UNIT-1

ACCIDENT

An unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally, typically resulting in damage or
injury.
An accident, also known as an unintentional injury, is an undesirable, incidental, and unplanned event that
could have been prevented had circumstances leading up to the accident been recognized, and acted upon,
prior to its occurrence.

Accidents happen due to

1. Unsafe action
2. Unsafe condition

HAZARD

A hazard is an agent which has the potential to cause harm to a vulnerable target. The terms "hazard" and
"risk" are often used interchangeably. However, in terms of risk assessment, they are two very distinct terms.
A hazard is any agent that can cause harm or damage to humans, property, or the environment. Risk is
defined as the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a negative consequence, or more simply, a
hazard poses no risk if there is no exposure to that hazard.

Hazards can be dormant or potential, with only a theoretical probability of harm. An event that is caused by
interaction with a hazard is called an incident. The likely severity of the undesirable consequences of an
incident associated with a hazard, combined with the probability of this occurring, constitute the associated
risk. If there is no possibility of a hazard contributing towards an incident, there is no risk.

RISK

A situation involving exposure to danger. Risk is the potential of gaining or losing something of value.
Values (such as physical health, social status, emotional well-being, or financial wealth) can be gained or lost
when taking risk resulting from a given action or inaction, foreseen or unforeseen (planned or not planned).
Risk can also be defined as the intentional interaction with uncertainty. Uncertainty is a potential,
unpredictable, and uncontrollable outcome; risk is a consequence of action taken in spite of uncertainty.

RISK = HAZARD * ACCIDENT

INDUSTRIAL SAFETY PRINCIPLES

A basic principle of safety can be illustrated by the accident triangle. This principle states that for each
accidental death that occurs, there are X instances of human injury, Y instances of property damage, and Z
instances of what we will call Near Misses (in which the hazardous situation exists but an accident does not
occur). Common examples of Near Miss behavior include smoking in bed, or running a red light. This safety
principle reasons that the best way to avoid death, injury and property loss is to stay out of the Near Miss
zone.
  For example, consider the hazard of smoking in bed. For every death caused by smoking in bed, there
are X number of people injured by smoking in bed, and Y number of bedrooms or Houses damaged
by smoking in bed. And there are Z number of instances of people smoking in bed who do not die,
injure themselves, or burn their houses down. These Z people are operating in the Near Miss zone.
Even though nothing destructive happened to them, their behavior is unsafe because it is the same
behavior observed in people who died, or were injured, or suffered property damage.

The best way to stay out of the Near Miss zone is to analyze hazards and create guidelines for safe operation.
We then educate people about those safety guidelines. Whenever possible, we also place warnings and
indicators near the hazard.

If, instead of focusing on accident prevention, we focus only on minimizing loss after an accident has already
occurred, we will seek to improve our emergency response to accidents. Emergency response is a very
important part of any safety program, but it is significantly more expensive than prevention. Therefore,
unless we follow safety guidelines to avoid accidents, we will spend a great deal more money and time
correcting accidents after they have happened.

TEN BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SAFETY

1. An unsafe act, an unsafe condition, an accident: these negative events are symptoms of
something wrong in the management system.

Historically, after an accident happened, safety people would target the specific unsafe act, and/or unsafe
condition. If they could only find out what the unsafe act and/or unsafe condition was, they would take
action to rectify that act or condition.

2. Certain sets of circumstances can be predicted to produce severe injuries. These circumstances
can be identified and controlled. Circumstances include such things as:
 High Energy Sources
 Certain Construction Activities
 Public Safety Activities (Police and Fire)
 Working at Heights

3. Safety should be managed like any other organizational function. Management should direct
the safety effort by setting achievable goals and by planning, organizing, and controlling to
achieve them.
4. The key to effective line safety performance is management procedures that establish
accountability.
5. The function of safety is to locate and define the operational errors that allow accident to occur.
6. The cause of unsafe act should be identified and classified. Some of classifications are overload.
Each cause is one which can be controlled.
7. In most cases, unsafe behavior is normal human behavior; it is the result of normal people
reacting to their environment. Management’s job is to change the environment that leads to
the unsafe behavior.
8. There are three major subsystems that must be dealt with in building an effective safety system:

 The physical (Conditions)

 The behavioral (Acts)
 The managerial (What management does or does not do to ensure a safe work environment)

9. The safety system should fit the (management) culture of the organization.
 10. There is no one right way to achieve safety in an organization; however, for a safety system to
be effective, it must meet certain criteria. The system must:

 (Obtain) supervisory performance

 Involve middle management
 Have top management visibly show their commitment
 Have employee participation
 Be flexible
 Be perceived as positive

Ten Principles of Safety Management

1. Establish and observe a written corporate safety policy.

2. Create an independent safety review process.

3. Identify and evaluate the severity and foresee ability of product hazards.

4. Conduct a design review assessing the risk of injury by considering the hazards, the environment, and
foreseeable use.

5. First attempt to eliminate hazards. If not possible, then reduce the opportunity for injury by guarding
against the hazards.

6. Warn users of product dangers and motivate them to avoid injury.

7. Promote only the safe use of a product.

8. Maintain safety-related records during the useful life of the product.

9. Continuously monitor safety performance of the product in the hands of users.

10. Promptly notify product users and institute recall procedures where necessary to substantially reduce
or eliminate injury.

1. Establish and observe a written corporate safety policy.

A written corporate safety policy is the ultimate responsibility of top management. The document is
designed to detail executive commitment, both statutory and voluntary, to the concept of system
safety; a before-the-fact management system designed to insure the production and distribution of
reasonably safe products. Oral direction such as "safety is everyone's responsibility" provides
inadequate instructions to the organization. The policy must describe management commitment to
clear identification of the responsible corporate units for the tasks of hazard identification, risk
assessment and injury control. The primary goal of a written safety policy is the creation of a
management system to substantially reduce of eliminate injury to consumers.

2. Create an independent safety review process.

The independence of the safety function within the management structure is crucial to successful
analysis of potential product dangers. Corporate Safety Director is an advisory role, with authority to
interact with technical functions such as product design, engineering, epidemiology, human factors,
 communications and legal. The safety manager must be able to order safety-related analyses by the
various technical divisions and have the authority to integrate the results for presentation directly to
top management for decisions on injury control. It is critical that the safety management office be
independent of production and distribution. Giving a production manager primary responsibility for
safety will divide his or her loyalties and compromise injury control before management review. The
safety director often will preside over a safety review board is compromised of members from the
technical divisions.

3. Identify and evaluate the severity and foreseeability of product hazards.

A hazard is the inherent capability of a product to do harm. It is most often the result of an energy
transfer or release, with such transfer creating impact to the product user. Appropriate analysis must
include a focus on whether the hazard is latent to the user while foreseeable to the producer and the
impact on certain vulnerable population groups. The vast majority of homeowners in rural areas do
not understand that pilot outage in an LP gas water heater can create dangerous conditions when the
safety valve fails to operate. Turning on a light bulb or attempting to relight the pilot can create a
catastrophic explosion. Some hay balers can entangle a farmer's arm faster than they can let go of a
piece of string caught in the feed rollers. Children cannot recognize strangulation hazards in and
around cribs. Manufacturers and distributors must proceed with extra caution where the hazard is not
immediately apparent to the user.

4. Conduct a design review assessing the risk of injury by considering the hazards, the environment,
and foreseeable use.

A risk of injury is the opportunity for a specific set of conditions to create harm: Under what
circumstances can the user be injured? An examination of the identified hazards, the environment in
which it is intended to be used and foreseeable use and misuse of the product by the user population
must be considered. An all terrain vehicle, or ATV, can be an inherently unstable 300-pound machine
that can throw a rider. Crushing injuries can occur in addition to the impact by overturning. ATVs are
intended to be used in uncontrolled, wilderness environments, such as mountainous paths, sand dunes
and over obstacles. By creating a recreational, sometimes uninhibited setting, ATV riders can
foreseeable use the product by going fast, racing with friends, or even by partaking in alcoholic
beverages. While not always appropriate behavior to a safety analyst, it is foreseeable that these
situations will occur and must be considered to effect reasonable safeguards to prevent injury.

5. First attempt to eliminate hazards. If not possible, then reduce the opportunity for injury by
guarding against the hazards.

By eliminating a specific hazard, certain injury cannot occur. For many years cribs were designed
with finials, or cornerposts, extending above the top edge of the crib. Children would become
entangled on the finials through clothing or other articles and strangle. Redesigning the crib with a
smooth top edge with no protrusions eliminates the danger. But in other cases this is often not
possible. Gasoline creates toxic and explosive fumes. It is not possible to eliminate them without
destroying its usefulness. Gasoline can however, be stored in an appropriate canister to prevent the
fumes from leaking into a water heater closet in the garage causing an explosion and severe burn
injuries. A power mower employs a steel blade rotating at over 200 mph, but lawn mowers can
incorporate devices to shut down the blade when the operator releases the controls and can shield user
access to the rotating blades.
6. Warn users of product dangers and motivate them to avoid injury.

In addition to elimination of hazards, product warnings and instructions must assist the user to avoid
dangers, including those that remain after thorough attempts to eliminate or guard. An explicit
warning including a signal word, statement of the hazard, appropriate behavior and a description of
the consequences of the danger are required. A pictogram illustrating the consequences is often
needed to communicate the danger, especially to those who cannot read the words. This
communication of the consequences is particularly important in motivating the user to avoid the
danger. Ten years ago, the CPSC required a warning on certain power lawn mowers signaling
Danger, to keep hands and feet away from the mower, and included a pictogram depicting a blade
cutting a hand. A warning not to go in the kitchen without knowing why may be quickly disobeyed.
Informing the chef not to enter the kitchen because of a fire spreading from the oven will often cause
him or her to go elsewhere to eat.

7. Promote only the safe use of a product.

Advertising and product promotion sometimes subtly and deceptively promote consumer misuse.
Motorcycles promoting speeds up to 150 mph certainly encourage users to go fast, if not to the limit.
Some chain saw manufacturers for years promoted the "macho" image to outdoorsmen. When they
began distributing smaller, homeowner saws to the general population, injuries more than doubled. In
the early years of sales, ATVs were advertised as safe, family fun. Print advertisements said the
ATVs could traverse "an astonishing array of terrain", over "rocks, boulders and fallen logs" and
"where some animals can't go." Small, instantly removed disclaimers are insufficient to warn users of
the dangers of actions depicted in advertisements. Positive statements providing safe use instructions
with sufficeint frequency to influence behavior is necessary to reinforce safe activity.

8. Maintain safety-related records during the useful life of the product.

An effective product safety system requires records in sufficient detail to allow for timely detection of
safety hazards and trends, and for tracing product defects in assembly, components and overall
design. Records necessary to provide sufficient data for management decisions include safety-related
product changes, test results, consumer complaints, product liability lawsuits, location of products
within the distribution chain, government injury data, and engineering reports. An integral part of the
corporate safety policy is establishment of a system of records and a directive concerning retention of
those documents. A document destruction policy of three years concerning a product with a useful
life of seven years deprives the organization for the opportunity to protect product users from danger.

9. Continuously monitor the safety performance of the product in the hands of users.

Once a manufacturer/distributor has concluded that a product is reasonably safe based on pre-
production review and analysis, the product is ready for distribution to users. Feedback from product
users is critical to determining whether subsequent corrective action is necessary. Government injury
data such as the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (NEISS) is a primary resource for
management safety data. A major producer of furnace valves distributed approximately 15,000 valves
to furnace manufacturers. Reports from the field indicated the seals were not properly chlorinated,
thus allowing the gasket to tear and leak gas. The company notified the Consumer Product Safety
Commission under section 15(b) that the product possibly "contained a defect which could create a
substantial product hazard". An appropriate corrective action plan including the recall of the valve
and notification to consumers was taken to protect consumers from the dangers of gas explosions.
10. Promptly notify product users and institute recall procedures where necessary to substantially
reduce or eliminate injury.

Upon discovery of a product hazard after distribution to the public, immediate notification of the
danger and quick steps to protect users from injury are critical. Time is of the essence.
Knowledgeable product users can help reduce both injuries and claims. Efficient recall procedures
can remove hazardous products from the stream of commerce. A number of years ago a major
producer and distributor of telephones in the United States discovered that the transformers used to
power the lighted dial on certain phones would catch fire. Four incidents of minor property damage
were reported. Although no injuries were reported, the company embarked on a major notification
and recall campaign which included "bill stuffers" to tens of millions of consumers of the fire damage
and offered a free replacement, along with compensation for damage caused by the transformer. Few
additional incidents were reported.

SITE SELECTION AND PLANT LAYOUT

Introduction

Plant location or the facilities location problem is an important strategic level decision- making for an
organisation. One of the key features of a conversion process (manufacturing system) is the efficiency with
which the products (services) are transferred to the customers. This fact will include the determination of
where to place the plant or facility. The selection of location is a key-decision as large investment is made in
building plant and machinery. It is not advisable or not possible to change the location very often. So an
improper location of plant may lead to waste of all the investments made in building and machinery,
equipment. Before a location for a plant is selected, long range forecasts should be made anticipating future
needs of the company. The plant location should be based on the company’s expansion plan and policy,
diversification plan for the products, changing market conditions, the changing sources of raw materials and
many other factors that influence the choice of the location decision. The purpose of the location study is to
find an optimum location one that will result in the greatest advantage to the organization.

NEED FOR SELECTING A SUITABLE LOCATION

Three Reasons for site selection are

1. When starting a new organisation, i.e., location choice for the first time.
2. In case of existing organisation.
3. In case of Global Location.

I. In Case of Location Choice for the First Time or New Organisations

Cost economies are always important while selecting a location for the first time, but should
keep in mind the cost of long-term business/organisational objectives. The following are the
factors to be considered while selecting the location for the new organisations:
1. Identification of region:
The organisational objectives along with the various long-term considerations about marketing,
technology, internal organisational strengths and weaknesses, region-
specific resources and business environment, legal-governmental environment, social
environment and geographical environment suggest a suitable region for locating the operations
facility.
 2. Choice of a site within a region:
Once the suitable region is identified, the next step is choosing the best site from an available set.
Choice of a site is less dependent on the Organization ’
s long-term strategies. Evaluation of alternative sites for their tangible and intangible
costs will resolve facilities-location problem.
The problem of location of a site within the region can be approached with the following cost-
oriented non-interactive model,
i.e ., dimensional analysis.
3. Dimensional analysis:
If all the costs were tangible and quantifiable, the comparison and selection of a site is easy. The
location with the least cost is selected. In most of the cases intangible costs which are expressed
in relative terms than in absolute terms. Their relative merits
and demerits of sites can also be compared easily. Since both tangible and intangible costs need
to be considered for a selection of a site, dimensional analysis is used.
Dimensional analysis consists in computing the relative merits (cost ratio) for each of the cost
items for two alternative sites.

II. In Case of Location Choice for Existing Organisation

In this case a manufacturing plant has to fit into a multi-plant operations strategy. That is,
additional plant location in the same premesis and elsewere under following circumstances:
1. Plant manufacturing distinct products.
2. Manufacturing plant supplying to specific market area.
3. Plant divided on the basis of the process or stages in manufacturing.
4. Plants emphasizing flexibility.

The different operations strategies under the above circumstances could be:
1. Plants manufacturing distinct products:
Each plant services the entire market area for the organization. This strategy is necessary where
the needs of technological and resource inputs are specialized or distinctively different for the
different product-lines.
For example, a high quality precision product-line should not be located along with other
product-line requiring little emphasis on precision. It may not be proper to have too many
contradictions such as sophisticated and old equipment, highly skilled and semi-skilled
personnel, delicates processes and those that could permit rough handlings, all under one roof
and one set of managers. Such a setting leads to much confusion regarding the required emphasis
and the management policies. Product specialization may be necessary in a highly competitive
market. It may be necessary to exploit the special resources of a particular geographical area.
The more decentralized these pairs are in terms of the management and in terms of their physical
location, the better would be the planning and control and the utilization of the resources.
2. Manufacturing plants supplying to a specific market area:
Here, ea ch plant manufactures almost all of the company ’ s products. This type of strategy is
useful where market proximity consideration dominates the resources and technology
considerations. This strategy requires great deal of coordination from the corporate office. An
extreme example of this strategy is that of soft drinks bottling plants.
3. Plants divided on the basis of the process or stages in manufacturing:
Each production process or stage of manufacturing may require distinctively different equipment
capabilities, labour skills, technologies, and managerial policies and emphasis. Since the
products of one plant feed into the other plant, this strategy requires much centralized
coordination of the manufacturing activities from the corporate office that are expected to
understand the various technological aspects of all the plants.
4. Plants emphasizing flexibility:
This requires much coordination between plants to meet the changing needs and at the same time
ensure efficient use of the facilities and resources.
Frequent changes in the long-term strategy in order to improve be efficiently temporarily, are not
healthy for the organization.

For an established organization in order to add on to the capacity, following are the ways:
( a ) Expansion of the facilities at the existing site:
This is acceptable when it does not violate the basic business and managerial outlines,
i.e ., philosophies, purposes, strategies and capabilities. For example, expansion should not
compromise quality, delivery, or customer service.
( b ) Relocation of the facilities (closing down the existing ones):
This is a drastic step which can be called as ‘ Uprooting and Transplanting ’ . Unless there are
very compelling reasons, relocation is not done. The reasons will be either bringing radical
changes in technology, resource availability or other destabilization.
All these factors are applicable to service organizations, whose objectives, priorities and
strategies may differ from those of hardcore manufacturing organizations.

III. In Case of Global Location

Because of globalisation, multinational corporations are setting up their organizations in India
and Indian companies are extending their operations in other countries. In case of global
locations there is scope for virtual proximity and virtual factory.

Virtual proximity
With the advance in telecommunications technology, a firm can be in virtual proximity to its
customers. For a software services firm much of its logistics is through the information/
communication pathway. Many firms use the communications highway for conducting a large
portion of their business transactions. Logistics is certainly an important factor in deciding on a
location whether in the home country or abroad. Markets have to be reached. Customers have to
be contacted. Hence, a market presence in the country of the customers is quite necessary.

Virtual Factory
Many firms based in USA and UK in the service sector and in the manufacturing sector often out
sources part of their business processes to foreign locations such as India. Thus, instead of one
’sown operations, a firm could use its business associates’operations facilities. The Indian BPO
firm is a foreign-based company’s ‘virtual service factory ’ . So a location could be one ’ s own
or one’s business associates. The location decision need not always necessarily pertain to own
operations.
FACTORS INFLUENCING PLANT LOCATION/FACILITY LOCATION

In this section, you will learn about the various factors that affect decisions regarding choice of location.
These factors are explained in the following sections.
1. Proximity to Customers (Markets)
When the plant is located near the customers/markets, the cost of transportation is low. This reduces the
product cost. Most small ancillary units are located near big automotive factories. The OEMs (Original
Equipment Manufacturers) are the institutional customers of small parts, components, or sub- assemblies
from these ancillary units. The Maruti joint Venture Complex at Gurgaon near the Maruti Suzuki car factory
is a good example of how proximity to the customer reduces the transportation cost of auto ancillary units,
which supply parts, components, sub-assemblies, etc. for making the Maruti car. Proximity to markets also
allows companies to meet sudden spurt in demand, thus providing an advantage over competitors who are
located at far-off places. That is why we find hospitals, schools, post offices, banks, insurance companies,
etc. located in high population zones so that they are able to serve a large number of customers.

2. Proximity to Raw Materials

Why are the integrated steel plants of SAIL located in Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa? This is because of the
large presence of iron ore, coal, dolomite and limestone mines in these regions, which are the basic raw
materials for steel making. Proximity to the source of raw materials is an important consideration for facility
location, especially if the raw materials are bulky, and huge shipping costs will be incurred in transporting
them. Where it becomes absolutely necessary to transport them, it is found that cost of he material is equal to
the shipping cost thus making the raw materials very costly at the point where they are used.

3. Good Transportation Facilities

Good transportation facilities are necessary for movement of goods and people. Regions near metro cities
have these facilities, as they have a good network of rail, air, water, and road transportation.
 4. Availability of Power
Uninterrupted power supply is a basic requirement of most industries. Companies have to set up their own
DG sets or have captive power plants if they are located in areas with power problems. This increases the
cost of the product, besides additional problems of running the DG sets, captive power plants, etc
5. Basic Amenities
The location site should have certain basic facilities like sewage system, piped water supply, security, etc.,
that are managed by the local municipality. Roads up to the factory premises are always desirable. If these
basic amenities are provided, it will be easier for the employees and they will be willing to work in that
factory. Availability of housing facilities, schools, colleges, banks, post office, hospitals, etc. are added
advantages for
locating a facility in an area.
6. Government Policies
Relaxed taxation policies, excise duty exemption and various other promotional efforts attract industrial
activities in a region. Pondicherry and Daman and Diu are declared ‘no sales tax regions’ and we find that
many companies have their offices/warehouses located there. Many state governments promote industrial
activities in their regions by creating Industry Development Zones, Special Economic Zones, etc. The
governments of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and UP have created software development parks,
where facilities such as high-speed Internet, servers, etc. are provided to software companies at subsidized
rates. Agriculture gets maximum subsidies from the central as well as many state governments. Various
processing plants of agricultural and horticultural products located in these states can avail of these
advantages. Before locating a facility at a particular site, the government policies of that region must be
considered.
7. Environmental and Community Considerations
Many state governments have strict environmental policies, which have to be followed by the industries
operating there. States such as Uttaranchal do not give permission to such industries which release toxic
effluents. Opposition from the community regarding the construction of a plant in their region can disrupt the
whole project. The Sardar Sarovar Dam project is an example where opposition from the locals has
interrupted the construction of the dam over the Narmada.. In the Chipko Movement, started by S.L
Bahuguna, the locals embraced a tree each, and did not allow the officials to cut the trees and thereby
eliminate the forest. After the Union Carbide factory disaster in Bhopal some decades ago, every new factory
faces close scrutiny on the environmental front in the area.
8. Proximity to Subcontractors
Small ancillary units manufacturing small components/sub-assemblies are important for any new factory.
Ancillary units and joint ventures set up their facilities near the OEM. The advantage to the ancillaries is that
it will reduce their component cost. The OEMs too benefit if they set up their facilities near these ancillaries.
Maruti Suzuki set up its second facility at Manesar near Gurgaon (where their first facility is located) so that
it
could take advantage of the suppliers present at the Maruti Joint Venture Complex at
Gurgaon.
9. Availability of Cheap Land
Land is the basic necessity for the construction of a new plant. Many big companies set up their facilities in
backward areas because of availability of low-priced land.
10. Low Construction Costs
Construction costs of a plant may be low at a particular place due to cheap labour available there. The
construction material may also be cheaper at another place. Such places are preferred for locating a plant.
11. Availability of Cheap, Skilled and Efficient Labour
Many companies locate their facilities at places where there is cheap, skilled and efficient labour. Many
companies are locating their branches in South India because the people here are more disciplined, efficient
and skilled.
 12. Effluent Disposal

The natural drainage facility for disposal of Effluent should be duly examined.It would be economically
advantageous if an effluent disposal facility after treatment, which can handle the produced quantity of
effluent is readily available. Otherwise, transporting the effluent by a drainage, to a safe disposal area which
is far away has to tackle the legal and ecological problems.

PLANT LAYOUT

Plant layout refers to the physical arrangement of production facilities. It is the configuration of
departments, work centres and equipment in the conversion process. It is a floor plan of the physical
facilities, which are used in production. According to Moore “ Plant layout is a plan of an optimum
arrangement of facilities including personnel, operating equipment, storage space, material handling
equipment and all other supporting services along with the design of best structure to contain all these
facilities ”

Objectives of Plant Layout

The primary goal of the plant layout is to maximize the profit by arrangement of all the plant
facilities to the best advantage of total manufacturing of the product.
The objectives of plant layout are:
1. Streamline the flow of materials through the plant.
2. Facilitate the manufacturing process.
3. Maintain high turnover of in-process inventory.
4. Minimize materials handling and cost.
5. Effective utilization of men, equipment and space.
6. Make effective utilization of cubic space.
7. Flexibility of manufacturing operations and arrangements.
8. Provide for employee convenience, safety and comfort.
9. Minimize investment in equipment.
10. Minimize overall production time.
11. Maintain flexibility of arrangement and operation.
12. Facilitate the organizational structure

Principles of Plant Layout

1.Principle of integration:
A good layout is one that integrates men, materials, machines and supporting services and
others in order to get the optimum utilization of resources and maximum effectiveness.
2. Principle of minimum distance:
This principle is concerned with the minimum travel (or movement) of man and materials.
The facilities should be arranged such that, the total distance travelled by the men and materials
should be minimum and as far as possible straight line movement should be preferred.

3. Principle of cubic space utilisation:

The good layout is one that utilise both horizontal and vertical space. It is not only enough if only
the floor space is utilised optimally but the third dimension, i.e., the height is also to be utilised
effectively.
4. Principle of flow:
A good layout is one that makes the materials to move in forward direction towards the
completion stage, i.e., there should not be any backtracking.
5. Principle of maximum flexibility
The good layout is one that can be altered without much cost and time, i.e., future requirements
should be taken into account while designing the present layout.
6. Principle of safety, security and satisfaction:
A good layout is one that gives due consideration to workers safety and satisfaction and
safeguards the plant and machinery against fire, theft, etc.
7. Principle of minimum handling:
A good layout is one that reduces the material handling to the minimum.

CLASSIFICATION OF LAYOUT
Layouts can be classified into the following five categories:
1. Process layout
2. Product layout
3. Combination layout
4. Fixed position layout
5. Group layout

1. Process Layout
Process layout is recommended for batch production. All machines performing similar type of operations are
grouped at one location in the process layout e.g., all lathes, milling machines, etc. are grouped in the shop
will be clustered in like groups.
Thus, in process layout the arrangement of facilities are grouped together according to their functions. A
typical process layout is shown in Fig. 2.5. The flow paths of material through the facilities from one
functional area to another vary from product to product. Usually the paths are long and there will be
possibility of backtracking. Process layout is normally used when the production volume is not sufficient to
justify a product layout. Typically, job shops employ process layouts due to the variety of products
manufactured and their low production volumes.
 2. Product Layout
In this type of layout, machines and auxiliary services are located according to the processing sequence of the
product. If the volume of production of one or more products is large, the facilities can be arranged to
achieve efficient flow of materials and lower cost per unit. Special purpose machines are used which perform
the required function quickly and reliably.
The product layout is selected when the volume of production of a product is high such that a separate
production line to manufacture it can be justified. In a strict product layout, machines are not shared by
different products. Therefore, the production volume must be sufficient to achieve satisfactory utilisation of
the equipment.
3. Combination Layout
A combination of process and product layouts combines the advantages of both types of layouts.A
combination layout is possible where an item is being made in different types and sizes. Here machinery is
arranged in a process layout but the process grouping is then arranged in a sequence to manufacture various
types and sizes of products. It is to be noted that the sequence of operations remains same with the variety of
products and sizes. Figure 2.7 shows a combination type of layout for manufacturing different sized gears.
4. Fixed Position Layout
This is also called the project type of layout. In this type of layout, the material, or major components remain
in a fixed location and tools, machinery, men and other materials are brought to this location. This type of
layout is suitable when one or a few pieces of identical heavy products are to be manufactured and when the
assembly consists of large number of heavy parts, the cost of transportation of these parts is very high.
5. Group Layout
Thus group layoutis a combination of the product layout and process layout. It combines the advantages
of both layout systems. If there are m-machines and n-components, in a group layout (Group-Technology
Layout), the m-machines and -n-components will be divided into distinct

PLANT LAYOUT MODEL

LEGAL ASPECTS OF SAFETY

INTRODUCTION

While best management practices and best in class programs may be a goal of many EHS
professionals, at the heart of the profession are the requirements and obligations established by law. It is this
myriad of legal requirements that EHS professionals must be able to identify in order to achieve the
minimum goal of compliance. While it is not expected that anyone can be an expert in all, or even many,
areas of the law, a good EHS professional has enough knowledge to identify potential legal requirements
which allows for further review and analysis. This paper provides a quick review of the major areas of
regulations along with some of their components and triggers.EHS professionals are cautioned to seek local
counsel when their analysis identifies complicated legal issues or structures or for areas where the
professional does not feel competent to make decisions.

Law
In the each branch of the government (i.e., executive, legislative, and judicial) has a
role in establishing the “law”. The powers of the legislative branch are established through the state or
federal constitutions. The legislative branch develops and establishes Acts and Statutes. Acts can directly
place requirements on the citizenry, such as the Occupational Safety and Health Act’s requirement that
“[e]ach employer shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of employment which are
free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his
employees”.
Acts can also establish duties on the executive branch such as the OSH Act’s requirement that “the Secretary
shall . . . by rule promulgate as an occupational safety or health standard any national consensus standard . . .
unless he determines that the promulgation of such a standard would not result in improved safety or health.
The executive branch is provided powers through these Acts and must work within the
constraints established by the legislative branch’s delegation of power. Executive agencies do not have the
freedom to go outside the areas where they have been delegated authority to address other issues. Where
required by the act, or as necessary to implement the requirements of the act, these executive agencies
develop and implement rules and regulations. When legislative acts or executive regulations are challenged,
it is the judicial branch which rules on the legality of the actions taken. Legislatures must act within the
confines of their constitutional powers and similarly the executive agencies must act within the powers
delegated them by the legislature; where this is exceeded the judicial branch can invalidate actions of either
the legislative or executive branches. Similarly, when the meaning or functioning of the law is challenged, it
is the judicial branch which establishes either meaning or parameters of the law.
For the EHS professional the list of potential laws that may be impacted is extensive, including
environmental, medical, and workers compensation. The remainder of this section provides a quick overview
of some of major bodies of law that may be incurred upon by the EHS professional.

Occupational Health & Safety

The OSH Act was established “to assure so far as possible every working man and women in the Nation safe
and healthful working conditions and to preserve our human resources.” As discussed above employers are
required to provide employees a workplace “free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to
cause death or serious physical harm.”Employer is broadly defined so as to encompass almost all private
employers. The OSH Act does not apply to the government as an employer (with the exception of the United
States Postal Service); however, the federal government to maintain a comprehensive program consistent
with the promulgated rules.Many state governments have in turn passed acts either extending the protections
provided by OSHA to government employees within the state or by establishing a State-OSHA to implement
standards for the protection of government workers.The OSH Act provided for the initial adoption of
consensus or federal agency standards, the development of permanent standards, and the issuance of
emergency temporary standards.As most EHS professionals should be aware, OSHA has had a tough time
issuing new standards due to the requirements established by the OSH Act and legal challenges to their rule-
making methods. Despite that, OSHA has established rules for an extensive amount of physical and
chemical hazards that exist in the workplace.

Environmental

Unlike the singular nature of the OSHA regulations, there are a large number of environmental regulations,
many with a potential to impact an EHS professional’s activities.Similar to OSHA, the Environmental
Protection Agency and the current environmental regulatory structure began in 1970. However, numerous
environmental acts and regulations existed pre-1970; but it is generally recognized that these were largely
ineffective at reducing environmental impacts. Throughout the 1970’s and 1980’s numerous updates to
environmental statutes were passed, creating the federal command and control structure that exists now. One
major difference between environmental regulations and occupational and safety regulations is the potential
for states to take over and supplement the federal environmental regulations. Professionals are cautioned that
environmental regulations can vary from state to state. Where the federal regulations allow states to take over
the federal program, the state regulations must at least meet the federal regulations but they can also add
additional regulations or create regulations that exceed the federal regulations.
National Environmental Policy Act (“NEPA”)
The passage of NEPA signaled a significant change in environmental policy and philosophy. Not only did it
establish national environmental policies and goals but also required that federal agencies consider and
implement those goals and policies. This requirement forced federal agencies to identify and consider
environmental considerations in their decision-making process.The judicial branch has interpreted NEPA to
mean that environmental protection is part of every federal agency’s mandate.
While NEPA only applied to federal agencies many states subsequently implemented similar state
regulations. Where applicable these typically require a form of assessment of environmental impact for an
action proposed by a governmental entity. Note that these can often also apply to actions taken with
governmental funding or grants.

Clean Air Act(“CAA”)

The CAA is the largest of the environmental statute and regulatory schemes.This is a specialized area of EHS
practice and professionals in this area often specialize and practice in this area only. The CAA includes the
establishment of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (“NAAQS”) which are aimed at criteria
pollutants (non-toxic) that endanger public health and welfare. The NAAQS are used to establish regional
goals and industrial activity allowances but are also useful for EHS professionals working in the area of
public health and welfare. The CAA also establishes a list of hazardous air pollutants and sets National
Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (“NESHAPS”) for them. Control measures are mandated
by establishing required technology to be implemented based upon industry and pollutant(s). The CAA also
establishes standards and requirements for mobile equipment, vehicles, and vehicle fleets. EHS professionals
should be aware of state or local implementation of CAA requirements which may include permitting,
registration, and usage/implementation of technology based requirements.

Clean Water Act (“CWA”)

The CWA established limits for the discharge from industrial sources and publicly owned treatment works
(“POTW”) into the navigable waters of the United States. It also established the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (“NPDES”) permit program which stemmed from the CWA requirement prohibiting any
discharge or addition of a pollutant from a point source into the navigable waters of the United States except
as in compliance with the permitting requirements, effluent limitations, and other provisions of the CWA.
The EPA, states, and various courts have broadly interpreted and applied these requirements. The permits
establish enforceable effluent limitations along with monitoring and reporting, operation and maintenance,
recordkeeping, inspection, and other requirements.Similar to the CAA, the CWA establishes technology and
industry based effluent limitations. In addition, the CWA also establishes water quality standards based upon
the use classification of a water body. Where industrial discharges are to a POTW rather than direct to
navigable waters (i.e., indirect discharger) pretreatment requirements may exist and the POTW will then
issue permits and approvals for industrial dischargers. Under the CWA the EPA, and states where they have
taken over the CWA program, have established general permits for common industrial activities. Where
general permits cannot be used then dischargers must submit and obtain a facility specific permit.The CWA
also covers the discharge of storm water within the NPDES program and regulates stormwater discharges
from construction activities, municipal separate storm sewer systems (“MS4s”), and industrial activities.
Working within wetlands is also covered by the CWA and uses a similar permit system. As withother
environmental rules, EHS professionals should be aware of regulatory differences and jurisdictional issues
between the states and with the federal government. While the CWA is predominantly intended to clean and
maintain the waters of the United States, EHS professionals should also be aware of the regulations on the
“clean water side” such as the Safe Drinking Water Act which establishes standards for the providing of
drinking water. Levels and testing requirements are based upon the service level provided.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act(“RCRA”)
RCRA establishes the requirements for the management and disposal of solid waste. At the federal level
RCRA establishes a comprehensive system in regards to hazardous waste. Hazardous waste is defined within
four lists and also by the characteristics of the waste. The program also includes requirements for mixtures,
waste derived from other waste, and waste from releases. The RCRA program includes requirements for
registration, management, recordkeeping, training, etc. for hazardous waste generators, transporters, and
treatment, storage & disposal facilities (“TSDF”). RCRA established requirements for generators to make
efforts to reduce their hazardous waste generation and on TSDFs to implement technology standards that
would be protective of the environment, including groundwater. RCRA also established the idea of “cradle to
grave” ownership of hazardous waste; when a facility generates hazardous waste they remain legally
responsible for that waste forever, regardless of it being transported and disposed by other persons. To
implement these requirements the EPA has established not only a numbered identification system for all
persons generating or involved with hazardous wastes but have also implemented an extensive manifesting,
reporting, and tax structure. Within the RCRA hazardous waste program the EPA has defined certain types
of hazardous wastes as “universal wastes” with reduced management, handling, and disposal requirements.
This includes certain types of batteries, returned unused pesticides, mercury-containing lamps, and mercury-
containing equipment. RCRA leaves the regulation of nonhazardous wastes to the states though the federal
requirements establish control and monitoring requirements for solid waste disposal facilities. In addition,
EHS professionals should be aware where states have taken over the management of the hazardous waste
RCRA requirements and implemented additional requirements to the expected federal requirements. The
implementation of RCRA also included the establishment of an Underground Storage Tank (“UST”)
program. This program established standards for the removal and remediation of existing USTs, new USTs,
upgrading UST systems, and financial responsibility for owners and operators of petroleum USTs.

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

(“CERCLA”)
CERCLA, commonly known as Superfund, was created to deal with inactive and abandoned (i.e., historical)
hazardous waste sites, as opposed to RCRA’s regulation of current facilities. CERCLA and its amendments
have established the liability and cleanup requirements for current and former landowners of contaminated
properties, generators or arrangers, and transporters. It has also established standards to be utilized to
establish an innocent landowner defense in real property transactions. EHS professionals working on
property transactions or at National Priority List or other CERCLA sites must be familiar with the lengthy
and complicated provisions of CERCLA along with any site specific agreements or decisions.The Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (“SARA”) for CERCLA also added the Emergency Planning and
Community Right-to-Know Act (“EPCRA”).

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (“FIFRA”)

While the federal government has regulated pesticides for more than a century FIFRA has continued to
change to strike the proper balance between the various agricultural and environmentalist interests. The core
element of FIFRA is the registration of all pesticides before they can be manufactured, distributed, or
imported. This process requires the manufacturer or importer to provide all necessary data to obtain the
registration.EHS professionals should be aware of the establishment of training and certification
requirements for pesticide applicators which are typically established at a state level. These requirements
vary based upon where the pesticide is being applied, business of person performing, and whether it is a
restricted-use or general-use pesticide being applied.
Toxic Substance Control Act (“TSCA”)
TSCA started in 1976 as a method to allow the government to identify and control the introduction of toxic
substances into the products, articles, and materials that persons could purchase. This also included the
requirement that the EPA regulate poly-chlorinated iphenyls (which allowed the EPA to create one of the
most complex and convoluted set of regulations that most EHS professionals will ever read). The EPA has
signaled that they intend to discuss and revise their PCB regulations and Congress has repeatedly proposed
revisions to the toxic substance sections of TSCA to provide the EPA with proactive powers to regulate
substances prior to entry into the stream of commerce (similar to the European Union’s REACH). TSCA was
modified in the 1986 to incorporate an extensive regulation of asbestos in schools. This was later modified to
extend the training requirements beyond the realm of schools. TSCA was modified four more times between
1988 and 2010. These added the Indoor Radon Abatement Act, Residential Lead-Based Paint Hazard
Reduction Act, Health High-Performance Schools, and Formaldehyde Standards for Composite Wood
Products. While the first three will likely only affect EHS professionals in very specific industries the most
recent formaldehyde standard additions has the potential to affect or establish standards affecting multiple
fields.

Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act

There are a number of reasons or methods by which an employer or EHS professional could legally obtain
genetic information about an employee. This includes such things as just overhearing employees discussing
genetic information, requests made by an employee through such laws as the Family Medical Leave Act, or
information that might be obtained where an employer offers health services. GINA prohibits a covered
employer from using that information in regards to employment treatment of the employee (i.e., hiring,
firing, promoting, etc.) or to any way limit, segregate or otherwise mistreat the employee. Additionally,
employers are required to maintain any legally obtained genetic information within a confidential, separate
medical record.

General ventilation
Ventilation moves outdoor air into a building or a room, and distributes the air within the building or room.
The general purpose of ventilation in buildings is to provide healthy air for breathing by both diluting the
pollutants originating in the building and removing the pollutants from it.

Building ventilation has three basic elements:

 ventilation rate — the amount of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and the quality of the outdoor air.
 airflow direction — the overall airflow direction in a building, which should be from clean zones to dirty
zones; and
 air distribution or airflow pattern — the external air should be delivered to each part of the space in an
efficient manner and the airborne pollutants generated in each part of the space should also be removed in an
efficient manner.

There are three methods that may be used to ventilate a building: natural, mechanical and hybrid (mixed-
mode) ventilation.

What is natural ventilation?

Natural forces (e.g. winds and thermal buoyancy force due to indoor and outdoor air density differences)
drive outdoor air through purpose-built, building envelope openings. Purpose-built openings include
windows, doors, solar chimneys, wind towers and trickle ventilators. This natural ventilation of buildings
depends on climate, building design and human behaviour.
What is mechanical ventilation?

Mechanical fans drive mechanical ventilation. Fans can either be installed directly in windows or walls, or
installed in air ducts for supplying air into, or exhausting air from, a room.

The type of mechanical ventilation used depends on climate. For example, in warm and humid climates,
infiltration may need to be minimized or prevented to reduce interstitial condensation (which occurs when
warm, moist air from inside a building penetrates a wall, roof or floor and meets a cold surface). In these
cases, a positive pressure mechanical ventilation system is often used. Conversely, in cold climates,
exfiltration needs to be prevented to reduce interstitial condensation, and negative pressure ventilation is
used. For a room with locally generated pollutants, such as a bathroom, toilet or kitchen, the negative
pressure system is often used.

 All workplaces need an adequate supply of fresh air

 This can be natural ventilation, from doors, windows etc or controlled, where air is supplied and/or removed
by a powered fan
 If you work in an office or shop, natural ventilation will normally be enough to control dusts and vapours
from cleaning materials etc
 Sometimes planned, powered general ventilation is an integral part of a set of control measures, eg the
welding of large fabrications in a workshop

Comparison of mechanical and natural ventilation

Mechanical ventilation

If well designed, installed and maintained, there are a number of advantages to a mechanical system.

 Mechanical ventilation systems are considered to be reliable in delivering the designed flow rate,
regardless of the impacts of variable wind and ambient temperature. As mechanical ventilation can
be integrated easily into air-conditioning, the indoor air temperature and humidity can also be
controlled.
 Filtration systems can be installed in mechanical ventilation so that harmful microorganisms,
particulates, gases, odours and vapours can be removed.
 The airflow path in mechanical ventilation systems can be controlled, for instance allowing the air to
flow from areas where there is a source (e.g. patient with an airborne infection), towards the areas
free of susceptible individuals.
 Mechanical ventilation can work everywhere when electricity is available.

However, mechanical ventilation systems also have problems.

 Mechanical ventilation systems often do not work as expected, and normal operation may be
interrupted for numerous reasons, including equipment failure, utility service interruption, poor
design, poor maintenance or incorrect management. If the system services a critical facility, and
there is a need for continuous operation, all the equipment may have to be backed up — which can
be expensive and unsustainable.
 Installation and particularly maintenance costs for the operation of a mechanicalventilation system
may be very high. If a mechanical system cannot be properly installed or maintained due to shortage
of funds, its performance will be compromised.
Because of these problems, mechanical ventilation systems may result in the spread of infectious diseases
through health-care facilities, instead of being an important tool for infection control.

Natural ventilation

If well installed and maintained, there are several advantages of a natural ventilation system, compared with
mechanical ventilation systems.

 Natural ventilation can generally provide a high ventilation rate more economically, due to the use
of natural forces and large openings.
 Natural ventilation can be more energy efficient, particularly if heating is not required.
 Well-designed natural ventilation could be used to access higher levels of daylight.

From a technology point of view, natural ventilation may be classified into simple natural ventilation systems
and high-tech natural ventilation systems. The latter are computer-controlled, and may be assisted by
mechanical ventilation systems (i.e. hybrid or mixed-mode systems). High-tech natural ventilation may have
the same limitations as mechanical ventilation systems; however, it also has the benefits of both mechanical
and natural ventilation systems.

If properly designed, natural ventilation can be reliable, particularly when combined with a mechanical
system using the hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation principle, although some of these modern natural
ventilation systems may be more expensive to construct and design than mechanical systems.

In general, the advantage of natural ventilation is its ability to provide a very high air-change rate at low cost,
with a very simple system. Although the air-change rate can vary significantly, buildings with modern
natural ventilation systems (that are designed and operated properly) can achieve very high air-change rates
by natural forces, which can greatly exceed minimum ventilation requirements.

Local exhaust ventilation

 Local exhaust ventilation (LEV), or extraction, is an engineering control solution to reduce exposures
to dust, mist, fume, vapour or gas in a workplace
 Use a properly designed LEV system that will draw dust, fume, gases or vapour through a hood or
booth away from the worker
 An extraction system should be easy for workers to use and enclose the process as much as possible
 It should effectively capture and contain the harmful substance before it is released into the working
environment
 Air should be filtered and discharged to a safe place
 The system should be robust enough to withstand the process and work environment. It is important
to maintain it and undertake tests to ensure it is working effectively
Things to avoid when applying LEV

Common errors in applying extraction are:

 the effectiveness of small hoods is usually overestimated – be realistic

 the hood is usually too far away from the process
 the hood doesn’t surround the process enough
 inadequate airflow
 failure to check that the extraction continues to work
 Workers are not consulted, so they don’t understand the importance of extraction and do not use it properly.

Design of Ventilation Systems

The procedure below can be used to design ventilation systems:

 Calculate heat or cooling load, including sensible and latent heat

 Calculate necessary air shifts according the number of occupants and their activity or any other
special process in the rooms
 Calculate air supply temperature
 Calculate circulated mass of air
 Calculate temperature loss in ducts
 Calculate the outputs of components - heaters, coolers, washers, humidifiers
 Calculate boiler or heater size
 Design and calculate the duct system

1. Calculate Heat and Cooling Loads

Calculate heat and cooling loads by
 Calculating indoor heat or cooling loads
 Calculating surrounding heat or cooling loads
2. Calculate Air Shifts according the Occupants or any Processes
Calculate the pollution created by persons and their activity and processes.
3. Calculate Air Supply Temperature
Calculate air supply temperature. Common guidelines:
 For heating, 38 - 50oC (100 - 120oF) may be suitable
 For cooling where the inlets are near occupied zones , 6 - 8oC (10 - 15oF) below room
temperature may be suitable
 For cooling where high velocity diffusing jets are used, 17oC (30oF) below room temperature may be
suitable
4. Calculate Air Quantity
Air Heating
If air is used for heating, the needed air flow rate may be expressed as
qh = Hh / (ρ cp (ts - tr))
where
qh = volume of air for heating (m3/s)
Hh = heat load (W)
cp = specific heat air (J/kg K)
ts = supply temperature (oC)
tr = room temperature (oC)
ρ = density of air (kg/m3)
Air Cooling
If air is used for cooling, the needed air flow rate may be expressed as
qc = Hc / (ρ cp (to - tr))
where
qc = volume of air for cooling (m3/s)
Hc = cooling load (W)
to = outlet temperature (oC) where to = tr if the air in the room is mixed
Example - Heating Load
If the heat load is Hh = 400 W, supply temperature ts = 30 oC and the room temperature tr = 22 oC, the air
flow rate can be calculated as:
qh = (400 W) / ((1.2 kg/m3) (1005 J/kg K) ((30 oC) - (22 oC)))
= 0.041 m3/s
= 149 m3/h
Moisture
Humidifying
If the outside air is more humid than the indoor air - then the indoor air can be humidified by supplying air
from the outside. The amount of supply air can be calculated as
qmh = Qh / (ρ (x1 - x2))
where
qmh = volume of air for humidifying (m3/s)
Qh = moisture to be supplied (kg/s)
ρ = density of air (kg/m3)
x2 = humidity of room air (kg/kg)
x1 = humidity of supply air (kg/kg)
Dehumidifying
If the outside air is less humid than the indoor air - then the indoor air can be dehumidified by supplying air
from the outside. The amount of supply air can be calculated as
qmd = Qd / (ρ (x2 - x1))
where
qmd = volume of air for dehumidifying (m3/s)
Qd = moisture to be dehumidified (kg/s)
Example - Humidifying
If added moisture Qh = 0.003 kg/s, room humidity x1 = 0.001 kg/kg and supply air humidity x2 = 0.008
kg/kg, the amount of air can expressed as:
qmh = (0.003 kg/s) / ((1.2 kg/m3) ((0.008 kg/kg)- (0.001 kg/kg)))
= 0.36 m3/s
Alternatively the air quantity is determined by the requirements of occupants or processes.
5. Temperature Loss in Ducts
The heat loss from a duct can be calculated as
H = A k ((t1 + t2) / 2 - tr )
where
H = heat loss (W)
A = area of duct walls (m2)
t1 = initial temperature in duct (oC)
t2 = final temperature in duct (oC)
k = heat loss coefficient of duct walls (W/m2 K) (5.68 W/m2 K for sheet metal ducts, 2.3 W/m2 K for insulated
ducts)
tr = surrounding room temperature (oC)
The heat loss in the air flow can be expressed as
H = 1000 q cp (t1 - t2)
where
q = mass of air flowing (kg/s)
cp = specific heat air (kJ/kg K)
(5) and (5b) can be combined to
H = A k ((t1 + t2) / 2 - tr)) = 1000 q cp (t1 - t2)
Note that for larger temperature drops logarithmic mean temperatures should be used.
6. Selecting Heaters, Washers, Humidifiers and Coolers
Units as heaters, filters etc. must on basis of of air quantity and capacity be selected from manufacture
catalogs.
7. Boiler
Boiler rating can be expressed as
B = H (1 + x)
where
B = boiler rating (kW)
H = total heat load of all heater units in system (kW)
x = margin for heating up the system, it is common to use values 0.1 to 0.2
Boiler with correct rating must be selected from manufacture catalogs.
8. Sizing Ducts
Air speed in a duct can be expressed as:
v=Q/A
where
v = air velocity (m/s)
Q = air volume (m3/s)
A = cross section of duct (m2)
Overall pressure loss in ducts can be calculated as
dpt = dpf + dps + dpc
where
dpt = total pressure loss in system (Pa, N/m2)
dpf = major pressure loss in ducts due to friction (Pa, N/m2)
dps = minor pressure loss in fittings, bends etc. (Pa, N/m2)
dpc = minor pressure loss in components as filters, heaters etc. (Pa, N/m2)
Major pressure loss in ducts due to friction can be calculated as
dpf = R l
where
R = duct friction resistance per unit length (Pa, N/m2 per m duct)
l = length of duct (m)
Duct friction resistance per unit length can be calculated as
R = λ / dh (ρ v2 / 2)
where
R = pressure loss (Pa, N/m2)
λ = friction coefficient
dh = hydraulic diameter (m)
EMERGENCY RESPONSE SYSTEM FOR HAZARDOUS GOODS

The emergency response plan is a portion of the employer’s written health and safety program. Employers
whose employees do not assist in the handling of hazardous waste emergencies, are
exempted from this portion of 29 CFR 1910.120 (HazWOPER) provided they have a written emergency
action plan complying with 29 CFR 1910.38 (a).

The written Emergency Response Plan must address the following areas:
 pre-emergency planning and coordination with outside responding agencies, i.e., fire, EMS, police,
etc.;
 personnel roles, lines of authority and lines of communication;
 emergency recognition and prevention (what constitutes an emergency and how to prevent the
occurrence);
 safe distances and places of refuge;
 site security and control;
 evacuation routes and procedures;
 decontamination procedures;
 emergency medical treatment and first aid;
 emergency alerts and response;
 personal protective equipment and emergency equipment
 engineering controls;
 air monitoring; and
 critique of response procedures and follow-up.

Acronyms and Abbreviations

”MAP–21”- Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act

ACGIH -American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
AHJ -Authority Having Jurisdiction
ALS -Advanced Life Support
AMA -American Medical Association
ANSI -American National Standards Institute
APCO -Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials
ARCHIE -Automated Resource for Chemical Hazard Incident Evaluation
ATF -Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms
BLEVE -Boiling liquid/Expanding Vapor Explosion
BLS -Basic Life Support
BOCA -Building Officials and Code Administrators
CAA -Comprehensive Cooperative Agreement
CAAA -Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990
CAI -Common Air Interfaces
CALEA -Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies
CAMEO -Computer Aided Management of Emergency Operations
CAMH -Comprehensive Accreditation Manual for Hospitals
CAS -Chemical Abstracts Service
CBD-COM -Chemical and Biological Defense Command
CEO -Chief Executive Officer
CEPPO -Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office
CERCLA -Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
CFR -Code of Federal Regulations
Hazardous Material Spill Identification
The Department of Environmental Health and Safety shall separate hazardous material spills into two main
categories:
• Major Spills

Chemical Spills Greater than 500 ml/gm –

The Department of Environmental Health and Safety defines major spill as a large spill that is greater than 500gm
or 500 ml or any amount of an acutely hazardous material.
An acutely hazardous material is any material that is imminently dangerous to life and health.

Select Agent Spills

The Department of Environmental Health and Safety defines select agent spill as any amount of regulated select
agent released into the environment that could threaten the safety and health of the building occupants. Select
agent spills are considered major spill events. Upon identifying a release laboratory occupant must immediately
implement the major spill procedures.

Hazardous Gas Release

The Department of Environmental Health and Safety defines hazardous gas releases as any amount of hazardous
gas released into the environment that could threaten the safety and health of the building occupants. Hazardous
gas releases are considered major spills. Upon identifying a release laboratory occupant must immediately
implement the major spill procedures.

Mercury Releases

The Department of Environmental Health and Safety considers mercury an extremely toxic and dangerous
material. In effort to reduce possible exposure risks to personnel and students all mercury spills are regarded as
major spills. Upon identifying a release immediately implement the major spill procedures.

• Minor Spills

The Department of Environmental Health and Safety defines minor spill as a small spill that is less than 500 gm
or 500 ml of non-acutely hazardous materials. The Department of Environmental Health and Safety shall provide
a list of some acutely hazardous chemicals. This list shall be referenced prior to any clean up. All spills that occur
in educational and/or vacant laboratories shall initially be identified as a major spill. The Department of
Environmental Health and Safety shall assess the situation and determine the appropriate course of action.
Hazardous Material Spill Procedures for Minor Spills
In the event of a minor spill the following emergency procedures shall be implemented:
1. If injured or contaminated with a hazardous substance immediately implement personal decontamination
procedures prior to reporting spill.
2. Laboratory personnel will be responsible for the containment and clean up of all minor spills.
3. Proper personal protection equipment shall be donned during the clean up of all minor spills. If laboratory
personnel does not have the proper personal protective equipment then contact the Department of Environmental
Health and Safety for assistance
4. All non-disposable personal protective equipment shall be decontaminated and stored.
5. All disposable personal protective equipment and clean up materials shall be disposed of as hazardous waste.
6. If the material spilled is not covered under the minor spill definition (< 500 ml or 500 gm of non-acutely
hazardous material) then laboratory personnel shall implement the major spill procedures.
Hazardous Material Spill Procedures for Major Spills
The following procedure applies to:
• Laboratory personnel
• Education personnel
• Facilities Personnel
• Maintenance personnel
• Outside Contractor Personnel
• Environmental Services personnel
• Administrative personnel

In the event of a major spill in area, all laboratory, education, facilities, maintenance, outside contractor,
administrative, and/or environmental services personnel will implement the following plan:
1. Notify persons in the immediate area that a spill has occurred.
2. Avoid breathing vapors, mists or dust of the spilled material.
3. Turn off all ignition sources, if possible.
4. If injured or contaminated with a hazardous substance immediately implement personal decontamination
procedures (i.e. eyewash, safety shower, etc.) prior to reporting spill.
5. Evacuate room and close the door
6. Contact the following using any in house telephone.