the move to the digital marks a threshold and a
boundary, without thereby defining either.” (Elsaesser, 2004, p.
98)
Cinema then does not influence digital media, but the other way around; a new form is
born that appropriates the language of cinema, creating a fork off the path.
In the writings of communications and media theorist Marshall McLuhan, media is that
which extends human actions by doing so creates “new patterns of human association”.
(E. McLuhan & Zingrone, 1995, p. 151) The famous McLuhanism; “the medium is the
message” refers to the “psychic and social consequences of the designs or patterns as
they amplify or accelerate existing process”. (E. McLuhan & Zingrone, 1995, p. 152; M.
McLuhan & Fiore, 1967)
McLuhan uses the form of the tetrad to explore and highlight aspects or qualities of
culture and technology. (M. McLuhan, 1988) They are a visual representation which
acts as model of aspects of right brain and left brain perception which can be read any
which way, but the way it is read influences the outcome. (M. McLuhan, 1988) This
model of mediation allows a perspective of digital media from a social totality
perspective across time and space, where it is the use and reproducing of the media
itself, rather than the content which contributes to the new patterns and codes of
information storage. (Giddens, 1991, p. 24)
easy to fall into the idea that he is saying that media changes human actions, but is not
true, either in concept or in fact. McLuhan’s theories most resemble social patterning
and memetics.
2.2.3.1 Memes
Memes in “media is the message” is about using itself to create itself plus new selves.
McLuhan talks about this in reference to the formation of new media from “old media”.
(1988, p. 99) This then references the idea of digital media as language. Memes are not
the moving image themselves or the digital media that they are created with, but are
found “on it” as pieces of information; the media is the message carrier, but also the
message itself.
Networked memory is the individual which is plugged in as well as the greater network
itself. It refers to the perception of time and space within a reality of vision and
interaction. The networked memory forms part of how digital and moving image play
out perceived role.
Rainer Hubert writes that the internet will make the virtual “real”. (2006, p. 62) What he
is describing is a world of digital where content is all that we perceive, rather than the
medium itself. Whatever and however that content is presented is “the object” rather
than the individual forms or parts which make up the whole.
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This myth making view of memory stretches out over time and space in long threads of
social action.
“The promise of digital technology was not just its connectivity, its
community, but also its capacity to augment thought and memory
itself. “(Barnet, 2001, p. 225)
This section discusses research on the fields of virtual archives and museums including
the concept of the distributed archive. Current research and practice in the field of
internet and web archiving is examined, with particular reference to unstable digital
media formats and why they are relevant to the research topic.
Most information organisation related literature on digital media discusses the problems
associated with electronic archiving and in particular that of storage of information for
online accessibility.
2.3.1 InterPARES 2
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The InterPARES project, in particular that of the third in the series, InterPARES 2,
investigated electronic records in the archival moving image field. (Hacket, 2003, p.
100) ; http://www.interpares.org/ip2/ip2_index.cfm )
The resulting case studies, which delve into performance art, online magazine,
interactive media and moving image production, provide valuable information about
terminology and processes of digitisation. However there are two issues concerning this
project in relation to the subject of this study.
The first issue reveals that the case study organisations are the records creators who own
their work. Concepts of a distributed moving image content and memory through
networks of multiple record creators is not addressed. Secondly, the case study
organisations are all professional. The Digital Moving images case study of a moving
image production from pre-to post production and relationships between digital entities.
The model developed from this research will aid in identifying and describing digital
entities, but its application to a dynamic web space may be limited.
(http://www.interpares.org/ip2/ip2_case_studies.cfm)
Related to both these issues is the idea of moving image objects and concepts of digital
entities as objects, whose relevance to moving image as process and language is also
limited. However, there is a case study on an interactive multimedia piece called The
Danube Exodus which provides small insights into the problems associated archiving
dynamic digital forms and content from the viewpoint of the preserver. (Hubbard &
Staresina, 2006)
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Internet and web archiving is sometimes done by audiovisual archives, however it is not
often considered the domain of this field and often internet archiving is found in
libraries.
In Australia the National Library (NLA) leads the way in internet archival research and
practice with the PANDORA archive project (Preserving and Accessing Networked
Documentary Resources of Australia) and the PADI initiative (Preserving Access to
Digital Information).
2.3.2.1 PANDORA
The PANDORA project has a number of participant partners who help the NLA help
provide services and material to the archive, including the National Film and Sound
archive which is Australia’s national audiovisual archive.
(http://pandora.nla.gov.au/guidelines.html) The interest that PANDORA has on this study is
how selection and appraisal of cultural heritage is performed in an online environment.
Currently PANDORA selects according to subject and is determined by those which are
considered of national significance. Of particular interest to this study will be how the
NLA approaches online content regarding the current federal election material that is
being shown on YouTube, both official and unofficial.
2.3.2.2 PADI
The PADI initiative of the NLA is a resource that provides access by subject to
international digital preservation resources and “aims to provide mechanisms that will
help to ensure that information in digital form is managed with appropriate consideration
for preservation and future access.” (http://www.nla.gov.au/padi/about.html)
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On the PADI website there is a category called “Variable media art” which is a sub topic
under audio and audiovisual. This topic considers preservation issues in relation to
digital and internet art. Of particular interest is the research overview publication called,
Capturing Unstable Media. (Fauconnier & Fromme, 2003) The model of “unstable
media” is interesting because it relies on the concept of not being able to define the
“original state” of and art object. (Fauconnier & Fromme, 2003, p. 5)
The research project works from the point of view that its offers an alternative to the
static approach in preservation which focuses on material and objects, and promotes
“process over product”. (Fauconnier & Fromme, 2003, p. 5) The research uses the terms,
“manifestations” and “occurrences” which describes processes at a point in time and
space, i.e.: a public installation artwork. A conceptual model called the Capturing
Unstable Media Conceptual Model is presented in order to
One of the major reasons why this research work is relevant to this study is that the
unstable media pieces under scrutiny often rely on user input, which is crucial to the
concept of moving image as dynamic web page. The second area in which this research
is valuable is that it identified areas of need, such lack of a standard terminology and
definitions.
There is a field of literature which explores issues in access to audiovisual material, both
born digital, but more primarily, digitised analogue documents. This poses some
interesting conceptual issues in how original media and document information is
presented, but is not relevant to this study. However, how the (resulting) digital material
is conceptualised within these databases, regardless of previous media ‘state’, is relevant
to this study.
This literature comes mostly from the field of information technology and concerns
building databases that attach metadata to content in a way that allows audiovisual
documents to be “read”. The way metadata is created and how it is attached is usually
the subject of the research.
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The purpose of this research is to establish how memory in the form of metadata can be
attributed to information and how to break down information into smaller pieces or units
in order to make it more accessible and ‘readable’ in a digital environment. How the
‘unit’ is defined is the most relevant to this study.
Much of this research comes from the Association for Computer Machinery (ACM) and
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Computer Society journals
plus other technical journals. These articles present models and an information
architecture on audiovisual and multimedia access in digital space. (Claxton, 2001; de
Polo, 2005; Dimitrova, 2004; Garzotto, Mainetti, & Paolini, 1994; Hart, Pierson, & Hull,
2005; Hemminger, Bolas, & Schiff, 2005; Lee et al., 2006; Nürnberg et al., 1996)
Auffret and Bachimont, in presenting their model of a digital audiovisual library, define
their ‘units’ as being part of a larger stream that has been broadcast. (1999) The stream
is identified as audiovisual media as a whole – for example: a continuous feed of
television or the projection of a film in a cinema. (Auffret & Bachimont, 1999, p. 60)
The smallest unit is what has been stored from this stream – a segment – which is a
record of the editorial practice of the producer or broadcaster. (Auffret & Bachimont,
1999, p. 60)
In developing this concept, the authors build upon the idea of the editorial stream and
cast the information professional into the role of editor, adding another layer of memory
through organisation of information. The library or archive chooses what it has
determined as relevant and representative of the editorial practice of the stream and adds
this to the audiovisual database. This type of research has determined that the content of
the media and how the message is portrayed is more relevant than the media itself. The
stream of media is the carrier of information, not information itself.
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These units of description rely on the internal structure, format and storyline of the
moving image itself, what she refers to as the “video’s inherent syntactic structure”.
(Dimitrova, 2004, p. 8&10) These are relevant to the structure of a movie as a
screenwriter or film director would see it, such as “act”, “scene”, “storyline” (and/or
subplot), “story sequences” or even “plot points”.
This section investigates issues in how memory is made by those that collect it.
Literature discussing categorisation practice in audiovisual archives is examined.
There was a surge of literature written concerning audiovisual archival theory in the
1980s and 1990s due to concerns of rapid technological change and loss of material due
to a widespread and diverse lack of interest, especially by governments, as to the cultural
value of moving image. (Klaue, 1984 / 2004; Kula, 1983, p. 2) These writings called for
the recognition of audiovisual archives as a single and specialised field of academic
merit which has a specific focus and training need top distinguish them from simply
being “non-book”. (Harrison, 1997, p. 2)
This most influential literature in the field of audiovisual archiving are; UNESCO
Recommendation for the Safeguarding and Preservation of Moving Images (UNESCO,
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Important concepts in this document have laid the foundation of what moving image
means as cultural heritage. This includes the moving image as national cultural heritage,
the advent of a specialised institutions to look after the heritage of moving image and the
creation of expression through the language of moving image. This last point is the most
important, especially when read in relation to the paragraphs concerning moving image
being that of the “heritage of mankind” and that “imported images have an important
role in the cultural life of most countries”. (UNESCO, 1980 , 2001, p. 157)
The collection of documents edited by Helen Harrison bring together ideas from a
variety of authors about the paradigm of the audiovisual archive, including legal, ethical,
typology, collection and management. (1997) This document is also published by
UNESCO and supported by them on their site: “the aim of this collection of material is
to provide in one volume some of the most accepted literature already published.”
http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=3521&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
The Edmondson document is also published and supported by UNESCO as well as the
Co-ordinating Council of Audiovisual Archives Associations (CCAAA). Edmondson
puts forward a comprehensive philosophy of audiovisual archiving which includes
definitions, and what work is done in an audiovisual archive including the ethics of such
work. (2004)
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These collections of writings firmly establish the issues in the audiovisual field of
research and collection. In addition these writings also, and perhaps more importantly,
distinguish the conceptual foundations and language used to express what audiovisual
means. This goes beyond a simple glossary – this literature establishes the culture of the
practice of audiovisual archiving itself.
The emphasis on object comes from the need of technology to be able to view the
moving image. In the example of film, a projector is needed to view. This concept is
crucial to the development and foundations of what audiovisual is and is pervasive
across the literature. (Edmondson, 2004, p. 23; Harrison, 1995, p. 185; 1997, p. 6)
Recognition of the development of new formats and carriers of moving image has been
addressed however, particularly in the 2005 CCAAA issues paper. (2005, p. 2) The
issues paper calls for a change what is considered audiovisual heritage asking for
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inclusion of the “entire spectrum of moving images and recorded sounds in all their
forms”. (2005, p. 2)
Speculation concerning new or emerging formats is addressed vaguely with the example
of audiovisual being “anything projected on a screen”, which has been generally used
previously to describe audio-slide-show. (Edmondson, 2004, p. 22) This concept of
‘screen’ is also referred to in the CCAAA paper in relation to the computer, where the
pervasive use and fast uptake of these technologies has meant that there is often public
confusion over “Audiovisual heritage” and “digital heritage” wherein they are the same
“because images and sounds are easily accessed by computer”. (CCAAA, 2005, p. 3)
Harrison, in her 1995 paper concerning selection and audiovisual collections refers to
refers to forms and formats such as film, tapes, discs etc, also referring to the future of
electronic formats as being “high density storage media”. (1995, p. 185) However,
digital media stores information the same way (in bytes of information), whether it is
moving image or text.
These concepts of moving image as object are problematic when concerning digital
media and digital presentation. The memory of object/artefact heavily influences the
conceptual foundations of what moving image is and how it is approached as a genre of
information record. This memory of object means that moving image on web pages can
be seen as independent from the content going on around it and this is not always the
case.
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The Mitchell and Kenyon collection of 826 films, recently digitised by the British Film
Institute, was a set of ‘lost films’ that changed the value of the filmmakers themselves,
as well as British history. (Carroll, 2006) The films by Sagar Mitchell and James
Kenyon were “made for local working-class audiences to see themselves onscreen” and
were not known are now being studied by academics and the public, as well as been
digitised for DVD distribution. (Carroll, 2006, p. 54)
Alex Byrne, in his address to the 2006 Prato Informatics Conference refers to libraries,
archives and museums as ‘memory institutions’ that convey records across time and
space, referring to community memory as an interaction or meeting in time and space of
a moment of recollection and perspective made by viewers and content makers through
their memories and their myths. (2006, p.1)
These content makers are not only those that make artefacts, but the record-makers, both
historical and present , institutional and amateur, as well as those that exist in the
community in the present – those that bring the memories ‘forward’ into a present
context. This memory-making remembers those recorded, as well as those
conspicuously not recorded.(Bryne, 2006)
Elsaesser’s concerns regarding cinema history and the genealogy of forms being
selectively used to create a linear timeline for moving image evolution imagine an
interaction between memory, the archive and digital media.
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Ideas about how archives contribute to memory making by being subjective ‘judge’ are
well represented in the literature. (Barnet, 2001; Bryne, 2006; Cunningham, 2007) The
relevancy of this field of discussion to this study ties into the history and development of
the audiovisual archives, whose leaders and visionaries have battled government and
society for legitimacy. This also concerns developments regarding digital media and
how it is treated within the field of information management, electronic recordkeeping
and archival processes.
The dynamism of digital media and its impact on cultural process is still being explored.
How this impact is defined is being addressed in the literature and varies from field to
field.
2.5 Conclusion
This literature review has been designed to survey the possible fields of study that will
contribute to the study of online moving image as cultural practice. Some of the fields of
research are extensive and there is opportunity to expand on the current review into
more specific fields, namely memetics and collective memory, particularly in regard to
digital networks and visual media. The writings of sociologist Maurice Halbwachs and
the concepts of socialisation of memory would be of interest. (Halbwachs, 1992)
Another area that needs greater detail and depth is the literature concerning the archive
in society. The relation that archives (and by extension, museums and libraries) have in
the process of cultural formation, particularly when it comes to the subject of electronic
archiving. Information management is setting precedents about how digital information
is being captured, defined and ascribed value. This impacts on how cultural processes
are being represented in the literature.
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This literature review has presented some fields of study that influence how online
moving image is being discussed in reference to cultural heritage. The media-centric and
object-centred definitions of archival and collecting institutions do not address the
dynamism and purpose of online moving image. This study will go some way into
addressing this lack.
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3.0 References
Auffret, G., & Bachimont, B. (1999). Audiovisual Cultural Heritage: From TV and
Radio Archiving to Hypermedia Publishing. Paper presented at the Research and
Advanced Technology for Digital Libraries: Third European Conference,
ECDL'99, Paris, France, September 1999. Proceedings. Retrieved August 7,
2007, from SpringerLink database.
Barnet, B. (2001). Pack-rat or Amnesiac? Memory, the archive and the birth of the
Internet. Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies, 15(2), 217-231.
Retrieved September 3, 2007, from InformaWorld database.
Bjarneskans, H., Grønnevik, B., & Sandberg, A. (2000). The life cycle of memes:
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http://www.aleph.se/Trans/Cultural/Memetics/memecycle.html
Bryne, A. (2006, 9-11 October 2006). The warp and the weft: communities, institutions
and memory. Paper presented at the 3rd Prato International Community
Informatics Conference (CIRN 2006), Prato, Italy. Retrieved September 5, 2007,
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Carroll, N. (2006). Mitchell and Kenyon, archival contingency, and the cultural
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Castells, M. (2000). The rise of the network society (2nd ed. Vol. 1). Oxford: Blackwell
Publishers Ltd.
CCAAA. (2005). UNESCO instrument for the safeguarding and preservation of the
audiovisual heritage [Issues Paper]. Vol. Version 1.0, (CCAAA).
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Davis, M. (1997). Garage cinema and the future of media technology. Communications
of the ACM 40(2), 42-48. Retrieved August 16, 2007, from ACM Portal
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Davis, S. B., & Moar, M. (2005). The amateur creator. Paper presented at the
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Elsaesser, T. (2004). The New Film History as Media Archaeology. Cinémas, 14(2-3),
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http://www.erudit.org/revue/cine/2004/v14/n2-3/026005ar.html
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Garzotto, F., Mainetti, L., & Paolini, P. (1994). Adding multimedia collections to the
Dexter Model. Paper presented at the Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia:
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