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DOI: 10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Engineering Geology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / e n g g e o

Analysis of small-scale heterogeneity in clastic rocks by using computerized X-ray

tomography (CT)
Janos Geiger a, Zoltan Hunyadfalvi a,⁎, Peter Bogner b
a
Department of Geology and Paleontology, University of Szeged, 6701 Szeged P.O. Box: 658, Hungary
b
Department of Diagnostic Imaging and Oncoradiology, University of Kaposvar, 7401 Kaposvar P.O. Box: 16, Hungary

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The aim of this study is to recognize the basic clastic rock types on the basis of Hounsfield Units (HUs) by using
Accepted 3 June 2008 statistical methods (hypothesis tests, distribution fitting, and confidence intervals). How does this recognition
Available online xxxx depend on depositional history of samples tested? Does the numerical pattern of HUs obtained from small-scale
analyzing of some particular sedimentary structures coincide to the textural expectations of those sedimentary
Keywords:
structures? Are the HU values provided by the CT measurements capable of evidencing micro-cycles belonging to
Clastic sediments
Heterogeneity
a particular depositional history?
CT scanning For testing the numerical recognition, we analyze macroscopically homogeneous argillaceous marl, siltstone and
Hounsfield Unit fine sandstone samples with similar depositional background, age, and degree of diagenesis. The preliminary
Bulk density research shows that the Hounsfield Units can identify different sedimentary rocks considerably well. There are
Geostatistics significant differences among the confidence intervals belonging to the different rock types. However, there also
have been some slight overlaps among them.
For analyzing the effects of the depositional processes in case of a particular rock type, samples from channel
sandstone, distributary mouth-bar, massive (structureless) sandstone from a delta-fed turbidity fan, and channel
sandstone with traction carpet origin from a delta-fed turbidity fan (all coming from Pannonian basin filling
series) are used. The results prove again the significant differences in the terms of both confidence intervals and
distribution-types; however, some overlapping also occurs.
© 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction resolution of a medical CT is appropriate for the size of a hand-specimen. It

Recently, the applications of CT technique in the geosciences were
widespread because of the non-destructive evaluation of rocks. Most of
the papers from this field have dealt with such rock properties, which
drawn back to the macro-porosity or (macro-) pore structure. The
applications are coming partly from the soil-sciences or petroleum
geology because a solid and open-pore are easily recognized on a CT
image (Crain, 1992; Mees et al., 2003). However, the resolution of these
instruments does not allow the direct visualization of the pore structure.
The so-called micro-tomography introduced to the rock and a pore
structure analysis overcomes this limitation (Wellington and Vinegard,
1987; Cazaux et al.,1989; Coles et al.,1994,1996; Rosenberg et al.,1999a).
Since that time quite a wide range of studies have been published both
for the pore space visualization (e.g. Rosenberg et al., 1999b; Mees et al.,
2003) and applications for analysis of microstructures of rocks and
fossils (Van Geet et al., 2000; Stock and Veiss, 2002; Mees et al., 2003).
The effectiveness of micro-tomography for analyzing sub-microscopic
characters of the rocks is naturally beyond all doubt. It is also a fact that the
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: matska@geo.u-szeged.hu (J. Geiger), zoli@geo.u-szeged.hu
(Z. Hunyadfalvi), bognerp@apacs.pote.hu (P. Bogner).
seems to us, that the fast technical evolution has left the medical CT
measurements alone without gaining all possibilities from this solution.
However, because of the scale similarity, the medical CT measurements
compared with the core sample measurements or at least this comparison
may be more reliable than in the case of micro-CT. Geophysical well-log
interpretations have shown that there are strong genetic relationships
between depositional processes and rock density.
The aims of this study are to get data about the following questions:
How the basic clastic rock types are recognized on the bases of
Hounsfield Units (HUs) by using statistical methods (hypothesis tests,
distribution fitting, and confidence intervals). How does this recognition
depend on depositional history of samples tested? Whether the nume-
rical pattern of HUs obtained from small-scale analyzing of some
particular sedimentary structures coincide to the textural expectations
of those sedimentary structures. Are the HU values provided by the CT
measurements capable of evincing micro-cycles belonging to a parti-
cular depositional history?
2. CT principals
X-ray computer tomography based on the attenuation of X- or
gamma rays emitted from an X-ray tube. Gamma rays interact with the

0013-7952/$ – see front matter © 2008 Published by Elsevier B.V.

doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011

Please cite this article as: Geiger, J., et al., Analysis of small-scale heterogeneity in clastic rocks by using computerized X-ray tomography (CT),
Eng. Geol. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
2 J. Geiger et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
matter by four effects: Raleigh scattering, photoelectric effect, Compton
Effect, and pair generation (Siegbahn, 1967). All these interactions
depend on photon energy and the atomic number of the matter. A thin,
well-collimated beam of X-ray attenuates following Beer's law:
I ¼ I0 expð−μxÞ
where I0 is the integral current of incident X (gamma) photons; I is the
integral current transmitted by the sample; μ is the linear attenuation
coefficient of the sample; x is the sample width.
Three of the four interacting effects (Raleigh scattering, photoelectric
and Compton effects) occur between 30 and 200 keV, which is the
operating range of the present day CTs. In case of predominance of
Compton effect (above 100 keV), the μ depends only on the density of
the sample and not on its chemical composition. This is the case for most
of the present day medical CTs. On the other hand, when photoelectric
effect dominates, the μ coefficient depends also on the chemical com-
position of the absorbent. For inhomogeneous samples, like clastic
sedimentary rocks, the attenuation coefficient has different values at
different points of the sample. Hence, the linear attenuation coefficient μ
depends on both effective atomic number and the density of the object
(Curry et al., 1990).
At the end of CT image reconstruction process, the result is a
numerical map consisting of all the attenuation coefficients corre-
sponding to each volume element (voxel). The values expressed as
non-dimensional CT number (Hounsfield Units or HUs), according to
the following relation:
ðμ − μ water Þ
HU ¼  1000:
μ water
Fixed values of this scale take −1000 for the air and 0 for the water.
The greater is the value of μ, the higher is the corresponding HU. The
degree of attenuation is conventionally expressed in Hounsfield units
normalized by the attenuation coefficient of pure water (e.g. Kawamura,
1990; Colletta et al., 1991; Inzaki et al., 1995; Ohtani et al., 2000).
Reconstructed CT images usually displayed as negative images
where lighter tones represent higher HU values and, in contrast, lower
HU values correspond to darker regions of the image.
3. Basic sedimentological principals
Different Hounsfield Units, concerning to different rock types of
different ages, can identify alterations in sedimentary texture and bulk
density. However, different attenuation coefficient values may corre-
spond to rocks of equivalent grain size but of different degree of dia-
genesis. The characteristic properties of clastic sedimentary rocks reflect
the general effect of the various physical, chemical and biological pro-
cesses. Synsedimentary and post-sedimentary processes, diagenesis,
primary and secondary porosity and geological time play primary role in
affecting texture, fabric, and the bulk density of sedimentary rocks.
4. Samples studied and instruments used
Most of core samples analyzed are coming from the collection of
Department of Geology and Paleontology, University of Szeged, Hungary
and MOL (Hungarian Oil and Gas Co.). The collection contains samples
from the Pannonian basin (Central-Europe) filled with sediments ori-
ginated from a delta-fed turbidity fan, with Pannonian age (Pannonian
sensu lato 12.6–2.4 Ma). The fan morphologically fits in the Walker-
type fan model (Walker, 1978), and satisfies the criteria of a point source
mud/sand-rich submarine fan (Reading and Richard, 1994).
CT measures have been performed on a Siemens Somatom Plus 40
instrument provided by the Department of Diagnostic Imaging and
Oncoradiology, University of Kaposvar, Hungary. The slice thickness is
2 mm; the pixel size is 0.33 × 0.33 mm, and the measurements made for
Please cite this article as: Geiger, J., et al., Analysis of small-scale heterogeneity in clastic rocks by using computerized X-ray tomography (CT),
Eng. Geol. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011
single slice. The original image consisted of 512 × 512 voxels and thus the
field of view (FOV) is 512 × 0.33 mm that is approx. 16.98 cm. The highest
resolution of Somatom Plus 40 is 0.1 × 0.1 × 1 mm. The instrument
operates at 140 kV, with a 189 mA current, and 1.5 s exposure.
5. Methods
The statistical analyses are subdivided into: (1) data-preparation,
(2) mathematical statistical description, (3) analyses of cyclic patterns,
(4) analyses of lateral pattern (i.e. sedimentary structures), and (5) revea-
ling the possible flow patterns within the core samples.
In data-preparation phase, instead of the traditional way, i.e. ana-
lyzing the CT images “as is”; we analyze the raw ASCII data. The
measurement provides attenuation coefficient values arranged in a
512 × 512-size grid. Each grid is easily visualized by any surface model-
ling software, and ‘Nearest Neighbor’ method could be used to calculate
contour lines. Thus, you can visualize the real CT data, and the image has
better resolution. Among several advantages of this solution, the most
important ones are as follows: (1) the grid/extract command in Surfer
8.0 creates a subset of an existing grid file to focus on some important
data geometry at the so-called data-level. (2) The grid/blank command
removes grid node data from a grid in areas where you do not want to
display contours on a map, and data of blanked grid can be easily
exported to any statistical programs (in this paper SPSS 11.0, and Stat-
graphic 3.0 were used). (3) The grid representation is appropriate for
studying the spatial continuity of HU values (e.g. by counting the grid
correlogram), or to search for some repetitive pattern by computing the
grid periodogram; (4) this solution provides a direct way to connect the
data-preparation, the mathematical statistical analyses, and the spatial
analyses phases.
There are two kinds of slicing method to generate cross-sections of core
samples. One creates cross-sections that are parallel to the longitudinal
axis of the core sample, and the other the perpendicular counterparts.
Parallel cross-sections are easy to display, and the visualization of textural
and structural inhomogeneity does not require additional procedures, so
we use them to analyze textural variability of clastic sedimentary rocks.
First, we compare the images of cross-sections displayed by OSIRIS (www.
dim.hcuge.ch/osiris/) or grids generated by Surfer 8.0 (www.ssg-surfer.
com) with the macroscopic core descriptions or the core samples. OSIRIS is
a viewer for Papyrus/DICOM (Digital Imaging and Communications in
Medicine) images; developed at the Digital Imaging Unit (UIN) of the
Service for Medical Computing (SIM) of the Radiology department of the
University Hospitals of Geneva (Switzerland).
All regions of interest are highlighted and blanked on the grid, and
the corresponding data set is exported for testing modality of the
data-distribution. If distribution of data set is unimodal and the shape
of density curve is symmetrical, the hypothesis is accepted, and we
can count a confidence interval with 0.05 of significance. Confidence
intervals exclude outlier and extreme data. We applied this process for
Holocene clay, argillaceous marl, channel, distributary mouth-bar,
structureless sandstone, and channel sandstone with traction carpet
origin with Pannonian age.
We investigate cross-laminated sand ripple for testing the coin-
cidence between the traditional textural interpretation and the spatial
variation of HU values of sedimentary structures (Fig. 1).
We study the cyclic nature of a homogeneous argillaceous siltstone
with oxbow-lake origin. HU values obtained with using profiler tool of
OSIRIS (Fig. 2). We apply the geological principle that time is not else
than thickness in a homogeneous clastic rock. Thus, the HU values
plotted in an equidistant scale can be interpreted as time-series (Fig. 3).
So, the repetitive thickness can be analyzed by the mean of auto-
correlation and periodogram (Fig. 4).
Finally, we investigate a sample from deep-water fan with Pannonian
age to reveal the possible flow paths within the sample (Fig. 5). We
regard all the factors affecting the HU values to be constant except the
grain size and consequently the effective porosity. There is a well-known
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Geiger et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2008) xxx–xxx 3

Fig. 1. Cross-laminated sand ripple in sample A-248 (photo shown above). You can
obtain raw ASCII data out of CT images displayed by OSIRIS. (Indicated laminae detailed
later; see Fig. 9).

practical observation saying that significant exponential regression

Fig. 3. Plot of HU values shows the positions of data points along the line created by the
exists between the effective porosity and permeability. So, in this case, profiler tool. Trend line represents quasi-symmetrical sedimentation (on the right).
the HU values used in an indirect way for expressing the permeability
variations. The permeability gradient, which is preferably for flow,
shows from lower to higher values. The lateral distribution of the flow
consequently, in this case, difference in statistical parameters means
path, namely the lateral distribution of the flow-in and flow-out parts of
significant difference in grain size.
the sample has been revealed by the second derivative of the HU units of
Confidence interval for sandstone with distributary mouth-bar
the grid arrangement, implemented by the so-called Laplacian operator
origin, sample A-216, shows relatively lower bounds than for sandstone
(Fig. 6) (Akai 1994).
in sample A-100, because these environments generate completely
different textures, although they represent almost the same geologic
6. Results
time.
HU values of structureless (massive) sandstone (Bouma “A” unit)
There are significant differences among the confidence intervals
from sample A-248 show uniform regularity. However, the sandstone
belonging to the basic clastic rock types; however, there also have been
is macroscopically homogeneous there is difference in HU values
some slight overlaps among them (Table 1). Silty clay and argillaceous
between the middle part of the layer and the upper and lower marginal
marl represent nearly the same phi (Φ) units but different degree of
parts (Fig. 9). Beside the change of grain size, this might be the result of
diagenesis. Thus, the confidence interval for argillaceous marl is higher
increased pore space. According to the grain size analysis, the particle
then for silty clay. The confidence interval of HUs belonging to siltstone is
size of massive sandstone does not change within this sample. Thus,
different from the confidence interval of HUs belonging to sandstone
the pore space has become wider. Confidence interval bounds are
due to significant difference in grain size and pore space of each sedi-
relatively high for the sandstone this might be the result of higher
ment, with the same depositional history and age.
diagenetic stage or high content of carbonate cement.
We use core samples from environments of delta-fed turbidity fan
Fig. 1 shows sand ripple with cross-laminated unit in sample A-248.
system to reveal the significant differences in confidence intervals. Silt
Analysis of the HU values of the laminae shows decreasing trend from
ribbons and fine-coarse sandstone make up sample A-100 with shallow
the bottom to the crest in contrast to theoretical inner structure of a
channel origin represents a remarkable example of alteration of coarse
particular lamina (Fig. 10). The reason for this phenomenon could be
and fine sediments due to change in sediment influx (Fig. 7). Higher
Hounsfield Units for siltstone and lower HUs for sandstone reflect the
different grain size distribution (Fig. 8). Non-dimensional HU values
represent bulk density, bulk composition, age, and diagenetic stage;

Fig. 2. Photo of macroscopically homogeneous oxbow-lake sediment is on the left. CT Fig. 4. Autocorrelation plot proves the assumption that data might not be random. The
image is on the right. Inset shows a serrated line that represents X-ray attenuation third highest peak on periodogram plot represents a certain grain size that appears
coefficient values as appeared on CT image displayed by OSIRIS. repetitively.

Please cite this article as: Geiger, J., et al., Analysis of small-scale heterogeneity in clastic rocks by using computerized X-ray tomography (CT),
Eng. Geol. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
4 J. Geiger et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2008) xxx–xxx

Table 1
There is significant difference between confidence intervals of HU values belonging to
basic clastic rock types however, some overlapping occurs

Silty clay (Holocene age, Hungary)

Number of HU values 2940
Minimum HU value 1201
Maximum HU value 3206
Confidence interval Lower bound 1901
Upper bound 1927

Argillaceous marl (Pannonian age, Hungary)

Number of HU values 1993
Minimum HU value 2579
Maximum HU value 3116
Confidence interval Lower bound 2870
Upper bound 2881

Siltstone (Pannonian age, Hungary)

Number of HU values 3261
Minimum HU value 2179
Maximum HU value 3286
Confidence interval Lower bound 2860
Upper bound 2877

Fig. 5. “Thin-bedded” turbidite in sample A-248 with delta-fed turbidity origin.
Structureless (massive) sandstone overlies inclined ripple bands with traction carpet
origin. Arrow indicates erosional surface between them.
increasing grain size or presence of organic substance, which largely
decrease the bulk density of the rock (Fig. 11).
Oxbow-lake environments consist of macroscopically homogeneous
and fine-grained deposits, mostly fine silt and mud, introduced into the
lake during overbank flooding. According to the macroscopic descrip-
tion, the sample is homogeneous, but on the CT image, it shows
considerable heterogeneity (Fig. 2). The time-sequence plot generated
from the data supports this assumption (Fig. 3). High attenuation
coefficient values could be the result of a more compact rock, the en-
richment of fine particles, or smaller pore space. A change in grain size
might correspond to a change of flow regime.
After analyzing the periodogram, we can mark a time-period out that
perfectly fits the time-sequence plot (Fig. 3). Periodogram is a decom-
position of the data set into the weighted sum of many sinusoids. This
operation shows hidden periodicity or repeating patterns that might not
otherwise be evident. A periodogram is useful for identifying random-
Sandstone (Pannonian age, Hungary)
Number of HU values 4504
Minimum HU value 1959
Maximum HU value 3031
Confidence interval Lower bound 2555
Upper bound 2570
Confidence interval bounds are counted for data sets excluded outlier and extreme data.
ness, seasonality, or autocorrelation in a data series. In the current
implementation of the periodogram, there is no smoothing, no tapering,
and no filtering.
The fitted time-period reveals the trend cycle and a quasi-symmetrical
sedimentation. The time-period is 64 measured units long, and the basis
for further estimations. The unit is heterogeneous; it is set up by shorter
cycles (Fig. 12). The significant autoregressive integrated moving average
(ARIMA) model verifies that the selection of the theoretical unit is correct.
Since the rock column contains coarser sediments as well, an erosional
hiatus should take into consideration; therefore, the 180-cm-long column
may be not representative of the 6000-year age. For a convenient esti-
mation of the duration of the time-period, let us suppose that the rock
column is homogeneous, if the fine sand at 0.5 m below the top does not
represent a considerable hiatus. This is quite reasonable, since its thickness
is negligible. Consequently, the time-period of 64 measured units re-
presents a 2-cm-thick bed (Fig.13), and these sediments accumulated over
a period of approximately 66 years.

Fig. 7. Sample A-100 with shallow channel origin is a remarkable example of alteration
of coarse and fine sediments due to change in sediment influx. Siltstone and sandstone
Fig. 6. Lateral distributions of the flow-in and flow-out parts of sample A-248. Darker represented by significantly different confidence intervals of HU values (see Table 1 for
gray indicates recharge or flow into areas or connected pores. (See text for details). details).

Please cite this article as: Geiger, J., et al., Analysis of small-scale heterogeneity in clastic rocks by using computerized X-ray tomography (CT),
Eng. Geol. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
J. Geiger et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
Fig. 8. Plotting HU values of coarse grains versus HU values of fine grains of sample A-100
shows the statistical significant difference between descriptive statistics. Figures from
above are Box-Wishker plot, density trace plot, and histograms.
In the analyses of flow characteristics of a Bouma series, on the
resulting grid, the positive values of the Laplacian operator show the
recharge while the negative ones the discharge areas (Fig. 6). Within the
structureless sandstone part, the recharge and discharge parts are highly
variable; the flow paths are discontinuous and vertical, which derived
from the genetics of massive sandstone. In contrast, the cross-laminated
lower part has a definite flow path: the upper bedding surface — the
surface to which all of the laminae incline — is regarded as the main
recharge area, which collects the flows. It is also very characteristic that
the thin interbedded siltstone pretends to block the vertical flow com-
munication, that seems to be a local seal. According to these features, we
Fig. 9. Plot of HU values reveals inhomogeneity of structureless sandstone. Braces show
the denser middle part of massive (structureless) sandstone.
Please cite this article as: Geiger, J., et al., Analysis of small-scale heterogeneity in clastic rocks by using computerized X-ray tomography (CT),
Eng. Geol. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011
5
Fig. 10. Trend of HU values of individual laminae shows decreasing characteristics from
the bottom up to the crest of the ripple (indicated by ‘up’), which is in contradiction with
the traditional theoretical characteristics. Increasing grain size or presence of organic
substance could cause such phenomenon.
could outline different flow units in the sample, and these units coincide
with the structural characteristics of the core sample.
7. Discussion and conclusions
The preliminary research have showed that different characters of
the different sedimentary rocks can be well identified by the X-ray
attenuation coefficient values or non-dimensional Hounsfield Units
obtained by a larger resolution medical CT. The analyzed CT images
can be applied to express small-scale sedimentary structures, and
with certain mathematical treatments of the HU values the inside
heterogeneity of sedimentary rocks can be revealed.
Many parameters affect rock densities. The pore space and its fluid
content, as well as the homogeneity or inhomogeneities of diagenetic
processes, originate in the alteration of depositional environments. Thus,
quantitative comparisons can involve samples from similar depositional
Fig. 11. The lower part of sample A-216 contains large quantities of organic substance
(dark ribbons) that decreases the bulk density of the rock. Light grey spot on the upper
left corner is silty clay intraclast. Scale is in HUs.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
6 J. Geiger et al. / Engineering Geology xxx (2008) xxx–xxx
Fig. 12. The chosen theoretical unit is heterogeneous indicating there are shorter cyclic
components in the core sample caused possibly by grain size variation.
Fig. 13. Considering the hiatus negligible, the theoretical unit represents a 2-cm-thick
bed, which accumulated over about 66 years. Inset on the right shows forecasted values
of CT data. Numbers are in HUs.
environments with slight differences in the degree of diagenesis. Atte-
nuation coefficient values or HU values from one particular cell of a grid
obtained from CT measurement are inappropriate for numerical re-
cognition of sedimentary rocks. However, they may state that the prob-
ability distribution of figures belonging to a particular rock type will
differ within their limits from those belonging to anther one, assuming
the same degree of diagenesis and depositional environment. Obviously,
this is not a reversible statement: two different probability distributions
will not necessarily express different rock types.
The confidence intervals counted for different sedimentary rocks
show significant difference according to the geological ages and dia-
genetic stages. Within a particular age and stage, they vary according to
the clastic rock types. The overlapping of the HU data distributions is an
expected fact in the field of clastic rocks. The grain size character shows
the same overlapping between the different size classes being next to
each other.
The most soluble constituent in sandstone is calcite cement. The
process of de-cementation has resulted in an increase of pore space, a
decrease of pore pressure and recrystallization of calcite. Cement dis-
solution plays a very important role in creating secondary porosity. In
Please cite this article as: Geiger, J., et al., Analysis of small-scale heterogeneity in clastic rocks by using computerized X-ray tomography (CT),
Eng. Geol. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011
case of sample A-248 the calcite is a post-genetic mineral and its evo-
lution increases pore space. The data show that there is a difference of
nearly 100 HUs between middle the part of the sample on the one hand,
and the marginal parts on the other (Fig. 9). The dome-like shape of
vertical series of HU values along the line analyzed assumes some kind of
lamination. Although, there is nothing else to indicate macroscopic
lamination, the orientation of the particles could cause such a fluc-
tuation in X-ray attenuation coefficient. Turbidity currents generate
experimentally in the laboratory showed that the central part of the
head moved faster than the marginal areas above and below it, which
agrees with our observation.
Cyclic phenomenon of Late-Holocene silty clay sample could be the
result of the frequent returning of some certain silt-laden current. The
post-lithification or in broader sense post-depositional ion migration
of solutions, for example the de-cementation, could cause relatively
low, localized change in composition, and consequently, decrease in
bulk density and HU values. If this process repeats in time, the result is
a periodical cycle. The secondary cementation, the porosity and mi-
neral replacement, could cause similar periodicity, as well, although
certain physical and chemical conditions must be presented. The
criteria for these conditions are absent in this sample, so we accept the
depositional origin of the cycles revealed.
In the case of flow path features, the results are unambiguous. It is
because this analysis based on the porosity-type interpretation of the
HU values. In fact, the obtained grid (Fig. 6) shows different flow units
in their general sense: flow units are that parts of a rock body which
have an impact for the flow characters. This definition unambiguously
reflects in the grid showing the Laplacian transformations of the HU
values.
Consequently, the result may prove that the medical CT with its
particular resolution is appropriate for the analyses of hand-specimens.
These analyses may give such results, which coincide with the
traditional expectations. The results based on a well-defined quantita-
tive platform, and can fill the gap between the micro- and macro-scaled
sedimentological researches.
Acknowledgements
Authors wish to thank Tamas Foldes, MOL Hungarian Oil and Gas
Company for the consultations, and to the staff of Institute of Diagnostic
Imaging and Radiation Oncology, University of Kaposvar, Hungary for
their collaboration. This research was carried out with the financial
assistance of the Scientific Contract between the Department of Diag-
nostic Imaging and Oncoradiology, University of Kaposvar and the
Department of Geology and Paleontology, University of Szeged.
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Please cite this article as: Geiger, J., et al., Analysis of small-scale heterogeneity in clastic rocks by using computerized X-ray tomography (CT),
Eng. Geol. (2008), doi:10.1016/j.enggeo.2008.06.011
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