Construction Planning, Equipment, and Methods
Work
existing natural ground. Over the life of the project,
the grades begin to assume the design profile. Therefore, the
engineer must first study the proj ect's mass diagram to
determine the direction that the material has to be moved.
Then the natural ground and the design profiles depicted on
the plans must be checked to determine the grades that the
equipment will encounter during haul and return cycles.
Site work projects are usuaIIy not linear in extent
therefore a mass diagram is not very useful. The engineer in
that case must look at the cut and fill areas, layout probable
haul routes, and then check the natural and finish grade
contours to determine the haul-route grades.
This process of laying out haul routes is critical to
machine productivity. If a route can be found that results in
less grade resistance, machine travel speed can be increased
and production will likewise increase. In planning a project, a
constructor should always check several haul route options
before deciding on a final construction plan.
Hauling efficiency is achieved by careful planning of haul
routes
Equipment selection is affected by travel distance
because of the time fac-tor distance introduces into the
production cycle. All other factors being equal, increased
travel distances will favor the use of high speed large capacity
machines. The difference between the self loading scraper
and a push-loaded scraper can be used as an illustration. The
self loading scraper will load, haul, and spread without any
assisting equipment, but the extra weight of the load ing
mechanism reduces the scrapers' maximum travel speed and
load capacity.
A scraper, which requires a push tractor to help it load, does
not have to expend power to haul a loading mechanism with
it on every cycle. It will be more efficient in long haul
situations as it does not have to expend fuel trans porting
extra machine weight.
A VAILABLE POWER
Internal combustion engines power most construction
equipment (see Fig. 6.5). Because diesel engines perform
better under heavy-duty applications than gasoline engines,
diesel-powered machines are the workhorses of the
construction industry. Additionally, diesel engines have
longer service lives and lower fuel consumption, and diesel
fuel presents less of a fire hazard. No matter which type of
engine serves as the power source, the mechanics of energy
transmission are the same.
Work and Power
Work is defined as force through a distance, Eq. [6.10].
is achieved when a force causes an object to move.
Work = Force X Distance
A 180-lb horse walks in a circular path operating a
pump that raises water from a mine. The horse is hitched to
a 12-ft lever arm that is connected to the pumping
mechanism. The horse makes 144 revolutions (rev) per hour.
How much work does the horse do in 1 hour?
The 180-lb horse is the moving force.
The distance moved is the circumference of the circle 144
times ..
Circumference = 2 X 7T X radius
Circumference (12-1t radius) = 2 x 7T x 12 It = 75.4 ft
Total distance moved = 75.4 It X 144 rev = 10,857 It
Work = 180 Ib X 10,857 It = 1,954,320 Ib-ft/hr
When James Watt developed the first practical
steam engine and wanted to express the work his engine
could do, he related it to the horse in Example 6.2. This was
caused by the fact that the purpose of his engine was to
replace the horses that were used to power pumping
apparatuses used in the mines across England. Watt defined
power as the amount of work that can be done in a certain
amount of time, as
Work
Power =
Time
Therefore, the power of a horse would be
1,954,320Ib-ft/hour
Power of a horse = = 32,572lb-ft/min
60 min/hr
Watt rounded this value to 33,000 lb-ft/min (or 550 lb-ftlsec),
which is the definition of one horsepower. Horsepower is a
unit of power.
Torque
An internal combustion engine by the combustion of
fuel in a piston develops a mechanical force that acts on a
crankshaft having a radius r. The crankshaft in tum drives the
flywheel and gears that power the other components of the
machine. The force from a rotating object, such as
crankshafts (a "twisting" force), is termed torque. A pound-
foot of torque is the twisting force necessary to support a l-lb
weight on a weightless horizontal bar, 1 ft from the fulcrum.

Calculate the work accomplished by moving a 1-lb weight one
revolution if the radius of the fulcrum is one foot.
One revolution equals the circumference of a circle having a
one-foot radius.
One revolution (circumference) = 2 x 'T1' x radius
One revolution (1-ft radius) = 2 x 'T1' X 1 ft = 6.2832 ft
Work = 1 Ib X 6.2832 ft = 6.2832 Ib-ft
The torque represented by one revolution of work is
6.2832 lb-ft. The power exerted by a rotating object is the
torque it exerts multiplied by the speed at which it rotates
(revolutions per minute-rpm). The relationship between
horsepower and torque (T) at a specified rpm can therefore
be established:
6.2832 X rpm X T rpm
Horsepower (hp) = = XT
33,000 5,252
Conversely, to calculate torque
5,252
Torque (T) = X hp
Rpm
Horsepower Rating
Manufacturers rate machine horsepower as either
gross or flywheel (some-times listed as net horsepower).
Gross horsepower is the actual power gener-ated by the
engine prior to load losses for auxiliary systems, such as the
alternator, air conditioner compressors, and water pump·
Flywheel horsepower (fwhp) can be considered as usable
horsepower. It is the power available to operate a machine-
power the driveline-after deducting for power losses m the
engine. This horsepower is sometimes listed as brake
horsepower (bhp). Prior to electronic bench testing,
horsepower was quantified as the amount of resistance
against a flywheel brake. Although the method is no longer
used, the term remains in the industry.
Flywheel power 209 kw (280 hp)
Rated power SAE (net) 198 kw (265 hp)
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) standardized
engine-rating procedure (Jl349) measures horsepower
at the flywheel, using. an engine dynamometer. The
engine is tested with all accessories installed, including a
full exhaust system, all pumps, the alternator, the starter, and
emissions con-trols. So today, equipment manufacturers
measure torque on a dynamometer and then calculate
horsepower by converting the radial force of torque into work
units of horsepower.
Power Output and Torque
Figure 6.6 shows the typical curves for brake
horsepower and torque as an engine increases its
crankshaft speed to the governed rpm value. The Important
feature of this plot is the shape of the torque curve. Maximum
torque is not obtained at maximum rpm. Remember Eq.
[6.13], where 5,252 is divided by the rpm (5,252 + rpm). This
tells us that when the
engine turns at an rpm less than 5,252, the effect is to
produce a ratio value greater than one-to increase torque for
the same hp value. Once the engine rpm increases past 5,252,
the effect is to produce a ratio v:alue less than one-to reduce
the torque for the same hp value. This effect' provides the
engine with a power reserve. When a machine is Subjected to
a momentary overload, the rpm drops and the torque' goes
up, keeping the engine from stalling. This is commonly
referred to as "lugging" the engine.
The power output from the engine, fwhp, becomes
the power input to the transmission system. This system
consists of the drive shaft, a transmission, planetary gears,
drive axles (see Fig. 6.7), and drive wheels. Machines can be
purchased with either a direct drive (standard) or torque
converter drives. With a direct-drive machine, the operator
must manually shift gears to match engine output to the
resisting load. The difference in power available when
considering maximum torque and torque at the governed
speed is the machine's operating range for a given gear. In
those applications where load is constantly changing, the
operation of a direct-drive machine requires a skilled
operator. Operator skill is a significant factor controlling the
amount of wear and tear a direct-drive machine will
experience. Operators of direct-drive machines will be
subjected to more operator fatigue than those on power-shift
models. The fatigue factor will affect machine productivity.
A torque converter is a device that adjusts power
output to match the load. This adjustment is accomplished
hydraulically by a fluid coupling. As a machine begins to
accelerate, the engine rpm will quickly reach the governed
crankshaft speed and the torque converter will automatically
multiply the engine torque to provide the required
acceleration force. In this process, there are losses due to
hydraulic inefficiencies. If the machine is operating under
constant load and at a steady whole-body speed, no torque
multiplying is nec-essary. At the point, the transmission of
engine torque can be made nearly as efficient as a direct drive
transmission by locking ("lock-up") the torque-converter
pump and transmission together.
 When analyzing a piece of equipment, we are
interested in the usable force developed at the point of
contact between the tire and the ground (rimpull) for a wheel
machine. In the case of a track machine, the force in question
is that available at the drawbar (drawbar pull). The difference
in the name is a mat-ter of convention; both rimpull and
drawbar pull are measured in the same units, pounds pull.
Rimpull
Rimpull is a term that is used to designate the
tractive force between the tires of a machine's driving wheels
and the surface on which they travel. If the coefficient of
traction is sufficiently high there will be no tire slippage, in
which case maximum rimpuII is a function of the power of the
engine and the gear ratios between the engine and the
driving wheels. If the driving wheels slip on the supporting
surface, the maximum effective rimpull will be equal to the
total pressure the tires exert on the surface multiplied by the
coefficient of traction. Rimpull is expressed in pounds.
If the rimpuII of a machine is not known, it can be
determined from the equation.
375 X hp X efficiency
Rimpull = (lb)
speed (mph)
This is the formulation of the available power
accounting for the machine's available horsepower and
operating speed. The efficiency of most tractors and trucks
will range from 0.80 to 0,85. SAE recommends using 0.85
when the efficiency is not known.
Assuming that the coefficient of traction is· sufficient
such that the machine's total power can be developed,
calculate the rim pull of a pneumatic-tired truck with a 140-
hp engine. The tractor is operating at a speed of 3.3 mph in
first gear. Use the SAE recommended efficiency.
375 x 140 x 0.85
Rlmpu = = 13,523 lb
3.3
The maximum rimpull in all gear ranges for the truck
in Example 6.4 is shown in Table 6.3.
In computing the pull that a tractor can exert on a
towed load (speed the machine can attain), it is necessary to
deduct from the rimpull of the tractor the force required to
overcome the total resistance-the combination of rolling and
grade. Consider a tractor that weighs 12.4 tons and whose
maximum rimpull in the first gear is 13,730 lb. If it is operated
on a haul road with a positive slope of 2% and a rolling
resistance of 100 Ib/ton, the full 13,523 lb of rimpull will not
be available for towing, as a portion will be required for
overcoming the total resistance arising from the haul
conditions. Given the stated conditions, the pull available for
towing a load will be
Maximum rimpull = 13,523 Ib
Forced required to overcome grade resistance,
12.4 ton X (20lb/ton X 2%) = 496lb
Force required to overcome rolling resistance,
12.4 ton X 1001blton = 1,2401b
Total resistance, 4961b + 1,2401b = 1,7361b
Power available for towing a load (13,5231b - 1,7361b) =
11,7871b
Drawbar Pull
The towing force a crawler tractor can exert on a
load is referred to as drawbar pull. Drawbar pull is typically
expressed in pounds. To determine the drawbar pull available
for towing a load it is necessary to subtract from the total
pulling force available at the engine the force required to
overcome the total resistance imposed by the haul
conditions. If a crawler tractor tows a load up a slope, its
drawbar pull will be reduced by 20 Ib for each ton of weight
of the tractor for each 1 % slope.
The performance of crawler tractors, as reported in
the specifications supplied by the manufacturer, is usually
based on the Nebraska tests. In testing a tractor to determine
its maximum drawbar pull at each of the available speeds, the
haul road is calculated to have a rolling resistance of 110
lb/ton. If a tractor is used on a haul road whose rolling
resistance is higher or lower than 110 lb/ton, the drawbar pull
will be reduced or increased, respectively, by an amount
equal to the weight of the tractor in tons multiplied by the
variation of the haul road from 110 Ib/ton.
A track-type tractor whose weight is 15 tons has
a drawbar pull of 5,685 Ib in sixth gear when operated on a
level road having a rolling resistance of 110 Ib/ton. If the
tractor is operated on a level road having a rolling resistance
of 180 Ib/ton, the drawbar pull will be reduced by what
amount?
15 tons X (180 Ib/ton - 110 Ib/ton) = 1,050 Ib
Thus, the effective drawbar pull will be 5,685 - 1,050 = 4,635
lb.
The drawbar. pull o~ a crawler tractor will vary indirectly
with the speed of each gear. It is highest in the first gear and
lowest in the top gear. The specifications supplied by the
manufacturer should give the maximum speed and
drawbar pull for each of the gears.
USABLE POWER
 Usable power depends on project conditions:
primarily, haul-road surface condition, altitude, and
temperature. Underfoot conditions determine how much of
the available power can be transferred to the surface to
propel the machine. As altitude increases, the air becomes
less dense. Above 3,000 ft, the decrease in air density may
cause a reduction in horsepower output of some engines.
Manufacturers provide charts detailing appropriate altitude
power reductions (see Table 6.5 later in the chapter).
Temperature will also affect engine output.
Coefficient of Traction
The total energy of an engine in any machine
designed primarily for pulling a load can be converted into
tractive effort only if sufficient traction can be developed
between the driving wheels or tracks and the haul surface. If
there is insufficient traction, the full power of the engine will
not be available to do work, as the wheels or tracks will slip
on the surface.
The coefficient of traction can be defined as the
factor by which the total weight on the drive wheels or tracks
should be multiplied to determine the maximum possible
tractive force between the wheels or tracks and the surface
just before slipping will occur.
Usable force = Coefficient of traction X Weight on powered
running gear
The power that can be developed to do work is often
limited by traction. The factors controlling usable horsepower
are the weight on the powered running gear (drive wheels for
wheel type, total weight for track type-see Fig. 6.8), the
characteristics of the running gear, and the characteristics of
the travel surface.
The coefficient of traction between rubber tires and
travel surfaces will vary with the type of tread on the tires and
with the travel surface. For crawler tracts, it will vary with the
design of the grosser and the travel surface. These variations
are such that exact values cannot be given. Table 6.4 gives
approxi-mate values for the coefficient of traction between
rubber tires and crawler tracks, and surface materials and
conditions. These coefficients are sufficiently accurate for
most estimating purposes.
FOR TRACK-TYPE TRACTOR
Use total tractor weigh
FOR 4-WHEEL TRACTOR
be weight on drivers
Show on spec sheet or
approximately 40% of
vehicle gross weight.
FOR 2- WHEEL TRACTOR
use weigh on drivers
shown o~ spec sheet or
approximately 50% of
vehicle gross weight.
TABLE 6.4 Coefficients of traction for various road surfaces.
Surface
Dry, rough concrete
Dry, clay loam
Wet, clay loam
Wet sand and gravel
Loose, dry sand
Dry snow
Ice
Assume that a rubber-tired tractor has a total weight
of 18,000 Ib on its driving wheels. The maximum rimpull in
low gear is 9,000 lb. If the tractor is operating in wet sand,
with a coefficient of traction of 0.30, what is the the
maximum possible rimpull prior to slippage of the tires?
0.30 X 18,000 Ib = 5,400 Ib
Regardless of the engine horsepower, because of
wheel slippage not more than 5,400 Ib of force (power) is
available to do work. If the same tractor is operating on dry
clay, with a coefficient of traction of 0.60, what is the
maximum possible rimpull prior to slippage of the wheels?
0.60 X 18,000 Ib = 10,800 Ib
For this surface, the engine will not be able to cause the tires
to slip. Thus, the full 9,000 Ib of rim pull is available to do
work.
A wheel tractor scraper is used on a road project.
When the project begins, the scraper will experience high
rolling and grade resistance at one work area. The rimpull
required to maneuver in this work area is 42,000 lb. In the
fully loaded condition, 52% of the total vehicle weight is on
the drive wheels. The fully loaded vehicle weight is 230,880
lb. What minimum value of coefficient of traction between
the scraper wheels and the traveling surface is needed to
maintain maximum possible travel speed?
Weight on the drive wheels = 0.52 X 230,880 Ib = 120,0581b
42,000 lb
minimum required coefficient of traction = 0 35
120,058 lb
Altitude's Effect on Usable Power
The Society of Automotive Engineers standard 11349, Engine
Power Test Code-Spark Ignition and Compression Ignition-Net Power
Rating Standard,
specifies a basis for a net engine power rating. The standard
conditions for the SAE rating pre a temperature of 60°F (15SC)
and sea-level barometric pressure of 29.92 in. mercury (Hg)
[103.3 kilopascals (kPa)].
The important point here is that the ratings are
based on a specific barometric pressure. For naturally
aspirated engines, operation at altitudes above sea level will
cause a significant decrease in available engine power as the
barometric pressure decreases. A decrease in barometric
pressure causes a corresponding decrease in air density, and
to operate at peak efficiency the engine must have the proper
amount of air. A reduction in air density affects the
combustion fuel-to-air ratio in the engine's pistons. For
specific machine applications, the manufacturer's
performance data should be consulted. Table 6.5
presents data for selected Caterpillar Inc. machines.
The effect of the loss in power due to altitude can be
eliminated by the installation of a turbocharger or a
supercharger. These are mechanical forced induction systems
that compress the air flowing into the combustion chamber
of the engine, thus permitting sea-level performance at
higher altitudes.
TABLE6.S
Percent flywheel horsepower available for select Caterpillar
machines at specified altitudes.
The fundamental difference between a turbocharger
and a supercharger is the unit's source of power. With a
turbocharger, the exhaust stream powers a turbine, which in
tum spins the compressor. The power source for a
supercharger is a belt connected directly to the engine. If
equipment is to be used at high altitudes for long periods of
time, the increased performance will probably pay. For
installing one of these two devices.
PERFORMANCE CHARTS
Equipment manufacturers publish performance
charts for individual machine models. These charts enable the
equipment estimator/planner to analyze a machine's ability
to perform under a given set of project-imposed load
conditions. The performance chart is a graphical
representation of the power and corresponding speed the
engine and transmission can deliver. The load condition is
stated as either rimpull or drawbar pull. It should be noted
that the drawbar pull/rimpull-speed relationship is inverse
because as vehicle speed increases pull decreases.
Drawbar Pull Performance Chart
In the case of the track machine whose drawbar pull
performance chart is shown in Fig. 6.9, the available power
ranges from 0 to 56,000 lb (the vertical scale) and the speed
ranges from 0 to 6.5 mph (the horizontal scale).
Assuming the power required for a certain
application is 25,000 lb, this machine would travel efficiently
at a speed of approximately 1.4 mph in first gear. This is found
by first locating the 25,000-lb mark on the left vertical scale
and then moving horizontally across the chart. At the
intersect point of this horizontal projection and the gear
curve, project a vertical line down ward to the speed scale at
the bottom of the chart. The horizontal projection at 25,000
lb in this case also intersects the second gear curve. If the
tractor was. operated in second gear, it could only obtain a
speed of 1 mph.
Rimpull Performance Charts
Each manufacturer has a slightly different graphical layout for
presenting performance chart information. However, the
procedures for reading a performance chart are basically the
same. The steps described here are based on the chart shown
in Fig. 6.10.
Required Power-Total Resistance The graphical arrangement
of a rimpull chart enables a determination of machine speed
using total resistance expressed either in terms of force
(rimpull) or percent effective grade. The procedures to
determine machine speed from a rimpull performance chart
are.
1. Ensure that the proposed machine has the same
engine, gear ratios, and tire size as those identified
for the machine on the chart. If the gear ratios or
rolling radius of a machine's tires are changed, the
performance curve will shift along both the rimpuII
and speed axes.
2. Estimate the rimpull (power) required-total
resistance (rolling resistance plus grade resistance)-
based on the probable job conditions.
3. Locate the power requirement value on the left
vertical scale and project a line horizontally to the
right intersecting a gear curve. The point of
intersection of the projected horizontal line with a
gear curve defines the operating relationship
between horsepower and speed.
4. From the point at which the horizontal line
intersects the gear curve, project a line vertically to
the bottom x axes, which indicates the speed in mph
and km/h. Sometimes the horizontal line from the
power requirement (rimpull) will intersect the gear
range curve at two different points (see Fig.6.1 I). In
such a case, the speed can be interpreted in two
ways.
A guide in determining the appropriate speed is
• If the required rimpull is less than that required on the
previous stretch of haul road, use the higher gear and speed.
• If the required rimpull is greater than that required on the
previous stretch of haul road, use the lower gear and speed.

Effective Grade-Total Resistance Assuming that the total

resistance has been expressed as an effective grade, the
procedures to determine speed are

1. Ensure that the proposed machine has the same engine,

gear ratios, and tire size as those identified for the
machine on the chart.
2. Determine the machine weight both when the machine is
empty and loaded. The empty weight is the operating
weight and should include coolants, lubricants, full fuel
tanks, and operator. Loaded weight depends on the
density of the carried material and the load size (volume).
These two weights, empty and loaded, are often referred
to as the net vehicle weight (NVW) and the gross vehicle
weight (GVW), respectively. The NVW (empty weight) is
usually marked on the performance chart. Likewise the
GVW (gross weight), based on the gravimetric capacity of
the machine, will also usually be indicated on the chart.
Vehicle weights are depicted on the upper horizontal scale
of the chart. Note that this horizontal weight data is
presented as a log scale.