MINERAGRAPHY

AND ORE-DEPOSITION
BY

R. W. VAN DER VEEN

THE HAGUE — G. NAEFF — 1925

MINERAGRAPHY AND ORE-DEPOSITION
 MINERAGRAPHY
A N D ORE-DEPOSITION
BY

R. W. V A N DER VEEN, M . E. f
Professor of Economie Geology, Polytechnical University of Delft, Membcr of the
American Inatitute of Mining and Metallurgie»! Engineera, of the Chemical,
Metallurgical aad Mining Society of South Africa and of the Royal Inatitute of
Engineers of Holland.

WITH A N INTRODUCTION BY

J. F. KEMP
Professor of Geology in the School of Mines, Colombia University, New York
Past-president of the Geological Society of America, of the American Institute of
Mining Engineers, of the Mining and Metallurgical Society of America, and of the
Society of Economie Geologists. Foreign Correspondent of the Academy of Sciences
of Oslo, of the Geological Society of Stockholm, of the Geological Society of
London, and the Geological Society of Belgium

VOLUME I

T H E H A G U E — G. NAEFF — 1925
 In memory of the late
Professor R U D O L F W I L L E M V A N D E R V E E N
by C. SCHOUTEN.

On the morning of the 3rd of April 1925 came the sad news
of the premature death of our highly esteemed professor R. W.
VAN DER VEEN, M . E .
For years already he had been suffering from stones in the
kidneys and once in 1912 he had had to undergo an opera-
tion. And now thirteen years later his aged mother, his belo-
ved wife and his three young children have to suffer the anguish,
that a second operation with the ensuing complications brought
about his death at the age of 42.
Born on the 27th of January 1883 at Buitenzorg (Dutch
East Indies) he visited the primary school there. At the age
of twelve, his parents took him With them to Holland to com-
plete his studies and, going back to India, they left him with
his relations at Middelburg (Holland). Here he attended the
secondary school till 1900 and in 1901 he was for the first
time admitted to the Membership of the Polytechnical College
at Delft.
During his study he already distinguished himself as a dili-
gent and intelligent worker and in 1906 he obtained his degree
as a mining engineer. Then he was for some months assistant
in the Laboratory of Mineralogy and after that he went to
Famatina in the Argentine, where he was engaged as mining
engineer in two different copper mines successively. For the
same Company he went later to Tucsuhuma in Bolivia, where
he was charged with the management of the development,
exploitation and mechanical concentration of tin ore.
Having returned to Holland, he was invited to give advice
about a gold field in British India. The exploration which he
performed there, unfortunately led him to the conviction
that further investigation would be of no use and he came
back to Holland. Some months afterwards he got a commis-
VI IN MEMORY.

sion for the investigation and management ot a lead-zinc mine

near Linz in Germany. His kidney complaint necessitated
an operation however, so that for some time he had to give
up his work. After his recovery he continued his work there,
till in 1914 W M . M Ü L L E R and C° engaged him for iron mines
in Chili; but in consequence of the war he could not go and
was sent to Spain, where he first worked near Oviedo and
later in Seron. In Spain he visited many mines and his great
knowledge of the language made him eminently fit for that
task.
In 1916 he was appointed professor at the Polytechnical
College in Delft, to teach Economie Geology and Ore Con-
centration. He devoted himself with great ardour to his task
and during the last nine years he managed to put the bran-
ches he was teaching on a high level and he was always
abreast of the newest theories and the latest progress made
in science. But however busy he might be he always found
time to lend an ear to those, who needed his advice or help.
As conductor of excursions he also enjoyed a great esteem and
in the holidays he made trips with the students to Spain,
the Harz, South Wales and Cornwall. In 1921 he visited the
West-Indies.

During five years I was assistant at the Laboratory of Eco-

nomie Geology and enjoyed the great privilege to get to know
him in his happy domestic circle and to collaborate with him
during the investigation of the material for this book. I al-
ways feit a high esteem for his abilities, cleverness and know-
legde as well as for his modest, gentle and noble character.
I feel greatly indebted to him for all, that as a man of science
and as a gentleman of refined culture and high intellectual
gifts, he taught me.
And indeed anyone who knew him could not but love him.
He had a great love for his scientific work and for nature;
he loved his students, stood always faithfully by them in words
and deeds and his Standard of judging people was a humane
and lenient one.
In 1920 he took up the study of mineragraphy and ashe
was an energetic worker he devoted himself with enthusiasm
to this subject during the last few years of his life. Fortuna-
 IN MEMORY. VII

tely he could just finish before his death the first volume,
but it was alas not given to him to see the publication com-
pleted.
I hope and I am sure, that his book wül find its way as it
deserves.
His death was premature, because his life was still so füll
of promise.
We will hold his memory in lasting esteem.

Of his publications, which strike the reader by the clear

judgment on so many different subjects, I will mention:

1. Geologische en mijnbouwkundige exploratie. (De In-

genieur, 1912, n° 40, p. 741.)

2. Eenige opmerkingen over de leer der eitevorming en

hare plaats in de studie en de praktijk van den mijningenieur.
(Inaugural address. 1916, Delft.)

3. Een en ander over Argentinië. (Jaarb. Mijnbk. Vereen

1916—1917, p. 99.)
4. De mineralenrijkdom van Ned. Oost-Indië. (De Inge-
nieur, 1917, n° 22.)
5. Economische vorming en invloed van den ingenieur.
(De Ingenieur, 1918, n° 15.)
6. Reconstructie van den mijnbouw en het mijnwezen in
Nederl. Indië. (Vragen des Tijds, 1919, p. 287.)

7. Het ontstaan der secundaire tinertsafzettingen op Banka

en Billiton. (De Ingenieur, 1919, n° 10, p. 170.)

8. De ijzerertsen van Biscaye. (De Ingenieur, 1920, n° 15.)

9. Origin of the Bilbao, Almeria and Santander iron ores.
(Econ. Geol., Vol. X V I I , 1922, p. 602.)

10. Mineralografie, ook voor doorschijnende mineralen. (De

Ingenieur, 1922, n° 37, p. 731.)
11. De geologie van het stroomtin in Nederlandsch-Indië.
(De Ingenieur, 1923, p. 576.)
VIII IN MEMORY.

12. Origin of the tectite sculpture and some consequences.

(Verh. v. h. Geol. Mijnb. Gen., Geol. Ser., Vol. VI, 1923, p. 15.)
13. Eenige mededeelingen over het onderzoek van ertsen
met opvallend licht. (De Ingenieur, 1923, p. 861.)
14. The Almaden mercury ores and their connection with
igneous rocks. (Econ. Geol., Vol. X I X , 1924, p. 146.)
15. Mineragraphisch onderzoek van ertsen. (Polytechnisch
Weekblad, 1925, n° 16, p. 245.)
16. Mineragraphy and ore-deposition. (1925, the Hague.)

Delft, Aprü 25th 1925.

 CONTENTS.
Page.
Professor RUDOLF WILLEM VAN DER V E E N f . , . . v
Contents ix
Introduction xi
Preface xm
General Part.
C H A P T E R I.
T e c h n i q u e of E x a m i n a t i o n 1
M i c r o s c o p i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t . Source
of light — Filters — Vertical illuminator — Mi-
croscopes — Optical bench — Polarizer and
analyser I 1—6
P r e p a r a t i o n of s p e c i m e n s . Grinding
and polishing —Grinding and polishing powder—
Wheels and disks — Grindihg. . , 6—12
Technical arrangement 12
M o u n t i n g of s p e c i m e n s 12
Literature 13

C H A P T E R II.
Constitution diagrams 15
Binary systerns 16
E u t e c t i c and e u t e c t o i d i c t e x t u r e . . 22
Transformations in solid solutions. 24
Literature 26

C H A P T E R III.
Investigationofspecimens 27
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the m i n e r a l s . . . 27
Hardness — Polish—Color—Reflection —Inter-
na! reflections — Color of the powder — Polarized
light — Etching —Electrolytic etching—Etching
by heating — Crystal shape and texture — Twin-
ning —Analyses — Thin sections — Literature. 27—39
X CONTENTS.
Page.
Questions Concerning Ore-formation 39
Texture — Idiomorphic minerals — Metasoma-
tism — Segregations — Recrystallization —
Paragenesis 40—50
O r d e r of D e s c r i p t i o n of t h e M i n e r a l s 50
Abbreviations 53
Nomenclature list 53
A b b r e v i a t i o n s of m i n e r a l n a m e s . . 57
L i s t of r e a g e n t s 57
Literature 59

Descriptlve part.
N a t i v e s e m i-m e t a 1 s.
Arsenic 65
Antimony 68
Arsenic — Antimony (Allemontite) 70
Tellurium 74
Bismuth 75
Native metais.
Copper 82
Silver 90
Silver Amalgam 103
Gold 105
Platinum 116
Iron 121
Lead 125

L i s t s.
Minerals with colored powder 127
Minerals which occur often idiomorphic (euhedral)
opp. 128
Minerals with pronounced colors 129
Minerals with internal reflection 132
List of figures 137
Index to figures 157
General Index 160
(llustrations.
 INTRODUCTION.

Mineragraphy, or the investigation of the opaque minerals

i n polished slabs b y reflected light, is now i n much the same
condition as was microscopie petrography i n the decade of
the eighties. The value of applying the methods of metallo-
graphy to the study of ores as originally introduced b y D r .
WILLIAM CAMPBELL, nearly twenty years ago, has not only
been demonstrated, but has received wide adoption. l t s tech-
nique has been greatly improved. The preparation of polished
surfaces is now as widely current as was the preparation of
thin sections forty years ago. N o t only is incident and reflect-
ed ordinary light employed, but polarized light as well and
distinctive tests depend upon its use. Microchemical tests have
been perfected. Color distinctions have been to an important
degree established. Standards of hardness w i t h microscopie
sclerometers are being improved and other delicate determi-
nations are under investigation. While we may not anticipate
perhaps so extensive a field of research as was that of micros-
copie petrography i n whose parish was embraced a l l the wide
domain of rocks, yet i n the field of ore-deposits we are attacking
the problems of origin not alone b y structural geology, but
also b y the interpretation of the constituent minerals w i t h
regard to their primary and secondary characters; to order
of deposition; to physical conditions of deposition, whether
those of high, medium or low temperatures and pressure;
to precipitation i n open cavities or b y replacement; to the
accurate determination of the lacts of zonal distribution of
the metais, vertically and laterally around an igneous source;
and finally w i t h regard to intergrowths and physical relation-
ships as bearing on problems of ore-dressing and the location
of values. A l l these important phases of investigation are
aided i n the highest degree b y mineragraphy.

In one respect mineragraphy i n 1925 has a decided advan-

tage over the petrography of the eighties. I n the forty or more
XII INTRODUCTION.

years since then, physical chemistry has developed to an enor-

mous degree, and has cast a flood of light upon the pfocesses
and reactions involved in all phenomena of solution and cry-
stalüzation. The phase rule, the conception of systems and
eutectics, the thermo-dynamic principles involved; the con-
struction of diagrams, all make possible the mineragraphic
expositions to-day and compel the descriptive petrography of
a past generation to look like the childhood stage of the sub-
ject. As a great and illuminating help, moreover, have also
been added the contributions of the metallographers and their
descriptions of the micro-structures of alloys.

In the present work Professor VAN DER VEEN has treated

the subject with a full appreciation of all these important
aids, and in his preliminary pages, concisely reviews the fun-
damental ones so as to establish in the student's mind the
necessary preparation for interpreting what he observes. The
ore-minerals are then treated i n detail in accordance with the
scientific classification of our text books on mineralogy. Of
especial value under each mineral will be found the remarks
on association, and on the important distinctions which may
be used in discriminating between associates of like appear-
ance. The details of the typical occurrences studied by the
author will be very helpful to many a student. The illustra-
tions are abundant, are very carefully made and lettered, and
are skilfully reproduced.

For use in North America and in those parts of the British

Empire which are on other continents, the fact that the work
is written in English will operate to make the book much the
more accessible. The English speaking peoples widely scattered
over the woreld are already actively engaged in this branch
of study. Living, as most of them do, remote from daily con-
tact with other tongues, they have less often a werking know-
ledge of other languages than have Continental Europeans.
On behalf of the users of English, the writer may therefore
express to Professor VAN DER VEEN an appreciation of his gra-
ceful international service in writing his work in the language
which makes it most widely accessible to them.
JAMES F. KEMP.
 PREFACE.

Recently the examination of opaque as well as of transparent

minerals with reflected hght has proved to be of great impor-
tance for economie geology and for the knowledge of minerals
as well as for more technical purposes, e.g.: ore-dressing, and
the examination of drill samples. The want of a textbook is
feit more and more for practical examination in the field as
well as for the scientific investigator.
As is the case with every new branch of physical research
it is not possible in the beginning to give a more or less complete
survey of the results obtained. Every next collector and investi-
gator relying on his numerous predecessors, adds something to
the perfection of the work.
The tables of J . MüRDOCH (Microscopical Determination of
the Opaque Minerals, New York 1916), of W. M . D A V Y and
C . M. FARNHAM (Microscopie Examination of the Ore Minerals,
New York 1920), though they will always remain useful and
important, being the first interesting and most comprehensive
publications on this subject, have to be revised and completed.
Since then new methods of examination have come more to
the front, than those which lay the main stress on the chemical
conduct with regard to etching-liquids. The development of the
internal structure of the minerals and of the texture of their
combinations and of their conduct when exposed to polarized
light, have become very important facts for their identification.
It follows that a tabular survey which enables us to distinguish
the minerals, cannot any longer be only based upon the generally
so little doering colors of the minerals and their often varying
conduct With regard to the etching-liquids, but must also con-
tain mention of the internal structure of the minerals and
their conduct in polarized hght. The way to distinguish the
minerals is thus very much simplified and facilitated. It is our
intention to add these tables at the end of the book.
XIV PREFACE.

The work of H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN „Anleitung zur mikrosko-

pischen Bestimmung und Untersuchungvon Erzen und Aufberei-
tungsprodukten, besonders im auffallenden Licht" (1922) is an
important step in this direction. However, it contains only
some of the most important minerals.
In successive numbers we intend to give a survey of our
mineragraphic investigations and to begin with the most
important and simplest minerals. We will group the minerals
in a way, somewhat different from that which is usually folio-
wed in mineralogy. The native elements will be grouped as is
done in mineralogy, but we will put together all silver minerals
in one group as well as all copper minerals; we will not separate
pyrite from marcasite and smaltite from safflorite, because their
crystallographic habit is different, whereas in nature they occur
so close together.
This investigation is founded on the conduct of series of
minerals from many parts of the world, from well-known
localities. The comprehensive mineralogie and ore collections
of the Mining Institute of the Polytechnical University at
Delft have enabled us to do this work.
It appears that the conduct of one and the same niineral with
regard to etching-liquids and also its texture, is not the same
in all localities of occurrence and probably depends upon its
genesis or upon chemical variations. We have tried to arrange
these differences as systematically as possible, without entéring
into theoretical considerations concerning the causes, however;
The solution of many of these problems will be postponed till
later investigations, till a time, when the physical-chemical
science will take more notice of the sulphuric minerals and
when the equüibrium- diagrams of these chemical combinations
are also studied in solid state and at much lower temperatures
than their melting point.
Many micro-photos will accompany the text, because in this
new method of examination photography is of great importance
for the establishing of facts and besides it makes much printing
superfluous.
At the same time this textbook of mineragraphy intends to
complete the textbooks on mineralogy.
The properties of the minerals which we must know when
investigating with reflected light will be mentioned briefly for
 PREFACE. XV

each mineral. For each mineral a list of the localities of occurrence

examined will be added and the paragenesis and the mode of
occurrence will also be mentioned.
The general part of each mineralogical textbook e.g. the
description of microscopes and other optical instruments will
be treated briefly, as well as the theoretical treatment of the
optie phenomena.
We hope that the book, besides proving to be a guide for
further investigation, will at the same time add some new
facts to the work of American authors chiefly to whom the.merit
is due to have pointed to the importance of metallographic
investigation-methods applied to minerals.
Delft, 1 December 1924.

It is my pleasant duty to express my warmest appreciation

and thanks to Mr. C. SCHOUTEN M.E., Assistant in the Labora-
tory of Economie Geology, for the intelligent assistance he has
rendered and is rendering still throughout the investigation
and throughout the compilation of these notes. The photos are
all made by him, whereas he worked out also the best grinding
and polishing methods for sections of minerals.
 C H A P T E R I.

T E C H N I Q U E OF E X A M I N A T I O N .

MlCROSCOPICAL ARRANGEMENT.
The difference between the mineralogica] and the metallo-
graphic or mineragraphic microscope is in the method of Ulu-
minating the object. In the latter a reflector situated directly
above the objective, generally reflects the hght, by which the
opaque object is iUuminated.
In rnineragraphic examination normal or vertical illumination
is used. Obhque hght may be used for the recognition of intemal
reflexes of transparent minerals, though polarized vertical hght
by x nicols has the same effect.

S o u r c e o f l i g h t . The illumination of the vertical ülu-

minator must always take place with the same kind and power
of a r t i f i c i a l hght. Daylight varies too strongly because
of clouds and the position of the sun, which make it impossible
to obtain constant colors. Moreover, daylight cannot be used
for high magnifications and immersion.
For visual observation a frosted metal filament lamp of
50—100 candle power suffices. Many manufacturers construct
a small incandescent lamp in front of the vertical illuminator
and attached to it. For examination with polarized hght, for
microphotography and microprojection a stronger source of
light is wanted, for which arc-light can be used.
The most convenient iUumination for microphotography is
the EDISON'S pointüite lamp and the wolfram-are lamp of
PHILIPS (Eindhoven). In the latter two small globules of some
square mm. in size, are heated by a small electric are originating
in the same lamp. They emit a highly efficiënt hght and they
nearly approximate a "point of illumination". For projection
purposes arc-light must be used. A 5 ampère are is sufficiënt;
Mineragraphy. 1
2 CHAPTER I.

direct current should be used. The carbons are placed at an angle

of 9 0 , the positive carbon horizontally in the optical axis of
0

the lenses and of the vertical illuminator. Carbons of 5 and 6 mm.

in diameter are sufficiënt.

F i l t e r s . B y means of a filter white daylight can be nearly

approximated. The filter may be a rectangular glass tank
filled with a solution mentioned by B E R E K , consisting of 1 1 0 G.
CuNO, and 0 , 0 0 3 G. Gentian violet on 1 0 0 0 G. water at a thick-
ness of 1 0 mm. For visual observation, however, a blue cobalt
glass suffices, of which the color must be chosen in a way to
make galena look white. For photographical purposes filters
of other colors, especially yellow and orange, may be used with
success to obtain not only contrastful negatives, but to avoid
colored borders.
When using arc-hght a water tank is necessary to absorb
heat rays; with PHILIPS' and EDISON'S pointüite lamp a water
tank is not necessary. Easily melting minerals would melt in
arc-hght and others with a low transition point are changed,
so that e.g. rhombic chalcocite at a temperature of 91 degrees
is changed into isometric chalcocite. This transition is clearly
lo be seen and can be demonstrated by microprojection on the
screen, due to the originating of polysynthetic twinning.

V e r t i c a l i l l u m i n a t o r . Figure 1 shows the two

principal types of vertical iUurninators: a. the plane glass
illuminator, 6. the prism iUuminator.
a. Plane glass munühator. (see fig. 2). The glass plane is
inclined at an angle of 45° to the axis of the munünating system
and also to the optical axis of the microscope. Part of the
üght falling on the glass (about 25 %) is reflected vertically
downward through the objective on the mineral section. The
spot of the section which is thus fflunuhated reflects hght back
through the objective and partly through the plane glass, pro-
ducing the image visible to the eye.
b. Prism muminator. The prism occupies approximately
one half of the section of the tube. The hght from the lamp is
totally reflected downward on the section, which reflects it
upward again, where it passes behind the prism. With this
muminator the light falling on the surface is not precisely
 TECHNIQUE OF EXAMINATION. 3
vertical. Only one half of the aperture of the objective is made
use of, because one half of the light beam coming from the
object 5, passes behind the prism, the half on the left being
totally reflected by the prism outside the microscope. The
loss of light with a prism iüuminator is due to the fact that
the light beam is geometrically divided into two halves, while
with the plane glass illuminator each individual ray is split
up, so that only part of it reaches the eye.
The specific intensity of the illumination by the prism iüu-

Fig. 2.
Scheme of representation of vertical illumination. 1. Diaphragm;
2. Diaphragm; 3. Vertical illuminator; 4. Objective; 5. Object;
6. Ocular diaphragm. a = Plane glass- and b is prism illumination.

minator is higher than that of the glass illuminator, because

the bundie of rays, although divided into two parts, keeps its
original intensity. In the plane glass type every ray is reduced
in intensity, while the whole bundie remains intact. For this
reason the resolving power of the plane glass iüuminator is
much higher than that of the prism iüuminator. Therefore
the former is especiaüy desirable for high magnification ). 1

1) C . B E N E D I C K S . Eine bisher übersehene. Grundbedingung für die

Erhaltung scharfer Metallographische Mikrophotographien bei starken
Vergröszerungen. Metallurgie, V I , 1909, 320.
4 CHAPTER I.

For low and medium magnifications the reflecting prism is

used, because it gives brighter images. It depends on the spe-
cial construction of the prism how far it may be used for photo-
graphical purposes. The prism of the Winkel microscope gives
splendid images up to 1000 X magnification. For projection
the reflecting prism should be used as well.

M i c r o s c o p e s . The large microscopes used for metallo-

graphy, e.g. Le Chatelier Microscope, are not adapted for
mineragraphy. Ordinary common mineralogical microscopes are
quite sufficiënt, if only a vertical illuminator can be adjusted
over the objective, and if for the higher magnifications the
special short objectives are used. The illumination lamp must
then be f astened to the tube of the microscope, so that the light
source always remains in one line with the ihumination-tube.
This is necessary because the ordinary mineralogical microscope
does not possess a stage which is vertically movable. Alamp
at some distance provided with a collector lens mostly suffices
also, because the range in which the tube has to be moved to
focus on different sections is generally not very wide.
Most of the manuf acturers also make small metallographical
microscopes. The stage of these microscopes can be moved
up and down. For mineragraphical purposes, however, it is
desirable, with regard to the examination of the minerals in
polarized light, that the stage should also permit of a complete
revolution, as is the case with the polarization microscopes.
The most complete and convenient mechanical stages are those
on which the sections can be moved vertically, shifted horizon-
tally and rotated. A stage of this kind is not furnished yet by
many manufacturers. Most of the small metallographical
microscopes possess a mechanical stage without rotary move-
ment, which stage by some manufacturers is made interchan-
geable with a rotary stage.
T h e R o s e n h a i n M i c r o s c o p e , constructed by R. J .
B E C K , London, has a mechanical stage which permits of a
complete revolution.
R e i c h e r t M i c r o s c o p e . (Vienna) A very useful
type for visual observation is made by REICHERT. The illu-
mination tube (in which the lamp outfit is found) is fastened
to the illuminator. The stage does not rotate, but may be
 TECHNIQUE OF EXAMINATION. 5

replaced by a single rotating stage. The objectives are adjusted

on a rotating nose-piece.
W i n k e l M i c r o s c o p e . R. WINKEL, Göttingen, pro-
duces an excellent microscope with prism illuminator (fig. 3)
(after Le Chatelier). For visual observation a lamp tube is
fastened to it. For microphotography the tube is made longer
by fastening a second tube with diaphragm to it.
B a u s c h & L o m b M i c r o s c o p e s . The metallo-
grapical microscopes suitable for mineragraphic purposes made
by B a u s c h & L o m b , are similar to the Leitz microscope.
They use an adjustable plane glass illuminator; the circular
stage is vertically adjusted and may be removed for the substi-
tution of an attachable mechanical stage.
J a m e s S w i f t & S o n M i c r o s c o p e s . (London). A
„Universal Technical" Microscope is made by JAMES SWIFT
& SON, which may be used for examination of transparent
objects as well as for opaque minerals. This microscope has a
special vertical illuminator with self-contained compound conden-
sor, reflector, lamp, etc, and is equipped with a divided centring
rotating mechanical stage. The range of the mechanical move-
ments is 50 mm. in the horizontal and 25 mm. in the vertical
direction. A special metallographic microscope the „Jackson-
Blount" microscope has the same centring rotating mechanical
stage; the illuminator is built as an integral part of the instru-
ment and is rotable about the optie axis. This is also the case
with the Winkel and Reichert microscope.
C. ZEISS, J e n a, manufactures vertical illuminators of the
plane glass and reflecting type, which can be used on the same
microscope, and can be adjusted to the common mineralogical
microscope.
L e i t z M i c r o s c o p e s (Wetzlar). This is a type which
offers all that can be desired for our purpose. The plane glass
and prism illuminators are interchangeable. (For a more com-
plete description see SCHNEIDERHÖHN (VI).

O p t i c a l b e n c h . For microphotography, microprojection

and polarized hght the use of an optical bench is advisable.
The source of the hght, the lenses and microscope should
build a rigid system. In figure 4 is represented an optical
bench, constructed by P. F . DUJARDIN & Co., Düsseldorf, for
6 CHAPTER I.

the Winkel microscope. We have replaced the Lilliput are light

by a PHILIPS wolframite are lamp with a coüecting lens.
The amount of light collected will increase with the diameter
of the collecting lens, but the thickness of the lens will also
increase and the loss of light due to absorption will increase
more than the gain. It is advisable to use the thinnest possible
lenses, in order to reduce absorption to a minimum.

P o l a r i z e r a n d a n a l y s e r . For the investigation in

polarized light the polarizer must be mounted or placed right
in front of the iüuminator. Both must be put in such awaythat
their vibration planes are precisely parallel or perpendicular, as
otherwise we should get elliptic polarization. Because the
reflected light of the iüuminator is already somewhat polarized,
it is wisest to place both planes paraüel.
The analyser can be constructed in the tube of the microscope
and should be made rotating. It can also be placed on the
ocular, as a cap-analyser. LEITZ makes the analyser adjusted
in the tube of the microscope, while his polarizer is loose and
may be attached to the tube of the iüuminator, in front of the
prism or plane glass. This has the disadvantage that every time
the polarizer is used it has to be made certain that its vibration
plane is paraüel with that of the iüuminator. ZEISS constructs
a vertical iüuminator with a polarizer attached to it so that
it can be turned aside when it is not needed, and keeps its same
position. The analyser is a cap-analyser.

O c u l a r s a n d o b j e c t i v e s must be chosen so that

a magnification of about 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1500 can be
obtained. At the highest magnifications, more or less above
1200, immersion objectives are preferable to dry systems.

PREPARATION OF SPECIMENS.
G r i n d i n g a n d p o l i s h i n g . The preparation of the
sections is of very great importance for correct observation.
Not only must the surface be free from scratches and pits as
much as possible, but also it must not be chemicaüy changed.
An ore-specimen generaüy consists of minerals differing in
hardness. In the aüoys in metaüography the difference in hard-
ness of the components is much slighter as a rule, so that to
 TECHNIQUE OF EXAMINATION. 7

these somewhat different grinding-methods are applied. The

grinding and polishing of ores requires greater care and the
treatment must be more subtle and must be varied according
to the difference in hardness of the specimens.
In general it is admitted that the treatment consists of two
sub-divisions: firstly: g r i n d i n g , secondly: p o l i s h i n g .
The grinding must result in obtaining a flat surface, not free
from scratches, whereas the polishing serves to remove these
scratches.
SCHNEIDERHÖHN (VI) assumes that in grinding material is
removed from the surface mechanically, while in polishng,
which takes place with very soft powders, this does not happen,
but that in this case only a snifting of the part icles on the surface
occurs, by meansof which the edges of the scratches are removed
and the scratches are filled up. It is often assumed in metallo-
graphy that an amorphous surface-skin originates.
We do not deny that such a way of polishing is possible,
but we doubt whether it is recommendable. Our experience has
taught us that the polishing of ore specimens must not differ from
the grinding of them, if one wants to obtain good results. Good
results are undoubtedly obtained. when it is kept in mind that
the grinding must not differ from the polishing in principle.
Only the fineness of the abrasive and the material of the grin-
ding-surface on which one works determine whether one gets
a surface without scratches or not.
A hard mineral must be polished with a coarser powder than
a soft mineral. The polishing powder, however, must exercise a
grinding function, in other words it must not be softer, but
just like the grinding-powder, it must be harder than the mineral
one wants to free from scratches. •

G r i n d i n g - a n d p o l i s h i n g powder. Theoretically
the method of polishing above mentioned seems only possible
with powders which are only a little harder than the mineral
to be polished. It follows that for the polishing of the ores with
a hardness of 2—9 one ought to have seven or, better still,
fourteen different polishing powders. So e.g. a surface in which
pyrite (H. 6,5), arsenopyrite (H 5,5—6), pyrrhotite (H 3,5—4,5),
chalcopyrite (H 3,5—4) and galena (H 2—2,5) occur, ought
to be polished successively with powders of a hardness of
8 CHAPTER I.

± 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, and 2. Many experiments made according to

this principle, did not give good results.
And even if the results had been good, the great number
of powders which necessitates the use of many wheels and
disks or the repeated cleaning of them, is a great objection.
The loss of time this way of polishing involves, is another
objection.
The reliëfs the hard minerals would obtain due to the suc-
cessive treatments, when compared to those of the softer mine-
rals, would also be too pronounced.
So we must aim at a small number of powders.
The following materials were examined to be used as grinding-
and polishing powders: diamond-powder, carborundum, diaman-
tine, emery, pumice, chromic oxide, Fe O (rouge), tripolite,
2 s

infusorial earth, tinash and alundum ("tonerde").

For all treatments carborundum, emery, diamantine and
alundum are satisfactory, as will be specified in what follows.

W h e e l s a n d d i s k s . Quickly re vol ving wheels and (or)

unmovable plates can be used. For p o L i s h i n g the surface
on which one works is of great importance too. Hard materials
like e.g. metais or glass are of no use. We cannot appreciate
a thick underlayer like feit, chamois-skin, cloth, which is
sometimes recommended, except when the specimen consists
of one mineral only. As a rule this is not the case. The reliëfs
of the hard minerals become too pronounced when treated in
this way, and too many bits are jerked out of the minerals
even by a moderate number of revolutions of the wheel. Nor are
coarse tissues like coarse linen or cotton of any use. Very
suitable are fine linen or fine cotton (madapolam) of no less
than 35 threads a cm. (in two directions). When there are fewer
threads the number of scratches increases.
It proved that the inside of the hand is a very good material
for a final polish. For that reason experiments were made with
different kinds of animal membranes, but the result proved
unsatisfactory. In all respects ribbed membrane rubber is ade-
quate (about 0,5 mm. in thickness). It is a transparent kind
of rubber, which is also used for the making of medical
gloves.
Fig. 1.
F i g . 3.

F i g . 4.
Fig. 5.
F i g . 6. F i g . 7.

F i g . 8.
 TECHNIQUE O F EXAMINATION. 9

Grinding.
1. O n the specimen a flat section is ground on an iron
wheel of about 25 c m . diameter driven at 300 R . P . M . w i t h
carborundum mixed w i t h water (No. 220). The number of
revolutions and the abrasive to be used is of no great impor-
tance, provided that the latter is hard and not too coarse.
I t can also take place on an emery-wheel kept wet, or on an
iron wheel w i t h emery-powder.
2. The edges of the ground section are rounded off on an
emery-stone or on the wheel above mentioned. This serves t o
prevent tears i n the cloth of the lap-wheels to be used next.
3. O n a horizontal glass plate grinding takes place by hand
w i t h carborundum (60 minutes-powder) and water. This must
be done very carefully, t i l l a fine compact section is obtained,
as this saves time for the following treatments.
4. O n a polished copper wheel or on a wooden one w i t h an
ebonite plate which is spanned w i t h fine linen or fine cotton of
20 threads a centimeter i n both directions, one continues t o
grind. The ebonite plate is placed i n such a w a y that while the
wheel is screwed onto its axis the plate is pressed outward i n
the center b y this axis, which causes the cotton to be more
tightly spanned. To span the cotton a slit is made i n the border
of the wheel, i n which a cord can be placed or an elastic band.
The diameter of this wheel m a y be about 22 c M . driven at
1400 R . P . M , While grinding, one wets the cotton or the linen
from time to time i n the middle of the wheel w i t h carborundum
i n water (60 minutes-powder). F o r this wetting and also for
those following we can use an „ e r l e m e y e r " w i t h a pierced cork
through which is put a short glass tube tapering i n front.
E v e r y now and then a few drops are shaken out of the bottle
onto the wheel.
The grinding on this whéel is important when hard ores
are present. W i t h middling hard ores and soft ores this treat-
ment can be omitted.
5. F i n a l l y we grind on a wheel like the one just mentioned
w i t h the same covering and driven w i t h the same speed, but
now we wet w i t h diamantine-powder (hardness 9) (provided b y
K R A N T Z & C o . Bonn.) i n water. N o w the grinding is finished
and for hard ores the polishing is over as well. The middling-
hard ores and the soft ores are not yet t o t a l l y free from scratches.
10 CHAPTER I.

6. The final polish is done on a bit of ribbed membrane-

rubber (0,5 mm. thick and of a surface of 15 X 15 cM.) The
polishing is done by hand with a mixture of water and the
finest alundum (e.g. the No. 3 „tonerde" manufactured by
DUJARDIN & Co., Düsseldorf). The bit of rubber is put on
a polished glass plate when wet.
7. The piece is rinsed for the last time and dried with a
soft towel.
6a. For specimens which are required for a special purpose
e.g. for the examination of very fine intergrowths or for photo-
graphy, especially for microphotos of etched surfaces, it is some-
times desirable to replace the treatment 5 and 6 by working on
a metal wheel spanned with flannel with finest alundum.
It is still better, however, after the treatment of 6, to polish
softly and d r y on a second piece of ribbed membrane-rubber
by hand with the finest alundum.
When the treatment is well done every scratch dissappears,
so that e v e n w h i l e e t c h i n g n o s c r a t c h e s ap-
p e a r. This proves that polishing can be done without filling
the scratches with rnineral-powder.
It is remarkable that often the texture of a mineral appears
by polishing, so that in a granular aggregate the granular
boundaries become visible; twinning can become visible as well.

The total treatment takes not longer than 5—10 minutes for
most ores. Specimens with very hard minerals as e.g. pyrite,
cassiterite and others take some more time.
For ores with a hardness of more than 5,5—6 the treatments
3 and 4, are important. For these as well as for 5 rather much
time must be taken. Then 6 can be either omitted or limited
to a minimum. For ores with a hardness 4—5 all treatments
must be executed with about equal length of time. For 4 and
5 half a nunute till one ntihute suffices, for 6 about 1—2 mi-
nutes. Sometimes 4 can be omitted, but only when more time
is given to 5. For soft ores 4 can be omitted, but 6 has to be
executed more carefully.
When a piece has many minerals, very different in hardness,
it is desirable to do 3 very carefully, to give little time to 4
and much time to 5. Then 6 must be short, as otherwise the
reliëf becomes greater than is desirable.
 TECHNIQÜE OF EXAMINATION. 11

Some reliëf must remain if possible, to be able to compare

the hardness of the ores mutually, as we shall see later on.
Nor does a scratch harm the investigation as it enables us to
form an opinion concerning the mutual difference in hardness.
Alter some practice one is able to judge which is the best com-
bination for a certain ore.
The expenses of cotton and grinding powder are limited to a
minimum when these rules are f ollowed. On one piece of cotton
on a wheel 25—50 sections can be treated, when it is carefully
done. On one sheet of membrane rubber of the size above
mentioned more than 500 sections can be treated.
The following general rules have to be taken into considera-
tion when grinding and polishing take place:
a. The specimen must always be moved from the centre
outward and vice-versa on all wheels in order that the wheels
wear out as evenly as possible in all places.
b. The specimen must be turned slowly during the treatment
as otherwise hills of soft ore will remain behind hard minerals
(as it were like shadows).
c. All treatments must be done wet (except that mentioned
in 6a.) because in dry grinding with great speed of the wheels,
chemical changes of the surface due to the heat developed,
might take place.
d. The specimen and also the hands must be thoroughly
cleaned after each treatment.
e. The sheet of me mbrane-rubber must be repeatedly washed
and provided with new powder.
/. The wheels must also be rinsed and washed again and
again.
For that reason vertically placed wheels are preferable to
horizontal ones, as on the former less dust falls and as they can
be washed easily.
N a t i v e m e t a i s sometimes need a somewhat different
treatment, especially copper, gold, and silver, when occurring
in large quantities and with considerable surfaces. Instead of
using the sheet of membrane rubber for the last polishing (6)
a small wheel can be used (fig. 8) covered with flannel as
mentioned under 6a. The finest alundum must be used and
the specimen must not only not be pressed against the flannel,
but it must touch the flannel only very slightly. The specimen
12 CHAPTER I.

must not be turned during the grinding and the polishing, but
alternatively kept in two perpendicular directions.

Technical arrangement.
For the reasons mentioned above vertical wheels are preferable
to horizontal wheels. Moreover, when more than one wheel is
used the movement can be transmitted by a horizontal trans-
mission axis driven by an electromotor. With horizontal wheels
this transmission becomes intricate and each wheel must be
used with a separate electromotor. If one cannot make great
expenses one wheel driven by an electromotor with different
transmissions suffices and then the wheel must be changed
for each treatment. This takes time and is more difficult than
when one can use more wheels. The best thing is to take a
separate wheel for every treatment. Three wheels and one glass
plate suffice for the most extensive grinding-apparatus. In the
figures 5, 6, 7 are represented some wheels driven by belt and
by separate electromotor. A small wheel is seen in figure 8,
which can be used for polishing purposes.

MOUNTING OF SPECIMENS.
The polished surface must be perpendicular to the axis of
the microscope, or parallel to the plane of the stage. Several
methods can be applied. The piece is fixed with some kind
of wax or other on an object-glass. The lower surface of this
object-glass must be placed parallel to the polished section.
The method mentioned by Murdoch consists in accurately
turning copper rings different in height till upper and
lower border are parallel. The diameter of the ring must be
smaller than the length of the object-glass. The best thing is
to take long object-glasses (English size) because then the
diameter of the rings need not be so small and also because
we get a more accurate labelling.
The wax-bar is taken, the one end is heated and the piece
is pressed into the hot wax-bar. While the wax is stül soft the
lower part with the specimen is cut off. Now the specimen is laid
with its polished surface on a glass-plate, so that the bit of wax
points upwards; a ring is chosen the upper border of which is
somewhat lower and the ring is laid around it. The object-
glass is well heated and laid on the wax with its center. Through
 T E C H N I Q U E O F EXAMINATION. 13

the heat the wax melts and the glass sinks due to its own weight
till it rests with both sides on the ring. If we heat the object-
glass the pressing of it against the wax is no longer necessary,
and a more accurate horizontal orientation is obtained while
breaking of the glass is avoided at the same time.
Small handpresses are manufactured also, by means of which
the piece can be pressed horizontally into the wax on the object-
glass.
The object-glass may be provided on both ends with a label,
on which the number and other desirable data may be men-
tioned.
Serviceable wax may be made in different ways. Sealing
wax may be used provided one first makes sure whether it holds
well on glass.
P o r o u s a n d l o o s e a g g r e g a t e s of minerals can be
treated in exactly the same way, when they are cooked for
some time in Canada-balsam without any volatile parts, just
as is done with thin sections of porous rocks. The temperature
may not be high to prevent chemical changes. The section
when polished is treated with xylol, which causes the balsam
to become dim.
L o o s e g r a i n s are laid on the glass plate, the heated
wax is pressed on them; they are polished as usual and moun-
ted in the same way.
D e l i c a t e c r y s t a l s like copper- and silver-dendrites
can be transmitted to melted wax.
S a n d s a n d s l i m e s can be mixed with some melted
wax, which mixture can be treated like ore after cooling.
First attention must be paid tothecomposition and alien ingre-
dients of the wax itself.

General literature.
I. W. CAMPBELL. The Microscopie Examination of Opaque
Minerals. Econ. Geology. Vol. I, 1906, 751.
II. W. M . D A V Y and C . M . F A R N H A M . Microscopie Exami-
nation of the Ore Minerals. New York, 1920.154 pgs.
III. B. GRANIGG. Zur Anwendung Metallographischer Me-
thoden auf die Mikroskopische Untersuchung von Erzlager-
statten. Metall u. Erz, 12, 1915, 189—200; 13, 1916, 169—177;
17, 1920, 57—61.
14 CHAPTER I.

I V . J . M Ü R D O C H . Microscopical Determination of the

Opaque Minerals. N . Y . 1916.
V . H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Die Mikroskopische Untersuchung
Undurchsichtiger Minerale und Erze i m Auffallenden L i c h t
u n d ihre Bedeutung für Mineralogie und Lagerstattenkunde.
Neues Jahrb. f. M i n . B . B . X L I I I , 1920, 400—438.
V I . H . S C H N E I D E R H Ö H N . Anleitung zur Mikroskopischen
Bestimmung und Untersuchung von Erzen und Aufbereitungs-
producten, besonders i m Auffallenden L i c h t . Berlin 1922,
290 pgs.
VIL W . L . W H I T E H E A D . Notes on the Technique of Minera-
graphy. E c o n . Geology, V o l . X I I , 1917, 697—716.
 C H A P T E R II.

CONSTITUTION DIAGRAMS.

The study of constitution or equilibrium diagrams has become

an indispensable element in the study of petrography and minera-
logy. These diagrams are not only necessary for the investigation
of the history and origin of minerals crystallized from the molt en
state, as e.g. those in igneous rocks and magmatic ore deposits,
but also for all other minerals deposited from gaseous and
aqueous solutions.
The transformations which take place in the solid state, the
breakdown of solid solutions into different components, can
be observed in several cases, as e.g. in the fine segregate of
chalcopyrite in sphalerite crystals, and in the segregate of chal-
copyrite in stannite.
For this reason we think it desirable to give a short descrip-
tion of this subject, according to BAKHUIS ROOZEBOOM'S
"Erstarrungspunkte der Mischkristalle zweier Stoffe", Zeit-
schrift f. Phys. Chemie, 1899, which has been freely consulted
for the preparation of the following text.
For a more complete account see literature given at the
end of this chapter.

Constitution diagrams of systems consisting of 2 or more

than 2 components, show us the phases and their composition
which are in equüibriiun at a given temperature.
Homogeneous, mechanicaUy separable portions of a system
are called phases.
These diagrams can show us the changes from the liquid
into the solid state, as well as the transformations which occur
within the solid state. The basis of these diagrams is the rule
of Gibbs, that a system under a given pressure, takes the
16 CHAPTER II.

equilibrium which corresponds to a minimum of thermody-

namic potential ( £ ) .

BlNARY SYSTEMS.
F o r binary systems the abscissae represent the concentra-
t i o n of the mixture or of the solution, the ordinates being the
thermodynamic potential (see fig. 9 1). Pressure and tempe-
rature are supposed to be constant, the pressure is atmospheric.
The vertical at point A represents 100 % of the component
A , the vertical at B represents 100 % B. A mixture of A and B
is represented b y a vertical line, the horizontal distance of
which from B, indicates the percentage of A , and the horizon-
t a l distance of which from A indicates the percentage of B.
When the s o l u b i l i t y i n the l i q u i d s t a t e
i s c o m p l e t e the 2 of a l l solutions from 0—100 per cent B
b u i l d a curve convex to the horizontal axis. The two compo-
nents may be completely or incompletely soluble i n the solid
state i n a l l proportions. The solution i n the solid state is called
" s o l i d solution" *) W h e n we consider the solid solutions which
freeze out of a melt as homogeneous solid phases, we can re-
present their 2 at a given temperature and pressure b y a curve,
just as w i t h the liquid solutions.
Considering these solid phases we have three possibilities:
a. The two components are soluble i n a l l proportions i n
the liquid state; they form a continuous series of solid solutions.
b. The components are incompletely soluble i n the solid state;
they are not miscible i n a l l proportions.
c. The two components crystallize into 2 crystal systems
(isodimorphous).
Not only isomorphous components but also chemically very
different components build solid solutions. The isomorphy of
the components is commonly favorable to the existence of
solid solutions, but there are many exceptions. A n example
is the occurrence of the solid solutions of ZnS and CuFeS , 2

demonstrated b y the orientated inclusions of chalcopyrite

i n sphalerite of various localities. N o w sphalerite is isometric
1) The term "mixed crystal" whir.h is sometimes used as a trans-
lation of the German "Mischkristall" however implies a mechanical
mixture of two components and not miscibility or solubility, and
should not be used.
 CONSTITUTION DIAGRAMS. 17

and chalcopyrite is tetragonal, although it is possible that at

a higher temperature chalcopyrite is isometric as well. The
very complicated twinning of chal-
copyrite points in this direction.
Continuous series of solid solutions,
however, generally exist only of com-
ponents of the same symmetrie cry-
stallographical classes.
Crystallization of solid
solutions from a binary
melt may proceed accor-
d i n g t o 5 general types.
A. T h e m e l t c r y s t a l l i z e s
into a continuous series
o f s o l i d s o l u t i o n s , the com-
ponents are soluble in the solid state.
Three types may result.
Considering the diagrams in the follo-
wing figures, we see that with the
change of temperature the liquidus
and the solidus curves move, the liq.
curve faster than the solidus curve.
Both go upward when the mixture is
cooled down; at a certain temperature
they will touch and then intersect.
T y p e I. T h e m e l t i n g p o i n t s
of a l l c o m p o s i t i o n s l i e be-
tween those of t h e two
c o m p o n e n t s . (see fig. 9).
The solidus curve is convex to the
horizontal axis. The first intersectiën
point is on one side of the diagram.
We assume B to be the component
with the highest melting point. In concentraiion.

this point the curves will intersect for Fig. 9.

the first tune. By lowering the tem-
perature the intersection point moves to the left till the
lowest melting point (of A) is reached. During this movement
the curves possess a common tangent. The composition of the
«oéxisting phases (in II) is represented by the two tangential
Mineragraphy. 2
18 CHAPTER II.

points of solidus and liquidus curve, the abscissae a and b. The

coëxisting phases are here: liquid phase with composition a-A,
liquid phase a and soüd phase b in varying proportions and
the soüd solution b-B.
When the varying abscissae of the common tangential points
are combined and we take the corresponding temperatures as
ordinates the diagram V results. This figure represents the
constitution diagram (Concentration-Temperature or C-T dia-
gram) which is generally used for this purpose.
C and D are the melting points of the two components. The
upper curve (üquidus) gives the temperatures at which solidi-
fication begins, the lower curve (solidus) gives the temperatures
at which solidification is completed. The field between the
lines is the field where heterogeneous equihbrium of solid and
melt exists.
The solidification of a given composition r (see V, fig. 9)
progresses in the following way (when we exclude all retar-
dation and supersaturation). The melt remains liquid till the
point of the liquidus curve n is reached. The solid solution
which is formed is of the composition represented by the point
o in the same horizontal line. We have thus two phases: the
melt n in equihbrium with the sohd o. When the temperature
continues to fall, the particles of the sohd that have crystallized,
are no longer in equilibrium with the liquid. Part of the com-
ponent which is superfluous.is again passing over into solution.
The composition of the melt follows the liquidus curve as far
as p; the composition of the sohd solution changes along the
solidus curve till q is reached. At p-q the whole melt is used
up and is solidified into one sohd solution of the same com-
position as the original liquid.
In nature, however, the maintenance of equihbrium in cry-
stallization is generally imperfect. There is always retardation,
so that the first separated crystals have not time enough to be
leached out again to maintain their equihbrium with the cooling
liquid. The result is the production of zonal crystals. In rock
minerals, like e.g. plagioclase, augite, ohvine, etc, the center
isricherin one of the components and the outer zones poorer
in it than the average. Diffusion in the sohd state, which is the
first condition for a mineral to maintain the equihbrium with
its melt, proceeds extremely slowly for sihcates, much more
 CONSTTTUTION DIAGRAMS. 19

slowly than for sulphides and metais.

But we find these zona] crystals in
the latter as well. In pyrrhotite we
find a similar example for sulphidic
minerals crystallized from melts. The
outer zones of some pyrrhotite-grains
show other structures by etching
than the cores.
This diagram demonstrates:
I. The general rule t h a t t h e
m e l t is r i c h e r i n the com-
p o n e n t w h i c h l o w e r s the
fusion temperature than
the s o l i d s o l u t i o n in equi-
l i b r i u m w i t h it.
II. A second rule which does not
hold good for all types is, that the
solid solution is always richer in the
component with the higher melting
point than the melt with which it
is in equihbrium.
T y p e II. The c o n t i n u o u s
freezing point curves
pass t h r o u g h a m a x i m u m .
The diagram of this type is similar
to that of the following type.
T y p e III. The continuous
f r e e z i n g point curves pass
t h r o u g h a m i n i m u m (see
fig. 10). Type II results when the
two curves have their first tangential
point in the middle of the c-S dia-
gram (when the solidus has the
smallest radius).
Type III results when the last
intersection (tangential) point of the
two curves L and S hes in the middle
of the c-2 diagram (when the L-curve
has the smallest radius). The com-
binationof the c-2 diagrams gives the
20 CHAPTER II.

C-T diagram (V of fig. 10). We see that in

the minimum point the sohd solution melts
at a constant temperature, as if it were
one single crystal. In the diagram of type II
this holds good for the maximum point.
The second rule above mentioned does not
hold good for type II and type III.
Often it is difficult to make out if we have
to do here (type III) with a continuous
minimum or with a eutecticum on the freezing
curve.
B. T h e m e l t f r e e z e s i n t o a
d i s c o n t i n u o u s s e r i e s of s o l i d
s o l u t i o n s . The components are soluble
in all proportions in the hquid state, and
incompletely soluble in the solid state.
In this case the solidus 2 curve is probably
partly concave, (see fig. 11, III). A sohd
solution of a composition between x and y,
(the tangential points of the common tan-
gent) e.g. z must divide into two solid
solutions of the composition b' and b, in
the ratio bz' and b'z'. The point Zj repre-
senting the correspondent homogeneous
phase in the concave part of the curve
would have a higher potential than the
mixture of the two sohd solutions b' and b.
This is impossible, so that every solid phase
with a composition between the two tan-
gential points will spht into two sohd
solutions.
This holds good for the tangential points
of liquidus and solidus as. well. The fun-
* damental point of the whole theory is that
^ as soon as a common tangent at the poten-
tial curves, be it solidus and liquidus or the
I solidus only, exists, the system divides into
phases, the composition of which is given
by the tangential points.
' In the case B two types result:
 coNSTrnrnoN DIAGRAMS. 21

T y p e IV. The c o n t i n u o u s f f e e z i n g c u r v e
has a t r a n s i t i o n p o i n t and the s o l i d solu-
t i o n s d o n o t f o r m a c o n t i n u o u s s e r i e s , (see
fig. 11).
This type results when the tangential points of the concave
part of the solidus curve in the c-2 diagram always remain
on one side of the intersection point of both curves. The C-T
diagram is given by V I . With D E the solid solutions D G
coëxist as in type 1.1' is the transition temperature, below which
sohd solutions along C F coëxist with melts C E . The melt E
is in equihbrium with 2 sohd solutions F and G which lie both
on the same side of E . For this reason the melt E never results
from fusion of G and F. E is called an i n c o n g r u e n t m e l t .
When cooling proceeds: L i q . E -f- Sohd G<-> Sohd F ; when
the temperature- is raised Liq. E + Sohd G •*- solid F . This
is called the p e r i t e c t i c r e a c t i o n .
The curves with incongruent melting point are important
for the study of resorption phenomena in igneous rocks and
in magmatic ore deposits and for the occurrence of the "reac-
tion rims" (kelephitic zones) e.g. between augites and feldspars,
around ilmenite and olivine, etc.
a. Melts of the composition C-E freeze into homogeneous
sohd solutions (field fi) when we assume that H F is vertical.
When H F is not vertical these solutions, however, may result
to be unstable at a lower temperature and may split up into
different solid solutions.
In the same way melts of the composition a-D freeze into
homogeneous phases.
b. Melts of the composition a-c and c-E first form sohd
solutions corresponding to a'-G and c'-G, till t' is reached or
point E and G. Then the peritectic reaction sets in. If sohd
G is superabundant during the reaction, the melt E is used
up and two solid phases F and G arise. If liq. E is superabun-
dant sohd G disappears and liq. E and sohd F remain, which
will follow the rules of the C F and C E curves. Between a c
the former will result, between c E the latter. Rule I and II
hold good here.
T y p e V . T h e s o l i d s o l u t i o n s do not f o r m
a c o n t i n u o u s series, the f r e e z i n g curve
h a s a e u t e c t i c p o i n t. (see fig. 12).
22 CHAPTER II.

This type results when the tangential

points oï the solidus curve in the c-2
diagram lie on both sides of the intersection
point of both curves. It is analogous to
the simple eutectic diagram. Rule I only
holds good here. A l l melts which do not
lie in composition between F G freeze into
homogeneous solid solutions. A l l melts
c-E follow cE, the solid solutions follow
c' G; all melts a-E follow aE, the solid
solutions follow a' F. The remaining melt
of all combinations between F G freezes
into a mixture of soüd solutions F and G .
E i s the e u t e c t i c p o i n t . Belowthe
temperature at E every melt is frozen.
The mixture has a c o n g r u e n t m e l -
ting point.
Iso-dimorphous solutions crystaüize along
type IV and V .

These diagrams for binary systems may

be used also for crystals crystaüized out
of solutions, aqeous or gaseous, with
mineralizers or fluxes, as long as the new
components do not form solid solutions
or do not react and form stöchiometrical
chemical substances with the two com-
ponents. •

EUTECTIC AND EUTECTOIDIC

TEXTURE.

Let us assume a binary system of com-

0
ponents insoluble in the soüd state. The
curves of first and last stage of crystaUiza-
tion (üquidus and solidus) represented in
** the former diagram (fig. 12), coïncide,
because there are no soüd solutions in
. equihbrium with the melt, but single
components.
 ojNSTrnmoN DIAGRAMS. 23

When there is no retardation in the process of freezing, the

melt E will crystallize into a mixture of the two components
at the eutectic temperature t', precisely on the horizontal
through that temperature or through point E . But crystalli-
zation involves a certain amount of supersaturation, so that
generally the process of solidification does not comply in all
respects with the diagram. The solution or melt will become
supersaturated or undercooled for a moment. When the melt
is of the eutectic composition E the temperature will drop to a
certain temperature t before the deposition of any phase takes
v

place. The melt becomes supersaturated with respect to both

components. The deposition of both components may follow
simultaneously when for both the factors of crystallization
as e.g. the nuclei' numbers and the linear velocities of crystalliza-
tion are the same. If these factors differ, one of the phases
will separate first and deposition will proceed periodically alter-
natingly. The phase which is in advance may determine the
pattern of the eutectic texture.
According to these different conditions, in which also the
rate of cooling may vary and other variations during solidifi-
cation may occur, eutectic texture may differ strongly in
appearance.
Oscillating between the two points of supersaturation alter-
nate layers or thin rectiplanar lamellae will form (pearlite,
fig. 14). When neither component predominates fan-like texture
probably results from difference in growth of the two compo-
nents during crystallization, or from difference in velocity of
diffusion of both components towards the crystallization
centra (alloy Ag-Cu, fig. 97). Minute bars of one component
surrounded by the other may also be formed, hackly so-called
"graphic intergrowth" results also, as the intergrowth of quartz-
orthoclase in pegmatites. A l l these textures assume the highest
possible contact between the two components.
A characteristic of the eutectic texture is the formation of
cells or grains, every ceU having its own orientated texture
and a more or less polygonal shape.
If the melt is of a composition between F-G one of the com-
ponents will solidify on cooling along one of the freezing curves
on both sides of the eutectic composition, till this composition
in the point E is reached. This component forms crystals or
24 CHAPTER II.

dendrites in the melt <lïgs. 97, 99). Now the remaining eutectic
melt cannot be undercooled with respect to the component
which was crystallizing out before the eutectic point was
reached. This phase continues to form below the eutectic tempe-
rature t' till supersaturation for the second component has
reached its maximum. This may be the reason why in many
alloys e.g. silver-copper (fig. 97), the primary crystals of copper
are surrounded first by a thin layer of the other component
(silver), before the eutectic texture develops. These crystals
often seem to determine the pattern of the eutectic cells of
which they generally form the centers.
Solid solutions of type V will crystallize in the same way
as those above mentioned.
The texture o f a e u t e c t o i d is almost similar to a
eutectic one and is the result of the same process described
above, taking place i n a s o l i d s o l u t i o n , which b r e a k s
d o w n along a similar diagram into two new phases.

TRANSFORMATIONS I N SOLID SOLUTIONS.

The temperature of transformation of a solid is changed

when it contains a second component in solid solution. So e.g.
the reversible transformation of chalcocite from the rhombic -*
isometric state at 91° C. will be changed when FeS or CuS is
in solid solution.
In solid solutions often occur various transformations, each
of which may be represented by a curve, so that very com-
plicated constitution diagrams result. Often a break-down of
a solid solution into two or more phases occurs. Generally
speaking, we may say that the law of the equilibria between
liquid phases, or between liquid and solid phases treated in
the foregoing pages are equally applicable to solid phases (III).
We will give one example for illustration.
A continuous series of solid solutions may be stable at a
high temperature, while at a lower temperature these solutions
will split up into different components. This may occur in diffe-
rent ways. One example is given in figure 13.
Solid solutions of compositions between A-B break down
into a mixture of B and B'; e.g. a solid of composition a on
cooling will separate B' and follow the curve T E till the eutec-
 CONSTITUTION DIAGRAMS. 25

toidic point E is reached, and then the rest will split up into a
mixture of the components B and B'. This mixture will show
under certain circumstances a fine "graphic intergrowth" of
both phases.

The texture which results at last depends on many conditions,

either in the process of cooling or in the character of the deposit.
In normal cases (in metallography with metallic solutions),
with very slow cooling we may assume that segregation of the
new phase which is thrown out first, starts at the boundaries
of every grain and that gradually every grain will become sur-
rounded by a layer or film of this sub-
stance. Then the texture of a section
looks like a "network" (network tex-
ture, cell texture,) of these films around
the grains. The grains themselves will
show a eutectoidic texture, in the case
that the transformation diagram is
that of figure 13. Sometimes this
texture is called secondary or tertiary
in metallography. (see fig. 14). Similar
network textures we have sometimes
in magmatic deposits. e. g. in some
specimens of nickeliferous pyrrhotite
deposits. The grains of pyrrhotite are A
con*. B
surrounded by pentlandite (fig. 15). It Fig- 13-
depends on the time of cooling and the
speed of this secondary crystallization and on diffusion, whether
the whole new phase will be gatherëd in the network on the
boundaries. If the drop of temperature is too rapid, part of
this new phase or the whole of it is condemned to crystallize
in the grains themselves. This may happen according to the
crystalline habit and orientation of the dominating phase, e.g.
along crystallographical planes, cleavage planes or twinning
planes and is called in metallography "crystallographical"
texture. This may be seen beautifully in various irons and
steels, where the texture of " Widmanstatten" may be produced
just like the similar pattern in meteorites. The known texture
of titaniferous magnetite, where the ilmenite component is
26 CHAPTER II.

crystallized along the octahedral planes and the iron spinel

along the cubical planes of the magnetite, is one of the most
splendid examples of this process in mineralogy. Ilmenite often
contains hematite in parallelous inclusions. Figure 16 shows an
example of pentlandite and pyrrhotite, where the process of coo-
ling probably has been too rapid so that part of the pentlandite
could not gather on the boundaries of the pyrrhotite crystals
and has been caught in the twinning position of the pyrrhotite.
Another example of these transformations in solid solutions is
demonstrated in figures 17 and 18,19,20 where the break-down
of the solid solution x ZnS, y CuFeS results in a crystallo-
2

graphical texture. In figs. 18—20 the chalcopyrite has gathered

along cleavage lines and twinning planes, whereas in figure 17
it is the twinning planes only along which the chalcopyrite has
accumulated. Part of it next to the fracture lines has gathered
on these lines, so that the sphalerite next to them does not
contain any inclusions. If we knew the diagram of this system,
we could know, calculating the amount of chalcopyrite separated,
at what temperature the mineral would have been deposited.
See alsofig.46 (bornite and chalcopyrite) andfig.44 (stannite).

Literature.
I. H . W. B A K H U I S ROOZEBOOM. Erstarrungspunkte der Misch-
krystalle zweier Stoffe. Zeitsch. f. Phys. Chemie. 1899,385—412.
II. H . W . B A K H U I S ROOZEBOOM. DieHeterogeneGleichgewichte.
III. H . W. B A K H U I S ROOZEBOOM. Umwandlungspunkte
bei Mischkrystalle. Zeitsch. f. Phys. Chemie 1899.
IV. FINDLAY. The Phase Rule.
V. H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Anleitung zur Mikroskopischen
Bestimmung der Mineralien, etc, 1922.
VI. H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Entmischungserscheinungen in-
nerhalb von Erzmischkrystallen und ihre Bedeutung für Lager-
stattenkunde und Aufbereitung. Metall u. Erz. Vol. 19, 1922,
501—508. and 517—526.
VII. G. TAMMANN. Krystallisieren und Schmelzen.
VIII. G. TAMMANN. Aggregatzustande, 1922.
I X . R. VOGEL. Ueber Eutektische Krystallisation. Zeitsch.
f. Anorg. Chemie, 76, 1912, 425—436.
X . W. ROSENHAIN. Solid solutions. Trans. Am. Inst. of
Min. a. Met. Engineers Vol. L X I X , 1923.
 CHAPTER III.

INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS.

The characteristics to which attention must be paid when

examining the polished sections, are many. When the exami-
nation takes place with regard to the way in which the ore
originates, it goes without saying that many more facts have
to be observed and that more pieces of one and the same ore
have to be examined, than when one only wants to know
of what minerals the ore consists. As the former examination
is the most comprehensive, a short description will follow here
of the phenomena to which attention must be given, the
properties which have to be determined and the questions
which can be answered in connection with this.

t
IDENTIFICATION OF THE MINERALS.
For the identification of the minerals the following pheno-
mena have to be observed and determined, if necessary:
reflection capacity, hardness, color, capability of being
polished and character of the polished surface, cleavages,
conduct with regard to chemical reagents, conduct in polarized
light, internal reflection, color of the powder, crystal-habit,
inner crystal-structure, twinning, intergrowth.

H a r d n e s s . The hardness of the mineral-fragments in the

polished sections can be determined in different ways. In the
first place styles or needies of a known hardness may be used to
scratch the mineral. The needies may be made of steel, brass,
copper and iron etc.
28 CHAPTER III.

Fine powder of known minerals is sometimes chosen and

rubbed across the section with a soft piece of wood.
A comparative method may also be applied, when some of
the minerals i n the section are known, by comparing their
hardness with that of the adjacent minerals. The scratches
caused by polishing are as a rule more distinct on the soft
minerals than on the hard minerals. When a scratch does not
continue from one mineral to the other, the latter is harder.
The grinding and polishing on a somewhat soft linen ground
originates a certain reliëf. The hard minerals are a little higher
than the soft minerals. Due to this a dark border arises along
their mutual boundaries, because part of the light is reflected
so as to fall outside the aperture of the objective.
At the same time a line of light originates along the dark border.
When the t u b e o f t h e m i c r o s c o p e i s r a i s e d ,
t h i s b r i g h t l i n e of l i g h t is s e e n t o m o v e
f r o m the h a r d to the soft m i n e r a l ; w h e n
the t u b e is l o w e r e d the reverse t a k e s place.
This enables us to distinguish the slightest difference in hard-
ness of two minerals.
By polishing very carefully it is sometimes even possible
to bring out the boundaries of the crystal-grains of a homogene-
ous niineral-aggregate, especially when the hardness of the
mineral varies considerably in different aystal-directions.

P o l i s h . The capability of being polished and the character

of the polished surface, depends upon the hardness of the mineral
besides on its brittleness, elasticity and other cohesion-
factors.
Some minerals are immediately recognizable by their surface.
Pyrite for instance, though polished ever so carefully, nearly
always shows a somewhat rough surface. The secret, however,
to obtain a good polished surface from pyrite lies in the pres-
sure with which the grmding is done. We will see later on that
when sound homogeneous pyrite is ground with high pres-
sure a splendid surface without any irregularities may result.
But this oosts much more time than is indicated, and generally
jt is not necessary. The harder a mineral is the higher the
pressure of grinding and poÜshing in the beginning must be.
In other minerals the ease with which they cleave causes
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 29

many bits to fly off, due to which pits originate in the section,
bounded by the planes of cleavage of the mineral. Very characte-
ristic of this fact is e.g. galena, where these cleavage- triangles
often suffice to recognize the mineral (fig. 22).
The section of very soft minerals often becomes a little
uneven e.g. native gold, silver and bismuth, while chalcopyrite
excels in smoothness of surface and the ease with which it can
be polished.

C o l o r . The color of only a few minerals is marked enough

to be a means of recognition. Most minerals show shades of
color from white to gray, which are often difficult to describe.
In petrography, when studying thin sections, we assume as
standard-color, the color of quartz, ground to a certain thick-
ness. As this standard-color is missing here in the section itself, we
can make one of a polished thin section of galena, fixed with
the polished side on an object-glass and place this on the section
next to the mineral to be examined. But the Canada balsam
with which it is fastened to the glass, reduces the reflection of
the galena, so that for a good comparison we should also cover
the section to be examined with balsam. But then the
colors and reflection differ from those seen in uncovered sec-
tions. Therefore this method is not recommendable, moreover
it cannot be used for very small inclusions of minerals.
A much better result is obtained when making coatings of
different metais and substances on an object-glass. Thus a perfect
coating of silver may be obtained, part of the coating scratched
off and the silver coating can be laid on the section next to the
mineral to be examined. Small holes can be made in the coating
so that small mineral particles can be observed totally surroun-
ded by the silver coating. The silver can be preserved against
tarnishing by covering the back with Canada balsam. We must
take care, however, that the balsam is taken away from the
uncovered glass so as not to reduce the reflection of the mine-
rals. A simple method to make this coating is the following:
We make two solutions A and B .
A. 5 gram A g N 0 dissolved in the smallest possible
3

quantity of distüled water; add NIL^OH until precipitate

has nearly disappeared, filter and add water up to 500cc.
B. 1 gram AgNO dissolved in the smallest quantity of
s
30 CHAPTER III.

distüled water pour into 500cc boiling water and add 0,83 gram
Seignette salt (KNa tartrate); let it boil a short time till the
precipitate turns gray, filter when warm.
The object-glass to be covered with a silver coating is care-
fully cleaned successively with H N 0 conc, K O H conc,
8

alcohol and distüled water and put in a vase with equal

parts of the two solutions when cold. Within 10 to 20 minutes
the coating is ready.
Besides this we must compare the colors of the different
paragenetic minerals.
Because there is not always a Standard color present in the
field of investigation, we can only speak of comparative colors,
so that one and the same mineral seems to possess different
colors in different cases, depending on the mineral in which
or with which it occurs simultaneously in the section.
SCHNEIDERHÖHN (III) uses the comparison with the color scale
of Ostwald. This method is not foüowed here as it affords few
advantages. Each investigator appües different ways of polis-
hing and because of this, greater differences in color often
arise than is the case between two minerals. Besides, the same
minerals from different localities of occurrence sometimes
show different shades of color mutuaüy. For this reason it
seems better to estimate the color only roughly in minerals
which are not strongly colored (and for this the method folio-
wed here suffices) and to observe other properties to identify
the mineral more definitely.
The minerals which show distinct colors are given in a sepa-
rate table, together with their characteristics and the way how
to distinguish them from their companions which possess more
or less the same color.

R e f l e c t i o n . (I) The reflection of a mineral depends

upon its refraction with regard to the air and upon its absorp-
tion index. (For the theoretical treatment and formulae see
the books mentioned for crystal-optica and others; we will
give only some practical hints). In cases of strong absorption,
when the absorption index is more or not much less than 1,
only absorption has influence on the capacity of reflection.
Metals have high reflection-capacity, because their absorption-
index is very high. This is seen in the foüowing table: (V)
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 31

* Refl. cap. for Na-light.

Süver 20,3 0,953
Gold 7,71 0,851
Copper 4,09 0,732
Lead 1,73 0,621
Iron 1,36 0,561
Platinum 2,06 0,701
Galena 0,40 0,446
* is the absorption-index; reflection-capacity means the relation
of the intensity of the vertically reflected light to the verti-
cally incident light-intensity.
The reflection-capacity of galena, however, is already more
dependent on its refraction-indices than on its absorption index.
This holds good for all substances, which are transparent in
sections which have a considerable thickness when compared
with the wave-lengths of light. Most sulphidic minerals belong
to this class. There are only a few with reflection capacities nearly
as high as metais. Pyrite, smaltite, arsenopyrite, galena and
some others have a high reflection. With all others the
absorption index may be neglected and their refraction index
only applies to the reflection capacity. The reflection capacity
diminishes with the refraction index.
The reflection capacity of minerals with a low refraction is
low as well and so these minerals appear nearly dark in reflected
light. The transparent minerals generally have lower refraction
than the more opaque minerals. Therefore the gangue minerals
generally show all the shades from nearly black to dark-gray,
according to their different refraction indices. Zeolites, quartz,
feldspars and mica are darkest; then follow calcite, dolomite,
siderite, and silicates such as: garnet, augite, amphibole, etc;
anglesite, pyromorphite, bromyrite, etc. follow next; cassiterite,
sphalerite are gray and cuprite, proustite, cinnabarare light gray.
If the mineral is covered with a liquid, which is necessary
when examining with immersion, the reflection capacity is
reduced, because the refraction nuneral-liquid is less than
that of mineral-air. If the refraction of the liquid is equal
to that of the mineral, the latter becomes black, because
no light is reflected any longer on the separation-plane. This
enables us to estimate the refraction-indices of minerals with
a low refraction, though the ordinary optie methods applied
32 CHAPTER UI.

in nüneralogy are preferable, as absolute darkness does not

occur, due to diffuse reflection and as the estimation cannot
be very accurate.
When absorption is high, the dispersion of the refraction-
indices is high as well, so that the reflection capacity for each
different color in the spectrum is different. This causes some
difference in color between the incident and the reflected hght.

I n t e r n a l r e f l e c t i o n s . In vertically reflected hght

transparent minerals sometimes show internal reflections,
which are caused by cracks and cleavage-planes below the
surface, reflecting part of the light penetrating into the mineral.
Due to this the color of the mineral (if it has a color) occurs
in those places. By means of obhque instead of vertical incident
light the color of transparent minerals is distinctly visible;
polarized hght between x nicols generally has the same effect.
Quartz and calcite etc. become white, with inner d o u b l é
reflections, because they have a doublé refraction; red mine-
rals such as cinnabar, proustite, cuprite become red, etc.
A separate table of minerals with inner reflections is given.

C o l o r of the p o w d e r . The color of the powder of some

minerals is characteristic. A separate table of these minerals is
given. The powder is obtained by scratching the ore under
the microscope with a needie or diamond and by examining
the scratch with the powder under the microscope. Generally
medium magnification is necessary and it is best to chose a
high power objective and low power eyepiece with which the
color can be most accurately observed, as it is not possible to
observe this color with all combinations. Between x nicols
the color of the powder can be seen better than without nicols.
This definition can be combined with the definition of the
hardness. Often cracks occur when the mineral is scratched,
so that, when it is transparent, inner reflections occur at the
same time.

P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . (see for a more theoretical treatment

the handbooks concerning crystal-optica).
As has been indicated, the polarizer is placed in front of the
vertical-illuminator in such a way that its direction of vibration
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 33

is parallel to or perpendicular to the plane of incidence of the

iüuminator. It must be possible to revolve the analyser in the
tube of the microscope, or it must be possible to place it on the
ocular, provided with a divided scale.
The right position of the polarizer, vertical-iUuminator and
analyser has to be controlled by focusing on a polished section
of galena. This must be and remain dark or dark-gray during
a complete revolution of the stage.
The surface of the sections to be examined must be placed
exactly perpendicular to the axis of the microscope, the polishing
must be carefully done, as scratches and unevennesses (also
those caused by etching) produce false effects.
A m o r p h o u s a n d i s o m e t r i c m i n e r a l s re-
main dark between x n i c o l s d u r i n g one
entire revolution.
A n i s o t r o p i c m i n e r a l s (uni-axial and bi-axial)
t u r n t h e p o l a r i z a t i o n - p l a n e of l i n e a r l y
p o l a r i z e d l i g h t , so t h a t w i t h p e r p e n d i c u l a r
X n i c o l s four dark p o s i t i o n s and four b r i g h t
p o s i t i o n s o c c u r at a r e v o l u t i o n of 360
degrees.
In some cases the extinction is not complete; the mineral
in the extinction-position still shows some colors.
Apparently the same effect is reached here as when the
transparent minerals are examined with transparent light
between x nicols. However, there is a difference in the causes.
We have mentioned already that the reflection-capacity of
opaque minerals depends upon its refraction and absorption
indices. For transparent and in thin sections translucent mine-
rals the influence of the absorption may be neglected. As soon
as the absorption becomes prominent the formulas and calcula-
tions become more complex and no exact calculations and
data exist yet, neither for the special case of vertical incidence
nor for influence of doublé refraction, to give full explanation
of the practical results and phenomena.
I s o t r o p i c m i n e r a l s do not rotate the polarization
plane of linear-polarized vertically incident light, therefore they
remain, when the stage is revolved, equally dark. Absolute dark-
ness is not obtained in several cases, when the absorption index
is very high, e.g. for gold, silver and several others. Gold shows
Mineragraphy. 3
34 C H A P T E R III.

often a green color between X nicols. Pyrite for instance remains

always light gray. S C H N E I D E R H Ö H N assumes that this is caused
by elliptical polarization of the light. B u t linear polarized light
becomes elliptically polarized when reflected on an anisotropic
crystal, and elliptical polarization b y vertical incidence is not
noticed yet on isotropic substances. So there must be other
causes which we do not know exactly yet, which act as well.
Besides this we have noticed i n several cases that pyrite
not only does not extinguish, but that it shows four positions
of darkness and four positions of brightness, just as anisotropic
minerals do. A crystalline aggregate of pyrite between X nicols
shows different extinction and bright positions for every i n d i -
vidual grain, twins and penetration twins demonstrate them-
selves i n polarized light. Sections parallel to one of the cubic
faces remain dark. A n explanation of this fact cannot be given
as yet. It may be due to a difference i n polishing i n different
crystal directions or to the peculiar thermo-electrical proper-
ties of pyrite. Some varieties of cuprite, however, do the
same, whereas galena and sphalerite remain .equally dark i n
all positions.
For anisotropic non-transparent m i n e r a l s , re-
fraction-indices, absorption-indices and doublé refraction and
dispersion are the factors which define the nature of the
reflected light.
The polarization-plane of linear-polarized vertically incident
monochromatic light undergoes a rotation when reflected b y
an anisotropic mineral. I n general the reflected light is e l l i p -
tically polarized; the chief axis of the ellipse is turned w i t h
regard to the polarization-plane of the polarizer.
A t a perpendicular position of the X nicols no complete
extinction occurs. If the elliptic polarization is annulated b y
inserting a revolvable / 3 mica plate complete extinction can be
x
4

obtained b y turning the analyser to a certain angle. This angle

corresponds w i t h the angle of revolution of the polarization-
plane and so it can be measured. The size of the rotation-angle
depends upon the position of the polarization directions i n t h e
crystal and upon its refraction indices and absorption indices.
Generally the elliptic polarization is so small that the addition
of the micaplate is not necessary because extinction is nearly
complete. The amount of the elliptic polarization is high f o r
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 35

high absorption indices only. W h e n we do not get complete

extinction without a mica plate, we m a y conclude that the
absorption indices are high. W h e n the dispersion of the pola-
rization directions i n the mineral is great, no complete extinc-
tion is obtained i n white light, as the extinction positions for
the different colors do not coincide. Monochromatic light is
required then. This o n l y occurs i n monoclinic and triclinic
minerals (V).
W h e n the dispersion of the doublé refraction is great, no
complete extinction can be obtained i n the bright positions
b y turning the analyser.
Sampson (IV) states that neither the positions of extinction
nor the positions of the greatest brightness always differ 90
degrees. The latter correspond w i t h the greatest revolution of
the polarization-plane. The amount of rotation i n alternate
bright positions is opposite i n direction and probably different
i n amount. I n the opposite directions the amount and the
direction of the rotation is the same.
I n the bright positions colors generally occur. These colors
depend upon the doublé refraction and upon the dispersion of
refraction and absorption indices. The colors are more marked
probably according as these factors are greater.
A s the m a x i m u m bright positions do not entirely agree w i t h
the diagonal positions and as two successive bright positions
do not differ precisely 90 degrees, the colors of two successive
positions are not alike and m a y differ considerably. H o w these
different factors are related is not yet known.

Qualitatively the examination of opaque minerals i n polarized

light can be of great use:
a. isotropic and anisotropic minerals can be distinguished.
b. after sufficiënt practice many anisotropic minerals can
be easily distinguished b y their polarization colors.
c. fine intergrowths of different minerals varying little i n
color, are often perceptible, or one's attention is drawn to i t .
d. the inner crystal-structure and the aggregate-textures of
a n i s o t r o p i c minerals can be seen without etching (fig. 59).
e. translucent and transparent minerals and their powder
generally show their colors, a fact which makes it not o n l y
easy to identify them, but also enables us to discover fine
36 CHAPTER III.

inclusions of them in other minerals, e.g. fine inclusions of

proustite and pyrargyrite in galena.

E t c h i n g . The etching can take place with regard to two aims:

a. To define the chemical conduct with regard to different
reagents;
b. to bring out the inner crystal-structure and the aggregate-
texture of the niineral.
a. In the case mentioned under a various Standard etching-
liquids are wanted, of a c o m p o s i t i o n a n d c o n c e n -
t r a t i o n a c c u r a t e l y i n d i c a t e d which must always
operate on the mineral to be examined i n t h e s a m e w a y
and d u r i n g a n e q u a l l e n g t h of t i m e . In our
examination we fixed the time on 1 m i n u t e , while the sim-
plest and quickest method is the following:
A drop of the solution is put on the surface of the srxïcimen
on the required spot. Then the piece is held under a waterjet
and first exanüned under the microscope when still wet, to
examine the color of the precipitate, then dried and rubbed
carefully with a dry fine linen cloth by hand and tben the
character of the surface is determined once more. Observation
of the specimen during etching seems not advisable to us, as the
objective and the microscope suffer mucb, while the surface of
the drop of liquid and the color of the liquid hinder also too
much.
As to the definition of minerals according to etching-results
one will have to be careful in every new case and one will always
have to be critical with regard to the results obtained. So
one has to see that to recognize the different minerals by
applying etching-methods, when a n o r e - a g g r e g a t e i s present,
one does not use strongly dissociated salts or weak acids, as
in that case, because of the conductive contact with which
the minerals are bound mutually and their different potential
with regard to the liquid, an electric element and consequently
electrolytic effects arise. Due to this totally different results are
obtained than with simple minerals alone (see aUemontite, pg. 68)
Strong gases, such as bromium and chloride gas may be used
also.
b. B y means of chemical attack with certain reagents the
inner crystal structure such as twinning and cleavage-directions,
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 37

is brought out and the texture of a crystal-aggregate beccmes

visible too.
Generally the mutual crystal- and grain-boundaries are most
strongly attacked by the etching liquids, as well as certain
crystal-lines such as cleavage-directions, gliding planes and
twinning-planes. As a result lines of deeper attack originate
along these boundaries as black lines. At the same time crystal-
aggregates reveal a difference in attack for each of the crystals,
as these are grouped with varying orientation and the polished
section through these differently orientated grains contains
differently orientated sections as a result.
As the chemical affinity of a crystal is vectorial, i . e. that it
is not equal in all directions, it follows that differently orientated
planes are differently attacked. Not only will the attack on
some sections be stronger than on others, but also the shape
and arrangement of the etch-figures wül differ, so that the
surfaces of each grain will clearly stand out, because of this
fact as well as because of the boundaries. In figure 23 an aggre-
gate of galena is seen with tetrahedrite grains. Part of the
section is etched and every grain has become visible. In figure
17 is demonstrated the fact that the attack along twinning
planes proceeds more vigorously than in other places.
Another result of etching is that little differences in chemical
composition and texture will appear, or that fine intergrowths of
minerals of nearly the same color will become better visible.
As a result z o n a l s t r u c t u r e s (fig. 24, 25, 26)and c o n -
c e n t r i c s h a l y t e x t u r e s appear (fig. 57, 57a,89, 90)
either because the zones orscales are not absolutely equal in com-
pofition, or because the boundaries of the scales show a stronger
attack caused by some impurities or other conditions, which
prevented the scales from building continuous crystals.
For this etching a systematic and uniform rule as for the
etching described above is not necessary. For each mineral
generally only very few reagents bring out a good structure-
etching. They are generally very strongly working reagents,
which need only operate a short time. When the operation
lasts too long etch-figures often arise which may be charac-
teristic, but which may also cause confusion and indistinct
images (Figure 23 shows a beginning of the formation of etch-
figures in galena etched 2 seconds with HBr).
38 CHAPTER III.

E l e c t r o l y t i c e t c h i n g i s also applied. This method

being compücated and not simple, it is not used by us, as for
nearly all nünerals etching-hquids have been discovered which
bring out a good structure. (see e.g. figures 23, 24, 57 57a, for
galena and tetrahedrite).
For others than isometric nünerals strurture-etching has
become superfluous in many cases, because of the observation
with polarized hght (see above).

E t c h i n g by h e a t i n g i s also apphed. For coal and

especially for anthracite this is of importance. By means of a
very short heating with the blowpipe the fossil-remains in the
coal-substance stand out clearly.

Etching by s t r o n g i l l u m i n a t i o n can be
applied succesfully to distinguish some silver ores.

Crystal-shape and -structure, t w i n n i n g .

Of some minerals the crystal-form, of others the inner cry-
stal-structure and way of twinning is characteristic.
Minerals which occur often idiomorphic may be recognized
by their shapes. A separate list of these minerals is added.
The inner structure and way of twinning may give us other
useful indications. It enables us to establish e.g. the difference
between sphalerite and wurtzite; the former is isometric, tetrahe-
dral and always shows its characteristic twinning of positive
and negative tetrahedron (fig. 27), the latter is hexagonal,
seldom shows twins but elongated, often radially arranged
crystal-grains, sometimes with an irregular twinning which
produces iceflower-like textures (fig. 28).
The way of twinning is often characteristic so that it gives
us an indication for the recognition of the mineral. So the
typical twins of sphalerite are characteristic of that niineral,
the zonal structure of arsenopyrite generally is another example
of this kind. (fig. 29).

A n a 1 y s i s. So we see that the identification of a mineral

can take place in the way described above. It is advisable and
often necessary to make a qualitative, sometimes a quantitative,
analysis of part of the specimen, not only when we have to
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 39

examine ores which are difficult to define, but also when we

want to identify the elements and the combinations of known
minerals in solid solution. For the examination of metais which
easily form alloys, such as gold, platinum, silver, etc. it is
advisable to do so.

T h i n s e c t i o n s . Neither is it superfluous, when a con-

siderable quantity of transparent minerals is present in the
specimen, to make a thin section for a simultaneous examina-
tion with transmitted light. It is advisable to use the plane
of the saw-section which remained after the thin section has
been sawed off, as the section to be polished for the examination
with reflected light.

Literature.
I. F. POCKELS, Lehrbuch der Krystalloptik.
II. J . F. KOENIGSBERGER. Eine neue Methode für die
Mikroskopische Metallographie. C. B . f. Mineralogie, etc. 1901,
195; Metallurgie, V I , 1909, 605.
III. H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN (M. B E R E K ) . Aiüeitung zur Mikros-
kopischen Bestimmung und Untèrsuchung von Erzen etc.
besonders im Auffallenden Licht. 1922.
IV. E . SAMPSON. Notes on the Deterniination of Aniso-
tropism in Metahic Minerals. Econ. Geol. Vol. X V I I I , 1923, 775.
V. P . D R U D E . Wied. Ann. 36, 1889, 548; 39, 1890, 537.

II.

CjUESTIONS CONCERNING ORE-FORMATION.

Concerning the history of the piece of ore to be examined
and its locahty of occurrence the examination with reflected
light can give valuable information. Just as the microscopie
examination of thin sections gave valuable information about
the history of rocks, so the examination of the opaque ores wUl
enable us to form a new and more accurate opinion of the
causes and ways of ore-formation. It is not sufficiënt to define
the identity of separate minerals composing the ore. We must
now consider the entire ore-aggregate and study the intergrowths
of the minerals mutually, in connection with their crystal-
shape and the inner structure of each separate mineral and the
40 CHAPTER H l .

way in which they are combined, in order to tracé their origin.

With regard to this it is necessary, however, to point out
that, if one wants to cotne to a good solution, this examination
has to go hand in hand with an examination of the geological connec-
tion of the ore specimen examined with regard to the entire ore-
deposit and the connection of the ore-deposit with regard to its
surroundings.
To give an accurate interpretation of the way in which the
ore formation takes place as well as of the origin and differentia-
tion of rocks the use of physical-cmeniistry is of great impor-
tance. Very little physical-chemical work has been done yet
concerning sulphidic metal combinations and that which is
known in literature, is limited to constitution diagrams at high
temperatures for metallographic aims, often of combinations
which do not occur in nature. Physical-chemical examinations
with regard to mineral examination such as have been done
with great success for petrography by Vogt and others must
stül begin for the ores. In this respect our examination cannot
be based on this work and as a result many, if not most of the
questions, will remain unanswered yet or can only be answered
by suggestions.
The characteristics to which attention must be given in the
first place when examining the ore-sections are:
T e x t u r e of t h e m i n e r a l a g g r e g a t e .
We here follow the definition of this word given by Iddings:
Igneous Rocks.
„ T e x t u r e consists of three kinds of factors:
„1. the degree or extent of crystallization: t h e c r y -
„s t a 11 i n i t y.
„2. the magnitude or size of the crystals: t h e g r a n u -
„1 a r i t y.
„3. the shape and arrangement of the crystals and amor-
„phous parts: t h e f a b r i c .
„ S t r u c t u r e is applied to those large features of rock
„bodies which have been produced by cracking, fracturing,
„aggregation, erosion. It is commonly used by many petro-
„graphers for what has already been described as texture
„and fabric. Thus the structure of a rock can be: prismatic,
„columnar (basalt), tabular, platy, etc."
In ore specimens and ore bodies we generally have what l d -
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 41

dings considers to be t e x t u r e . The names for the different

textures of mineral aggregates and their meaning can be found
in the separate list of nomenclature (pg. 56).
To examine the texture of a heterogeneous ore-aggregate it is
not always necessary to use etching. The boundaries of the
different nünerals are generally clearly perceptible because
of differences in color and reliëf.
To distinguish the texture of a homogeneous (mono-mineral)
isotropic aggregate etching is necessary, for anisotropic minerals
polarized light may be used.
It is advisable, however, to use strurture-etching always,
because the structure of each of the minerals, generally consisting
of more than one grain, is often characteristic for its own
formation and for the formation of the others. This is of great
importance for the diagnosis of an ore.
Example: When we consider an un-etched specimen of Sud-
bury ore (fig. 15) the pentlandite of this magmatic sulphide
deposit seems to have penetrated later into veins and
cracks through the pyrrhotite. When the pyrrhotite is etched,
however, it appears that the pentlandite has accumulated
on the boundaries of the pyrrhotite grains, and that this has
nothing to do with a later introduction of the pentlandite but
with a segregation or a transformation of a solution of both
components. Pentlandite forms segregations around pyrrhotite
grains. (see also V and VI).
An a l l o t r i o m o r p h i c o r e q u i - g r a n u l a r t e x -
t u r e often points to simultaneous deposition, combined with
nearly equal quickness of crystallization. This texture is also
often met with in minerals deposited from colloidal solutions
and jellous precipitates as well as in crystallizations from
high-temperature deposits, so that a kind of emulsoid texture
results. The intergrowths of sphalerite and chalcopyrite from
Sulitjelma (Norway, magmatic) closely resemble those of
Rammelsberg (Harz, sedimentary), the size of the grains is
much smaller in the latter, however.
G r a p h i c i n t e r g r o w t h points to eutectics and
eutectoids. The former is met with in nünerals deposited simul-
taneously out of molten or aqueous solutions of probably high
temperature. An example of a eutectic texture is given in
fig. 97 representing a copper-silver alloy. The intergrowth
42 CHAPTER III.

of quartz and orthoclase i n pegmatite is another example.

Figure 49 represents a eutectic texture of an unknown Cu-Fe-
S rnineral w i t h bornite-chalcocite. The pattern is curviplanal
a n d resembles the eutectic A g - C u . Of tennantite and bornite-
chalcocite ( X I I I ) , bornite and chalcocite ( X I X , X X X V I I I ) ,
eutectic or eutectoidic patterns exist. The same graphic
pattern or m u t u a l intergrowth often results from crystalli-
zation from jellous mediae, the size of the pattern is much
smaller, however. Bornite and chalcocite from Mansfeld copper
shales are intergrown i n that way.
Eutectoid textures result from the breakdown of solid solu-
tions. Figure 14 represents this texture i n pearlite (eutectic
temperature is 740° C ) , fig. 64 is a similar texture of allemon-
tite, fig. 48 of bornite-chalcapyrite.
R e a c t i o n r i m s which we met w i t h i n rock sections,
point to peritectic reactions.

Most ore-aggregates consist of nünerals w i t h a more or less

distinct crystal shape together w i t h minerals without crystal
faces. The latter fill up the spaces between the crystals or
penetrate into them.
I d i o m o r p h i c ( e u h e d r a l ) m i n e r a l s may be:
a. crystallized first, older than the surrounding minerals,
which remained longer i n solution. W e find them i n igneous rocks
and i n magmatic deposits. They may have been also deposited
from aqueous solutions i n free openings on the wall of the
opening or on other minerals and may have been overcrusted
again b y other minerals. They are called "phenocrysts".
b. formed later than the surrounding minerals, i n other
words replacing them.
These are called „idioblasts".

M e t a s o m a t i s m . Idioblasts are proofs of metasomatism

or substitution. Separate euhedral ore crystals i n an ore aggre-
gate completely surrounded b y other n ü n e r a l s are generally
idioblasts, except i n magmatic deposits and i n some h i g h
temperature deposits e.g. i n tin veins, which often resemble
pegmatitic formations. Only i n melts loose crystals can have
been i n suspension i n the mother-liquor; i n gaseous as well
as i n aqueous solutions this is impossible. So these separate
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 43

crystals in hydrothermal and most pneumatolytic deposits are

the result of metasomatism, and deposited in solid material as
far as they were not deposited in free openings and overcrusted
again by others. Af ter their deposition, the remaining material
can have been replaced by other ore-minerals, so that the former
idioblasts are completely embedded in a new groundmass, with
regard to which they are phenocrysts, properly speaking. It
is often difficult to make out if we have to do with phenocrysts
or with idioblasts.
Other characteristics of substitution are:
a. attacked and corroded remains of idiomorphic crystals.
In magmatic deposits as well as in igneous rocks these may be
also the results of magmatic resorption, of attack and corrosion
during the solidification of the melt.
b. veins in another mineral of which the opposite walls
do not have the same form.
c. penetration of one mineral into another along cleavage
lines and all sorts of cracks (fig. 21 and 47).
The penetrating mineral is always the younger mineral. It
is not always easy, however, in cases where the substitution is
in an advanced stage so that little of the original mineral re-
mains, to make out which is the substituted and which the
substituting mineral.
Sometimes when substitution is complete some traces still
remain of the former host, e.g. in dolomite and calcite substitu-
tions the cleavages and twinning planes of these carbonates along
which the introduced mineral has arranged itself, have survived.
In figure 30 these cleavages are preserved in the wurtzite aggre-
gate which has come into the place of the calcite or dolomite.
d. zonal texture of crystals may sometimes point to substi-
tution (fig. 56,57). In magmatic deposits, however, it is the result
of the varying composition of the melt, as we have seen in chap-
ter II. Crystals growing in free openings may also have a zonal
texture resulting from the variation of the circulating solutions.
e. dendritic arrangement of mineral inclusions is another
characteristic feature of metasomatism.
Properly speaking it belongs under c, but the occurrence of
these pseudo-dendritic formations is so frequent and often not
recognized as such, so that we will treat it somewhat more ex-
tensively.
44 CHAPTER III.

The occurrence of native silver from Cobalt (Ontario) in

dendritic formations in dolomitic gangue is well known and
mentioned in literature (see Silver). Figure 109 shows a specimen
of this occurrence. The dendritic forms are arranged along clea-
vages of calcite or dolomite. Figure 110 shows part of the
specimen, the dendrites consist of cores of native silver and
dyscrasite surrounded by safflorite and smaltite with some
niccolite and breithauptite. Silver and dyscrasite are later than
the Co-Ni ores. In both photographs we also observe dendrites
which are not fiUed with silver, but of which the cores consist
of calcite. Silver has not determined the dendritic shape; but
it has only filled up spaces of calcite which existed already
between seams of the Co-Ni ores.
We find similar silver dendrites in ores from Freiberg in
Saxony. (fig. 31). Here the seams of smaltite are very thin and
hardly visible in the figure, but they do not coincide with the
silver borders.
Cther parts of the same specimen show these dendritic
forms again wHhout silver, mostly filled with calcite, partly with
chalcopyrite, galena, argentite or sphalerite (fig. 32). The gangue
is dolomitic. Figure 33 shows these calcite dendrites, etched
with dilute acetic acid, so that the calcite is attacked. A thin
section made of the opposite side of the polished section showed
the arrangement of the calcite dendrites in a perfect manner
(fig. 34). The most striking feature in these occurrences is the
often perpendicular arrangement of these dendrites. Some
rhombohedral lines are also seen. The perpendicular situation
of two lines of attack in calcite and dolomite is the result of
intersection of rhombohedral cleavage planes and the twin-
ning planes along the negative rhombohedral. The solutions
have attacked the carbonates along these intersection lines,
which we often notice in calcite of metamorphic deposits
also, and thus the perpendicular cruciform dendrites and den-
dritic axes have originated. Now that we know the explana-
tion of this fact, we notice it in more ore specimens. Figures 35
—41 are some examples which we met with in our examination.
They are the result of the dedolomitisation of a vem-filling
by ore solutions, which attacked the dolomite along its weakest
lines, dissolving the carbonate so that rhombohedral etchfigures
originated. At the same time the ore in solution was deposited
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 45

on the borders of these rhombohedrons and advanced into

the dolomite while the space left behind was filled with calcite,
part of the dolomitic substance which went into solution first.
Later ore solutions attacked this calcite again and filled the
dendrites with silver, bismuth, gold, proustite, argentite,
chalcopyrite, or galena. (see figs. 60, 76—82, 84, 85).
When all the dolomite has entirely disappeared, these den-
dritic forms in the midst of different layers and shells of varying
minerals are still a certain proof of metasomatic origin. A nice
example is the metasomatic lead-zinc ores from Moresnet (fig.
38). Etching with HBr showed that the galena which filled the
original calcite rhombohedrons is more easily attacked than the
galena which was deposited around these cores as a result of
substitution of the dolomite and sphalerite. The latter galena,
shows concentric shaly texture (see fig. 57, 57a). Sometimes the
dolomitic gangue is substituted by quartz, so that the dendrites
are proofs of a former dolomitic vein filling.

S e g r e g a t i o n s . The remains of a substituted mineral

in the later mineral must not be mistaken for fine inclusions
in minerals, which are often arranged according to special crys-
tallographic lines and planes. These fine inclusions point to a
transformation of the mineral and the break-down of a solid
solution into different components. (see also V and VI). This
points to a formation of the minerals at a higher temperature
than the one existing and also to a cooling having taken place
too quickly to allow the component which is thrown out to
segregate outside the crystals of the other component.
Diffusion in solid solutions and in solid state is very slow,
so that only very slow cooling may produce entirely separated
components.
The various cases of this segregation mentioned in litera-
ture will be treated briefly because they are of great interest for
ore deposition.
P y r r h o t i t e a n d p e n t l a n d i t e (V, VI). Figure 15
shows an example of complete separation of the two components,
while figure 16 shows that cooling must have been more rapid
here, so that the pentlandite partly remained in the pyrrhotite
grains. Pentlandite and» pyrrhotite seem to separate in the
sohd state at a relatively high temperature, at which diffusion
46 CHAPTER III.

is not slow, so that generally complete separation takes place.

Sphalerite a n d c h a l c o p y r i t e (V, V I , X V ,
X X X I I I , X X X V I ) . Of these minerals we find different segre-
gation textures. The sohd solutions which cooled down rapidly,
do not show any arrangement of the chalcopyrite globules in
the sphalerite crystals. Then we often see that the sphalerite
is full of very small globules (detectable only at the highest
magnification), as if they are suspended in an emulsion. In
other specimens the chalcopyrite particles are arranged accor-
ding to cleavage lines in the blende erystals. This points to a
somewhat slower cooling (fig. 18—20). When the rate of cooling
has been slower still, the chalcopyrite particles are arranged
outside the sphalerite crystals e.g. on twinning planes (fig. 17).
It is possible in the case demonstrated in figure 17 that the
fracturing and pressure to which the sphalerite was exposed
accelerated and renewed the separation of the components ). 1

Sphalerite in the magmatic sulphidic deposits of Suhtjelma,

where it occurs with a superabundance of chalcopyrite, often does
not contain chalcopyrite inclusions, but is intergrown with it
in a coarse aUotriomorphic way. This points to very slow cooling
which gave opportunity for complete separation in large cry-
stals. At the same time sphalerite with chalcopyrite inclusions
occur in this deposit, pointing to a quicker cooling in parts.
When in hydrothermal deposits sphalerite with chalcopyrite
inclusions and without inclusions occur side by side it goes with-
out saying that there is a difference in lormation-temperature
and consequently in age of the two kinds of sphalerite. In this
case the sphalerite without inclusions is deposited below the
transformation temperature of the sohd solution sl-cp. Although
we do not know the diagram of the sl-cp system yet, it may
be assumed that the higher the temperature of deposition the
greater the amount of chalcopyrite which goes into solution.
Sphalerite-stannite-chalcopyrite. (V, V I ,
X X V I I ) Besides chalcopyrite segregations sphalerite from
Freiberg (Saxony) contains orientated inclusions of stannite
(see fig. 42), while this stannite in its turn is full of very fine
(0,001 mm) chalcopyrite and sphalerite. In figure 43 an emulsion
of' stannite in sphalerite is represented. The stannite is again
1) This case is quite different from that in fig. 21, in which
chalcopyrite replaces sphalerite along cleavage-lines.
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 47

full of nearly visible particles of chalcopyrite, sphalerite and

another mineral which seems to be bornite, but which could
not be defined. Here we have a more complicated system and
diagram. There is probably a transformation and breakdown
into two components. Each of these components of which
sphalerite and stannite are the main constituents again splits
up at a lower temperature into three minerals. Fig. 44 shows
orientated particles of chalcopyrite in stannite.
Bornite — chalcopyrite (VI, XI, X X I , XXIII,
XL). We often met with a crystallographical intergrowth
of these two minerals, which points to a transformation of
another mineral which is stable in a range of higher temperatu-
res. The segregation takes place according to isometric crystal
faces producing the so-called "lattice" texture, and also results
in "graphic intergrowth" or eutectoidic textures, as well as in
a mixture with "mutual boundaries" in which each mineral lies
within the other in lobes and cusps. (see figures in the litera-
ture given and figs. 45, 46). Chalcopyrite is tetragonal,
but wilh nearly isometric axial relations. The fact that this
mineral forms solid solutions with the isometric sphalerite
and bornite, points to an isometric habit of chalcopyrite
at higher temperatures. As we shall see further on
the complicated twinning observed in many chalcopyrite
aggregates is another argument in favour of this supposition.
Figure 45 represents remnants of a so-called "primary inter-
growth" of bn-cp replaced by secondary chalcocite. This primary
intergrowth is the result of the break-down of the solid solution
x bornite- y chalcopyrite into its two components. (see also-
fig. 48). Fig. 47 shows replacement of bn. by cp. along cracks
and cleavages.
B o r n i t e - c h a l c o c i t e (VI, XIII, X V I , X I X , X X I I I
xxv, xxvi, XXVIII, xxxi, X X X V I I I , xxxix, XL). A
r

crystallographical intergrowth of these two minerals is also-

shown in figure 49, 50; the pattern is similar to that of chal-
copyrite bornite infig.45. A similar fabric is shown in figures
in the combination chalcocite-covellite in the litera-
ture mentioned under X X I V , X X X I V , X X X V .
Galen a-proustite-tetrahedrite-pyrar gyrite-
a r g n t i t e (V, VI, XXII, XXXVIII) Small particles of the
e

silver minerals often occur in galena; sometimes they are ar-

48 CHAPTER III.

ranged according to cleavages, mostly in indefinite arrangement.

Fig. 23, shows the combination tetrahedrite-galena. Whitehead
( X X X V I I I ) mentions an intergrowth of galena-pearcite, and
galena-covellite.
S i l v e r - d y s c r a s i t e is shown in fig. 111, (Cobalt,
ODtario).
A r s e n i c - a n t i m o n y is shown in the figures referrmg
to these metais in the next chapters. (figs. 64—67) ( X X X V I ) .
M a g n e t i t e - i l m e n i t e - i r o n s p i n e l is a crystallo-
graphic segregation weü known in literature (V, VI, X I I , X I V ,
XVIII, X X , X X X I I , XXXVII).
M a g n e t i t e - h e m a t i t e exists as well (V, VI).
In metallography these textures are well known and in native
iron and platinum which form different alloys with other metais
and carbon they are stated also (see the chapters concerning
these metais).
T w i n n i n g . Many complicated twinnings resemble the
textures mentioned of cp-bn, bn-cc, cc-cv. So e.g. those of
primary chalcocite (V, V I , X I , XIII, X V I I , X X I X , X X X ,
X L ) , which results from the transformation of isometric
chalcocite at 91 degrees C into rhombic chalcocite. The pattern
so closely resembles that of the segregation of the other copper
sulphides mentioned that one is inclined to assume the existence
of a segregation of two varieties of chalcocite, slightly differrng
in the amount of CuS or of FeS in sohd solution. The patterns
are not always clear and often the different lamellae are of
different colors, the one being grayer, the other more blmsh.
Figure 51 shows chalcocite which possesses the pseudo-
isometric texture. Figure 52 shows rhombic chalcocite with
twinning according to m. Descendant chalcocite is generally
deposited beneath 91° C. and will therefore always show a
rhombic pattern when etched. Primary chalcocite will demon-
strate the lamellar or lattice texture, when its temperature of
deposition has been higher than 91° C. (figs. 51 and 93).
We met with similar patterns in n a t i v e bismutn
(fig. 73 and 74) which is allotropic and has a transition point
at 75 degrees (see lit. bismuth) and in a r g e n t i t e which
has an allotropic point at 175°. These are all geological thermo-
meters.
 INVESTIGATION OF SPECIMENS. 49

The twins of p y r r h o t i t e (V) (two systems) alsorepresent

a transformation, perhaps the separation of two different
varieties of FeS, (see fig. 53 and 54), perhaps it points to an
allotropy.
Twins showing rectilinear boundaries may be simple or they
may be polysynthetic. Different systems of twinning often inter-
sect. These twinnings may be a simple phenomenon of growth,
or may be originated by pressure. In the latter case often a
deformation of the planes and a sliding is noticed (fig. 55, 17).

R e c r y s t a l l i z a t i o n . Recrystallization-phenomena are
sometimes observed. On closer observation large grains appear
to consist of smaller equally orientated grains. The phenomenon
is observed in glacier-ice (see Tammann, Aggregatzustande)
and may also occur in ores. In galena it is not rare. Copper of
Lake Superior shows another typical recrystallization pattern,
(fig. 87) well known in metallography. This recrystallization
generally points to a heightened temperature after deposition,
combined with or preceded by pressure. Recrystallization-
diagrams for different metais have already been studied
in metallography. For minerals nothing has been done in this
respect. For the pure metais we can find some indications in
the metallographic examinations, although we must always
take into consideration that in the laboratory of nature many
unknown circumstances exist which are different from those
which reign in the laboratoria of mankind.

Z o n a l t e x t u r e of apparently simple minerals points

to a slow growth and slow diffusion in solutions, as is often
the case in metasomatism. (see figure 56 representing a mag-
netite crystal from a contact-metamorphic deposit, and 57,
showing the growth of galena in hydatogene metasomatic
deposits of lead-zinc ores from Moresnet; see also fig. 57a).
Zonal building of crystals can originate by means of deposition
of thin layers of the same mineral one upon the other, etching
brings out the lines of growth, because the boundaries of the
layers are attacked first. Zonal texture can also be the conse-
quence of precipitation of changing components, because the
solution changes. In melts this arises as is explained in the
chapter concerning equilibrium diagrams. It can also be the
Mineragraphy. *
50 CHAPTER III.

result of deposition out of aqueous solutions, due to the

slowness of recovery of the equilibriurn or due to ever changing
solutions. It can also be the consequence of rhythmical precipi-
tation.

S h a 1 y - c o n c e n t r i c formations as they occur in galena

(fig. 57, 57a), sphalerite and wurtzite (Schalenblende), limonite,
malachite, psilomelane, opal and agate also point to a slow
growth, generally out of solutions of low temperature. They may
be formed in open spaces out of ever changing solutions or by
means of metasomatism, or by rhythmical precipitation occur-
ring in gels by diffusion. Generally the composition of these
layers is not equal, a consequence of rhythmical precipitation or
of solutions which constantly change. Oöütic forms point to
crystallization from gels, and generally low temperature.

P a r a g e n e s i s . The occurrence with other minerals can

give indications about the temperature at which an ore-deposit
has been formed. The minerals forming a geologie thermometer
in this way are rare, however. For minerals which can occur
together on different kinds of deposits we refer to the hand-
books for economie geology. These are joined by some others
of which transition points are known, such as chalcocite, bis-
muth, argentite and a few others. The segregations of different
combinations mentioned are another indication, although we do
not know yet the temperatures at which they may be formed.
So we have not yet many guides in this labyrinth of nature.
A wide field of research is still open to all investigators.

O R D E R OF T H E DESCRIPTION OF T H E MINERALS.

The order and way of description which will be followed for

every rnineral is as follows:
D e s c r i p t i o n . A short mention of the chief crystallo-
graphic, optical, physical and chemical qualities.
P y r o g n o s t i c s or b l o w p i p e and a l l i e d cha-
r a c t e r s. Chemical method of recognition. This method can
 INVESTIGATION O F SPECIMENS. 51

be applied to rather large bits of the mineral, as long as they

are not too small to be broken off separately.
MINERAGRAPHY. Treatment of the mineragraphic observations
successively:
P o l i s h . Difficult or easy to polish; best way.
R e f l e c t i o n . H i g h , medium or low.
C o l o r . The colors of the mineral examined are compared
w i t h galena, silver and w i t h the minerals w i t h which i t generally
occurs.
The color of the powder obtained b y scratching w i l l be
mentioned as well as the internal reflections of transparent
minerals observed between X nicols.
P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . The color i n the position of extinc-
tion (if there is one) w i l l be given, and the colors i n the positions
of greatest brightness.
E t c h i n g . The composition of the reagents is mentioned
i n a separate list and i f necessary, i n the text. I n the text the
difference i n appearance of the etched wet and d r y planes is
mentioned successively i n the following way: (black-gray) of
which black is the wet surface, gray the d r y one, after having
been dried b y rubbing w i t h a piece of linen. '
First w i l l be mentioned the reagents which produce the tex-
ture or structure of the mineral. Then follow the reagents,
which attack the rnineral, w i t h the character and color of the
surface attacked, i f necessary. These reagents are marked w i t h
the sign + . Then follow the inactive reagents, marked b y
the sign — . + + means strong attack, ± weak, ( ± ) almost
negative. F o r a g o o d r e c o g n i t i o n - m e t h o d i t i s
necessary to m e n t i o n a c c u r a t e l y the con-
c e n t r a t i o n of t h e r e a g e n t a n d to t a k e care
t h a t the t i m e of e t c h i n g is the same for
a l l . H e r e o n e m i n u t e i s t a k e n . W h e n etching
must be applied longer or shorter e.g. to obtain structure, this
w i l l be mentioned.
T e x t u r e , o r c r y s t a l h a b i t . I n the description of
the localities examined the word texture w i l l not always be
repeated.
D i f f e r e n c e . Mention w i l l be made of the different
reagents and other differences from other minerals b y means of
which the mineral can be distinguished. Here special attention
52 CHAPTER III.

will be paid to the differences between paragenetic nünerals

and minerals with nearly the same colors.
O b s e r v a t i o n s o n o c c u r r e n c e . Under this head
the way in which the mineral appears, e.g. in veins and together
with other minerals, will be described.
G e n e s i s . Mention will be made of the way in which the
mineral (and its deposits) are formed, so far as is known and
can be partly deducted from the examination.
E x a m i n a t i o n . Here will be given a short description
of the specimens examined. Mention will be made successively
of:
a. locality examined (in the order adopted by Hintze,
(Handbuch der Mineralogy);
b. between brackets, the number of the specimens
examined;
c. between brackets, the mode of occurrence of the mineral
in that special locality, if possible, as mentioned in literature or
in private notes.
d. description of texture, etc.
e. Specimens of which photographs exist in literature are
mentioned as well. The number of the publication is put in front
between brackets.
L i t e r a t u r e . At the end of each chapter will be chiefly
mentioned the literature which has reference to the object
treated, only with an eye to mineragraphic and physical-chemi-
cal information.
 ABBREVIATIONS »).

B.B. Before the blowpipe.

Comp. Composition.
Diff. Differences or distinctive characters.
G. Specific Gravity.
H. Hardness.
Eff. Effervescence when etched.
Exam. Examination of localities.
Obs. Observations on occurrence, etc.
O. F. Oxidizing Flame.
PoLtw. Polysynthetic twinning.
Pyr. Pyrognostics or blowpipe and allied characters.
R.F. Reducing Flame.
S.B. Salt of Borax.
S.Ph. Salt of Phosphorus.
Var. Varieties.
+. Positive results when etched.
—. Negative results when etched.
+ + Strong attack when etched.
± Weak attack when etched.
(±) Nearly negative result when etched.

N O M E N C L A T U R E LIST.

A l l o t r o p y . Also called p o l y m o r p h i s m , (sometimes

is used heteromorphism, or pleomorphism). The property
of a substance to crystallize into two ( d i m o r p h i s m ) ,
three ( t r i m o r p h i s m ) o r more ( p o l y m o r p h i s m )
distinct crystal forms, differing also as to spec. gravity,
color, and other properties.
Allotropic transformation. Transformations of
(1) According to Dana's Textbook of Mineralogy.
54 CHAPTER III.

substan ces into another form, which depend on the tempe-

rature and which may proceed in both directions, e.g.
isometric rhombic chalcocite, monoclinic ^1 rhombic
sulphur. Each modification is stable over a definite range of
temperature; there are one or more transformation points
and the transformations are "reversible". M o n o t r o p i c
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s are "irreversible", e.g. marcasite
-•pyrite, which transformation proceeds in but one direction.
D i m o r p h i s m : see a l l o t r o p y .
E n a n t i o t r o p i c : minerals which have allotropic trans-
£ formations.
E u t e c t i c , e u t e c t i c m i x t u r e : the portion of the
mother liquor to solidify last, at a constant temperature
( e u t e c t i c t e m p e r a t u r e ) and composition.
P o r m s of m a s s i v e m i n e r a l s (according to Dana).
A c i c u l a r : slender and rigid, like a needie.
A m y g d a l o i d a l : almond-shaped, apphed often also
for rocks.
B o t r y o i d a l : consisting of a group of rounded pro-
minences.
C o r a l l o i d a l : like coral.
D e n d r i t i c : branching tree-like.
D r u s y: covered with minute implanted crystals.
F i l i f o r m : like threads or hair.
G l o b u l a r : spherical with radiating or concentric
texture.
M a m m i 11 a r y: botryoidal, but larger.
M o s s y : like moss.
N o d u 1 a r : tuberose forms.
R e n i f o r m : kidney-shaped, with radiating or concen-
tric texture.
S t a l a c t i t i c : pendant in columns, cylinders, with
radiating, concentric or granular texture.
F o r m s of c r y s t a l s i n a g g r e g a t e s .
A l l o t r i o m o r p h i c : without crystal-faces, xenomor-
phic, anhedral.
B1 a d e d : columnar individuals, flattened.
C o l u m n a r : slender columns.
C o n c e n t r i c : i n lameUar plates which are approximately
parallel around a common centre.
 NOMENCLATURE LIST. 55

F i b r o u s : made up of fibres.
F o l i a t e d , f o l i a c e o u s : when the laminae are thin
?|*and separable.
L a m e l l a r : plates or leaves.
H y p i d i o m o r p h i c : partly bounded by crystal faces,
hypaiitomorphic, subhedral.
I d i o m o r p h i c : completely bounded by crystal faces,
automorphic, euhedral.
M e t a c r y s t : (pseudo-phenocryst),xenoblast,idioblast,a
crystal developed later in a rock or an ore, a secondary
crystal or metasome.
P h e n o c r y s t : an idiomorphic, primary crystal in a
groundmass of smaller crystals or glass.
P o i k i l i t i c : mottled, when one mineral contains
numerous inclusions of other nünerals of no table size.
R a d i a t e d , d i v e r g e n t : when the crystals radiate
from a center without producing stellar forms (stibnite).
R e t i c u l a t e d : When the fibres or columns cross in
various directions, similar to a net.
S t e l l a t e d : when the fibres radiate from a center in
all directions and produce star-like forms (wavelite).
P a r a m o r p h i s m : see allotropy.
P o l y m o r p h i s m : see allotropy.
P o l y s y n t h e t i c t w i n n i n g : repeated twinning.
P o l y s y m m e t r y : the laminae of polysynthetic twinning
may be so thin as not to be visible with a'microscope, so
that the crystal exhibits all the physical properties which
are characteristic of a crystal possessing the higher sym-
metry.
P s e u d o m o r p h i s m : t h e change of a crystallized mineral
so that its form no longer belongs to its chemical compo-
sition.
P s e u d o s y m m e t r y : when the typical crystal form of
a substance so nearly approaches to that of a crystal with
higher symmetry that it may be mistaken for it.
S t r u c t u r e : large features of rock bodies and ore bodies,
or inner crystal habit.
T e x t u r e : small features of rocks and ores and rnineral
aggregates: c r y s t a l l i n i t y , g r a n u l a r i t y and
f a b r i c or p a t t e r n .
56 CHAPTER III.

T e x t u r e s of m i n e r a l a g g r e g a t e s .
A l l o t r i o m o r p h i c - g r a n u l a r : when all. mineral
grains are allotriomorphic.
C r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c : a type of secondary texture,
exhibiting the inner symmetry of the crystalline sub-
stance of the grains with deposits of another rnineral
lodged parallel to the cleavage-, twinning-, or gliding
planes; or when secondary deposits are arranged parallel
to the crystallographic axes. (figs. 17—20, 44, 46).
E u t e c t i c o r e u t e c t o i d i c : see also graphic
intergrowth; intergrowth of minute particles of the com-
ponents of the eutectic mixture, which crystallize simul-
taneously. (figs. 14, 48, 64—67).
G r a n u l a r : grains; when more or less regular polyhedra
occur it is called polyhedral, equi-granular. (fig. 23).
G r a p h i c i n t e r g r o w t h : if crystals of two kinds
mutually penetrate one into another, so that each main-
tains its crystallographic orientation, in parts which
are irregularly shaped along the contact with one another;
more complicated than mutual intergrowth, and in a
smaller scale with sharper curves and lines correspon-
ding with crystal features, generally demonstrating
eutecticum or eutectoid. (figs. 48, 64, 65, 66, 67).
H y p i d i o m o r p h i c - g r a n u l a r : when some compo-
nents are idiomorphic and the others hypidiomorphic
or allotriomorphic.
L a t t i c e t e x t u r e : Lammellar texture, segregate of
one mineral in another so that a fine network results,
like Widmannstatten pattern. (figs. 46, 51).
M u t u a l i n t e r g r o w t h : Coarse graphic intergrowth,
but not so complicated, each mineral lies within the
other in lobes and cusps.
N e t w o r k - o r m e s h t e x t u r e : a type of secondary
texture of an aggregate, marking the outlines of the
grains with deposits lodged along these lines. (figs. 14,15).
P a n - i d i o m o r p h i c - g r a n u l a r : When all mineral
grains are more or less idiomorphic.
 LIST OF REAGENTS. 57
ABBREVIATIONS OF M I N E R A L NAMES USED
I N T H E FIGURES.

ap arsenopyrite
ar : argentite
bn bornite
br breithauptite
cc chalcocite
ch1 : chloantite
cp : chalcopyrite
cv : covellite
en : enargite
gn : galena
hm : hematite
mc : marcasite
mg : magnetite
n c niccolite
pg : pyrargyrite
po : pyrrhotite
pr : proustite
py : pyrite
r a : rammelsbergite
sa safflorite
s1 : sphalerite
sm : smaltite
st : stibnite
td : tetrahedrite

LIST OF REAGENTS.

H N 0 conc
3 Concentrated, G. 1,365.
HNOg One part conc. acid and one
part water.
H N 0 dil
8 145 cc. concentrated and 855
cc. water.
HC1 conc Concentrated, G. 1,19.
HC1 One part conc. acid and one
part water.
HC1 dil 161 cc. concentr. acid and 839
cc. water.
58 CHAPTER III.

Aq. Regia 3HC1 conc. and 1 HNOj conc.

Hl G. 1,96.
I in K I 10 gr. I, 20 gr. K I , 50 cc. water.
HBr G. 1,49.
K S
2 Satured solution in water.
KOH id.
NaOH id.
SnCl , HC1a Saturated solution in conc. HC1.
H 0 perhydrol
2 2 30 % solution.
H 0
2 2 3 % solution.
CrO 2Y %
s 2 2y gr. in 100 water.
2

C r 0 50 %
3 50 gr. in 100 water.
CrO , HC1
s C r 0 50 % and conc. HC1 in
3

equal parts.
CrOg, H N O s C r 0 50 % and conc. H N O ,
3

in equal parts.
KMn0 4 2,5 gr. in 100 water.
K M n 0 sat 4 Saturated solution in water.
AgNO s Saturated solution in water.
KCN 20 % solution in water.
HgClj saturated solution in water.
FeClj 20 % solution in water.
K,Fe(CN) 8 25 % solution in water.
K Fe(CN)
4 6 25 % solution in water.
H , S 0 conc 4 S. G. 1,84.
KC10 H S 0 3> 2 4 KClOj powder and a drop of
conc. H S 0 mixed on the spot.
2 4

Picric acid for determination of iron-car-

bon alloys» giving texture.
Picric acid 4 grams, in ethyl
alcohol, 100 cc. (attacks
ferrite).
Sodium picrate 25 gr. sodium hydrate, 2 gr.
picric acid in 75 c c water,
heated half an hour on a
waterbath (attacks cemen-
tite).
Heyn's reagent 10 grams of the doublé salt
copper ammonium chloride
in 120 c c water, and am-
 LITERATURE. 59

monia until the precipitate

goes into solution (attacks
copper, texture etching).
Miller's reagent dilute solution of chromic acid
and hydrogen peroxide (may
be used for silver, texture-
etching).

Literature.
I. H . W. BAKHUIS ROOZEBOOM. Erstarrungspunkte der
Mischkrystalle zweier Stoffe. Zeitsch. f. Phys. Chemie. 1899,
385—412.
II. H . W. B A K H U I S ROOZEBOOM. Die Heterogene Gleich-
gewichte.
III. H . W. B A K H U I S ROOZEBOOM. Umwandlungspunkte
bei Mischkrystalle. Zeitsch. f. Phys. Chemie 1899.
IV. F I N D L A Y . The Phase Rule.
V. H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Anleitung zur Mikroskopischen
Bestimmung der Mineralien, etc. 1922.
VI. H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Entmischungserscheinungen inner-
halb von Erzmischkrystallen und ihre Bedeutung für Lager-
stattenkunde und Aufbereitung. Met all u. Erz. Vol. 19, 1922,
501—508 and 517—526.
V I L G. TAMMANN. Krystallisieren und Schmelzen.
VIII. G. TAMMANN. Aggregatzustande, 1922. Lehrbuch der
Metallographie, 1923.
I X . R. VOGEL. Ueber Eutektische Krystallisation. Zeitsch.
f. Anorg. Chemie, 76, 1912, 425—436.
X . W . ROSENHAIN. Solid solutions, Trans. Am. Inst. of
Min. a. Met. Engineer Vol. L X I X , 1923.

Special literature for examples of eutectic and crystallogra-

phic and network textures of minerals.
XI. A . M . B A T E M A N , D . H . M C . L A U G H L I N . Geology of the
Ore Deposits of Kennekott, Alaska; Econ. Geol. X V , 1920, 14.
(cp.- bn. and isometric cc. with rhombic cc.)
X I I . S. BRUNTON. Some notes on Titaniferous Magnetite
Econ. Geol. VIII, 1913, 670.
X I I I . Discussion of Segall's Paper. Econ. Geol. X I , 1916,
179. (cc.-bn. and eutectic texture tennantite-cc.-bn.; isom. cc).
60 CHAPTER III.

X I V . B. GRANIGG. Ueber die Titanomagnetité von

Smaland, Taberg, Schweden. Metall u. Erz, 1920, 17, 57—61.
X V . F. N . GUILD. Microscopie Study of Silver Ores. Econ.
Geol. X I I , 1917, 305—328 (cp-sl.).
X V I . C. C. GILBERT and J . E . POGUE. The Mount Lyell
Copper District Tasmania. Proc. U . S. Nat. Museum. Vol. 4 5 ,
616 (bn-cc.).
X V I I . L . C. GRATON and J . MURDOCH. The Sulphide Ores
of Copper. Some Results of Microscopie Study. Trans. A . I. M .
E. Vol. 4 5 , 26—93 (varieties of chalcocite).
X V I I I . E . HUSSAK. Ueber die Mikrostrukturen einiger
Brasilianischer Titanomagneteisensteine. Neues Jahrb. 1904,
I, 94.
X I X . F. B . L A N E Y . The Relation of Bornite and Chalcocite
in the Copper Ores of the Virgilina District of North Carolina
and Virginia. Econ. Geol. V I , 399-41 l.(eutectica of bn-cc).
X X . O. MÜGGE. Ueber die Mikrostruktur des Magnetit und
einiger verwandter Glieder der Spinellgruppe, etc. Neues Jahrb.
B . B . 32, 1911, 491—534.
X X I . J . F. MURDOCH. Microscopie Examination of Opaque
Minerals, 1916. (cp-bn).
X X I I . A . E . NISSEN, S. L . H O Y T . On the Occurrence of
Silver in Argentiferous Galena Ores. Econ. Geol. X . 1915,
172—179. (segregations of ar., td. pr., pg. in galena).
X X I I I . OVERBECK. A Metallographic Study of the Copper
Ores of Maryland. Econ. Geol. X I , 151—178, (cp-bn and
cc-bn.).
XXIV. E . POSNJAK, E . T. A L L E N , H . E . M E R V I N . Die Sul-
fide des Kupfers. Zeitsch. f. Anorg. Chemie, 1916, 94, 65—138.
(cv-cc).
X X V . F. L . RANSOME. Copper Deposits near Superior,
Ariz. U . S. G. S. Buil. 540, 139. (bn-cc).
X X V I . J . C. R A Y . Paragenesis of the Ore Minerals in the
Butte District. Mont. Econ. Geol. Vol. I X , 1914, 463-483.
(bn-cc).
X X V I I . S. REINHEIMER. Chalcographische Untersuchungen
von Zinnkies. Zentr. BI. f. Mineral. 1924, B.B. 49, (sl-stannite).
X X V I I I . A. F. ROGERS. Secondary Sulphide Enrichment of
Copper, with special Reference to Microscopie Study. Min. a.
Scient. Pr. 1914, 6 8 1 . (bn-cc).
 LITERATURE. 61

X X I X . H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Paramorphosen von rhom-

bischem Kupferglanz nach Regülarem Cu S. Senckenbergiana,
2

1920, 2, 1—15. (cc).

XXX. H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Die Erzlagerstatten des Octavi-
berglandes, Metall u. Erz, 1920/21. 272, 293, 361, 421, 544. (cc).
X X X I . J . S E G A L L . The Origin and Occurrence of certain
Crystallographic Intergrowths. Econ. Geol. X , 1915, 462—470.
(bn-cc; ar-gn;).
X X X I I . S. T. SINGEWALD. Microstructure of Titanomag-
netite. Econ. Geol. VIII, 1913, 207.
X X X I I I . A. P. THOMPSON. On the Relations of Pyrrhotite
to Chalcopyrite, and other Sulphides. Econ. Geol. 1914, I X ,
153—174. (sl-cp).
X X X I V . C. F . T O L M A N . Observations on certain Types of
Chalcocite and their Characteristic Patterns. Trans. A . I. M .
E . 1916, 402—441. (cv-cc; cv-bn; cp-bn; cc-bn; cc).
XXXV. H . W . T U R N E R and A . F . R O G E R S . A Geologie and
Microscopie Study of the Magmatic Copper Sulphide Deposits in
Plumas County, Cal. Econ. Geol. I X , 1914, 359—391. (cv-cc;
cc-bn).
X X X V I . R. W . V A N D E R V E E N . Eenige mededeelingen
over het onderzoek van ertsen in opvallend licht. De Ingenieur,
1923. (eutecticum Cu-Ag; eutectoid As-Sb).
X X X V I I . C. H . W A R R E N . On the Microstructure of certain
titanic Iron Ores. Econ. Geol. 1918, XIII, 419-446.
X X X V I I I . W . L . W H I T E H E A D . Paragenesis of certain Sul-
phide Intergrowths. Econ. Geol. X I , 1916, 1—13. (gn-pearcite;
gn-cv; eutecticum bn-cc). (see for gn-pearcite, Lindgren, Ore
Deposits).
XXXIX. L . C. G R A T O N , D. H . M C L A U G H L I N . Ore Deposition
and Enrichment at Engels, Cal. Econ. Geol. X I I , 1917, 1—34.
(bn-cc).
XL. A. LOCKE, D. A. HALL, M . N . SHORT. Secondary
Enrichment in Genesis of Butte Chalcocite. Trans A. I. M. E .
1924. 933—963. (cc; bn-cc; bn-cp; bn-en).
DESCRIPTIVE PART.
 N A T I V E SEMI-METALS.

ARSENIC.

C o m p., Var. Arsenic, often with some antimony in solid

solution.
D e s c r i p t i o n . Rhombohedral, often reniform, concentric,
sometimes granular massive, reticulated, stalactitic, acicular.
If in distinct crystals, obtuse, rhombohedrons, nearly cubes.
Twins: Tw. pl. 0112. Cleavage : c, 0001 highly perfect, 0112
imperfect. Color: tin-white on fresh surfaces, tarnishing soon
to dark gray. H . = 3,5—4. Lustre nearly metallic. Streak gray.
P y r. B . B . volatüizes without fusing, garlic odor, blue flame,
white coating on the coal.
MINERAGRAPHY.
P o l i s h . Polishes easily, without scratches and pits, tarnishing
in 24 hours; when antimony is present it tarnishes very slowly
or not at all.
R e f l e c t i o n . High, somewhat higher than galena.
C o l o r . White. Compared with antimony light gray, with
smaltite and safflorite slightly grayer, with galena white with
a creamy tinge.
Silver is much brighter and creamy against arsenic; bismuth
is pinkish creamy, proustite bluish gray, niccolite pinkish,
galena slightly gray when compared to arsenic.
P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . Color in the 4 positions of maximal
light extinction: bluish gray to dark bluish gray.; polarization
colors: yellowish-brown or reddish-brown or dark grayish-blue
in one position, light gray or yellowish-gray in the other. Colors
brighter than those of antimony.
E t c h i n g . K F e (CN) (100 gr. in 1000 gr. water) 10to20
3 8

seconds develops texture beautifully; the drop has to be stir-

red with a pencil to avoid iridescence. H , 0 3 %, 2 minutes,
2

develops texture without colors.

Mineragraphy. g
66 NATIVE SEMI METALS.

+ . HNOj conc. (brown-gray); Aq. Reg. (brownish black);

KClOj, H S 0 ; K Fe(CN) (iridescent-blackened, texture); H 0
2 4 8 6 2 2

3 % (2 nünutes, brownish-texture); FeCl in water, conc.8

(iridescent or black); FeCl„ in alcohol, saturated. (gray-iridescent,

sometimes texture).
- . K S conc; H l ; H S 0 ; SnCl* HC1 conc; HC1 conc;
S 2 2 7

K O H conc; K C N .
T e x t u r e and c r y s t a l h a b i t . AUotriomorpmc gra-
nular, individuals often with repeated twinning (fig. 58). In
the re'niform, concentric shaly masses, generally fibrous, feathery
and like ice-flowers or scales (fig. 59). Between X nicols every
feather or scale reveals microscopie, radiating fibres, which
extinguish successively when the stage is revolved, so that
divergent interference figures are produced. The shales very
seldom appear.
D i f f . Distinguished from antimony, by etching with
K Fe(CN) , and H 0 ; not being etched by Na S; texture and
8 6 8 2 2

polarization colors. When pure, recognized easily because it is.

quickly tarnished by air.
O b s. Rare; of no economie importance. Occurs in enrichment
zone of veins, especially with ores of Ag and Co, as: proustite,
sternbergite-frieseite, dyscrasite, smaltite, safflorite, süver,
antimony, and with chloantite, niccolite, realgar, bismuth,
galena, chalcopyrite; with gangue of carbonates, barite, fluonte.
G e n e s i s . Supergene, probably always a product of oxida-
tion of arsenides foUowed by reduction of the thus produced
arsenates in the sulphide enrichment zone. The fibrous, plu-
mose, feathery varieties occurring in concentric shells are
deposited by coUoidal solutions. The granular aggregates,
which are generally found at a somewhat greater depth, like
those of Markirch, Freiberg and some of Marienberg, Joaclums-
thal and Schmiedeberg, are probably deposited at a higher
temperature or may have recrystallized.
Films of finely intergrown proustite, small spots of süver,
bismuth, and smaltite are often disseminated in it.
Examination. • .•
F r a n c e . Near M a r k i r c h (6) (veins in gneiss with td.,
barite, calcite and quartz); tarnishes quickly, finely & ™ ~ o t

morphic granular (0,02-1 m.m.), polysynthetic twins (fig. 58),

 ARSENIC. 67

small irregular patcb.es of sm., bismuth and silver (0,01—1 m.m.)

H a r z. A n d r e a s b e r g. (4) (in the silver veins) mammil-
lary, reniform, with barite, pr., gn., ap., löhingite.); tarnishes
quickly; feathery, ice-flowerlike (fig. 59), sometimes with fine
striations due to twinning. Specimens did not contain any other
minerals.
S a x o n y . M a r i e n b e r g . (3) (with arseno-lamprite and
allemontite); tarnishes quickly; partly irregularly granular,
partly feathery and ice-flowerlike; pr. in cross-shaped dendrites
arranged along straight lines occurs in it; sometimes the crosses
are partly filled up with calcite, partly with pr. These forms
result from the substitution of dolomitic gangue by mineral
solutions (see general part); in the calcite gangue occur sm.
and sa. in nice small rosettes.
M a r i e n b e r g . V a t e r A b r a h a m . (1) tar-
nishes quickly; fine granular; pr. in small particles, sternbergite-
f rieseite in small crystals on veinlets with calcite gangue in arsenic.
Z s c h o r l a u . (1) Feathery.
Annaberg. Gertreue Nachbarschaft.
(1). Feathery, containing pseudo-dendrites of silver, some pr.,
quartz. (fig. 37) (see silver pg. 98).
Freiberg. Junge Hohe Birke. (1)
(with barite, gn. pr. generally containing silver); Coarse and
fine granular; same dendritic crosses and squares as in Marien-
berg; dendrites partly filled with pr., partly with fine-granular
arsenic; the dendrites surrounded by seams of sa. crystals.
S i l e s i a . S c h m i e d e b e r g . (2) Fine granular allo-
triomorphic and plumose; small spots of native silver (1—\0p)
disseminated in it; sa. in small crystals on veinlets through
arsenic.
B o h e m i a . J o a c h i m s t h a l . (6) (with sm. py., c p ,
pr. fluorite, calcite, quartz, gypsum), generally in concentric
shells, sometimes dendritic; quickly tarnishing; fine granular
or plumose; some specimens dendritic, the dendrites formed by
the same cross-like forms of pr. before mentioned. The arsenic is
built up in a feathery way around the pr., the feathers radiating
from the pr. centers; spaces between the seams of arsenic are open
and give the idea that the arsenic has a dendritic texture. All
dendrites are arranged along cleavage lines of calcite, the calcite
has disappeared. The arsenic in this specimen is more creamy
68 N A T I V E SEMI METALS.

than in all the others examined. (fig. 60). Other specimens show
bismuth füling the dendrites, surrounded by sa. and other
Co-Ni arsenides; silver disseminated in small spots (fig. 61, 62).
J a p a n . E c h i z e n . (1). Loose crystals, coarse irregular
granular.
ANTIMONY.
Comp. Var. Antimony, containing sometimes arsenic in
solid solution.
D e s c r i p t i o n . Rhombohedral. Massive, lameUar, granu-
lar; sometimes radiated or botryoidal and reniform. If in crystals
rhombohedron prominent, sometimes tabular.
Twins: 0112, polysynthetic or multiple twins. Cleavage: c,
0001 highly perfect, 0221 distinct.
Color: tin-white. H . 3-3,5. Lustre metallic. Streak tin-white.
P y r . Fuses readily, giving white fumes and white coating
on charcoal; in the open tube a coating which volatilizes and
one which does not; flame bluish green.
MINERAGRAPHY.
P o l i s h . Polishes easily without scratches and pits.
R e f l e c t i o n . High, higher than arsenic.
C o l o r . White. Compared with arsenic slightly brighter,
white; with galena brighter white; with platinum slightly grayer.
Platinum is slightly creamy compared with antimony; silver
is brighter and creamy white, smaltite and safflorite slightly
gray arsenopyrite grayish with a suggestion of violet, pyrar-
gyrite bluish gray.umangite purple, stibnite slightly gray (same
as arsenic) compared with antimony.
P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . Extinction positions dark gray to
dark bluish gray, bright positions: bluish gray and brownish to
yellowish gray, dull, sometimes only shght variations.
E t c h i n g . K,S, conc, develops texture beautifuUy (fig.
63), also H S 0 develops good texture, giving sometimes square
a a 7

etch-figures.
+ HNO conc. (black, when adding a drop of water to the
s

acid on the mineral a thick white precipitate is obtained);

Aq Reg (eff. black, same white precipitate, rough surface);
H,S,0 (black, texture, etch-figures) KC10„ H S0 (irregular,
7 a 4

brownish-gray and black, vigorous); FeCL* in alcohol (brow-

 ANTIMONY. 69

nish black with texture); K , S (yellow coating, macroscopically

visible, microsc. yellow and black-blackened rough surface,
texture); H l (yeUow precipitate when adding water, blackened,
1

rough) HC1 conc. (imperfect, nearly negative); K O H (nearly

negative).
—. H 0 3 %; SnCl , HC1; FeCl, in water; K C N ; K Fe(CN) .
2 2 2 8 e

T e x t u r e and c r y s t a l h a b i t . Generally allotrio-

morphic granular, often with repeated twinning (fig. 63), some-
times feathery and like ice flowers.
D i f f. From arsenic by etching with KjS, and with HJSJO,,
dull polarization colors. White precipitate with H N O and Aq. s

Reg. when diluted with water; yellow coating with K S ; yellow

a

precipitate with H l when drop is diluted by water.

From stibnite it is distinguished by etching with K O H
(nearly negative), stibnite shows bright polarization colors;
smaltite and safflorite are harder, smaltite is isometric, safflorite
has typical blue and brown polarization colors.
O b s. Rare; of no economie importance. Occurs in veins of
silver, cobalt and nickel ores, arsenides and antimonides; accom-
panied by: arsenic, allemontite, stibnite, smaltite, kermesite,
pyrargyrite, galena, arsenopyrite, umangite and other copper
and silver selenidesortellurides; gangue: quartz, calcite, siderite.
G e n e s i s . Probably of supergene origin, like arsenic. The
occurrence of stibnite on veinlets in antimony leads to the
supposition that the former mineral may be also supergenic
Antimony of Munga Creek seems to be hypogenic.

Examination.
F r a n c e . A l l e m o n t , D a u p h i n é. L e s Cha-
l a n c h e s (2). (veins in gneiss with Ni-and Co-ores,Ag-ores,
stibnite, cinnabar and allemontite). Fine and coarse granular;
patches of intergrown pg, concentric shells of radiating fine
needies of st.
H a r z . A n d r e a s b e r g (1), (on silver veins; in calcite
sometimes with quartz, proustite); granular, small needies of
st. in calcite, seam of arsenic.
B o h e m i a . P z r i b r a m , M t J a m n y (2). Reniform,
concentric shells; fine granular, many pores, fine spots of arsenic.
Saxony. Freiberg, Junge Hohe Birke(l).
Plumose, iceflower-like.
70 N A T I V E SEMI METALS.

S a r d i n i a . S a n V i t o (1). Coarse granular, allotrio-

morphic.
B o r n e o (1). Coarse granular, allotriomorphic.
A u s t r a l i a . N . S. W a l e s , M u n g a C r e e k (2).
(vein with st. and quartz gangue). Coarse granular; in the anti-
mony several small, partially substituted crystals of ap., along
fine cracks small patches of purple umangite together with bright
white, soft unknown minerals, probably tellurides of silver.
B r o k e n H i l l (1). Coarse allotriomor-
phic granular, polysynthetic twins; veinlets of calcite in the
antimony with bunches of st. needies.
U . S. o f A m e r i c a . C a l i f o r n i a , S o u t h R i v e r
S i d e (1). Coarse granular, polysynthetic twinning (fig. 63), st.
K e r n Co, b e t w e e n Kern-
v i l l e a n d H a v i l a h (1). Fine and coarse allotriomor-
phic granular.
C a n a d a . N. B r u n s w i c k , P r i n c e W i l l i a m ( 2 ) .
Fine granular (0,04 m.m.) and coarse granular, allotriomorphic
and more irregular.
ARSENIC-ANTIMONY. (Allemontite).

C o m p . Var. Consisting generally of two components, one

arsenic with some antimony in solid solution and one antimony
with some arsenic in solid solution. (« arsenic and a antimony).
D e s c r i p t i o n . Generally in botryoidal masses, concen-
tric shells, sometimes granular. Analyses given by Hintze
varying from 62,15 % As and 37,85 % Sb (AUemont) to 94,96 %
As and 4,29 % Sb (Andreasberg).
MINERAGRAPHY.
All specimens of the so-called allemontite show a fine inter-
growth of two components in varying proportions and dif-
ferent in texture. The arsenic component does not tarnish very
quickly due to the Sb in soüd solution; the antimony component
probably has some arsenic in solution, because it is not so readily
attacked by H , S 0 , as pure Sb.
8

Polish, reflection, colors, polarized light for each component

the same as for arsenic and antimony.
E t c h i n g . For concentrated acids the same as for the
pure minerals. Solutions of dissociated salts make exceptions
 ARSENIC—'ANTIMONY. 71

as e.g. FeCl in water and in alcohol, CuCl, in alcohol, N a 0 ,

s 2 2

H 0 ; AgNO ; AuCl , etc. The reactions are partly reversed

2 s 8

due to the electrolitic action produced by the difference of

electric potential of the metais towards the solution and in
contact with each other. An electric current is generated, so
that the etching results are different from the etching results
with pure minerals not in contact with each other. We may
conclude therefore, that dissociated salts cannot be used for
etching aggregates of different nünerals.

The foUowing list shows some of these results:

Reagens S b i n S b
'
p u r e
As in As pure,
allemontite. alone. allemontite. alone.

K2S conc 4. 4 j
Hl 4 +
H S 0 2 8 4 7 4 _ _
2min.H 0 3 % . . — 2 2 _ + +

HN0 conc 3 -j- 4 _j_ 4.

KC10 , H S 0 . . . + +8 2 4 + + + 4
K Fe(CN)
s • ± 6 ( ) ± + +

FeCl in water . .
8 44 (4) 4 4
„ in alcohol . . 4 4 4
CuCl in water. . .
t 44 4. — (4.)
Phosph. molybden. . 4 — — 4
Na 0 , H 0 . . . .
2 8 4 2 (4) ( ) ± 4
NaOCl 4 _ ( ± ) 4

T e x t u r e and c r y s t a l h a b i t . The aggregates of As

and Sb have two entirely different textures.
a. In reniform masses they show generally concentric
shells of varying proportions a arsenic and « antimony (fig.
71). Arsenic generally doniinates. In that case the Sb-component
shows small thin elongated bodies, sometimes more or less
perpendicular to the shells. The texture seen between x nicols
or produced by etching the arsenic, shows this component in
plumose, feathery, fibrous forms, generally radially arranged.
They show the extinction typical of fibrous aggregates. The
Sb-component lies irregularly scattered between the As fibres
and surrounds some feathery units, grains and scales (fig. 68,
72 NATIVE SEMI METALS.

69, 70) and sometimes seems the result of segregation in solid

state, or is so finely intergrown that the microscope only reveals
darkér and lighter parts in the scales (fig. 72). When Sb domi-
nates, the aggregates seem to consist of radiating bodies of Sb,
between which As fills the open spaces. Between x nicols,
however, the texture of both components is granular allotrio-
morphic.
b. The mineral from Allemont shows a texture very diffe-
rent from all the other specimens. The texture is granular, allo-
triomorphic (0,1—0,5 m.m.). Every grain shows a g r a p h i c
i n t e r g r o w t h of the two components, in the same propor-
tions and the same design (figures 64—67). The design varies
with the orientation of the grain. The components are arranged
in lamellae parallel with c, or in small bars of the Sb-component
surrounded by As (fig. 66). The linear proportion of the two com-
ponents measured with a screen is always nearly 5:6. This
corresponds with the chemical composition As,Sb, more or
less according to the analyses of the allemontite from Alle-
mont, As : 62,15, Sb : 37,85 (Rammelsberg. Pogg. Ann. 1844).
Between x nicols each component in the grains extinguishes
as a single crystal. The cleavage lines run through both com-
ponents without interruption. We have here an example of
graphic intergrowth.
O b s . See antimony and arsenic.
Genesis. See antimony and arsenic. Concerning the mineral
from Allemont, with the texture of a eutectoid, we must add some
theoretical remarks. The equilibrium diagram of As-Sb has not
been fullystudied yet, so that we can make only some suggestions.
Parravana and Cesaris studied it to 40 % As, and found for that
part a continuous solid solution (probably type 3 of Bakhuis
Rooseboom). Down to 100 degrees Celsius no breakdown was
noticed.
The natural combination As-Sb examined by us contains
far over 40 % As. The plumose, feathery textures of the reniform
varieties, suggest precipitation from colloidal, cold solutions,
in concentric shells of varying composition. The granular eutec-
toid of the specimens from Allemont, however, supposes a higher
temperature of deposition of a solid solution, which had a
granular texture; each grain broke down into its components.
A remarkable fact, however, is the absence of any surplus of
 ARSENIC—ANTIMONY. 73

one of the components, which should have crystaUized before

the eutectic point was reached. This and the primary granular
texture lead to the supposition that As Sb may be a chemical
3

body at high temperature, which decomposes at a lower tempe-

rature and breaks down into a As and « Sb.
We propose to give the name a l l e m o n t i t e o n l y to
the e u t e c t o i d .

Examination.
F r a n c e. A l l e m o n t , D a u p h i n é (6). (veins in gneiss,
shaly or fine granular, two varieties: "ondulé" and lamellar);
fine granular, grains 0,1 m.m., every grain shows g r a p h i c
i n t e r g r o w t h of two components. Each component of a single
grain behaves as a single crystal between x nicols and by et-
ching (figs. 64—67). Cleavage lines run without interruption
through both components. Sometimes small patches of pr.,
veinlets of calcite with stibnite needies, single safflorite cry-
stals occur. The-As component does not tarnish so rapidly in
in the air (III).
B a d e n . M ü n s t e r t h a l . (1), (veins with barite, quartz,
gn., pr.); concentric shales, the shells consist of fine inter-
growths of Sb and As, Sb dominating; As fills small spaces left
between small elongated individuals of Sb; finely radiated, plu-
mose; pr. substitutes partly both components; small patches
of ar., small sa. crystals in veinlets of quartz throughout the
whole specimen. As-comp. does not tarnish rapidly.
H a r z , St. A n d r e a s b e r g . (8), (insilverveins); mammil-
lary, reniform, in concentric shells; generally feathery, plumose,
radiating, sometimes like ice-flowers and scales; consisting of
radiating fibres of As, between which the Sb component is ar-
ranged in small irregular elongated forms (fig. 68,69), often smal-
ler than 0,001 m.m. Shells sometimes with center of an irregular
As fragment, strongly varying in composition; sometimes in
the shells rounded grains of concentrc texture (fig. 70) between
which the Sb-component lies; silver occurs in small flecks,
surrounded by sa. (fig. 68); sa. on veinlets of calcite; pr. introdu-
ced in small cracks, or planes between the shells sometimes
substitutes As and Sb, so that a pseudo-eutectic pattern results.
As-comp. does not tarnish rapidly.
St. A n d r e a s b e r g (1); cores of dyscrasite
74 NATIVE SEMI METALS.

surtounded by feathery, radiating intergrowth of As and little

Sb. Veinlets of As and Sb throughout the specimen with
needies of stibnite penetrating into the dyscrasite.
B o h e m i a , P z r i b r a m . (2), (with sl., st., siderite in
reniform masses); feathery, ice-flower-like when As dominates;
when Sb is in excess finely allotriomorphic granular, grains of
As between grains of Sb; shells varying strongly in composition
(fig. 71, 72); As does not tarnish rapidly.

Literature.
I. G. K A L B , Das System As-Sb in der Natur. Vortrag Vers.
d. Deutsche Min. Ges. Leipzig 1922.
II. PARRAVANO, D E CESARIS, Gazz. Chim. ital. 1912.1. 341.
III. R. W. VAN DER V E E N , Eenige opmerkingen over het
onderzoek van ertsen met opvallend licht. Voordracht, De
Ingenieur, 1922, No. 42.

TELLURIUM.

C o m p. Tellurium.
D e s c r. Hexagonal-rhombohedral. Crystals columnar, acicu-
lar; generally fine granular, massive.
Cleavage, m (1010) perfect, c (0001) imperfect. Color and
streak: tin-white. H . 2—2,5. Brittle, somewhat sectile. Lustre me-
tallic.
P y r. B. B . fuses readily, volatilizes and oxidizes, colonng
the flame green; in open tube white fumes and white coating,
which fuses into colorless drops. With warm conc. H SO« purple-
8

red solution which becomes colorless when diluted with water

and gives black-gray precipitate of Te.
MINERAGRAPHY.
P o l i s h . Polishes easily, some scratches remain, due to
softness, which may disappear by treatment on rubber piece.
R e f l e c t i o n . High.
C o l o r . White; when compared with Pt and Ag slightly
gray, with galena white with suggestion of cream., hessite is
slightly grayer, galena slightly grayer, silver is creamy white
and has higher reflection. Different grains vary slightly in
reflection. White when compared with other tellurides; syl-
vanite slightly creamier.
 BISMUTH. 75

P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . Bright positions bright gray when

section is perpendicular to the principal axis; in other positions:
bright bluish-gray and brownish gray, much like stibnite but not
so bright.
E t c h i n g . Cr0 , HC1 (1 minute) develops texture, so does
3

K M n 0 , H N 0 . The former produces a bright gluey yellow

4 3

coating which may be rubbed off.

-f. H N 0 conc. (black, slightly white p.p. when diluted with
3

water); H N 0 conc. 20 seconds (iridescent); Aq. Reg., (brown-

8

yellowish brown); H N O (rough); Cr0 , HC1 (yellow coating-

s 8

texture); K M n 0 , H N 0 conc. (brown iridescent-rough and

4 8

texture); A g N 0 (brown-iridescent); FeCl (iridescent).

8 8

—. HC1; K C N ; K O H .
T e x t u r e . Granular.
D i f f. Reflection, white color, H , bright yellow coating
with Cr0 , HC1.
8

O b s. Very rare; of no economie import ance. On veins, with

pyrite, galena and teüurides of gold and silver, such as: hessite,
coloradoite, sylvanite, nagyagite, altaite, sometimes with ala-
bandite. Gangue: quartz, hornstone orsiderite and rhodochrosite.
G e n e s i s . Has been found in sulphur of volcanic origin, to-
gether with selenium; accompanies tellurides of Ag, A u and
Cu in tertiary gold and silver veins, which are hydro-thermal
deposits formed near the surface and at intermediate depth.
Probably deposited from hot water near the surface.
Examination.
H u n g a r y . F a c z e b a y e . (1) (tertiary gold veins, with
quartz and py.). Equi-granular (0,5 mm.), with quartz, some
pyrite crystals and sylvanite.
C o l o r a d o , G u n n i s o n . (2). Crystals, with some hessite.

BISMUTH.
C o m p. Bismuth.
Diagrams of Au-Bi and Ag-Bi (I) show that solid solutions
of these metais in bismuth do not exist at ordinary temperatures.
Bismuth has an enantiotropic transformation at 75° C. and pro-
bably another between 112° and 135° C. (V, VI).
D e s c r i p t i o n . Rhombohedral. Generally arborescent,
reticulated; foliated and granular.
76 NATIVE SEMI METALS.

Twins: e (0112), often polysynthetic. Cleavage: c (0001)

perfect, s (0221) imperfect.
Color: white with a reddish tinge; lustre metallic; tarnishes,
faintly iridescent to brown.
H . 2 — 2,5; sectile, brittle, probably due to easy building
of gliding planes. Streak white.
P y r . Fuses easily and volatilizes entirely, gives yellowish
coating on charcoal while hot, yellowish white while cooling;
with K I and S red coating; fuses at 269° C. Dissolves readily
in HNOg giving white precipitate, when solution is diluted.
MINERAGRAPHY.
P o l i s h . Polishes rapidly, but hardly free from minute
scratches.
R e f l e c t i o n . High.
C o l o r . Immediately after polishing nearly white with a
creamy tinge, quickly tarnishing to pinkish cream, slowly be-
coming a brownish tarnish.
With silver slightly creamier; niccoüte is more pinkish, chal-
copyrite is grayish olive-green, pyrrhotite is grayish creamy
brown, bismuthinite is grayish white, smaltite and safflorite,
rammelsbergite and chloantite are white compared with bismuth.
P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . Colors not very characteristic and
not very bright, often slight differences between brightest
positions and extinction; often minute scratches produce false
effects. Brightest positions: bluish gray to greenish gray and
violet-gray to yellowish gray.
Texture is seen beautifully between x nicols.
E t c h i n g . H l , 1 second, develops texture beautifully;
H N 0 , 1 second does the same (fig. 73, 74, 75), H S gas blown
8 2

over it gives a faint design of the texture. Care should be

taken when etching with strong acids, as acicular radiating
patterns due to etch-figures develop easily.
-f. For all acids mentioned.
—. K O H ; K C N .
T e x t u r e . Generally coarse granular, sometimes fine
granular, commonly polysynthetic and lamellar twinning, often
in two intersecting systems, probably due to transformation
from « B i -> p Bi. The arborescent and irregular shapes of
the metal often consist of one individual.
D i f f . One of the few minerals with highest reflection, it
 BISMUTH. 77

is recpgnized easily by its tarnishing soon after polishing to

pinkish cream and brown. Hardness is low, hence generally
high reliëf against other minerals. The other pinkish minerais
are: copper, niccoüte, breithauptite and maucherite. Breit-
hauptite, maucherite and niccoüte are much harder (5,5), they
have bright polarization colors; hardness of copper is nearly the
same, but copper is isometric and remains dark in every position
between x nicols. In smaü spots to be distinguished from copper
by etching with KCN or KOH, which reagents are + for copper
and — for bismuth, from silver by KCN which is + for süver.
From native süver it is distinguished by KCN, and polari-
zation colors.
Obs. Not abundant; most of the production of bismuth
comes from native bismuth. Occurs in cobalt-nickel-silver veins
and in tin veins. Generally closely associated with cobalt-nickel
ores as: smaltite, safflorite, chloantite and rammelsbergite,
together with bismuthinite. Niccoüte, breithauptite, cobaltite
and uraninite are sometimes present; occurs also with bismuth
minerals as wittichenite, emplectite, schapbachite; (Saxony,
Temiskaming, Bohemia). Chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, py-
rite, pyrargyrite, proustite, native süver and other süver ores
may be present.
In tin veins and in greisen sometimes with cassiterite, wol-
framite, scheeüte, molybdenite, arsenopyrite (Saxony, Bohemia,
Cornwall, Boüvia); and in pipes of pegmatites (N. S. Wales).
Gangue: calcite, dolomite, siderite, quartz, jasper, barite,
chalcedony, sometimes fluorite, rhodochrosite. In the oxidation
zone with its oxidation nünerals bismutite and bismite.
G e n e s i s . Native bismuth is a hypogene, primary mineral.
When it occurs in high temperature pegmatitic veins and
tin veins it has probably a relatively high temperature of deposi-
tion. On the other hand its deposition as one of the latest mine-
rals in these veins and in the cobalt-nickel veins of intermediate
depth and its low fusion point (269° C), which is below the
critical temperature of water, speaks for deposition out of
hydrothermal solutions in one of the last stages of vein-füüng.
The transformation-twins point to a deposition above the
temperature of the transition-point.
The sections studied prove without exception that bismuth
together with bismuthinite belongs to the last-deposited minerals
78 NATIVE SEMI METALS.

and they are good examples of ascendent vein-metasomatism.

In all the sections of cobalt-nickel veins we see a close relation
between bismuth and cobalt-nickel arsenides. In most cases
bismuth is surrounded by seams of one or more of these arsenides
and often it lies on the outside of these seams as well. It breaks
through these seams in small veins and cracks, which demon-
strates that it is deposited later than the arsenides (see figs. 81,84,
85, 86). But its deposition is restricted to the cracks as far as they
run through the arsenides. This close relation points to a similar
precipitation of bismuth by cobalt- and nickel-diarsenides, as
Ch. PALMER has supposed for the deposition of native silver by
the latter (III).
The arborescent, reticulated forms of bismuth always men-
tioned in the description of this mineral, are n o t the result
of own crystallization forces, but were predestined by already
existing forms of the nickel-and cobalt diarsenides in the car-
bonate gangue of the veins. These diarsenides again have folio-
wed cleavage lines and twinning planes of the calcite and dolo-
mite which have been partially replaced by them. Their deposits
generally follow rhombohedral lines, and build combinations
of positive and negative rhombohedral intersections. Afterwards
bismuth has filled the cores of alternating seams of safflorite,
rammelsbergite, smaltite and chloantite (figs. 76—82 and 84—
85), which consisted generally of calcite (see general part). It
has been deposited partly outside these seams (fig. 81, 85)
or has substituted part of them along cracks and zones. Figures
84 and 85 show the replacement of a zone of chloantite by
bismuth and bismutlünite, and show cracks in the alternating
zones of chloantite — smaltite filled by the same material. In
the parts not replaced the alternation of the isometric arsenides
is slightly visible, in the fine polygonal banding of this "fort-
ress" pattern. In many specimens the dolomitic gangue has been
substituted completely by quartz and jasper or barite, so that
nothing remains of the original vem-filling, but the strange
arborescent shapes of the arsenides in quartz filled and sur-
rounded by bismuth, which in their typical arrangement still
demonstrate the rhombohedral character of their former host.
In the oxidation zone bismuth is altered into a dark rough
rnineral, probably an earthy oxidation product. Bismutite, is
dark gray like gangue and has greenish yellow internal reflection.
 BISMUTH. 79
Examination.
S a x o n y . S c h n e e b e r g . (12) (veins in contact-meta-
morphicslates, gangue is calcite, dolomite and other carbonates,
largely replaced by quartz, jasper and barite;) with chl.,ra., sm.,
sa., bismuthinite and native bismuth). Coarse and fine granular,
repeated twinning; in hackly and arborescent forms, surroun-
ded by seams of alternating layers of some of the arsenides
mentioned (figs. 40, 76, 77, 79, 80, 81, 82). "Fortress" pattern
of sm. and chl. also occur, partially replaced by bismuth and
bismuthinite; see further the above explanation concerning
genesis. With x nicols sm. and chl. are immediately distinguis-
hed as isometric minerals from the rhombic sa. and ra. Chl. is
a shade darker than sm.,so is ra. against sa. with a tinge of
pinkish cream. Polarization colors of sa. are: bright-dark blue
and reddish-yellowish brown, of ra.: dark blue and violet-pink-
gray. Chl. and ra. are sooner attacked by nitric acid than the
others so that by etching one second the difference is apparent.
Sometimes more irregular forms of bismuth and irregularly
curved thin seams of arsenides occur and swarms of small
crystals and rosettes of sa. are often disseminated throughout
the gangue. In other specimens were fine aggregates of sa. crys-
tals with interstitial small flecks of native silver, pg. and pat-
ches of bismuth, which had partially changed into an oxidic
mineral with a rough, nearly black surface. Fig. 83. represents
an irregular intergrowth of B i , B i S , sl. and sm.
2 s

A n n a b e r g . (1) (Co-Ni veins in gneiss, same as Schnee-

berg). Granular, polysynthetic irregular twinning (fig. 75);.
breccious texture of gangue and ore, irregular seams of mostly
sa. and a little sm., surrounded and filled by bismuth and bis-
muthinite, B i partially replaced by bismuthinite and cp.
M a r i e n b e r g . (1) Same dendrites as Schneeberg,
often one crystal with fine twinning; sa. surrounds bismuth;.
Small globules of uraninite.
J o h a n n G e o r g e n s t a d t . (2) Fine granular; poly-
synthetic twinning, often visible without etching, by polishing
only; bismuth in irregular patches between gangue or in rounded
grains and hexagonal prisms. Thin seams of sm. chl. and sa.
surround irregular patches of bismuth and grains of quartz.
Sometimes these seams lie entirely in bismuth and are accom-
panied by bismuthinite in a thin layer. In the bismuth and
80 NATIVE SEMI METALS.

gangue extremely thin, irregulariy winding seamlets (0,001

m.m.) of a dark gray rnineral, which may be uraninite.
A l t e n b e r g . (1) (tinveins, stockwork, with
quartz, wolframite, bismuthinite, chalcopyrite, Bi very pure).
Granular, small patches between aggregate of quartz, dolomite,
siderite, with limonite concretions; bismuth also forms the
cores of radiating bunches of prismatic crystals of a gray mineral:
polianite (polarization colors : pink-gray).
Geyer, Erzgebirge. Kiesgrube. (3) Granular,
twinning; cobalt- and nickel arsenides with bismuth in same
arrangement as Schneeberg; bismuth has preserved nice squares
of rhombohedral habit, surrounded by the arsenides. Bismuthi-
nite forms small patches in the bismuth, which occurs also in
irregular patches in gangue.
B a d e n . W i t t i c h e n (1). (veins in granite with cobalt-
and nickel arsenides, wittichenite, klaprothoüte, schapbachite,
silver and bismuth). Fine granular, polys. twinning; partly
the same forms as Schneeberg, partly irregular flecks of bismuth
surrounded by bismuthinite, in which fine aggregates of cp., py.,
and wittichenite (creamy white against bismuthinite).
H e s s e n . B i e b e r . (1) (veins in micaschists with sm.,
na, siderite, barite and calcite). Granular; gangue siderite,
in which irregular patches of bismuth surrounded by thin seams
of sa.; sometimes bismutiühite.
B o h e m i a . J o a c h i m s t h a l (5). (veins in gneiss,
bismuth especially in those containing uraninite, with Co-
Ni arsenides, sl., gn., süver ores). Granular; strange dendritic
rhombohedral forms, often one crystal, with polys. twinning,
same combination with Co-Ni arsenides as in Schneeberg, here
ra. dorninating in the seams and dendrites (fig. 78); sometimes
sa., which also occurs in younger calcite veinlets in single small
crystals and groups, together with chl. in smaU cubes. Bismuth
decidedly later than the arsenides, fiüs the cores and cracks
through them. In other specimens zonal sm. and chl. in "for-
tress" pattern, is partly substituted by bismuth and bismuthi-
nite (fig. 84). Another specimen showed Bi totaüy scattered
traversed by smaü veins of bismuthinite.
(1) So-caüed c h e l e u t i t e ; same combination and pattern
as fig. 40, fine dendritic intergrowth of bismuth surrounded
by sa. and ra.; dolomitic gangue in which occur patches of gn.
 BISMUTH. 81

So C h e l e u t i t e i s n o m i n e r a l b u t a n i n t e r -
g r o w t h o f b i s m u t h a n d Co-Ni a r s e n i d e s .
C o r n w a l l . R e d r u t h . (1). Granular, same arborescent
texture as Schneeberg etc. w i t h C o - N i arsenides. Seams i n
smaltite-chloantite partly replaced b y nearly submicroscopical
intergrowth of B i and B i S (fig. 85).
2 3

Canada. Ontario, Temiskaming. (2) (silver

bearing C o - N i veins i n Kewateen a n d H u r o n i a n series, related
w i t h diabase intrusions, gangue: calcite a n d dolomitic carbo-
nates w i t h native silver, bismuth, cobalt- a n d nickel-arsenides
and sulfo-arsenides, silver ores, tetrahedrite, arsenopyrite)
Coarse granular, polys. tw.; one specimen massive bismuth, full
of small patches of native silver (0,002 m.m.) and some particles
of argentite. The other specimen consisted of an aggregate of
well-developed smaltite crystals, idiomorphic against gangue
of calcite, quartz a n d bismuth, without crystal boundaries
against b i g patches of magnetite (with pronounced parting).
T h e magnetite seems t o have attacked the smaltite. B i s m u t h
between smaltite crystals and i n cracks through them, is later than
smaltite (fig. 86); occurs also i n minute patches throughout
the smaltite. I n the smaltite also small inclusions of rammels-
bergite, (segregation of sohd solution of C o - N i di-arsenides,
or substitution).
B o l i v i a . T a s n a. (2) (tin veins). Coarse granular, polys.
t w . Massive, surrounded b y bismutite w i t h small particles of
B i . (figs. 73, 74).
Q u e e n s l a n d . G l y n n L i n n e d a l e . (1) Coarse gra-
nular, polys. t w . Massive w i t h small needies of bismuthinite,
some corroded grains of po. a n d s m a l l patches of cp.
Herberton (1) Coarse granular,
polys. t w . Massive, surrounded b y bismutite.
Chilagos. (1). Coarse granular,
polys. t w .

Literature.
I. G . J . P E T R E N K O . Zeitsch. anorg. Chem. 46 and 50, 1905
a n d 1906.
II. W . C A M P B E L L a n d C . W . K N I G H T . A microscopie E x a m i -
n a t i o n of the Cobalt-nickel Arsenides. E c o n . Geology. V o l . I,
1906, pg. 767.
Mineragraphy. 6
82 NATIVE METALS.

III. C H . PALMER. Di-arsenides as Süver Precipitants. Econ.

Geology, Vol. X I I , 1917, pg. 207.
IV. W. G. M I L L E R . Cobalt-Nickel Arsenides and Silver De-
posits of Temiskaming. Rept. Ontario Bureau of Mines, Vol.
19, 1913.
V. E . C O H E N and A . L . M O E S V E L D . Die Enantiotropie des
Wismuts. Zeitsch. f. Phys. Chem. L X X X V , 1913.
VI. E . JaNECKE. Die Umwandlungen der Metaüe Zinn,
Zink, Wismut, etc. Zeitsch. f. Phys. Chem. X C , 1915, 313.

N A T I V E METALS.

COPPER.

C o m p. Copper, sometimes containing Ag in sohd solution.

Diagrams of Ag-Cu (II, VI) show that a shght amount of
Ag is soluble in Cu at ordinary temperature.
D e s c r i p t i o n . Isometric. Crystals often tetrahexahedron,
generally distorted, dendritic, filiform, arborescent, mossy;
sometimes massive and granular, in plates.
Twins: o, tw. pi.; often spear-shaped forms.
Pseudomorphous sometimes after cuprite, aragonite, azurite,
calcite. Ductüe. Color: copper-red, often tarnished brownishor
yellowish. Lustre metallic. Streak metallic.
H . 2,5—3.
P y r. B. B . fusible; blue solution in borax and phosphorsalt
in O.F., copper-red opaque in R. F. Readily dissolved by H N 0 8

giving-red N O , fumes, blue solution, colored dark blue with

N H , O H ; green flame in O.F.
MINERAGRAPHY.
P o l i s h . Polishes easily, but hardly without scratches.
R e f l e c t i o n . High.
C o l o r . Pink, soon tarnishing brownish.
With silver pink. Silver is white compared with copper; cu-
prite, chalcocite and copper pitch ore are bluish gray, hmonite
is dark bluish-gray compared with copper.
P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . Same color in all positions, not
 COPPER 83

totally extinguished; when with scratches, false light effects.

E t c h i n g . O n e p a r t Cr0 , (50 %) and one part conc.
8

HC1, mixed a moment before use, 10—20 seconds, then washed

with a drop of conc. HC1 to dissolve precipitate, develops
texture clearly.
Heyn's reagent, used in metallography, does not develop
texture so clearly as Cr0 , HC1. This reagent consists of copper-
3

ammonium-chloride 12 gr. and water 100 gr., ammonia liquida

is added until the precipitate is dissolved and the liquid has
become dark blue. During the etching the reagent must be
rubbed with the finger over the surface of the metal until tex-
ture becomes visible and then immediately washed off.
HgOj, N H O H also develops texture.
4

-f. H N O (rough, sometimes texture); FeCl (black); K O H

s s

(bluish-brown); NaOH (same as KOH); K C N (brown); H l ;

CrOj, HC1 (texture).
—. HC1.
T e x t u r e a n d c r y s t a l h a b i t . Coarse or fine gra-
nular, allotriomorphic or panidiomorphic, coarse twinning
(fig. 87). Size of grains from Lake Superior and Coro-Coro varie-
ties often 2 mm and more. These sections clearly show the
typical recrystallization texture of copper, well known in me-
tallography (fig. 87). Size of all other equi-granular specimens
examined smaller than 0,1 mm. Many dendritic and supergenic
copper varieties are coarse crystalline but not panidiomorphic
granular. They show spear-shaped crystal forms arranged pa-
rallel or radiating, sometimes irregularly intergrown (fig. 88).
Often fine zonal lines become visible which grade into
concentric lines, similar to those of other concentric shaly nüne-
rals, deposited from coüoidal solutions (fig. 89). In other cases
this "agate" texture seems quite independent of the crystal
faces and planes, (fig. 90).
The dendritic and spear-like forms are not noticed in copper
from Lake Superior and in some specimens of Coro-Coro, but
nearly always in supergenic copper. Undoubtedly the tempera-
ture of deposition and the nature of the solutions and pressure
under which the crystals were formed or came afterwards, de-
cided their habit. See also IV. Exact data do not exist yet to
draw a definite conclusion. From studies of Cohen, Helderman
(V) and Janecke (IX) we know that copper is allotropic, and that
84 NATIVE METALS.

a transition point exists at about 71,7° and at 100° degrees C .

Burgers denies it (III).
D i f f. Recognized easily, even in small spots, by its high
reflection, copper-red color, its quick tarnishing and hardness.
For distinction from other pinkish nünerals, see bismuth, pg. 75.
O b s. Widely distributed in s m a ü quantities in copper ore
deposits, but in this form of hardly any economie importance;
the native copper deposits of Lake Superior and Coro-Coro
produce 8 % of the world's production.
In the oxidized zone of copper deposits, together with many
other supergenic copper minerals, as: cuprite, tenorite, mela-
conite, delafossite, copper pitch ore, chalcocite, bornite, copper
carbonates and siücates, copper arseniates, with ümonite, he-
matite, gypsum, etc.
In basic lavas and in their conglomerates together with zeoütes,
some native süver, domeykite and whitneyite, hematite, and
sometimes with pyrrhotite (Lake Superior).
In sandstones with cuprite, gypsum and some chalcocite
(Coro-Coro).
G e n e s i s . Native copper in the upper zones of sulphidic
copper deposits, is the result of reduction foüowing oxidation
and solution in the oxidized part of the deposit. The reducing
agents may be copper sulphides, and it is admitted by some
authors that the action of ferric sulphate on chalcocite may
produce native copper as weü as the reducing action of ferrous
sulphate on cuprite.
The fact that microscopical veinlets and füms of native
copper occur in chalcocite (fig. 92, 93) as w e ü as in cuprite, is
in favor of this supposition. The occurrence, however, of con-
centric films of copper in ümonite concretions suggests that
dectiokinetic phenomena as electro-osmosis, electrostenolysis
and those simüar to the Becquerel-phenomenon may hold good
for the copper deposition as w e ü (H. FREUNDLICH, Kapillar-
chemie, pg. 364 etc. and XVII, see süver, pg. 95). The positive
colloid Fe(HO) does not absorb the + Cu ions, but when some
8

negative manganese oxide coüoids are present, these can be

the cause of precipitation of Cu on ümonite as w e ü .
Native copper in basic lavas is supposed to be the result of
post-volcanic processes, by which the copper contents of the
lavas was extracted and then deposited in vacuoles or blow
 COPPER. 85

holes of these lavas and in their breccias, conglomerates and

sandstones in their neighborhood, by warm watery solutions.
These processes may have started at a relatively high tempera-
ture, so that at the same time albite, garnet, amphibole, dato-
lite, prehnite, pectolite were deposited (boric acid period) and'
gradually passed through the zeolitic period, with deposition
of chabazite, heulandite and chlorite, into the calcite period
with formation of gypsum, thaumasite, etc. (XIV).

Examination.
Westphalia. Mine K a u s e r s t e i m e l near Kau-
s e n. (2) (veins of limonite in Lower-Devonian). Fine granular,
(0,05 mm) and dendritic in cavities. Small bands of copper,
following concentric banding of limonite, or in irregular patches
(fig. 91). The copper is partly syngenetic with limonite and
partly later than the deposition of the limonite and has replaced
part of the limonite shells. Supergene.
H e r d o r f a/d S i e g. (1) Same as above.
In concentric shells in limonite. Limonite surrounds supergene
(rhombic) cc., which contains remnants of primary intergrowth
of bn. and cp. (fig. 45) Supergene.
N a s s a u , E m s , F r i e d r i c h s s e g e n , (1). Spear-hke,
dendritic; thickness of spears 0,05 mm. Supergene.
B e t z d o r f , A l t e n k i r c h e n (1). Fine granular. Supergene.
S a x o n y , Z w i c k a u (2) (in claystonein "rothliegende")
Spear-like, irregular granular (0,2 mm.) Supergene.
B a n a t , M o l d a v i a . (1). Spear-like, irregular granular
(0,1 mm). Supergene.
I t a l y , M o n t e C a t i n i ( l ) (with copper sulpbides in
diabases). Panidiomorphic granular, twins, (0,1 mm.).
S a r d i n i a , A l g h e r o Sassari, C a l a B o n a Mi-
ne (1). Spear-like, dendritic. Crystals radiating from centers,
every crystal surrounded by thin film of cuprite; small patches
of copper pitch ore filhng remaining openings. Supergene.
C o r n w a l l , R e d r u t h . (2) Loose dendritic crystals,
with spear-like intercrystaUine habit. Supergene.
W h e a l B a s s e t M i n e (3)
(in lodes in ki]las). Granular (0,5 mm.); copper and cuprite in
numerous veinlets in copper pitch ore and chrysokolla; cuprite
surrounds in thin films native copper, traverses it as weü
86 NATIVE METALS.

as the pitch ore. In some places cores of copper in cuprite,

which is later than copper. Supergene.
Russia, Nischne T a g i l s k . M i n e Gume-
s c h e w s k o i (3). Dendritic, spear-like, length of grains 3 mm.
and sometimes longer.
D i s t r i c t K y s c h t i m s k M i n e Ko-
n ü c h o w s k (1). Granular, spear-like. (0,5 mm.). Supergene.
S i b e r i a (3). Porous aggregates of small dendritic crystals
(0,1 mm.) between which some chalcocite and small concretions
of cuprite disseminated in irregular spots. Supergene.
P e r s i a (l). Spears, zonarly built (0,5 mm.). Supergene.
J a p a n , P r o v . R i k u c h u , O z a r u z a w a M i n e (1).
Coarse crystalline, spear-like and zonal crystals, length up to
3 mm.; in the crystals concentric banding without relation
to crystal faces and planes. Supergene.
J a p a n , (unknown locality) (4). Fine irregular granular;
Copper and copper arseniates in veinlets in hypogenic chalcoci-
te, sometimes on its grain boundaries. Supergene (fig. 92, 93).
S. A u s t r a l i a . B u r r a B u r r a M i n e ( l ) Irregular
granular; veinlets of cuprite and malachite through copper,
cuprite later. Supergene.
C h i l i . Rebosadero, S i ë r r a Gorda, Mina
V e s u v i o. (2) Fine granular (0,2 mm.) twins; irregular inter-
growth of copper and granular cuprite; in some places cuprite,
in others copper seems to be the latest nuneral. Supergene.
A t a c a m a (3). Equi-granular, more or less roun-
ded grains (0,1 mm.) without twinning; between the copper
grains rounded patches of copper pitch ore (fig. 95). The texture
of the aggregate is emulsion-like, as if both minerals were
deposited out of a jellous precipitate, and cluster-like with
roughly concentric arrangement. Cavities between the clusters
covered with films of cuprite. Supergene.
C o p i a p o (3). One specimen, granular (0,2 mm.),
twins. Cuprite in small cracks on grain boundaries of the cop-
per and later than it.
The other specimen, spear-like, striations of the spears often
strongly curved, length of spears 0,5 mm.; cuprite and malachite
in cavities and along grain boundaries. Supergene.
C h i l i , U n k n o w n l o c a l i t y (1). Granular (0,3 mm.),
rounded boundaries, between the grains films of slightly paler
 COPPER. 87

copper, which were not so readily attacked by the reagents as

the grains themselves. These films perhaps consisted of copper
with a small amount of silver.
B o l i v i a , C o r o - C o r o (3) (copper in sandstones, with
gypsum, some native silver, domeykite and chalcocite; copper
is disseminated in the sandstones or massive, in large crystals,
dendritic and like sand ("barUla")).
One specimen: massive, coarse granular (2-3 mm), twins,
small patches of cuprite.
One specimen: sandstone with copper between the sand particles
(fig. 94) granular (0,2 mm.), twins; size of the sand grains 0,2 mm.
One specimen: loose dendritic crystals with spear-like habit.
M e x i c o . G u e r r e r o ( l ) . Spear-like, irregular, (0,5 mm.).
Supergene.
U . S. o f A m e r i c a . A r i z o n a , B i s b e e , C o p p e r
Q u e e n m i n e . (3) (contact-metamorpbic sulphidic copper
deposits). Concretionary and spear-like (1—2 mm.), crystals
show banding and twinning (figs. 88, 89, 90). One specimen
was copper pseudomorphous after azurite. The habit of the
azurite crystals was macroscopicaUy distinct; microscopically
the specimen was a porous aggregate of dendritic, spear-like
small crystals of native copper, roughly arranged along the
former crystal lines of the azurite. Supergene.
Lake Superior, Michigan,
C1 i f f M i n e , (3) (native copper in diabase and their
conglomerates, together with zeolites and some native silver).
One specimen, massive, coarse granular (1—5 mm.) recrystal-
lization texture, twins often slightly curved; in the copper a
small fleck of native silver and patches (0,01 mm.) of cuprite.
(fig. 87) (See also X I , XII).
One specimen: copper in conglomerate, coarse granular
(1 mm.); the copper generally occurs between the pebbles of
the conglomerate, but penetrates these grains also along
cracks (fig. 96) and is disseminated in small flecks; thin films
of cuprite surround the copper.
One specimen: native silver on massive copper. Coarse granu-
lar as above mentioned; boundary between silver and copper
was sharp and no alloy existed.
H o u g h-
t o n C°. (3). Coarse granular as above.
88 NATIVE METALS.

One specimen contained native silver on native copper; the

silver, however, showed texture of a Cu-Ag alloy (figs.
97, 98) with more copper than the eutectic proportion
(72 % Ag—28 % Cu): copper dendrites in eutecticum Ag— Cu.
All other specimens examined, which consisted of native silver
and copper did not show an alloy; in literature it is only men-
tioned once (XVI), so that this high temperature must have
been a local fact, perhaps caused by later diabase intrusions
in the neighborhood.
The specimen of the Cliff mine above mentioned, was during
a few minutes exposed to a temperature of about 790° C.
and on the boundary silver — copper a small seam of alloy had
formed, with copper-dendrites surrounded by eutecticum on
the copper side (just like the natural alloy) and with silver
dendrites on the silver side (fig. 99). The copper as well as the
silver dendrites do not show crystalline features when etched,
nor does a small seam of copper and silver at the border of
the massive metais. The texture of the rest of the metais is
coarse crystalline, the crystals being larger than before heating.
The copper of the natural alloy was very coarse crystalline,
showing long crystals with coarse repeated twinning and fine
striae, much like the striae in the spear-like crystal-aggregates.
Hypogene.
D a m a r a r a L a n d , M a t c h l e n M i n e (2). Granu-
lar (1 — 0,02 mm.), twins; cuprite replaces partly the finer
grained copper.
(VII) A l g e r s , P r o v . C o n s t a n t i n e , O u e d B o u -
d o u k a . Copper in chalcocite and sphalerite as oxidation
product; fine granular; chalcocite replaces spha'erite, copper
replaces chalcocite. Supergene.
(XI) B a v a r i a , R h e i n p f a l z , I m s b a c h , Grube
Katharina. (veins in quartz-porphyry). Fine granular, (about
0,3 mm.) twins; cuprite in paraüel veinlets through copper.
Supergene.
(XV) N o n e s u c h F o r m a t i o n (2) Native Copper and
carbonaceous matter in sandstone; Cu replaces sometimes
carbonaceous matter.

Literature.
(I) A. B E Ü T E L L . Wachstumserscheinungen des Kupfers,
 COPPER. 89

Silbers und Goldes, Centralblatt f. Mineralogie, Geol. u. Pal.

1919, 14—28.
(II) K . BORNEMANN. Die Bin aren Metallegierungen. Metallur-
gie, VI, 1909, 236, 296, 326, 490, 644.
(III) G. K . B U R G E R S and J . N . K E L L E R B E R R Y . Phys. Rev.
1916, 28.
(IV) W. CAMPBELL. Ueber das Gefüge der Metalle, deren
Veranderungen durch Bearbeitung und Warmebehandlung.
MetaUurgie IV, 1907, 801—825.
(V) E . COHEN and W. D. H E L D E R M A N . The Allotropy of
Copper, Proc. Koninklijke Academie van Wetenschappen, Vol.
X V I , 2, pg. 628.
(VI) K . FRIEDRICH and A. LEROUX. Diagram Ag-Cu. MetaUur-
gie IV, 1907, 297.
(VII) Prof. B. GRANIGG. Zur Anwendung Metallographischer
Methoden auf die Mikroskopische Untersuchung von Erzlager-
statten. MetaU u. Erz, 1915, 189—200.
(VIII) HEYCOCK a. Neville, Phil. Trans, b 189A. Diagram Ag-Cu.
(IX) E . JaNECKE. Die Umwandlungen der Metalle Zinn,
Zink, Wismuth, Kadmium, Kupfer, Silber, Blei und Antimon,
bestimmt mit dem neuen electrisch heizbaren Druckapparat.
Zeitsch. f. Physik. Chemie, 1915, X C , pg. 313.
(X) W. v. LEPKOWSKY. Zeitsch. ahog. Chemie, L I X , 1908, 290.
Diagram Ag-Cu.
(XI) K . O E B B E K E and M. v. SCHWARZ. Strukturen Gediegener
Metalle, unter Berücksichtigung des Kupfers vom Imsbach. Zeit-
sehrift f. Metallkunde, 1915, 505—514.
(XII) H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Anleitung zur Bestimmung, etc,
(loc. cit) 271.
(XIII) R. W. VAN DER V E E N . Eenige mededeelingen over het
onderzoek van ertsen in opvallend hcht. De Ingenieur, No.
42, 1923.
(XIV) C. N . FENNER. The Watching Basalt and the Para-
genesis of its Zeolites. N . York Ac. Sci. Vol. 20, 1910, 97—187.
(XV) H E Y I R O NISHIO. Copper and Silver in Nonesuch For-
mation. Mich. Econ. Geol. X I V , 1919, 324—334.
(XVI) WIGHT. Engin. Min. Journ. 1880. 30. pg. 153.
(XVII) E M I L E GIURGEN. Beitrag zur Experiment. Unterr
suchung der physikalischen Bedingungen der Kristallisation
der Metalle. Chem. Zentr. Blatt. I. 1913. 677.
90 NATIVE METALS.

SILVER.

C o m p . Silver, sometimes with Au, Pt, Cu, Bi, Hg, Sb, in solid
solution. A u and Ag form continuous solid solutions (III); Ag
may contain up to 1% Cu, 5% B i in solid solution, according
to the constitution diagrams, (III). The amount of Pt and
Sb according to the existing diagrams may be larger. Ag S 2

may be dissolved in silver up to a few percents (VIII). Pal-

ladium, Pt, Au and Hg are analysed in silver from Kongsberg.
An alloy of Ag-Cu is found in Michigan (XVII and XVIII);
Sb is found in Ag from Cobalt.
D e s c r. Isometric. Crystals mostly cubic, distorted, arbores-
cent, reticulated, filiform; massive in plates and scales.
Twins, o (111). Ductile, malleable. H 2,5 — 3. Color white,
often tarnishing. Lustre metallic.
P y r . Fuses readily (melting point 960° C.) to silver-white,
malleable globule. Dissolves in nitric acid; HC1 and chlorides
produce a thick white p.p. of AgCl which blackens in light.
MINERAGRAPHY.
P o l i s h . Polishes easily, but the surface remains generally
slightly mottled and is not free from scratches. Last polish on
flannel-covered wheel with finest alundum may give perfect
surface.
R e f l e c t i o n . Highest of all metais.
C o l o r . White with a creamy tinge, tarnishing soon to more
creamy color which becomes brown and sometimes iridescent.
Pyrite is slightly grayer than silver, dyscrasite also. Platinum
is slightly grayer than silver. All other minerals with which it
occurs have a lower reflection.
P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . Dark in all positions, scratches and
pits give false light effects.
E t c h i n g . Cr0 , H N 0 , (1 —5 seconds) and H l (1 —5 seconds)
8 3

develop texture beautifvdly. The former gives a red coating

which is easily washed off. N H OH, H 0 also develops texture
4 8 8

and is used in metallography, but does not work so well.

+. Cr0 , H N O 3 sec. (red coating-texture, rough surface,
3 a

etch-figures); H l 2 sec. (brown-black rough surface); K S (irides-

8

cent-brown to black); FeCL, (blackens); H N O , conc. (black,

edge of drop iridescent); K C N (yellowish brown to brown);
H N O , dil. (blackens); I in K I (blackens, sometimes brownish).
 SILVER. 91

—. K O H ; HC1.
Sunlight or strong arc-light may etch silver when it contains
small amovmts of Ag S. Percentages up to 0,001 % Ag S may be
8 8

detected by this method (VIII).

D i f f. High reflection, creamy white color, soon tarnishing,
H , red coating with Cr0 , H N 0 . It may be distinguished frpm
3 3

dyscrasite by its darkness in polarized light; with Cr0 , H N O ,

8

dyscrasite turns iridescent (blue after 1—2 seconds).

T e x t u r e a n d c r y s t a l h a b i t . Coarse or fine gra-
nular, allotriomorphic and panidiomorphic, coarse twinning,
twin boundaries are straight lines. Size of grains seems larger
when the temperature of deposition has been higher. Varieties
of Cobalt, Ontario, which contain Sb show transformation,
and segregation of two components: dyscrasite and Ag. (fig. 111).
Silver has a transition point at 120° C. (see I X lit. Copper).
Dendrites and dendritic silver often show spear-like habit of
the individual grains and zonal building (fig. 100).
Wire silver of Kongsberg did not show any texture at all,
only some small parts were shaly built. Wire silver of Freiberg
and Chanarcillo gave the texture given by figures 101, 102, 103.
As is seen in figure 102 the outer part of the wire shows a rind-
like pattern with elongated irregular cells. The center is more
or less granular, the grains sometimes show twinning. The
boundaries, however, of most of the grains are not marked by
black, lines, as is the case in ordinary granular crystalHne ag-
gregates. In the latter these boundaries are attacked first by the
etching solution. In the former, however, the boundaries are not
so readily attacked as the center of the grains, which may be
observed still better in figure 101. The grain boundaries stand
out and instead of a granular texture we see a cellular one.
O b s. Widely distributed in small quantities, in some ore-
districts of great importance. Occurs in the oxidized zone and
in the zone of sulphide enrichment of ore deposits containing
silver minerals. In the oxidized zone it occurs together with
its halogene salts, oxides of iron and manganese, sometimes
with kaolin and other sihcates of the upper vein zones. In the
zone of sulphide enrichment together with: argentite, dyscrasite,
proustite, pyrargyrite, and more complex sulphosalts of copper
and silver, with tetrahedrite and sometimes with native arsenic
and antimony.
92 NATIVE METALS.

In gold veins alloyed with gold in all proportions, generally

more abundant in the tertiary gold-silver veins. In these veins
the proportion Ag: Au is much higher than in the goldveins
of the deep vein-zone, so that sometimes silver dominates.
In this case native silver is found with its sulphides and com-
plex sulphides, sometimes with its tellurides (Saüda-mine,
Sumatra).
With native copper and zeolites, calcite, epidote, in amyg-
daloid basic lavas of Lake Superior copper deposits.
In different vein formations, which may be divided into
three types, although they seem to build a continuous series
of hydrothermal deposits:
a. Native silver is the principal ore mineral, some argentite
is present, a little proustite, pyrargyrite, pyrite. The gangue
consists of calcite, some barite and fluorite, zeolites: stilbite,
laumontite, prehnite, harmotome. (Kongsberg).
b. Galena, sphalerite, with some pyrargyrite, proustite and
other sulpho-antimonides and -arsenides and tetrahedrite are
prominent, with a little native silver, chalcopyrite, realgar and
some cobalt- and nickel-arsenides and -antimonides. Gangue:
calcite with some zeolites and fluorite (Andreasberg in the
Harz mountains, Freiberg and many Chüean veins, as in Ar-
queros).
c. Cobalt-nickel arsenides are the principal ore nünerals, as:
smaltite, chloantite, safflorite, rammelsbergite, niccoüte, breit-
hauptite, maucherite, cobaltite; less prominent are argentite,
proustite, pyrargyrite and the other süver-sulpho minerals;
native süver and native bismuth sometimes in considerable
quantity. Gangue: calcite and dolomitic carbonates. (Cobalt
Ontario, Schneeberg in Saxony).
In bituminous shales as thin plates or films together with
chalcocite, argentite and bornite (Mansfeld).
In sandstones with native copper, domeykite, chalcocite
(Coro Coro) and with süver chloride and argentite, copper and
selenium (Süver Reef, Utah).
G e n e s i s . Native süver may appear as a secondary as w e ü
as a primary mineral. In the enrichment zone of deposits con-
taining silver ores it is generaüy supergene and may have been
deposited in a similar way as native copper and its enriched
sulphides. It is more abundant than native copper in these zones.
 SILVER. 93

due to its chemical properties, especially to its shght affinity to

oxygen and carbon-dioxide. So in these zones we find the silver
concentrated in halogenides, sulphides and in series of sulpho-
antimonides and arsenides of silver and silver-copper, and in
native silver.
Silver sulphides, etc. are probably easily oxidized and at-
tacked by sulphuric acid and ferric-sulphate. AgCl is readily
formed and A g S 0 is fairly soluble. The former remains in the
a 4

oxidized zone, together with iodyrite and bromyrite. Native

silver is often found replacing its halogenides or vice versa.
A g S 0 travels downward, in so far as it is not changed into
2 4

halogenides and is probably reduced by other sulphides and

re-precipitated as argentite and native silverj when antimonides
or arsenides are present as e.g. sulpho-antimonides or -arsenides,
and as e.g. dyscrasite (first stage of sulphidic enrichment).
Native silver is often found together with argentite, proustite
pyrargyrite, other sulphosalts and chalcocite, bornite and replaces
them (second stage of enrichment). The decomposition of stro-
meyerite into covelhte and native silver is an example of this
process. It is often difficult to make out whether native silver
occurring with sulphides and sulpho-minerals is supergene
or hypogene. Both may be the case, because silver deposition
together with sulphides may be a hydrothermal process as
well. Sometimes the mtercrystalline habit of silver or of one
of the other minerals may give an indication about the tempe-
rature of deposition. Zonar, dendritic crystals are most probably
of supergenic origin. (fig. 100). When transformations occur which
may be seen by „crystallographic or lattice texture" the tempe-
rature of deposition must have been higher. than the ordinary
temperature. This transformation texture we find in the silver
dendrites of Cobalt, which show a break-down into dyscrasite
and Ag (fig. 111). In these veins native silver occurs together
with diarsenides of cobalt and nickel and with their arsenides
and antimonides. Native süver-antimony has been deposited
later than the arsenides, as is demonstrated by Guild (IX)
and by the accompanying figures.
Perhaps these arsenides will cause the deposition of silver-
antimony (XIII) as well as of bismuth. We find the same com-
bination in Schneeberg in Saxony and in Joachimsthal in
Bohemia. The segregation of A g Sb and silver in these deposits
8
94 NATIVE METALS

shows that the deposition has taken place at a higher temperature

than that at which the supergenic processes of silver enrichment
generally occur. The constitution-diagram Ag-Sb (XX) is only
known above 300° C. In this diagram the chemical bodies
A g Sb and Ag Sb, and the solid solution Ag-Sb with less than
8 6

15 % Sb do not show transformations. Due to the accompa-

nying Co-Ni ores, the amount of Sb in the silver-dendrites
could not be determined. We may conclude that süver in these
deposits is hydrothermal.
Native süver on copper from Michigan is very coarse cry-
stalüne, granular. It shows a typical recrystaüization texture
which points to higher temperatures than those at which su-
pergenic süver is formed.
One specimen showed the copper-süver aüby (fig. 97, 98),
which has also been mentioned by Wight (XVII) as a brass-
coloured copper. Here the temperature of deposition must have
been above the eutectic temperature of copper-süver (see cop-
per) and cooling was probably slow.
Süver in the bituminous shales of Mansfeld, is deposited from
cold solutions, and is very fine granular (0,05 mm.) with roun-
ded grain boundaries and without twinning.
Wire süver is probably deposited at temperatures higher than
175° C. Experiments of Beuteü (II) and Friedrich and Leroux
(VIII) have demonstrated that at higher temperatures A g S de-
2

composes and forms wire süver probably beginning above

175° C. Pure Ag S in a vacuüm, heated upto 450° C. gives little
2

hair süver, heated in air much more. Ag S and süvei* heated

2

in a vacUum up to 450° C. give abundant hair süver. The wires

grow in the direction of the coldest place and grow through the
piece of Ag S. The same occurs with Cu and Cu-selenides and Au
2

with Au-selenides. The hairs grow quickly. The grooved surface

shows the growing process. The inner textures of the wireas seen
in the figures 101—103) demonstrate this growing clearly. The
ceUular texture which graduaüy changes into a crystaüine granu-
lar texture towards the center, is perhaps the result of transfor-
mation from a coüoidal deposition of süver at a relatively high
temperature. The waüs of the cells first dtfferentiated out of
the coüoidal mass, the contents of the cells remained partly
coüoidal (hence the easy attack by the etching solution) and
partly recrystaUized towards the center of the wire.
 SILVER. 95

A wire from Kongsberg did not show any texture, only some
small inclusions were not attacked so readily as the ground-
mass. This may have been caused by a small amount of Hg.
In some cases wire silver seems to be formed in a colloidal
state. A similar phenomenon occurring at an ordinary tempe-
rature with a drop of Hg-Al alloy when left in moist air is
stated by Kremann (XIX). A desintegration of the alloy takes
place, the A l forms winding, wormlike efflorescences consisting
of A l (OH) in colloidal state (as a sohd froth). The aragonite
3

variety "Eisenblüthe" or Flosferri is most probably formed

in a similar coüoidal state.
Süver i n the Kongsberg district is only deposited in those
parts of the veins which cross the „fahlbands". These „fahl-
bands" are fuü of disseminated pyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite, some galena and cobaltite. vogt believes (XV)
that the deposition of süver was caused by the attack of C 0 2

solutions of Ag on the sulphides in the adjacent rock. H S was

2

generated, which precipitated Ag S. Native süver was formed

2

afterwards out of this argentite by HjO at a high temperature,

in the way above mentioned.
Only part of the süver in Kongsberg is hair-and wire süver.
A great deal exists in plates and thin films between the gangue
in the veins and it fiüs paper-thin cracks in the adjacent „fahl-
bands." In these thin veinlets generally no argentite occurs.
The deposition of this süver must be due to electro-kinetic
processes, in the same marnier as the deposition of much native
copper (see pg. 84) gold, and probably other metais as: As,
Sb and B i .
When we put some pyrite crystals into a porous tube filled
with water, which tube is placed in a diluted solution of e.g.
AgN0 , süver is deposited on the outside of the tube. The waü
8

of the tube, in contact inside with a reducing agent (water and

sulphide) and outside with an oxidizing solution, will obtain
on both sides an opposite electric charge. The inside will become
positive, the outside negative. The NOj-ions wül pass into the
tube, the Ag-ions wül become neutraüzed on the outside and
süver is deposited. Pyrite is negatively charged, the continuous
attack of the N0 -ions wül generate HjS and maintain the re-
8

ducing solution. Some Ag S wül form when H,S diffuses into

2

the A g N 0 solution on the outside of the tube.

3
96 NATIVE METALS.

The same process occurred most probably in the small fis-

sures in Kongsberg. The fahlband-walls with their enclosed
sulphides acted as a porous medium filled with a reducing so-
lution, between which another solution constantly flowed. The
walls on the side of the fissure became negatively charged and
the silver-ions were deposited in the fissure, whereas the CO,
ions diffused into the rock and attacked some sulphides.
This is the reason why we do not find silver disseminated in
the fahlbands and in direct contact with the sulphides, but al-
ways filling small fissures and cracks in the rock. If the direct
contact between sulphides and süver solution would have pre-
cipitated the süver, we should find it in the rock in direct con-
tact with and precipitated on the sulphides. This is not the case.
The same precipitation we observe, when instead of an Ag-
solution we'take a solution of AuCl,. Gold is deposited on the
outside of the tube.
The fact that the gold in many gold veins is in the vein and
not in the adjacent rock, although this rock is highly altered by
the ore solutions, has the same cause.
Copper may be deposited in the same way out of a CuS0 so- 4

lution when instead of the pyrite we put a piece of Zn in the

tube (XVII, lit. copper) and is deposited also in sands with Zn-
powder when a CuS0 solution ascends through this sand by
4

capülarity. It is possible that in the copper-sandstones of Coro-

Coro and i n the copper deposits of Michigan other minerals
acted üke Zn in the experiment. In oxidation processes where
native copper, süver or gold is formed, elektrokinesis undoub-
tedly plays an important part. Oxidation products as: jellous
iron-hydroxides act üke the tube in the experiment. S0 -ions
4

from a copper sulfate solution go through, the Cu-ions are neu-

traüzed and precipitated on the sheüs of the ümonite, when on
both sides of the film are different conditions, which produce
an opposite electric charge, or manganese oxides perhaps were
present. Thus the alternating films of ümonite and native copper
can have been deposited, thus the gold flakes concentricaüy
arranged in ümonite (figs. 91, 115-118) were precipitated.
The Ag contents of primary galena is not present in the form
of native Ag, but generaüy in the form of smaü inclusions of
tetrahedrite, proustite, pyrargyrite or argentite, or in soüd
solution.
 SILVER. 97

Examination.
F r a n c e. M a r k i r c h . (6) Small spots of silver in native
arsenic. No texture. (see arsenic, pg. 66).
B a d e n . W i t t i c h e n . (1) (on veins in granite with sm.,
barite, in wire-form, plates, lumps, dendrites). Granular (0,5 mm.),
twins; irregular spots in ar., with gn.; gangue is calcite.
W o l f a c h . (1) Granular (0,5 mm.), twins;
silver in irregular veinlets in quartz.
(XIV) T h u r i n g i a . H e r r e n s e g e n . (1) Silver in
galena, in calcite.
(XIV) (1) Pr. with small seam of native silver
replacing gn.
M a n s f e l d . (1) (in bituminous shales with c c , bn. and
some cp.). Fine equi-granular (0,05 mm.), rounded grains, no
twins; fine intergrowth of native silver, cc. and bn. (fig. 104)
„emulsion texture," resulted from gels.
H a r z . A n d r e a s b e r g . (3) (on veins with ar., pr. pg.
and other sulpho-antimonides and -arsenides, some nickel- and
cobalt ores, arsenic, antimony.) small flecks, together with sa.
in arsenic-antimony. (see allemontite, pg. 73 and fig. 68.
S a x o n y . F r e i b e r g . (on veins with ar., pr., pg., ste-
phanite, polybasite, gn., td., some nickel-cobalt ores, gangue
is generally calcite and carbonates, barite and some fluorite
and quartz).
Himmelsfürst. Freies-
l e b e n s t e h e n d e (1) (intersection point of 2 veins) Equi-
granular (0,2 mm.), few twins, in gn. in which fine intergrowth
of nc. surrounded by thin films of sm.; some ar. with small
flecks of frieseite-sternbergite (brown).
H i m m e l s f ü r s t . (1) Granular
<0,2 mm.), spear-like habit, fine striae. Like spears of copper.
Plate of süver.
(1) CeUular,
(fig. 101), wire süver.
Himmelfahrt. Christi-
a n s t e h e n d e . (1) No texture, irregular etching; pseudo-
dendrites in dolomitic gangue, irregular flecks as weü; in the
dolomite occur dendrites of calcite as a result of dedolomiti-
sation, surrounded by thin seams of sa. and sm. These
dendrites are sometimes partly füled with ar., cp. and gn
Mineragraphy. 7
98 NATIVE METALS.

(fig. 32, 33, 34) and sometimes with native silver (fig. 31)
which does not precisely follow the borders of sa.
Gesegnete Bergmanns-
h o f f n u n g . (1) No texture; small flecks of silver in ar.; the
latter shows transformation twins like cc.
E d e l e B r a u n s p a t h for-
m a t i o n . (1) Equi-granular (0,2 mm.); much silver between
idiomorphic ankerite crystals; ar. in small patches in süver;
süver always together with corroded py.; py. fuü of smaü
inclusions of native süver. Py. is here the silver precipitant.
(1) Unknown locality. Coarse spear-shaped with granular sub-
texture (0,1 mm.).
J o h a n n G e o r g e n s t a d t . (1) Fine gra-
nular, between idiomorphic quartz crystals; with ar.
F ü r s t e n b e r g . (1) Feathery, dendritic;
in barite.
Annaberg. Getreue Nachbar-
s c h a f t (1) No texture, irregular emulsion-like etching;
pseudo-dendrites in native arsenic (fig. 37), some pr. in arsenic,
quartz. Enrichment zone.
M a r i e n b e r g . V a t e r A b r a h a m . (1)
No texture; pr. dendritic by metasomatism in native arsenic,
containing some flecks of native süver, sternbergite- frieseite.
Enrichment zone.
S c h n e e b e r g . (4) (on veins in contact-meta-
morphic slates with Co-Ni ores, native bismuth) Fine granular;
intergrowth with sa. See bismuth pg. 79.
S i l e s i a . S c h m i e d e b e r g (2). Smaü spots of native süver
(0,001 mm.) disseminated in native arsenic. Enrichment zone.
B o h e m i a . J o a c h i m s t h a l (3). (in veins with galena,
Co-Ni ores); Pseudo-dendrites of argentite with smaü spots
of süver in native arsenic. Enrichment zone.
N o r w a y. K o n g s b e r g . (2) (in veins in gneiss, glimmer
and amphibole schists; native süver is the principal ore, accom-
panied by some ar. gn., sl., cp. calcite, fluorite and zeoütes).
(1) Wire süver. No texture, some irregular grains and partly
thin lines like concentric shales.
(1) Coarse granular (3mm.), coarse twinning, lameüae 0,1
mm. thick. Süver in a thin vein through metamorphic schist
(fahlband). The vein contains sflver in irregular flecks between
 SILVER. 99

calcite and quartz. In the fahlband much cp., between cleavages

introduced into amphibole and mica together with gn. and sl.
with internal segregations of cp.; also ar. and native silver. The
latter is granular (1 mm.). See also (XII) (1) coarse granular,
crystal of about 1 cm. Analysis : 99,71 Ag.
R u s s i a . A l t a i . S c h l a n ge n be r g . (1) Fine granular
(0,1 mm.); in small veinlets in polybasite, stromeyerite and
chalcocite, together with ar., cp., gn. and some native copper;
gangue: quartz and barite. Enrichment zone.
See also (XII), coarse granular (about 0,5 mm.), twins.
A u s t r a l i a . B r o k e n H i l l . (1) (high temperature vein
of gn. sl. and garnet). Fine granular (0,01 mm.) in concretic-
nary argentite in decomposed gangue. Enrichment zone. Fig. 105.
Sumatra. S a l i d a mine. R i c h leader vein,
5 t h l e v e l . (1) (tertiary gold-silver vein.) Minute spots in
hessite. The vein stuff is a fine quartz aggregate, with calcite
flecks andfiner quartz and chalcedony. Especially in this younger
formation occur fine patches of hessite intergrown with stützite
and small flecks of native gold (fig. 106). Fine radiating bunches
of a colorless mineral with a refraction lower than quartz occur,
perhaps zeolites.
C h i l i . C h a n a r c i l l o . (tertiaryveins m Mesozoic limesto-
ne with calcite, barite, py., sl., cp., gn., ap., quartz, td., pearcite,
pr., polybasite and pg., secondary enrichment is very extensive).
(1) Wire silver; cellular texture, outer zone of wire has a
rindlike texture, inner zone more or less granular with boun-
daries of less attackable silver, twinning (fig. 102, 103).
(1) Wire silver; broad twins running across the wire, some-
times concentric lines on edges, fine octahedral cleavage lines
through the whole specimen, perhaps due to polishing.
(1) Very fine granular; dendritic shapes in calcite and siderite
arranged along cleavage lines or twinning planes of calcite;
cross-shaped dendrites and also triangular forms( three axes).
Patches of bromyrite with minute silver spots all through it.
(XVI) (1). Native silver replacing iodobromite (bromyrite).
(XVI) (i). Native silver replacing primary sulphides in
dendritic areas with dyscrasite, py., pr.
C h i l i . H u a s c o A l t o . C e r r o d e l G u a n a c o . (2).
Granular (0,2 mm.), twins; in small veinlets and patches
through intergrowth of nc. and ra. in calcite. Generally nc.
100 NATIVE METALS.

forms the center of irregular rounded patches in the gangue and

is surrounded by ra. Native silver together with nc. Same tex-
ture as Cobalt, Ontario.
(2) Unknown locality. Granular (0,2 mm.), twins;
same as above; silver in the center of intergrowth of sa.,sm.
and ra. In the center of the silverflecks a zonal buüding of
the silver may be seen. The sa. crystals are not corroded by
silver. Fig. 107. Like Cobalt, Ontario.
C o p i a p o (1) Equi-granular (0,5 mm.), polysynth.
twinning, lamellae 0,05 mm. thick, a small seam of silver with
grains of 0,02 mm. sl., small flecks of pr. in silver.
A r g e n t i n e . C e r r o de F a m a t i n a . (Tertiary gold-
silver-copper veins) Wire silver, no texture, irregular etching,
outer zone not deeply attacked; silver through sl., with seams
of sm., little cp., cc. and ar.
B o l i v i a . L a P a z . C o l q u i r i (1) Minute flecks of
silver in veinlets of nakrite and quartz through sl. with segre-
gations of cp.
P e r u . Unknown localities. (4) In dendritic replacement in
calcite together with Ag S, tetrahedrite etc. like Freiberg fi-
2

gures; no texture, nor in replacement in sl.; granular (0,5 mm.)

together with cp., ar., sm. in dolomitic gangue; granular in
calcite in dendritic forms.
M e x i c o . Z a c a t e c a s (1) No texture; partly as extre-
mely smaü dendrites (0,01 mm.) together with ar., pg. in sl.
and quartz, partly between idiomorphic quartz crystals and in
cracks in these crystals.
Guerrero, Campo Morado, Mina
R e f o r m a (1) Zonal built crystals, spear-like, filling spaces
between euhedral quartz crystals. fig. 100.
S u l t e p e c , M i n a C u c h a r a . (1) Granular
(0,2 mm.), twins, irregular spots in quartz gangue, sometimes
surrounded by small seams of ar.
(IX) D u r a n g o. (1) Pr., changing into native
silver, filling cavities between euhedral quartz crystals.
U n i t e d S t a t e s of A m e r i c a .
A r i z o n a . S i l v e r K i n g s P i n a l . (1). Wire süver;
ceüular texture, no rind texture; smaü quartz grains inclosed.
(IX) S i l v e r K i n g . (1) Native süver in
cc., decomposition of stromeyerite.
 SILVER. 101

(IX) P r e s c o t t , Stonewall Jackson

mine. (1) Native silver in siderite, changed to cerargyrite.
(IX) Montana, Butte, (1) Verniet of native silver in cc.
Colorado. G i l p i n County, C a r i b o u Mine.
(2) (fig. 108) No texture, fine streaks of silver in ar. Order of
deposition: sl. with segregations of cp., cp. replacing sl., gn.,
ar., süver. Euhedral quartz crystals.
N e v a d a . C o m s t o c k , C u r r y . (1) Granular; films
of silver in quartz.
M i c h i g a n , L a k e S u p e r i o r , (with native copper
in amygdaloid basic lavas, together with zeolites).
(2) Coarse crystalline (2 mm.), twins, in twin lamellae fine
parallel striations; massive silver with some cp. po. and sl.
(1) Copper-süver alloy with copper dendrites in eutecticum
copper-süver. No crystalline texture (fig. 97, 98).
(2) Massive süver on copper, heated in f urnace above eutectic
temperature of copper-süver. Süver coarse crystalline (2—3 mm.)
only at some distance from the zone of eutecticum between
copper and süver. The crystalline texture disappears within a
zone of one mm. from the eutecticum. So the süver-component
which exists in this zone is not crystalline. See copper and
fig. 99.
C a n a d a . C o b a l t , O n t a r i o . (süver-bearing Co-Ni
veins in Kewateen and Huronian series, related with diabase
intrusions, gangue: calcite, and dolomitic carbonates with
native süver, bismuth, cobalt- and nickel-arsenides and süver
ores, td. ap., etc).
(2) M a s s i v e s i l v e r ; coarse
granular (2 mm.), twins with fine paraüel striations.
Temiskaming Mine. (1)
Transformation texture süver-dyscrasite (fig. 111); süver in
pseudo dendrites of cruciform shapes, arranged along cleavage
and twinning lines of dolomite, surrounded by seams of in-
tergrown safflorite, niccoüte and smaltite. In the cores, against
these safflorite seams, patches of (pink) breithauptite. Süver is
also intergrown with the arsenides in the seams and often
runs in thin irregular veinlets through the dolomitic gangue
from one dendrite towards the other. Sometimes the space
between the seams of arsenides is not entirely füled up with
ore minerals, but consists of calcite (fig. 109, 110), as in the
102 NATIVE METALS.

specimen from Freiberg (fig. 33) Süver has replaced the den-
drites of calcite which resulted from the dedolomitisation of the
gangue by the solutions which at the same time deposited the
sa. and sm. around the calcite borders. Order of deposition: dolo-
mitic gangue, then sa. and sm. leaving calcite behind to fül the
dendrites, nc. br. and native süver, replacing the calcite in the
dendrites and between the first crystals in the seams, probably
continuous recrystalhzations of the dolomitic gangue. The trans-
formation of süver-dyscrasite suggests ahydrothermal deposition.
See als© (IX) fig. A, Plate XIX, and (XI).
L a R o s e M i n e (1) Fine gra- t

nular (0,2 mm.), twins; one side of the specimen consisted

principally of native süver intergrown with ar.; the other part
consisted of an intergrowth of radial-feathery polarizing ra.
and smaü, somewhat creamy cubes of sm., traversed by vein-
lets, partly füled with nc. and br., partly with native süver
and' some ar. (fig. 112). Sometimes süver apparently replaces nc.
See also (IX), Plate XVIII, fig. A).
(1) Fine granular; in minute pat-
ches between intergrowth of smaü cubes of sm. and ra. and
some sa. Niccoüte generaüy füls the cores of rough concentric
sheüs, graduaüy succeeded by shells of the intergrown nüne-
rals mentioned. Some breithauptite also present, whüe a smaü
seam of sa. surrounds the whole. Large cubic crystals of sm.
also occur in the specimen; these are corroded and traversed
by nc. and gangue. So there are two generations of smaltite:
the first in large corroded, broken and stül partially euhedral
crystals (see fig. 86, bismuth) and a second generation of much
smaüer cubes intergrown with ra.
In other specimens, mentioned also in literature (see IX) süver
and native bismuth occupy the center of these concentric shells
and fiü the spaces between the intergrowth of the vanous
arsenides and antimonides (see also fig. 107). The same process
and order of deposition has taken place here as m the former
specimen with dendritic süver. The only difference is that the
dolomitic gangue has not been attacked along crystaüographical
lines and planes, but the attack proceeded in aü directions with
a more or less equal velocity. The dedolomitisation left spaces
with calcite which were occupied afterwards by nc, br., bis-
muth and native süver.
 SILVER. 103

(1) Coarse granular (4 mm.), twins;

euhedral crystals of sm. embedded in native silver; Sm. not
corroded; similar texture as in fig. 86.
(1) Small flecks of native silver in
bismuth. See bismuth pg. 81.
(IX) (1) Native silver in veinlet
of td., crossing sm.
(IX) (1) Native silver, replacing sm.,
euhedral sm. embedded in native silver; see also (V) from L a
Rose mine.
(IX) (1) Replacement of bn. by
native silver (graphic intergrowth).
(V) (1) Veins and irregular silver
flecks in calcite.
(V) (1) Silver vein in argentite.
S i l v e r I s l e t M i n e . (veins cutting through diabase
dikes, aplite and shales with n c , sl., gn., ar. in calcite).
(1) Fine granular, silver in cores of dendrites, surrounded
by ra. in dolomite. Some nc, pr. ar. Same arrangement as
in specimens from Temiskaming. This intergrowth was called
huntiliU.
(VI) (1) Silver replacing nc. in dolomite.
(1) „ „ sl. and n c
(1) „ „ gn. and n c
(1) „ calcite and ar.
The author assumes silver to be probably primary.

SILVER AMALGAM.
Examination.
P f a l z . M o s c h e l L a n d s b e r g . (1). No texture in
the middle of the silver specimen; outer layer fine granular; the
center was very difficult to polish and remained full of pits.
So this center contains more quicksilver than the outer layer;
Cr0 , H N 0 gave red coating only on the border and a brown
8 8

coating in the center; cinnabar in small f issures through silver

and in thin seam around it.
S p a i n . A l m e r i a . H e r r e r i a s . (i); Dendritic, feathery,
not distinct; no red coating with Cr0 , H N 0 .3 3
104 NATIVE METALS.

L i t erature.
I. E . S. BASTIN. Significant Mineral Relations in Silver Ores
of Cobalt Ontario. Econ. Geology, X I I , 1917, 290.
II. A . B E U T E L L . Ueber Zerfall des Silbersulfids in höheren
Temperaturen und die Haarsilberbildung. Zentr. bl. f. Minera-
logy, 1919, 14—28.
III. K . BORNEMANN. Die Binare Metallegierungen. Metallur-
gie III, 1906, 361.
IV. W. CAMPBELL. Ueber das Gefüge der Metalle, deren
Veranderungen durch Bearbeitung und Warmebehandlung.
Metallurgie IV, 1907, 801—825.
V. W. CAMPBELL and C. W. KNIGHT. A microscopie Examina-
tion of the Cobalt-Nickel Arsenides and Silver Deposits of
Temiskaming. Econ. Geology. I, 1906, 767.
V I . C H . H . CHADBOURN. Paragenesis of the Ores of the Silver
Islet Mine. Thunderbay Region, Lake Superior. Econ. Geology.
X V I I I , 1923, 77.
VII. K . FRIEDRICH und A . LEROUX. Ag-Cu diagram, Metal-
lurgie IV, 1907, 297.
VIII. K . FRIEDRICH und A . LEROUX. Silber und Schwefel-
silber. Metallurgie III, 1906, 361.
I X . F . N . GUILD. A Microscopie Study of the Silver
Ores and their Associated Minerals, Econ. Geology, X I I ,
1917, 290.
F. N . GUILD. Microscopie Features in Silver Depo-
sition. Mining and Scient. Press. Vol. 115, 1917, 857.
X . C. R. VAN H I S E . The Ore Deposits of the Cobalt District,
Ontario. Can, Min. Inst. Journ. Vol. 10, 1907, 45—61.
X I . W. G. MILLER. The Cobalt-Nickel Arsenides and Silver
Deposits of Teiniskaming. Rept. Ontario Bureau of Mines,
Vol. 19, 1913.
X I I . K . O E B B E K E U . M . v. SCHWARZ. Gefügebilder Gediegener
Metalle. Zeitsch. f. Krystall. Bd. 95 1923, 79.
X I I I . CHASE PALMER. Diarsenides as Silver Precipitants.
Econ. Geology, X I I , 1917, 207.
CHASE PALMER. Tetra-nickel-triarsenide, its Capa-
city as Silver Precipitant. Econ. Geology, I X , 1914, 664.
C H A S E P A L M E R . and E . S. B A S T I N . Metallic Mine-
rals as Precipitants of Silver and Gold. Econ. Geology, VIII,
1913, 140—170.
 GOLD. 105

X I V . H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Anleitung zur Mikroskop. Bestim-

mung und Untersuchung von Erzen etc. pg. 272.
X V . J . H . VOGT. Ueber die Bildung des Gediegenen Silbers,
besonders des Kongsberger Silbers besonders durch Sekundar-
processe aus Silberglanz u. andere Silbererze. Zeitsch. f. Prakt.
Geol. Vol 7, 1899, 113.
X V I . W. L . WHITEHEAD. The veins of Chafiarcillo, Chili.
Econ. Geology, X I V , 1919, 1—45.
X V I I . Wight. Engin. Min. Journ. 1880, 30, pg., 153.
X V I I I . R. W. VAN DER V E E N , (see under lit. Copper).
X I X . R. K R E M A N N U . R. MULLER. Das Elektromotorische Ver-
halten der Aluminium- Quecksilber Legierungen. Zeitsch. f.
Metallkunde. 1920, Bd X I I , 287—303.
X X . Diagrams:
Ag—Sb. G. J . PETRENKO. Zeitsch. Anorg. Chem. 50, 1906, 141.
Ag—Cu. see lit. Copper.
Ag-—Au. see lit. Gold.

GOLD.

C o m p. Var. Usually alloyed with silver, forming continuous

solid solutions with this metal. The liquidus curve of the diagram
forms nearly a straight line joining the melting points (1069°
for A u and 969° C. for Ag). The solidus curve does nearly the
same. It also occurs alloyed with Pd, Cu, Pt, B i , Hg, (VII).
Gold may contain up to 4 % B i in sohd solution. It forms
continuous sohd solutions with Cu (liq. and solidus nearly coin-
cide, with a minimum), with Pd. fliq. and solidus nearly coin-
cident) and with Pt. Allotropic transformations are not known.
The lowest limit of recrystallization temperatures is about 200° C.
D e s c r i p t i o n . Isometric. Crystals generally dodecahedric
or octahedric (o), often elongated; arborescent, reticulated, fili-
form; often in flattened grains and massive.
Twins: (111). No cleavage. H . 2,5—3. Very ductile. Color
and streak golden-yellow, depending upon the amount of silver
or other metais with which it is alloyed.
P y r . Fuses before B . B . Only soluble in Aq. Regia or in
other mixtures containing nascent chlorine, in K C N and in
hot KgSx and Na S .2 x
106 NATIVE METALS.

MINERAGRAPHY.
P o l i s h . Polishes easily, but it is difficult to avoki scratches
and irregularities. The scratches disappear on flannel disk with
finest alundum, hardly touching the flannel.
R e f l e c t i o n . High.
C o l o r . Yellow; golden yellow when compared with chal-
copyrite, which has lower reflection and is olive green when
small flecks are compared with large flecks of gold. When on
the other hand small spots of gold occur in large areas of cp.
the latter seems much more brass-yellow, especially when the
gold contains much silver. When it contains considerable
amount of silver it is paler yellow, with amount of palladium
it becomes nearly creamy white.
P o l a r i z e d l i g h t . No bright and dark positions, but
never complete extinction, often greenish.
E t c h i n g . Aq. Regia gives a good structureretching, also
CrO„ HC1, or CrO , Aq. Regia. Time of etching is variable,
s

perhaps depending upon contents of other metais. Silver causes

an easier attack; when much silver is present the surface
turns iridescent to brown. K C N also develops texture but not
so perfect.
AU other reagents are negative, H l sometimes +.
D i f f. High reflection, golden color, hardness. Distinguished
from chalcopyrite, with which it may be confused, especiaUy in
small flecks, by etching with A g N 0 conc. 2 minutes. Chal-
3

copyrite turns black, gold remains unaltered. This method is

better and easier than the amalgamation method with mercury.
Another mineral which has nearly the same color, especiaUy
when gold contains much süver, is mülerite. This is to be dis-
tinguished by its polarization colors, hardness, and its not
being etched by K C N .
T e x t u r e a n d c r y s t a l h a b i t . The texture of gold
is almost always granular, the grains often show coarse twin-
ning (fig. 113). Some gold does not show its texture, partly
because the specimens are single crystals, partly because it is
perhaps in too fine a CTystalhne form, e. g. some specimens of
fflüorm gold, and smaü scales of secondary gold in limonite
and other minerals of the oxidized zone. From the size of the
granularity no conclusion with regard to the origin can be
drawn. Supergenic gold, such as occurs e. g. in limonite and in
 GOLD. 107

stibiconite, shows, when in larger flecks, coarse grains with

twinn ng just as hypogene gold. It is very coarse aystalline
:

in the supergene gold of Suriname as well (up to 1 cm.). Con-

centric shaly gold occurs in Borneo placers together with plati-
num near Martapoera (fig. 114). It is also reported from N .
Guinea by Liversidge. The gold of Borneo contains Hg, Pt, (Fe)
Os. Lr.
Gold crystallized from melts is allotriomorphic granular;
deposited synthetically from aqueous solutions it has a feathery
texture; electrolytic gold is fibrous and columnar, the fibres
are perpendicular to the kathode, just as in copper and zinc
(IV).
O b s . Widely distributed in small percentages; of great
economie importance. Occurs in contact-metamorphic deposits
with pyrite (Fahlun, Sweden); in high temperature veins with
arsenopyrite and pyrite and quartz; in veins with stibnite
and quartz; in veins formed near the surface (tertiary gold-
silver veins). The gangue is almost always quartz or chalcedony,
sometimes adularia occurs. Pyrite is almost always present.
Accompanying elements are often tellurium and selenium, e. g.
in Fahlun and Tilkerode (Harz) it occurs with selenium-galena,
in Redjang-Lebong (Sumatra) with the copper- and silver-
sèlenides berzelianite and aguilarite. More often it occurs with
tetturides of gold and silver, e. g. in Offenbanya, Nagyag
(Transylvania), Kings Mountain Mine. N . C , Fredericksburg
Va., SaUda mine (Sumatra), Great Boulder Reef (Australia).
Other accompanying vein minerals are: pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite,
chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, argentite, proustite,
pyrargyrite, polybasite, aikinite, bornite, stibnite.
The gangue in the tertiary veins is quartz also combined
with Mn-silicates, rhodochrosite, inesite etc.
In the oxidized vein-zones it occurs with limonite, kaolin,
barite, stibiconite, etc.
The amount of Ag in Au in the tertiary veins is much higher
than in the older deposits.
It occurs in eluvial and alluvial deposits (placers), together
with other heavy minerals such as: magnetite, platinum, zircon,
garnet, rutile etc; in metamorphic conglomerates (Witwaters-
rand, Transvaal); disseminated in crystalline schists and gneiss,
in metamorphic rocks with a tendency to associate with
108 NATIVE METALS.

magnetite; in sedimentary rocks often in association with the

heavier and less soluble minerals (III).
G e n e s i s . In veins and other primary deposits it occurs
as a hypogene mineral; in the oxidized zones and in the zones
of sulphidic enrichment it is partly introduced by secondary
processes of weathering, solution and re-deposition.
According to Emmons the presence of manganese-peroxides
is advantageous to the solution of gold, due to the liberation
of free Cl from NaCl and H S 0 . The latter is liberated by the
2 4

oxidation of pyrite, the former is present in groundwater.

Ferric sulphate or cupric chloride with HC1 in concentrated
solution dissolve gold at 38° C. (according to Brokaw, see Lind-
gren, Mineral Deposits). According to the same author dilute
solutions were not effective. It should not be forgotten, ho-
wever, that in nature diluted solutions not only work during
almost iüimitable spaces of time, but that they also often act
on molecular or colloidal dimensions of gold particles, as is the
case when tellurides or gold-contaming pyrites and sulphides
desintegrate into their oxidation products.
Ferrous sulphate precipitates gold in not too dilute solutions.
In the dilute solutions of nature the process may be delayed
and gold may be held in colloidal solution for some time and
may be transported. EspeciaUy when protective coUoids such
as organic acids (humic acids) or anorganic coUoids are present
the precipitation of gold need not immediately take place
after the solution. Ferric sulphate which in natural solutions
is almost hydrolyticaUy split up and consists of Fe(OH) in 8

coUoidal solution can act perfectly weU as a protector first.

When it coagulates the gold is deposited together with the
limonite and forms alternative films with it. The figures 115—
118 demonstrate this clearly. The sizesof these goldfiecks appro-
ximate coUoïdal dimensions. It is possible also that the Jimonite
once precipitated continues to absorb and precipitate more gold
from the solutions stül circulating because, electro-kinetic pro-
cesses occur in the same way as is explained for copper and
süver. Probably the occurrence of extremely fine gold in
kaolin is also due to the absorption power of the coUoidal
kaolin material (Cerro del Guanaco, Chili) on gold solutions,
which drop their gold-ions when their electric charges are
neutrahsed by the negatively charged kaolin.
 GOLD. 109

Sulphides such as pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, chalcopyrite,

bornite, chalcocite and arsenides may precipitate gold as well.
Gold in eluvial and alluvial deposits generally results from
mechanical transportation of vein-gold by creep and water.
Most placer gold is not angular and occurs in more or less
rounded and flattened grains. The effect of transportation and
of mechanical stresses exercised by the pebbles in the alluvial
layer is noticed in the deformations of the crystal-grains in the
outer layer of the nugget or sometimes throughout the whole
nugget. (see fig. 119).
Chemical precipitation of gold, however, may take place in
these deposits as weü, although it does not account for the
majority of the placer gold. It may be dissolved and reprecipi-
tated again in a similar way as is generally accepted for vein
gold, especiaUy when Mn0 is present to liberate free C l from
2

NaCl solutions. In tropical regions e. g. Dutch Guyana (Suri-

name) gold is found in very large, strangely-shaped sharp-
angular nuggets, in eluvial and aUuvial deposits. These nuggets
contain sharp impressions of rounded and sub-angular quartz
grains and fragments from the grit in which they occur. Nuggets
consisting of limonite with veinlets of gold and concentric
shaly arrangement of gold-flakes in limonite are found in abun-
dance here (see fig. 117). This gold is very coarse crystalline
and there is no sign of deformation of the crystal grains even
in the sharpest points and edges, as is always the case with
nuggets transported by water. Another figure, 120, shows a tex-
ture of gold much like the texture of copper and copper-pitch-
ere in fig. 95 precipitated simultaneously out of coUoidal solution.
This figure gives the typical mammUlary arrangement and when
etched every globule appears to be one grain with fine twinning
lameUae. The larger gold centers are surrounded by a seam
of small grains (fig. 129), the middle generally consists of
coarse granular gold. The seam of small crystals is often hardly
visible, often not to be seen any more. So there is a rough
concentric texture of crystal aggregates; we do not find a con-
centric shaly texture for gold. But this is no proof against super-
gene deposition of gold. We have seen it coarse crystalline in
a real supergene formation such as the small gold flakes in the
stibiconite together with limonite.
The reason why gold does not occur in concentric shaly
110 NATIVE METALS.

texture is probably its lack of chemical affinity to most of the

elements. As a matter of fact these concentric lines generally
result from deposition of successive films, differing slightly
in chemical composition. In gold with limonite we notice the
concentric arrangement as long as there remains a limonite
layer between the gold flakes. As soon as these films disappear
the gold grains grow together and seem to re-arrange or recry-
stallize into larger crystals. This recrystallization must have
taken place below 200 degrees C which is the lowest recrystalli-
zation temperature stated by metaUographists. Our examination
shows the possibüity of recrystallization far below this tem-
perature. Fig. 113 b a typical recrystallization texture. The
perfect coarse granularity of supergene gold in stibiconite and
in limonite also speaks for its great cirystallization-force. The
fibrous texture of electrolitic gold and the feathery texture of
gold deposited from aqueous solutions in the laboratory shows
that in nature other yet unknown circumstances of deposition
or of time must have reigned. Most probably time is a great
factor, because the deposition in nature will proceed more slowly.

Examination.
(V) W e s t p h a l i a . S i e g e r l a n d (1) (in graywacke,
Lower Devonian) In very small particles (0,015 mm.) and smaller
with rounded grains of heavy minerals such as: zircon, rutile
anatase, tourmaline, garnet, mg., hm., py., and platinum.
F r ance. I s è r e . L a G a r d e t t e , Bourgd'Oi-
s a n s . (1) (tertiary complex vein in post-Liassique fractures;
gold in gn., with sl. gn. py. cp., aikinite, td). Coarse granular
(1 mm.) in large flecks in gn., specimen from the upper vein
zone, with gn. cerussite, anglesite, td., cp. and cv.; deposition in
the order mentioned.
T r a n s y l v a n i a . O f f e n b a n j a . (1) (tertiary gold-
silver veins, often with tellurides). No texture; roughly concen-
tric, when etched center iridescent, while the border remains
yellow; center contains more Ag.
V e r e s p a t a k . (1) Granular (0,1
mm.), twins; A u between euhedral quartz crystals; py. sl. with
segregated cp.
Faczebaya (1); Granular (0,1
mm.), twins; A u in small veinlet in propylite. In the vein
 GOLD. 111

euhedral quartz, gold fills the remaining spaces (fig. 121). In

the propylite many pyrite crystals, quartz, galena with gold in
small cracks.
(IV) (1) pseudo-dendrites arranged
along crystallographical lines of calcite, surrounded by safflorite
(see fig. 39, kindly allowed by authors).
(IV) (1) irregular flecks in safflorite.
B a n a t . O r a v i c z a , H e l e n a m i n e . (1) (figs. 122,
123) No texture, zonal built; when etched small border remains
yellow, the core becomes iridescent (fig. 123) in zones from
different Ag contents. A u forms reetilinear bounded cores
(squares and lats) in ra. and sm. Square shapes result from
calcite replacement as in all pseudo-dendritic metais already
mentioned.
Austria. Salzburg. Hohe Goldberg, Rauris.
(1) (in gneiss in quartz with st., gn., sl., py., ap., cp.). Fine gra-
nular; A u in quartz in irregular veinlets; also veinlets of py.
and st.
I t a l y . P i e m o n t . V a l d' E v a n c o n . (1). Granular
(1 mm. and smaller). Twins. Nugget. Recrystallization struc-
ture. (fig. 113).
S w e d e n . F a h l u n . (1) (in contact-metamorphic pyrite
deposits, together with seleniferous gn., weibullite, bismuthinite,
cp., py, po., quartz, cordierite) Granular (0,5 mm.); gold in large
flecks with cp., c c , po., gn., quartz.
A l t a i . S c h l a n g e n b e r g . (1)Electrum. Granular,irregular
boundaries; color nearly silver-white, irregular patches more
yellow without sharp boundaries grading into silver-white;
ar. in fissures through electrum.
U r a l . B e r e z o w s k . (1) (in veins in berezite with aiki-
nite, py. quartz). Granular (0,5 mm.), rounded grains; in irre-
gular patches in aikinite (fig. 124); the aikinite is decomposing
along fissures into cv.; chrysokolla, azurite and quartz.
S i b e r i a . G o v . O l o n e z W o i t z k o i m i n e (1)
Granular (0,5 mm ), twins; replacing bn and calcite, the latter
is replaced by bn. as well (fig. 125). Some goldfilms in the bn.
are less than 0,001 mm. thick.
U n k n o w n l o c a l i t y . (1) (specimen from
a vein with quartz in which veinlets of gn., ar., isometric and
rhombic cc. sl. sulvanite) Fine granular. (fig. 126).
112 NATIVE METALS.

I n d i a . W y n a d . M a n a n t o d d y . (1) (in small quartz

lenses in gneiss, together with little py. and cp., principally
concentrated in oxidized zone). Fine granular.
D u t c h E a s t I n d i a , (tertiary gold-silver veins in dacite
and andesite).
S u m a t r a . R e d j a n g L e b o n g (2) L e b o n g
D o n o k v e i n , R i c h L e a d e r (2) Granular (0,2 mm.),
iridescent when etched, due to silver contents. Thin banded
quartz verniet, one of the bands one mm. thick is full of irregular
patches of native gold, with cp., sl., much py., and many small
patches of silver-selenides, especially aguilarite and some
copper-selenide berzelianite (fig. 127). Here selenium is not
chemically combined with gold, but with silver and copper.
S a l i d a . R i c h Leader vein,
5 t h l e v e l . (2) See silver pg. 99. (fig. 106).
S i m a u . L e b o n g T a n d a i . (4)
Fine granular; small flecks with py., cp., ar., gn., sl. in quartz
and chalcedony. The gold occurs in the chalcopyrite as well
as in the other sulphides, and in the gangue.
B o r n e o . M a r t a p o e r a . Concentric texture
(fig. 114) and deformed granular texture; alluvial, small flakes
found with platinum. When polished, color brownish gray,
nearly same as platinum. Contains Hg, Pt, Osmiridiiirn.
C e l e b e s . T o t o k , (silified limestone, traver-
sed by numerous minute quartz veins in all directions, forming
one ore-mass) (2) Fine granular; rich specimen full of visible
gold in veinlets in all directions; gold always associated with
quartz. See figure 128.
Paleh-leh. B o l a n o h v e i n
0). Fine granular; minute particles, usuaüy associated with py.;
order of crystallization: py., sl. with segregated cp., cp., gn.,
Gangue is quartz; texture of ore is banded and brecciated
{ringed ore). In enriched zone many small veinlets of cv. in sl.
together with cc. and bn.
A u s t r a l i a . V i c t o r i a . B e n d i g o . (1) (saddle reefs,
in Silurian schists with quartz, a little py., ap. gn., sl.) Fine
granular; in irregular cracks in gn.; quartz.
U n k n o w n l o c a l i t y (2) irregular,
granular, partly containing much Ag, partly more pure in
veinlets through the first variety quartz, sl. and some py.
 GOLD 113

U n k n o w n l o c a l i t y . (1) Wire gold.

No texture.
S o u t h A u s t r a l i a . P o r t P h i l l i p e (1) Granu-
lar (0,02 mm.), nugget, mammülary prominences precipitated
together with limonite, probably in jellous form. Larger gold
cores with border of small grains, center consists of coarser
crystals (like fig. 120).
(2) Nuggets, irregular
granular (0,5 mm.) and smaller grains along borders, often
deformed and showing curved twins, due to rolling and trans-
portation.
(III) W e s t A u s t r a l i a . G r e a t F i n g a l m i n e .
(1) Au, po. quartz.
(III) K a l g o o r l i e . (1) Au, hessite or petzite, py., quartz.
B r a s i l . M i n a s G e r a e s . C o n c e i c a o . (2) Nuggets;
irregular granular, with smaller grains on border and between
larger grains, also veins of younger gold through older gold.
M o r r o V e l h o . (1) (quartz veins with ap.).
Granular (0,05 mm.); in irregular veinlets between quartz grains
and in small patches in quartz grains.
P a r y . (1) (metamorphic schists, containing gold)
Fine granular; small particles in schistose material principally
consisting of quartz with much po., some cp., ap., and mg.
C h i l i . T a l t a l . P e r s e v e r a n c i a . (1) Fine granular
(0,03 mm.); in patches between quartz grains and in small
particles in the grains.
G u a n a c o . (1) Very finely distributed in blue
kaolin.
B o l i v i a . L a P a z . (1) Very flat nugget; granular but
deformed by rolling mechanical action. Crushed and broken
crystals (fig. 119).
C o l o m b i a . N . G r a n a d a (1) Washgold; granular
(0,5 mm.), twins; with much py., ap. and hm.; py. very corroded.
(2) Vein-gold; granular (1 mm. and smaller), twins; in quartz
and partially replacing py.
A n t i o q u i a . (1) Granular (0,1 mm.) in
minute veinlets in quartz and iron-chalcedony.
D u t c h G u y a n a . (6) (eluvial and alluvial). Very coarse
granular (up to 1 cm.), twins with rectilinear boundaries; here
and there very small grains (0,005 mm.) in swarms through them;
Mineragraphy. 8
114 NATIVE METALS.

also in some places, along borders and in veins through older gold,
seams of small grains (0,1 mm); many fine spots of limonite
and quartz particles disseminated in gold. The nuggets are
sometimes some hundred grams in weight. They are sharp
angular with many impressions of grit and quartz fragments.
(1) Nugget of limonite with gold; coarse granular (1 mm.)
(fig. 117, 118). In limonite minute flakes of gold concentrically
arranged with limonite shells; gold and limonite deposited
simultaneously. On the border of the larger gold a seam of smal-
ler grains (fig. 129).
(1) Mammillary nugget, with limonite. Fine granular (0,02
mm.) The small rounded prominences consist of small twinned
grains; coarser gold surrounded by the usual border of small
grains (fig. 120).
B o n i d o r o m o u n t a i n s . (1) Rounded nug-
get. Granular (0,5 mm.)
M e x i c o . O a x a c a . (1) Granular (0,1 mm.); limonite with
gold in quartz, pale yellow due to amount of silver, iridescent
when etched.
(III) E l O r o m i n e (1) Au, gn., cp., py.,
quartz, sl., contemporaneous.
U. S. of A m e r i c a . Idaho, V o o r m a n s L o d e
(1) Granular, small particles in vein quartz.
N e v a d a . C r o w n P o i n t . (1) Granular (0,3 mm.);
vein specimen with (mentioned in order of crystallization): po.,
py., sl., cp., gn.
(III) G o l d f i e l d , M o h a w k m i n e (3)
Au, yellow teüuride, td. quartz.
M o n t a n a . U n c l e Sam's L o d e . (1) Fine granular;
in quartz with some sylvanite.
(III) F a i r V i e w m i n e (1) Arbores-
cent, intergrown with pr.
(III) C a b l e mine (1) Intergrowth of Au,
tetradymite, quartz.
(III) B a l d B u t t e M i n e (1) Replace-
ment of gn. by Au.
(III) C a l i f o r n i a . Croesus mine (1) Au filling micros-
copie fissures in ap.
(IV) (1) Fine granular; in drusical
openings.
 GOLD. 115

(III) C o l o r a d o , B o u l d e r Co. (1) Au with hessite

or petzite, quartz.
Al a s k a. K1 o n d i k e. (1) Brownish nugget. Some small
irregular grains and different gold alloys in veinlets through
the main mass. With Aq. Regia dark-brown coating.
(VIII) C a n a d a , B a r k e v i l l e , Cariboo. (1) Nugget,
coarse granular; irregular contact of grains of different fineness.
Small bright grains in large grayer gold grains.
A f r i c a . T r a n s v a a l . W i t w a t e r s r a n d (1) Coarse
granular (2 mm.), twins; large gold flecks between strongly
corroded pyrite and in niinute patches in pyrite, marcasite
(fig. 130) some gn, cp; sl.
T e r r e r a mine. (1) Granular
(0,05 mm.) Fissures with gold in quartz, limonite.
P e l g r i m s r u s t, Theta
mine. (1) Minute particles of gold in quartz.
G r a v e l o t t e mine, H a e -
n e r t s b u r g n e a r P i e t e r s b u r g . (1) Granular (0,5
mm.), twins; in smaü flecks with limonite in stibiconite; the
latter is concentric shaly built around stibnite. Gold occurs
in limonite also, concentricaUy deposited with the limonite
shells. Size of gold flakes 0,001 mm. and smaller, (fig.
115, 116).
F r e e Congo. M i n e de K i l o , H t e I t u r i e . (1)
Fine granular (0,02 mm.) Au in small fissures between and
through quartz grains.
Literature.
I. A. B E U T E L L . Ueber Moosgold aus Goldseleniden und
TeUuriden gebüdet. Zentr. BI. f- Mineralogie, 1919, 14—28.
II. E . HÜSSAK. Palladium und Platin in Brasilien. Zeitsch.
f. Prakt. Geologie, 1906, XIV, 291—293.
III. F. C. LINCOLN. Certain Natural Associations of Gold
Econ. Geol. Vol. VI, 247.
IV K O E B B E K E U. M. v. Schwarz. Gefügebilder Gediegener
Metalle. Zeitschr. f. Krystall. Bd. 95, 1923, 62-82; Metall
u. Erz, X X 1923, 441—445.
V. H. SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Mikroskopischer Nachweis von
Platin und Gold in den Siegenlander Grauwacken. Metall u.
Erz, XVII, 1920, 511.
116 NATIVE METALS.

VI. H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Anleitung zur Mikroskop. Bestim-

mung etc. pg. 274.
VII. Constitution diagrams.
Au—Ag. Roberts-Austen and Kirke Rose, Chem. News, 87,
2, 1903. Heycock a. Neville, Phü. Trans. 189A, 69, 1897.
Au—Bi. R. VOGEL, Zeitsch. f. Anorg. Chem. 50, 1906, 147.
Au—Cu. Roberts-Austen a. Kirke Rose, Proc. Roy. Soc. 67,
1901.
Au—Pd. R. Ruer, Zeitsch. Anorg. Chem. 51, 1906, 393.
Au—Pt. Fr. Doerinckel, Zeitsch. Anorg. Chem 54, 1907, 347.
VIII. W. L . UGLOW, W. A . JOHNSTON. Placergold of the
Barkeville Area. Econ. Geol. Vol. X V I I I . 1923, 541—561.
IX. N . R. JUNNER. The Geology of the Gold Occurrences
of Victoria. (Australia). Econ. Geol. Vol. X V I . 1921, 79—123.

PLATINUM.

Comp. Platinum generally occurs in complex alloys with other

metais of the platinum group such as: iridium, osmium, rhodium,
palladium, ruthenium, and with iron; it sometimes contains
gold, silver or copper. Iron and platinum build continuous solid
solutions at high temperatures with complicated (not yet com-
pletely examined) equilibrium diagrams and transformations
at lower temperatures (V, VII).
With regard to the principal contents of the platinum alloys
and those of the metais of its group we can distinguish:
1. Group of iridium, 2. group of iridosmine, 3. group of
palladium, 4. group of platinum, 5. group of iron. The group
of platinum is the group of the greatest economie interest, which
will be treated in short here.
D e s c r. Isometric. Crystals generally cubic, often distorted.
Twins o (111). Generally in small flakes and grains, sometimes
larger nuggets; sometimes stalactitic, botryoidal.
Lustre: metallic. Color and streak silver-white to steel gray.
Ductile and malleable. H : 4, G. 14—19, when pure 21,50.
Magnetic when containing 12—20 % Fe (ferro-platinum); non-
magnetic when containing less than 10 % Fe (with 6—10 % Fe
it is called polyxene). Melting point of pure Pt: 1755° C , of
Fe: 1530°, curve minimum of the alloy is 1500° C.
 PLATINUM. 117

P y r. B . B . infusibk; soluble only i n A q . Reg. and C r O , H C L

s

MINERAGRAPHY
P o l i s h . Polishes easily, but not entirely without scratches;
these disappear when treated on flannel disk w i t h finest alundum.
R e f l e c t i o n . High.
C o l o r . W h i t e , some varieties shghtly creamy, especiaUy
those w i t h iridosmine, when compared w i t h galena; silver is
slightly creamier.
E t c h i n g . A q . Regia and C r 0 , HC1 develop texture. The
8

time of etching depends upon the composition of the alloy.

F e — P t varieties are etched much sooner than iridosmine-Pt,
which often seems not to be attacked at a l l . Iridosmine is not
attacked b y A q . Regia. P t - P d varieties etch easiest.
Negative w i t h a l l other reagents.
D i f f. Reflection, color, i n a c t i v i t y w i t h a l l reagents, except
w i t h A q . Regia and C r 0 , HC1.
8

O b s. Rare; high value; important. P r i m a r y i n basic rocks

such as: olivine-gabbros, peridotite, dunite, lherzolite, wehrlite,
generally accompanied b y chromite. I n alluvial deposits, to-
gether w i t h other heavy n ü n e r a l s from the basic rocks such as
chromite, perowsfcate, magnetite, gold; or w i t h diamond, rutile,
anatase, xenotim. The grains sometimes contain chromite,
pyroxene and other constituents of the original rock.
T e x t u r e . G e n e r a ü y granular, w i t h rounded polyhedral
grains. F e r r o - p 1 a t i n u m (magnetic) varieties show coarse
crystallographical pattern of the grains (fig. 131), probably
due to segregation along octahedral faces.
The texture of these magnetic varieties may be irregular
granular, (figs. 132, 133), the grains show very delicate p a r a ü e l
striae and some of them coarse twinning. I n the outer part of
this small nugget the arrangement of the elongated grains was
more or less radiating.
N o n - m a g n e t i c platinum grains examined sometimes
contained few irregular laths of a harder, shghtly creamy metal
(iridosmine). The texture of these varieties is granular, the
grain boundaries are irregularly curved. A f ter some etching
the grains themselves g e n e r a ü y show two intersecting systems
of very delicate short lines, of a s i m ü a r design as the coarse
lines i n figure 131, but ten times as s m a ü . Sometimes one
parallel system of these lines develops. T h e y g e n e r a ü y appear
118 NATIVE METALS.

along the grain borders first. Beek (I) assumes a zonal building
resulting from deposition of varying solid solutions from a melt,
so that the grains consist of different layers of varying Pt al-
loys. After longer etching, however, the whole surface of the
grain becomes covered with these fine striae. The Pt from the
nugget represented in fig. 134 showed this etching, but it is
too fine to come out in the photograph. The large grain in this
figure is a twin, one half became covered with the fine stria-
tions, the other half showed some few irregular lines. The ehlar-
ged point is another grain, which had only parahei striae.
Another n o n-m a g n e t i c variety was very hard to etch.
It * contained large inclusions of iridosmine (0,05 mm.) and
besides it was full of minute drops of it, like an emulsion.
It did not show any etching.
Another texture is shown in fig. 135. It is granular with
more or less rounded grains. After etching the grains showed
mostly on their borders the typical striations seen in the figure.
They consist of three systems of lines, which are gently cur-
ved. They seem to be cleavages produced perhaps by mecha-
nical stresses, caused by mechanical transport and choking in
the alluvial deposit (perhaps the polishing has caused the
cleavages to develop, although it was done very carefully).
This platinum contained some large inclusions of iridosmine.
These large particles of iridosmine are often hexagonal thin
flakes (I) arranged with their basal planes along the octahedral
faces of the platinum (VI), so that the same design results
as in fig. 131.
Mammillary, radiated, concentrically shaped platinum is
reported by Hussak (VI) from Condado, Min as Geraes.
G e n e s i s . The origin of platinum is magmatic. The fact
that platinum and its alloys occur in veinlets and anhedral
between euhedral pyroxene and chromite crystals of basic rocks,
accounts for its deposition as last sohdified part of these rocks.
The textures of the alloys demonstrate a break-down of sohd
solutions. Iron-oxide may be reduced by Pt so that an alloy
of Pt-Fe is built. In extreme basic rocks with high iron contents
a Fe-Pt alloy may be formed easily (IX).
The mammillary platinum from Condado seems to be secon-
dary. This Pt contained 22 % Pd, and is probably the result
of weathering of sperrylite or other Pt and A u nünerals occur-
 PLATINUM. 119

ring i n the crystalline schists of the Itabirite formation or i n

quartz veins crossing these schists.

Examination.
(VI) M i n a s G e r a e s . R i o A l b a c e t e . Crystallo-
graphic intergrowth of hexagonal iridosniine flakes arranged
along the octahedral faces ot platinum. Analysis: Pt-metals
82,8 % , Fe 9,62 % , insoluble (iridosmine) 7,57 % .
(VI) C o n d a d o S e r r o . Hollow, stalactitic, mammillary
shapes w i t h radiated, concentric texture; easily attacked b y
A q . Regia; P t 73,99 % , Ir 0,08 % , P d 21,77 % .
(VI) C o r r e g o d e s L a g e s . C o n c e i c a o . Concen-
tric- shaly w i t h radiated texture; P t 83,38 % , Ir 1,69 % , P d
3 . 0 3 % , iridosmine 1,64%.
U r a l . U n k n o w n placer. The flakes and grains to be examined
were sorted w i t h a magnet and divided into a. strong magnetic,
b. weak magnetic, c. non-magnetic grains.
a. s t r o n g m a g n e t i c . 1. one grain showed irregular
granular texture when etched (fig. 132), andsome coarse twins
(fig. 133); every grain showed very delicate parallel striations
which are hardry visible i n figure 132.
2. another specimen showed short lines i n three direc-
tions (fig. 131).
3. other flakes were not so strongly attacked, some showed
the same typical striations of 2 i n three directions and most of
them had some places on the borders where the attack was
similar to 1, as if the border consisted of another alloy.
4. one flake showed coarse inclusions of iridosmine (0,05
mm.) and many small globules of the same mineral (0,005 mm.);
attack along the border just as i n 3.
5. one flake d i d not show any sign of attack and had no
inclusions.
b. w e a k m a g n e t i c . Contained some small laths (0,1 m m .
long and 0,001 m m . thick) of Mdosmine; after etching some
delicate long lines at 0,1 m m . distance i n 2 intersecting systems,
some curved lines near the border; on edge lines as i n fig. 135.
c. n o n - m a g n e t i c. Some grains consist of chromite
between which platinum occurs (fig. 134); P t is anhedral;
granular when etched, w i t h a system of very delicate intersec-
t i n g or parallel short lines which appear first along the borders
120 NATIVE METALS.

of the grains. These seem to be the same lines mentioned by

Beek (I). When etching proceeds, however, the whole grains
become covered with these striations. They are of the same
design as those in fig. 131, but ten times as small and not to be
seen in fig. 134. The large elongated grain in this figure is a twin,
because one side of it became covered with the striations mentio-
ned, whereas the other half remained unaltered; the elongated
top was another grain which showed parallel striations. Two
other specimens contained many iridosmine inclusions (0,005
mm. and smaller) and were not etched by cold Aq. Regia. Three
other specimens with chromite and with iridosmine segregations
were not attacked either.
N i s j n e T a g i l s k . N u g g e t . One nugget of
70 gram; granular, rounded grains; the grains showed on edges
and along boundaries 3 systems of fine long curved lines, per-
haps cleavages or gliding lines due to pressure in alluvial
deposits (fig. 135); a small lath of iridosmine was noticed as
an inclus ion.
( I ) M a l a j a P r o s t o k i s c h e n k a . One nug-
get; euhedral chromite between which anhedral Pt, not at-
tacked by Aq. Regia.
(I) G u s j e w a . E l u v i a l d e p o s i t . Pt in
veinlets between aggregate of pyroxene and chromite; Pt, when
etched, showed 2 systems of lines; granular polyhedral.
(I) K o t s c h k a n a r ( a b o v e G u s j e w a ) .
Nugget; polygonal granular; grains differently attacked, some-
times one parallel system, on others two intersecting systems.
Beek assumes 4 different Pt alloys.
(I) P l a c e r S o l o w i o f f , n e a r N i s j n e
T a g i l s k . Rounded grains of chromite between which plati-
num; Pt partly polygonal granular, each grain is indistinctly
zonal built, the border is a shade creamier than the center. A
zone of fine etchlines in two systems along the borders (see
above), the center generally without these lines; there are no
sharp boundaries between the different zones; Beek assumes
different alloys in zonal crystals from a melt.
(I) K a m e n u s c h k a . Pt with much iridosmine
in laths, harder than the groundmass; after solution of the
platinum these inclusions remained unattacked and appeared
as hexagonal thin flakes. See (VI).
 PLATINUM. 121

B o r n e o . M a r t a p o e r a . Together with gold-Hg-Pt-Ir.

(see gold); The Pt flakes were not attacked by cold acid.
N . G r a n a d a . Several specimens were not attacked by
cold acid.

L i t e r a t u r e .
(I) R . B E C K . Ueber die Struktur des Ura^chen Platins.
Ber. d. Verh. d. K . Sachs. Ges. d. Wiss. Leipzig, 59, 1907, 887.
(II) B E C K — B E R G . Abrisz v. Lehre von den Erzlagerstatten,
1922.
(III) H . E . B O E K E . Grondlagen der Physik. Chem. Petrogra-
phie. Berlin 1923, 177.
(IV) M . L . D U P A R C and S. P I N A Y R U B I E S . Sur la Composition
des Sègrégations de chromite dans l a Dunite platinifère. Buil.
de la Société Franc, de Min. 36, 1913, pg. 20.
(V) M . L . D U P A R C and M . N . TIKONOWITCH. Le Platine et
les Gites platinifères de 1'Oural et du Monde. pg. 201.
(VI) E HUSSAK. Ueber das Vorkommen von Palladium und
Platin in Brasilien. Zeits. f. Prakt. Geol. X I V , 1906, 284—291.
(VII) E . ISAAC and C. T A M M A N N . Ueber die Legierungen des
Eisens mit Platin. Zeits. f. Anorg. Chem. Bd. 55, 1907, 6 3 .
(VIII) A. KNOPF. Gold-platinum-palladium lode in Southern
Nevada. U . S. Geol. Survey, Buil. 620, pg. 1.
(IX) R. B . SOSMAN, J . C HOSTETTER. Journ. of Washington
Ac. of Sc. 5, 1915, 293. The oxides of iron. Journ. Am. Chem.
Soc. 3 8 ; 1916, 833.
(X) H . SCHNEIDERHÖHN. Mikroskopischer Nachweis v. Platin
und Gold in den Siegerlander Grauwacke.
(XI) J . F . K E M P . The geological Relations and Distribution
of Platinum and Associated Metals. Buil. U . S. Geolog. Surv.
193, 17—20.

IRON (terrestrial).

C o m p. Var. Containing generally small amounts of C, N i .

' D e s c . Isometric. Seldom in crystals, generally massive.
Cleavage: a, perfect. Fracture hackly. Malleable. H 4 — 5 . G
7,3—7,8. Lustre metallic. Color steel-gray. Magnetic.
P y r . Not fusible B . B . , magnetic, liberates H with HC1.
 122 NATIVE METALS.

MINERAGRAPHY.
Po 1 i s h. Polishes easily.
R e f l e c t i o n . High.
C o l o r . White, when compared with silver light gray, Ag
is creamy white when compared with iron.
E t c h i n g . Depends on composition. Ferrite (alpha iron)
is attacked by picric acid in ethyl alcohol (black) which develops
texture; cementite (Fe„C) is not attacked by picric acid or dil.
HC1, so that this reagent is used for carbonous iron to develop
the intergrowth of both components. Cementite is attacked by
sodium picrate. I in alcohol develops texture as well.
+ . HC1; H S 0 dil.; H N O dil.; CuS0 (for pure iron.)
2 4 s 4

—. H N 0 conc.
3

T e x t u r e . Granular; when it contains C it shows trans-

formation or segregation textures. Iron containing less than
0,75 % C. is called hypo-eutectic, ferrite is the component which
segregates first, while the groundmass consists of a eutectoid of
ferrite-cementite, which is called pearlite (fig. 14). Iron with
more than 0,75 % C. shows cementite as the first component
which has segregated in a groundmass of pearhte. (see III, VI)
It depends upon the rate of cooling what the pattern of the
segregate will be.
When iron does not contain more than 6,5 % N i its texture
is homogeneous, cleavage is cubical (hexaedrite, see II, III).
Terrestrial iron generally does not contain more than this per-
centage of nickel.
Meteoric iron often contains much more nickel and shows
Widmanstatten texture. This texture is caused by segregations
along octahedral or rhombendodecahedral planes of Kamazite
(6,5 % Ni) with thin films of Taenite (27 % Ni) in Plessite
(eutectoid of Kamazite-Taenite) (see for further details metal-
lographic and mineralogie literature).
D i f f. H , reflection, magnetism, CuS0 , oxidation with water
4

or moist air.
O b s. Very rare, of no economie importance. Native iron
occurs generally in small particles in basalts, sometimes in
occasionally large masses (Ovifak, Discö, Greenland, with
1 —2 % Ni); in stream gravels e.g. Josephinite or nickel-iron
from Oregon; sometimes with gold and platinum in gold and
platinum washings.
 IRON. 123

G e n e s i s . Iron is probably produced by reduction processes

in basic melts. Many authors suppose that this reduction is due
to coal substance e.g. coal measures through which the basalt
eruptions passed. It is not necessary, however, to postul ate the
existence of coal to find an explanation for reduction by CO.
C 0 emanations are generally connected with volcanic processes.
2

This C 0 must originate from oxidizing carbon-components

8

of the magma itself. When oxidation is incomplete and the iron-

contents of the magma high, metallic iron may be formed easily
just as in high furnaces. Metallic iron in basalt often contains
carbon, which is manifested by the presence of cementite or
of pearlitic iron. Iron in basalt from Bühl contains a small
percentage of carbon. Boeke (II) assumes that the pyrrhotite
in the rock is oxidized first into magnetite and that this magnetite
is reduced to iron then. The polished sections shown here are
not in agreement with this supposition. In basalt of Bühl iron is
generally surrounded by a thin seam of dark iron oxide and then
by troilite or pyrrhotite (fig. 136). The minerals last mentioned
are without doubt later than the iron. This iron contajns
cementite in large particles. In polished sections from Diskö we
find small drops of pyrrhotite or troilite in iron and iron oxide.
Ë.g. figure 137 shows a rounded partiele of troilite surrounded
by a seam of oxide, then cementite and then „pearlite a oxide"
(see I). The coarse crystallographic intergrowth of this oxide
with iron with its drop-like inclusions of FeS (troilite) points
to a solidification of the whole out of a melt. This iron contains
also much cementite. The seam óf dark oxyde, or „pearlite a
oxide" in both occurrences is most probably a reaction-rim.

Examination.
B ü h l . W e i m a r . (2) (iron in basalt) Granular; iron occurs
in rounded particles in basalt, these particles consist partly
of pearlite only, partly of cementite and pearlite in coarse
intergrowth which has sometimes a crystallographic pattern.
The iron particles are generally surrounded by a thin seam of
iron oxide (fig. 136) (reaction rim) and then by pyrrhotite and
troüite. The two minerals last mentioned generally occur wit-
hout iron-center.
Troüite is slightly creamier than pyrrhotite. The iron sulphides
are anhedral and fiü the open spaces between pyroxene and
 NATIVE METALS.

amphibole fibers so that they represent the components last

solidified of the basalt. Sometimes they surround the iron par-
ticles which solidified at an earlier stage.
So the polished section in this figure is not in agreement with
the supposition that the iron in the basalt of Bühl is a thermo-
metamorphic pioduct produced by reduction of iron-sulphides
(II).
(V) Oebbeke mentions a section with granular iron (0,4 mm.)
without carbon, (ferrite).
G r e e n l a n d . D i s c o . (2) (iron, containing N i and C
in basalt, occasionally in large masses) One specimen consisted
of small iron particles in basalt. This iron consisted of cementite
in coarse intergrowth with pearlite (fig. 138, 139). Cementite
has also segregated along crystaüographic planes so that a
kind of Widmanstatten texture results (fig. 139, 140). The
occurrence of fine pearlite points to relatively rapid cooling
below the temperature of 700° C , whereas the Widmanstatten
texture is a result of slow cooling at high temperature (I). The
basalt also contained pyrrhotite and troilite in separate particles,
generaüy not in contact with iron.
The second specimen consisted of a coarse crystaUographic
intergrowth of cementite-pearlite with a dark mineral. This
mineral is very hard and behaves in the same manner as the
dark mineral which surrounds the iron particles in the basalt from
Bühl. It is kon oxide, which here shows a typical „pearütic"
fine intergrowth with iron (fig. 137). The coarse iron as weü
as the troüite is generaüy surrounded first by a seam of pure
oxide, and then foüows the so-caüed „pearüte a oxide" (I). The
iron in this pearlite is partly attacked by picric acid. Sometimes
the seam of pure oxide faüs and the pearüte of oxide goes over
into the real pearüte (ferrite-cementite), so that it seems as ii
the cementite lameüae of the pearüte continue as non lameüae
in the oxidic pearlite as if ironoxide had substituted the ferrite
in the pearlite (reaction rim). In figure 137 the oxide traverses
the troüite in fissures and is decidedly later than the troüite.
Two varieties of iron sulphide also exist in this specimen, the
one being slightly creamier than the other; the former being
the troüite, the latter the pyrrhotite variety. See for simüar,
figures and description Benedicks (I), who analysed 1,64 % C
in the iron from Ovifak.
 LEAD. 125

O r e g o n . J o s e p h i n e m i n e . (1) Nickel-iron in coarse

intergrowth with oxide and in fine graphic intergrowth (fig.
141). The iron is not attacked by picric acid, due to its nickel
contents. Native copper occurs in large quantities in the iron,
partly as if it follows minute fissures and substituted the
iron along them, partly as a fine intergrowth with it (flg. 142)
and with the oxide. Here and there some cuprite accompanies
this copper; serpentine in idiomorphic elongated crystal bunches
in the iron; this nickel-iron is found in rounded boulders in
stream beds.

Literature.
(I) E . BENEDICKS. Le Fer d' Ovifak ! un Acier au Carbone
Natif. Compt. rendu X I Congrès Geol. Int. Stockholm H , 885.
(II) H . E . B O E K E . Grundlagen der Phys. Chem. Petrographie.
1923. pg. 209—213, and 525.
(III) G. TAMMANN. Lehrbuch der Metallographie. 1923, Fe-C
pg. 268—288 Fe-Ni pg. 290—294.
(IV) E . ISAAC, G. TAMMANN. Ueber die Legierungen des
Eisens mit Platin. Zeitsch. f. An. Chemie, 1907, Bd. 55, pg. 63.
(V) K . O E B E K E , M . v. SCHWARZ. Strukturen Gediegener
Metalle unter Berücksichtigung des Kupfers von Imsbach.
Zeitsch. f. Metallkunde, 19?0, 512.
(VI) Diagrams:
Fe-Ni. R . R U E R , E . SCHÜTZ, Metallurgie, 7, 1910, 415.
W . GUERTLER, G. TAMMANN, Zeitsch. Anorg. Chem. 45, 1905,
211.
Fe-C. see (IV), (II).

LEAD.

C o m p. Lead, contains sometimes Ag and Sb.

D e s c. Isometric. Seldom in crystals, usually in thin plates.
Malleable, ductile. Lustre metallic, color lead-gray, H 1,5.
P y r . Fuses easily, yellow coating on charcoal, soluble in
nitric acid.
MINERAGRAPHY.
P o l i s h. Extremely difficult to polish; properly speaking it
is impossible to polish it without scratches.
 126 NATIVE METALS.

C o l o r . White, but immediateJy tarnishing to erav

Grayish white with süver, when fresh surface.
E t c h i n g . H N 0 conc. gives texture (fig. 143); negative
3

with HC1; H S 0 . With H l yeüow coatipg

2 4 ^
T e x t u r e . Granular, twins.
O b s . Very rare. Of no economie importance. Found e *
m Pajsberg and Langban (Sweden), in dolomite and calcite
connected with contact-metamorphic manganese and iron de-
posits, reported also from New Yersey.
G e n e s i s . Not explained yet. Perhaps due to reduction
processes by hydrocarbons.
Examination.
L a n g b a n . S w e d e n . (1). (plates in dolomite). Gramüar,
twins (fig. 143) immediately tarnishing dark gray.
 M I N E R A L S W I T H C O L O R E D P O W D E R . I. 127

Powder. Mineral. Comp. Color of Mineral. H. Diff.

Orange realgar AsS dull grayish white 1,5—2 H . int. refl. orange, X nicols
transparent. K O H + .
Pink copper Cu pink 2,5—3 color, reflection high.
Yellowish- alabandite MnS grayish white 3.5—4 H N O , HC1 effervesces, in-
s

green (dull) temal reflection green, x

nicols dark.
Yellow gold Au golden yellow 2,5—3 color, reflection high.
„ orpiment As,S, grayish white 1,5—2 internal reflection, K O H + .
chromite FeCr 0 2 4 dull gray 5,5 H . bad polish,
sometimes reddish brown
internal reflection, — with
all reagents, X nicols dark.
Yellow or sphalerite) £nS gray 3>5 4 —
typical twinning or texture
brown wurtute \ u . .
A ... „ T .
' when etched with H l , in-
ternal reflection yellow-
brown, x nicols dark,
„ limonite 2Fe,0,. gray 5—5,5 internal reflection yellow
3H,0 to brown, — with A q .
Regia.
„ hübnerite (MnFe) grayish white 5—5,5 > t- refl., bad polish, —
n

WO, with all reagents.

,, zincite ZnO dull gray 4,5 int. refl. red.
» rutile TiO a grayish white 6—6,5 * *' refl-, — with all
n

reagents.
(White- cassiterite SnO a gray 6—7 H , int. refl., — with all
brown) reagents.
Golden bornite Cu,FeS, pinkish brown 3 color.
brown
Reddish hematite Fe,0, white 5,5—6,5 — A q . Regia, internal re-
brown flection deep - red to
blood - red.
hauerite MnS, grayish white 4 HC1-, HNO,-, K O H - ,
X nicols dark.
Red cuprite Cu,0 bluish-white 3,5-4 HC1 +, K O H - , HNO,,
effervesces coated with
copper, int. refl. red, X
nicols sometimes colors.
cinnabar HgS grayish white 2—2,5 HC1 —, K O H —, H N O , —,
red int. refl. X nicols
dull colors.
polybasite Ag SbS, grayish white
8 2-3 HC1-, KOH-,HNO, ±,
X nicols bright colors
deep violet, int. refl.
128 MINERALS WITH COLORED POWDER. II.

Powder. Mineral. Comp. Color of Mineral. H. Diff.

Red pyrargyrite Ag SbS 3 3 faint bluish white 2,5 HC1—, K O H 4-, H N O , — J

dark red int. refl., x nicols
violet and greenish colors. I
proustite Ag AsS,
3 bluish white 2,5 HC1-, KOH+. HNO,-,
bright red int. refl. x
nicols like pg.
miargyrite AgSbS, faint bluish white 2,5 HC1-, KOH+, H N O - | s

deep red. int. refl., X

nicols grayish white to
bluish gray.
pearcite Ag,AsS e grayish white 2.5 H C
c o n c - , K O H - , HN-i;
l

(greenish) O , - , KCN4-, X nicolB

brownish violet — bluish
green, red int. refl.
xanthoco- Ag AsS
3 t faint bluish 2-2,5 int. refl. just as pr., X nicoll
nite white dark and light bluish grayJ
red int. refl.
baumhau- P ^ A s , ^ , grayish white 3 H C l - , KOH±, HNO,4j|
e r i t e K C N — , sometimes int.
refl., X nicols faint gray
colors.
UvingstoniteHgSb S 4 7 white 2 H C l - , K O H + . HNO,conc.
—, x nicols dark blue -M
pale grayish green, red int.
refl.
„(orange- lorandite TIAsS, gray L5-2 H , H C l - , K O H orange
d)
re coating, H N O , - , Aq.Reg.
—, x nicols entirely red-
orange transparent.
kermesite Sb.S.O white H C l - , KOH+. HNO,+|

I
red int. refl.

I
 MINERALS WHICH OCCUR OFTEN IDIOMORPHIC (EUHEDRAL).

Name of the | _ J | | | Y | / - v Cryst. color Comp. H. Ditt.

Mineral. | Q
g &| S § *W
«ystem
1 g. B 1 g I 1 ' ' , ——
p y r i t e . . . . „ „ „ isom. very pale yel- Fe S, 6-6,5 Color, H, bad polish, x nicols dark, or faint colors.
low
high reflection
Cobaltite " » ?
P* creamy
le
CoAsS 5.5 Color, H, bad polish,Aq. Regia-, x nicols sometimes
(pinkish) high anisotropic, pinkish-greenish.
reflection
m m grayish white Fe,0 4 5.S-6 color. black magnetic powder, HNO, - , x nicols dark.
brown tinge
CTav (Fe Zn Mn) O bad polish, x nicols dark, internal reflection sometimes
Franklinite » . . 8 * 7 (FeMn) O, 5.5-6.5 red, red powder, Aq. Reg. - , HNO - .
_ . white CoAs, 5.5—6 Color, x nicols dark, HNO, blackens.
t s

Smaltite . . . . . » • » " * . „
high reflection
Linnaeite .. pale pinkish Co,S 4 5.5 HNO, blackens; KCN - .
cream.
Cawiterite . . . .. pol. tetrag. gray Sn O, 6-7 H, — with all reagents, brown-yeüow internal reflections
twins, difficult polish, powder yellowish — brown —
yellowish white.
R n t j t e . . „ „ grayish white Ti O, 6-6,5 H, difficult polish, internal reflection orange, powder
" black — brown — yellow.
Stibnite pol. rhombic white Sb,S s 2 H, KOH + yellow-white precipitate, color
" X nicols grayish blue — pinkish orange, pleochroism.
Bismuthinite . . „ Bi Ss s 2 H, color, x nicols as stibnite, not so bright. HNO.+.
" KOH —, cleavage, texture HNO,.
Safflorite CoAs, 5,5-6 crystal shape, rosettes, X nicols blue - brownish yellow.
Arsenopyrite ! " ",, F e A s S
5.5-6 crystal shape, zonal etching with CrO„ HCl; HNO, dil.
" " " iridescent, x nicols green — pink or blue — brown.
3-öllinjrite ,. FeAs, 5—5.5 same as arsenopyrite, not iridescent with HNCylil,
» " *' no zonal texture, X nicols same as arsenopyrite.
Glaucodot . . . ,. .. (Pinkish) (FeCo)AsS 5 same as arsenopyrite and '°mngite^
E n a r g i t e " " „ grayish white Cu,^sS 4 3.5 H, x nicols green and blue — pinkish red or dark. KCN +.
and pinkish
Anelesite . . ,. dark gray PbSO, 3 dark gray, H, acids - . X nicols white.
Cerussite „ " " ,. PbCO, 3 dark gray. H, acids effervesces, H l yellow p.p., X nicols
" white.
B a r i t e t BaS0 4 3 dark gray. H, acids - , X nicols white.
Mülerite ! '. '. ' " " hexag. pale yellow NiS 3~3.5 color, H, x nicols bright olive-green and grayish bhie.
Hematite " .. white Fe 0, 2 5.5-6.5 H , red powder, internal reflection red, HNO, - . Aq.
Reg. - .
I l m e n i t e „ grayish white FeTiO, 5~6 H, bad polish, darker and more pinkish than mg., acids
(brown tinge) M X e
b r i h t
- c o l o r 8

Ouartz ,. .. darkgray-black SiO, 7 dark color. acids - . H F + . X nicols white.

Jf , ~ T d a r k gray CaCO, 3 cleavage, acetic acid dil. +. X mcbls white.
Dl te' ' ' ' ",. .. CaMgfCO,), 3,5-4 cleavage, acetic acid dil. - . HCl dü. ± . HCl conc.
omi e . . . . effervesces, X nicols white.
FeCO, 3,5-4,5 cleavage, HCl conc. - . x nicols yellowish.
Wolframite ! ! '. » I " rn^n. (grayish white (FeMn) W0 4 5-5.5 bad polish. acids - . reddish brown internal reflections.
 MINERALS WITH PRONOUNCED COLORS. I 129

Color. Mineral. Comp. H. Reagents and Diff.

Blue dark and covellite CuS 1,5—2 H N O , conc. —, x nicols brown-

pale ish-red — fire red.
pale bluish chalcocite Cu,S 2,5—3 H N O , conc. + blue, (texture),

(
"Mte X nicols bluish gray — pin-

kish gray.
bluish gray- cuprite Cu,0 3,5—4H N O , conc. + (coppercoating),
white isometric, x nicols slight
changes, red powder, red i n -
ternal reflection.
bluish white proustite, Ag,AsS, 2,5—3 HNO,—, HCl —, K O H 4-, x
nicols bluish gray — dark
violet, red internal reflection,
red powder.
(grayishwhite) (pyrargyrite) Ag,SbS, 2 , 5 - 3 H N O , - , HCl - . K O H + ,
same as proustite, internal
reflection not so bright, et-
ching slower.
^Purple umangite Cn,Se, 3 H N O , turns blue, X nicols
fire-red.
I „ pale purple galena Pb S? 2,5 H N 0 + , K C N —, X nicols
3

dark, triangular pits.

darkpurplish germanite CuiGeSy 3 - 4 K C N —, H N O , —, H l —, X
to pinkish nicols dark.
brown
I „ rickardite Cu,Te, 3,5 H N O , blackens.
Yellow golden gold Au 2,5—3 AgNO, conc. 2 min. —, color,
reflection.
brass chalcopyrite CuFeS, 3,5—4 AgNO, conc. 2 min. black,
color.
„ pale millerite NiS 3—3,5 often in needies, X nicols olive
green and pale grayish blue.
electrum Au-Ag 2,5—3 Color, reflection, CrO, H C l
brownish.
very pale pyrite FeS, 6—6,5 often quadrangles, H , bad
polish.
B u very pale marcasite FeS, 6—6,5 X nicols various bright colors,
bad polish.
Cream P** creamy
6
pentlandite (FeNi)S 3—4 isometric, generally together
with pyrrhotite and slightly
brighter.
pale brownish pyrrhotite FeS(S) 3 — 4 H l (texture), color, x nicols
cream or pin- yellow — pinkish.
kish cream
B „ pale brownish chalmersite CuFe,S, 3,5—4 H N O , ± , K C N —, X nicols
cream nearly dark.
I „ cream sulvanite Cu,VS 4 3,5 H N O , ± , K C N —, X nicols
dark.
Mineragraphy. 9
130 MINERALS WITH PRONOUNCED COLORS. II

Color. Mineral. Comp. H. Reagents and Diff.

Brown pinkish, soon bornite Cu,FeS 3 3 K C N brown to black,

tarnishing to x nicols nearly dark.
blue.
„ creamy sternbergite- AgFe S ? 2 3 1 — 1,5 K C N —, H N O + , X
s

frieseite. Ag Fe Sg?
3 5 nicols black to grayish
white and brownish-
bluish.
(pale brow- (pyrrhotite) FeS(S) 3-4 K C N —, H N O , ± to - ,
nish cream) X nicols colors.
Pink copper Cu 2.5—3 iügh reflection, K C N
brown, K O H + .
breithauptite NiSb 5—6 H N O , r : 1 blackens,
K C N — , x nicols co-
lors same as niccolite.
pinkish white famatinite Cu, SbS 4 3,5 H N O , + , KCN4-, X ni-
cols purple-red and
bright green, pol. tw.
„ creamy niccolite Ni As 5—55, H N O , 1 : 1 tarnishes,
KCN—, x nicols
bright colors greenish
blue to green and pink
to purple.
pale pinkish maucherite Ni As
3 2 5 H N O , 1 : 1 blackens,
cream K C N —, texture fi-
brous — columnar.
» „ linnaeite Co,S 4 5,5 H N O , 1 :1 faint brown,
K C N - , FeCl, - , X
nicols dark.
pinkish cream hauchecomite (NiCo), 5 H N O , + , K C N — , x ni-
(BiSSb), cols dark.
cobaltite CoAsS 5,5 HNO,, Aq. Regia, HCl,
K C N — , x nicols aniso-
tropic, bad polish.
(bismuth) Bi 2-2,5 H C l 1 : 1 4-, K C N - ,
(when badly K O H —.
polished, or
tarnished)
Grayish greenish stannite Cu,FeSnS 4 4 K C N , K O H —, HNO,,
w h i t e
HCl conc. +, X nicols
purple and greenish
gray, often full of cp-
segregate.
 MINERALS WITH PRONOUNCED COLORS. III 131

Color. Mineral. Comp. H. Reagents and Diff>

Grayish greenish tetrahedrite Cu Sb,S,

s 3,5—4 CrO, H C l + , other rea-
white gents —, sometimes
deep red int. refl., x
nicols dark, powder
dark brownish red.
„ „ enargite Cu,AsS 4 3 K C N conc. + , HNO„
HCl, K O H - , x nicols
isotropic.
„ pinkish enargite Cu,AsS 4 3 K C N conc. +, HNO„
HCl, K O H - ,
X nicols pink — orange
and green — blue.
„ brownish magnetite FeFe,0 4 5,5—6,5 H C
conc, H I + , CrO,
1

HCl +, others — , x
nicols dark, bad polish.
„ „ ilmenite FeTiO, 5—6 — with all reagents, X
nicols colors, twins of-
ten full of hematite
segregates, bad polish.
132 MINERALS WITH INTERNAL REFLECTION. I

Internal „ , _
reflection. M" "* -
16 1
Comp. Color of Mineral. H. Diff.

Orange realgar AsS grayish white 1,5-2 H., powder orange or red,
(dull) HNO, effervesces. HCl - ,
KOH + .
rutile TiO, grayish white 6—6,5 — with all reagents, some-
(brown, red- times colored powder, twin-
dish brown) n i n g .
s o m e t i m e s

Dull-green alabandite MnS grayish white 3.5~4 powder dull yellowish green,
(brownish) HNO,, HCl effervesces.
Yellow orpiment As,S, grayish white 1,5-2 powder yellow, HNO,-,
H C l - , KOH-f.
Yellow or sphalerite ZnS gray 3.5-4 powder yellow-brown.twin-
brown wurtzite n i n g texture when et-
o r

ched with Hl, K O H - .

limonite 2Fe,O . s gray 5-5,5 d e r yellow-brown, -
pow

3 H,0 with all reagents except

Hl.
cassiterite SnO, gray 6-7 _ with all reagents, x
nicols sometimes twinning
to be seen, powder white
— brown, bad polish.
Reddish hübnerite (MoFeJWo. grayish white 5-5,5 _ ith all reagents, bad
w

brown polish, powder yellow to

brown.
chromite FeCr,0 4 dull gray 5,5 - w i t h reagents, bad
a U

polish, powder yellow

Deep red hematite Fe,O s white 5,5~6,5 - Aq. Regia, powder red-
dish to brown, x nicols
gray.
Red cuprite Cu,0 bluish white 3,5-4 HCl 4-, K O H - , HNO,
effervesces coated with
copper, red powder, x
nicols sometimes colors.
cinnabar HgS grayish white 2—2,5 H C l - , KOH—, HNO,-,
red powder.
polybasite Ag,SbS, grayish white 2-3 H C l - , K O H - , HNO,±,
X nicols bright colors:
deep violet, red powder.
pyrargyrite Ag,SbS, faint bluish white 2,5 HCl—, KOH+, HNO,-,
X nicols violet and gree-
nish colors, red powder.
proustite Ag,AsS, bluish white 2,5 H C l - , KOH4, HNO,-,
int. refl. brighter than pg,
red powder.
 MINERALS WITH INTERNAL REFLECTION. II 133

Internal , „ „
reflection M i n e r a J
- Comp. Color of Mineral. H. Diff.

Red miargyrite AgSbS, faint bluish white 2,5 HCl—, K O H + , HNO —

red powder.
pearcite Ag,AsS, grayish white 2,5 H C l conc. - , KOH—
(greenish) H N O - , K C N +, x ni-
s

cols brownish violet to

bluish green, red powder.
xantho- AgaAsS 4 faint bluish 2-2,5 int. refl. just as pr., x nicols
«""te w ü i t e
dark and light bluish gray,
red powder.
baumhaue- Pb As
4 6 grayish white 3 HCl—, K O H ± , H N O ± ,
rite
i» S
KCN—.somtimes int. refl.
X nicols faint gray colors,
red powder.
livingstonite HgSb,S, white 2 H C l - , KOH+, HNO,
conc—, x nicols dark
blue to pale grayish green,
red powder.
1
„ lorandite TlAsS, gray 1,5-2 H . . H C 1 - , K O H orange coa-
(brownish t i n g , H N O , - , Aq. R e g . - ,
to orange) x n i c oi s ^
n o ^ ^
cause entirely red-trans-
parent, red-orange powder.
zincite ZnO dull gray 4,5 H , yellow-brown powder.
kermesite Sb,S,0 white i-r,5 H C l - , K O H + . HNO,+,
red powder.
Green malachite CuCO,. dark gray 3,5~4 HCl effervesces.
Cu(OH),
» chrysocolla CuSiO, dark gray 2—4 HCl—.
+2H O t

dioptase CuOSiO, dark gray 5 H , HCl—.

H O g

atacamite CuCl,. dark gray 3—3,5 HC1+.

Cu)OH, 3

Blue lazurite 2 CuCO, dark gray 3,5~4 HCl effervesces.

Cu(OH),
White (with gangue
various (quartz,
shades and calcite etc.) dark gray
colors)
LIST OF FIGURES.
 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIG. 14.

P e a r l i t e (eutectoidic texture of f e r r i t e and c e m e n -

t i t e ) with f e r r i t e segregated around p e a r l i t e grains
(network or cell-texture); 0,75 % C ; „hypo-eutectoid" steel;
350 x . pg. 23, 25, 42, 56, 122.

FIG. 15.

S u d b u r y , O n t a r i o , C a n a d a . Network texture of
p e n t l a n d i t e (white with black cracks) and p y r r h o -
t i t e (gray); H l ; 40 x . pg. 25, 41, 45, 56.

FIG. 16.
S o h l a n d , S p r e e . P e n t l a n d i t e (white) in p y r -
r h o t i t e (gray), not entirely separated on grain boundaries
caught in saw-like twinning positions of pyrrhotite. H l ; 250 x .
pg. 26, 45.

FIG. 17.
V a l e a m o r i . Segregation of c h a l c o p y r i t e (white)
in s p h a l e r i t e (gray), along twin-boundaries and fissures,
produced by pressure; H l ; 300 X . pg. 26, 46, 49, 56.

FIG. 18.

F a l u n . S p h a l e r i t e (gray) with spots of c h a l c o -

p y r i t e (white) and p y r r h o t i t e (light gray) arranged
along cleavage- and twinning planes, as a result of the segre-
gation of a solid solution of ZnS. x CuFeS . yFeS. Irregular
2

flecks are pyrite. 100 x . pg. 26, 46, 56.

138 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIG. 19.
F a l u n . Same as fig. 18. Etched withCrO,, HCl. sl: white;
cp.: black; irregular white spots: py.; small white spots arran-
ged in lines: po.; the cleavages and twinning planes are black
lines; the spots of cp. and po. occur generally on the inter-
sections of two lines; 100 X . pg. 26, 46, 56.

FiG. 20.
F a l u n . Same as fig. 19. cp.: black spots on the inter-
sections of the black lines (twinning and cleavage) and along
a grain boundary; 600 x . pg. 26, 46, 56.

FIG. 21.
S i e g e n . W e s t p h a l i a . C h a l c o p y r i t e (white) re-
placing s p h a l e r i t e (dark gray) along cleavages and irre-
gular fissures; t e t r a h e d r i t e (light gray); 300 x . pg. 43.

FIG. 22.
S c h e m n i t z . H u n g a r y . G a l e n a with triangulous
holes due to polishing, and a r s e n o p y r i t e; 35 X . pg. 29.

FIG. 23.
H u a y n a . P o t o s i . B o l i v i a . G a l e n a , granular tex-
ture; H B r 2 sec; needle-like etch-figures; note different attack
of each grain; t e t r a h e d r i t e (white) disseminated; quartz
(black with reliëf); 125 x . pg. 37, 38, 48, 56.

FIG. 24.
V a l e a m o r i . Zonal crystal of t e t r a h e d r i t e etched
with CrO , HCl; 35 x . pg. 37, 38.
a

FIG. 25.
C h a n a r c i l l o . C h i l i . Zonal crystal of p r o u s t i t e ;
H l ; 35 X . pg. 37.

FIG. 26.
C h a n a r c i l l o . C h i l i . Same as 25, section perpendicu-
lar to crystallographic axes. 35 X . pg. 37.
 LIST OF FIGURES. 139

FIG. 27.
Ë i l l i t o n . S p h a l e r i t e (black and gray twin-lamellae)
and p y r r h o t i t e (white); granular texture; part of the
section not etched; Hl; 70 x. pg. 38.
FIG. 28.
P z r i b r a m . B o h e m i a . W ü r t z i t e , twins, ice-flower
texture; Hl; 40 x. pg. 38.
FIG. 29.
F r e i b e r g . S a x o n y . A r s e n o p y r i t e , polysynthetic
twinning; Cr0 , HCl; 120 x. pg. 38.
3

FIG. 30.
R a i b l . K a r i n t h i a . W ü r t z i t e replacing c a l c i t e
preserves calcite-cleavages; Hl; 75 X . pg. 43.

FIG. 31.
Freiberg. Himmelfahrt. Christianstehen-
de. Pseudo-dendrites of n a t i v e s i l v e r in d o l o m i t e
(dark gray); thin (white) seams of sm.; q u a r t z (black).
35 x. pg. 44, 98.

FIG. 32.
F r e i b e r g . H i m m e l f a h r t . Ch r is t i an s t e he n-
d e. C a l c i t e dendrites in d o 1 o m i t e, surrounded by thin
seams of sa.; calcite partly replaced by cp. (hght gray), gn.
(white) and ar. (dark gray); 110 X . pg. 44, 98.
FIG. 33.
Freiberg. Himmelfahrt. Christianstehen-
d e. Pseudo-dendrites of c a 1 c i t e (black), surrounded by sm.
(white), partly filled with gn. and ar. (white); etched with dü.
acetic acid; 35 X . pg. 44, 98, 102.
FIG. 34.
Freiberg. Himmelfahrt. Chr stianstehen- ;

de. Thin section; pseudo-dendrites of c a l c i t e in d o l o m i t e

surrounded by sm. (black), partly filled with gn., ar. (black);
arrangement in rhombohedral and perpendicular directions. 16 X .
pg- 44, 98.
140 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIG. 35.
Joachimsthal. B o h e m i a . Pseudo-dendrites of
p r o u s t i t e (dark gray) with small seams of py. (white) in
(white) intergrowth of nc. and ra. in more or less alternating
seams, outer seam is sa.; gangue: dolomite; (black: holes). 35 x .
pg- 44.
FIG. 36. j
J o a c h i m s t h a l . B o h e m i a . Dendrites of c a l c i t e ,
(dark gray) partly replaced by ar., pr. and cp. in intergrowth
of nc. and dolomite (white and gray) surrounded by seam of
ra. with little sa. (white) in gangue of dolomite (gray); 20 X .
pg. 44.

FIG. 37.
Annaberg. Getreue Nachbarschaft. Saxony.
Pseudo-dendritic n a t i v e A g (white) in feathery n a t i v e
A s ; 70 X . pg. 44, 67, 98.

FIG. 38.
M o r e s n e t . B e l g i u m . Dendritic arrangement of ga-
l e n a (black:) in second variety of shaly g a l e n a (white) in
sphalerite (Schalenblende) (gray); HBr 1 sec; 60 x . pg. 44,45,49.

FIG. 39.
T r a n s y l v a n i a . Pseudo-dendrites of g o 1 d in safflorite;
photo Oebbeke and v. Schwarz (IV). 3 X ; 28 X . pg. 44, 111.

FIG. 40.
S c h n e e b e r g . S a x o n y . Gr. W e i s z e r H i r s c h .
N a t i v e b i s m u t h (gray) (pseudodendritic) surrounded by
sa. (white) replacing d o l o m i t e (black), so-called cheleutite.
40 X . pg. 44, 79, 80.

FIG. 41.
P z r i b r a m . B o h e m i a . Pseudo-dendritic g a l e n a (light
gray), surrounded by sl. (dark gray) another seam of gn.;
then ra. (white) with seam of sa. and sm. crystals in dolo-
mite (black); nc. (light gray); some cp.; 50 X . pg. 44.
 LIST OF FIGURES. 141

FIG. 42.
F r e i b e r g . S a x o n y . S t a n n i t e (white) segregations
(with chalcopyrite and sphalerite) i n s p h a l e r i t e with chal-
copyrite (black and gray;) coarse twins of sl.; HBr; 180 X . pg. 46.

FIG. 43.
Z i n n w a l d . S a x o n y . Coarse and iine emulsion-like
segregations of s t a n n i t e (light gray) in s p h a l e r i t e
(gray); chalcopyrite (white); 150 x . pg. 46.
FIG. 44.
W h e a l A g a r mine, C o r n w a l l .
S t a n n i t e with orientated segregate of cp. Some sl.
(black) and arsenopyrite (white). 140 x . pg. 26, 47, 56.

FIG. 45.
Herdorf a/d Sieg. Wes t ph al ia. Segregation c h a l -
co p y r i t e-b o r n i t e (hght gray-dark gray) partly replaced
by secondary c h a l c o c i t e (gray); p y r i t e crystals; 280 X .
pg. 47, 85.
FIG. 46.
L a u t e r b e r g , Harz.
B o r n i t e a n d c h a l c o p y r i t e , „lattice texture" as
the result of segregation; 400 X . pg. 26, 47, 56.

FIG. 47.
Redruth, Cornwall.
B o r n i t e replaced by c h a l c o p y r i t e along cracks and
cleavage lines 130 X . pg. 43, 47.

FIG. 48.
K h a n mine, S w a k o p m u n d , S. W. A f r i c a .
B o r n i t e and c h a l c o p y r i t e , in „graphic inter-
growth" and mutual boundary; „eutectoid"; 500 X . pg. 42,47,56.

FIG. 49.
C o p p e r m a t t e . Eutectic (curviplanar) texture of
unknown Cu-Fe-S compound in b o r n i t e - c h a l c o c i t e ;
segregation bn-cchardly visible; 180 X . pg. 42, 47.
142 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIG. 50.
C o p p e r m a t t e . Segregation b o r n i t e - c h a l c o c i t e ;
same as 49; KCN; cc. (black) bn. (gray), unknown compound
(black); 180 x . pg. 47.

FIG. 51.
T s u m e b , A f r i c a . Pseudo-isometric c h a l c o c i t e ,
lattice texture caused by isometric twinning, (transformation
twins); KCN 5 sec; 85 x . pg. 48, 56.

FIG. 52.
T s u m e b . A f r i c a . Rhombic (supergene) c h a l c o c i t e ;
twinning and cleavages m; granular texture; HC10 ; 120 X . pg. 48.
3

FIG. 53.
S u l i t j e l m a . N o r w a y . P y r r h o t i t e (gray), gra-
nular texture with transformation(?) twinning; white: chal-
copyrite; black: quartz; Hl; 60 x . pg. 49.

FIG. 54.
S u l i t j e l m a . N o r w a y . Same as 53. The undulating
segregations not so strongly attacked by H l as the other part;
another irregular (transformation?) twinning is indistinctly
seen in left part, perpendicular to the first; Hl; 350 X. pg. 49.

FIG. 55.
A n n a b e r g . S a x o n y . Polysynthetic twinning with gli-
ding and curved twins of g a 1 e n a; I in KI 10—15 sec; 80 X .
pg. 49.
FIG. 56.
B a n a t . Zonal built m a g n e t i t e in s p h a l e r i t e
(gray) (with segregations of cp); HBr; 50 X . pg. 43, 49.

FIG. 57.
M o r e s n e t . B e l g i u m . Zonal texture (squares) and
fine zonal banding (light gray) of g a l e n a in w u r t z i t e -
s p h a l e r i t e o r Schalenblende (gray); HBr; 35 x . pg. 37, 38,
43, 45, 49, 50.
 LIST OF FIGURES. 143

FIG. 57a.
M o r e s n e t . B e l g i u m . E s c h b r o s c h m i n e . Den-
dritic (coarse crystalline) g a l e n a (with cubical cleavages) in
concentric shaly g a l e n a (two varieties; one black qua-
drangulous cores in white, nearly unattacked). Remnants of
sphalerite (würtzite) (gray) along borders of the first crystalline
variety of galena. This crystalline variety is cracked by pressure.
HCl 15 seconds; 60 x. pg. 37, 38, 43, 45, 49, 50.

FIG. 58.

M a r k i r c h . A l s a c e . A r s e n i c ; granular, pol. tw.;

K Fe(CN) ; sm. in upper right corner; 70 X . pg. 66.
8 6

FIG. 59.

A n d r e a s b e r g . H a r z . A r s e n i c , feathery; x nicols;
75 x . pg. 35, 66, 67.

FIG. 60.

J o a c h i m s t h a l ; B o h e m i a . Pseudo-dendrites of pr.
(gray) in A s (white); reticulated; open spaces (black); 60 X .
pg. 45, 68.

FIG. 61.
J o a c h i m s t h a l . B o h e m i a . A r s e n i c (gray, K - 3

Fe(CN) ; granular) with B i (white) surrounded by seam of sa.;

6

80 x . pg. 68.

FIG. 62.
J o a c h i m s t h a l . B o h e m i a . A r s e n i c etc; same as
61; 130 x. pg. 68.

FIG. 63.

South R i v e r s i d e , Cal. Antimony, granular,

pol. tw.; K S ; 135 x . pg. 68, 70.
8
144 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIG. 64.
A l l e m o n t . D a u p h i n é. A l l e m o n t i t e , graphic in-
tergrowth (eutectoid) of As (black) and Sb (white); FeCl in 8

water 1 min.; trigonal arrangement of lamellae; cleavage lines

through individual grains; 135 X . pg. 42, 48, 56, 72, 73.

FIG. 65.
Allemont. D a u p h i n é . A l l e m o n t i t e ; same as
64; 570 X . pg. 48, 56, 72, 73.
FIG. 66.
A l l e m o n t . D a u p h i n é . A l l e m o n t i t e ; granular
texture of eutectoid visible; As (white), Sb (black); HN0 8

Sb-component in some grains forms small bars surrounded by

As-comp; 100 X . pg. 48, 56, 72, 73.

FIG. 67.
A l l e m o n t . D a u p h i n é . A l l e m o n t i t e ; same as
66; boundary of two grains; 750 X . pg. 48, 56, 72, 73.

FIG. 68.
A n d r e a s b e r g . H a r z . A s-S b with A g (black) surroun-
ded by sa. (white); K S; S b in black fibres between A s (gray)
8

which has a plumose texture when seen with X nicols; 75 x .

pg. 71, 73, 97.
FIG. 69.
A n d r e a s b e r g . H a r z . As-Sb (black and white inter-
growth) with sa. (white, squares) in dolomite; As-component
tarnished in air, Sb fibres white in irregular cracks through
plumose texture of the As and in small particles; 300 X .
pg. 72, 73.
FIG. 70.
A n d r e a s b e r g . H a r z . As-Sb (Sb: black, As: white);
fine intergrowth; part of one shell of a concentric-shaly aggre-
gate; rounded triangulous prominences in the middle of the
figure are shaly-built; between X nicols scaly texture with
alternating extinction for every fiber of the scale; K S; 350 X.i
a

pg. 72, 74.

 LIST OF FIGURES. 145

FIG. 71.
P z r i b r a m . B o h e m i a . A s - S b (Sb: black, A s : white);
concentric shells of varying composition on A s (lower part);
K , S ; 45 X . pg. 72, 74.

FIG. 72.
Pzribram. B o h e m i a . A s - S b ; same as 71; 850 X .
pg. 72, 74.

FIG. 73.
T a s n a . B o l i v i a . Twinning and grain boundary in n a -
t i v e b i s m u t h , irregular transformation twins, ( H N 0 conc.
8

1 sec), 40 X . pg. 48, 76, 81.

FIG. 74.
T a s n a , B o l i v i a . Same as 73, transformation twins, 125
X . pg. 48, 76, 81.

FIG. 75.
A n n a b e r g . S a x o n y . Granular texture of b i s m u t h
and irregular twinning, right upper corner; (HNO, conc. 1 sec);
170 X . pg. 48, 76, 79.

FIG. 76.
S c h n e e b e r g , S a x o n y . N a t i v e b i s m u t h (dark
gray), sa. (white seams), jasper (light gray); 2 x . pg. 45, 78, 79.

FIG. 77.
S c h n e e b e r g . S a x o n y . Pseudo-feather of arborescent
b i s m u t h in polished section; cores of b i s m u t h (white)
surrounded by sa. and ra. (white), in jasper (black). Directions
correspond with rhombohedral cleavage. 30 X . pg. 45, 78, 79.

FIG. 78.
J o a c h i m s t h a l . B o h e m i a . B i s m u t h (white), sur-
rounded by ra. (white), not etched; beautiful substition forms
of dolomite; 40 X . pg. 45, 78, 80.
Mineragraphy.
146 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIG. 79.
S c h n e e b e r g . S a x o n y . B i s m u t h (white), surroun-
ded by sa. and ra. (white) in quartz (dark gray) and dolomite
(lighter gray); 35 X . pg. 45, 78, 79.

FIG. 80.
S c h n e e b e r g . S a x o n y . Same as 79, etched with HNO».
Black cores: b i s m u t h , white seam: sa., thin small black
seam: ra., white druses: sa., with small black centers of ra.
135 X . pg. 45, 78, 79.

FIG. 81.
S c h n e e b e r g . S a x o n y . B i s m u t h (gray) inside
and outside seams of sa. and ra. (white). Crack through arse-
nides filled with b i s m u t h and gangue through specimen;
barite (black); note small rosettes of sa. in gangue; 50 X .
pg. 45, 78, 79.

FIG. 82.
S c h n e e b e r g . S a x o n y . Same as 81, etched with HNO,;
black, rectilinear figures: b i s m u t h ; grayish, granular seam:
ra.; grayish radiating crystal druses: sa. between which (black)
barite; 120 X . pg- 45, 78, 79.

FIG. 83.
S c h n e e b e r g . S a x o n y . B i s m u t h (white) as large
core and smaü flecks, intergrown with Bi,S, (light gray); slightly
darker gray in upper left corner: td.; dark gray: sl.; black:
gangue; white seam in lower part is sm.; sl. replaced by Bi and
Bi,S,; 100 x . pg. 79.

FIG. 84.
J o a c h i m s t h a l . Boh e m i a. B i smu t h (white) (lower
part with scratches), s m al t it e-chl o an t i t e (nearly
white) with banding, and zone replaced by Bi and Bi,S, (hght
gray), also in small cracks; „fortress" pattern; 240 X . pg. 45,
78, 80.
 LIST OF FIGURES. 147

FIG. 85.
R e d r u t h . C o r n w a l l . Core of b i s m u t h (rough,
gray, tarnished) surrounded by sm. (white) with zone of re-
placement by finely intergrown B i and Bi S ; black: dolomite;
a 3

130 x . pg. 45, 78, 81.

FIG. 86.
T e m i s k a m i n g . O n t a r i o . Broken and partly corro-
ded crystals of sm. (light gray) in b i s m u t h (white); black:
dolomite; 45 x . pg. 78, 81, 102.

FIG. 87.
C l i f f Mine, L a k e S u p e r i o r , M i c h i g a n . Na-
t i v e c o p p e r , coarse granular, recrystallization texture,
twins, hypogene; Cr0 , HCl; 70 x . pg. 49, 83, 87.
3

FIG. 88.
Copper Queen Mine, Bisbee, A r i z o n a . Na-
t i v e c o p p e r , spear-like, supergene; CrO , HCl; black: gangue;
a

60 x . pg. 83, 87.

FIG. 89.
C o p p e r Queen Mine, Bisbee, A r i z o n a . Na-
t i v e c o p p e r , spear-like, zonal and concretional habit,
supergene; CrO , HCl; black: gangue; 60 X . pg. 37, 83, 87.
s

FIG. 90.
C o p p e r Queen Mine, Bisbee, A r i z o n a . Na-
t i v e c o p p e r , concentric banding, twinning, supergene;
Cr0 , HCl; black spots: gangue; 90 x. pg. 37, 83, 87.
3

FIG. 91.
K a u s e r s t e i m e l near Kausen, Westerwald.
N a t i v e c o p p e r (white) in l i m o n i t e (gray and black),
copper alternating with bands of limonite, supergene; unetched
40 x. pg. 85, 96.
148 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIG. 92.
Japan. ? . C h a l c o c i t e (gray), replaced by n a-
t i v e c o p p e r along cracks and grain boundaries, supergene;
unetched; 75 x . pg. 84, 86.

FIG. 93.
Japan. ? . Same as 92, etched with conc. HNO,;
c o p p e r (black) on boundaries of rhombic c h a l c o c i t e
grains and through them; c h a l c o c i t e (gray) shows trans-
formation twins of hypogene cc. (left part) and rhombic habit
of supergene cc; 75 X . pg. 48, 84, 86.

FIG. 94.
Coro-Coro, B o l i v i a . N a t i v e c o p p e r (white) in
sandstone; sand grains (black) are mostly sharp edged and cor-
roded; unetched; 40 X . pg. 87.

FIG. 95.
A t a c a m a , C h i l i . N a t i v e c o p p e r (white) inter-
grown with c o p p e r - p i t c h - o r e (light gray); emulsion-
texture due to colloidal precipitation; roughly concentric cluster-
like aggregate surrounded by film of c u p r i t e (dark gray),
supergene; black: holes; unetched; 140 X . pg. 86, 190.

FIG. 96.
C l i f f M i n e , L a k e S u p e r i o r , M i c h i g a n . Na-
t i v e c o p p e r (white) in conglomerate between boundaries
of rock-grains and pebbles (black) and in small cracks and spots
inside the pebbles; unetched; 35 X . pg. 87.
FIG. 97.
H o u g h t o n Mine, L a k e S u p e r i o r , M i c h i g a n .
C o p p e r - s i l v e r alloy; dendrites of copper-component (black)
in eutecticum, hypogene; Heyn's reagent; 140 X . pg. 23, 24,
41, 88, 94, 101.

FIG. 98.
H o u g h t o n Mine, L a k e S u p e r i o r , M i c h i g a n .
N a t i v e c o p p e r (black) and c o p p e r - s i l v e r eutec-
ticum, hypogene; Hein's reagent; 140 X . pg. 88, 94, 101.
 LIST OF FIGURES. 149

FIG. 99.
C l i f f Mine, M i c h i g a n . C o p p e r - s i l v e r alloy;
dendrites of süver-component (white) in eutecticum; obtained
by heating native silver on copper above the eutectic tempera-
ture for some minutes; 200 x . pg. 24, 88, 101.

FIG. 100.
Mina Reforma. Campo Morado. Guerrero.
M e x i c o . N a t i v e s i l v e r . Zonal crystals, spear-like,
supergene; H l 2 sec.; 125 x . pg. 91, 93, 100.

FIG. 101.
H i m m e l s f ü r s t . F r e i b e r g . Curved s i l v e r wire,
ceüular texture; H l 2 sec; 65 x . pg. 91, 94, 97.

FIG. 102.
C h a n a r c i l l o . C h i l i . S i l v e r wire, longitudonal sec-
tion, upper half is outer zone, lower half is the core; the former
has a rind-like texture, the latter is cellular-granular; Hl 2 sec;
70 x . pg. 91, 94, 99.

FIG. 103.
C h a n a r c i l l o . C h i l i . Same wire as in 102, cross-se ction
through curved part; 70 x. pg. 91, 94, 99.

FIG. 104.
M a n s f e l d . G e r m a n y . Fine intergrowth of A g (white)
with cc. (light gray) and bn. (dark gray) emulsion texture,
deposited by cold solutions, quartz (black); 1400 X . pg. 97.

FIG. 105.
B r o k e n H i 11. S. W a l e s . S i l v e r replacing ar. (gray);
enrichment zone, ar. is concentric-shaly built and supergene;
85 x . pg. 99.

FIG. 106.
S a l i d a , L e a d e r v e i n . S u m a t r a . S i l v e r and
hessite (white) in c a l c i t e and zeolites (gray) and quartz
(dark gray); 300 x . pg. 99, 112.
150 LIST OF FIGURES.
I
FIG. 107.
Chili. ? . S i l v e r (light gray) somewhat tarnished,
surrounded by shells of sm. and (in the outer seam) sa and ra;
180 X . pg. 100, 102.
FIG. 108.
C a r i b o u mine. G i l p i n County. Colorado.
S i l v e r (white) in ar. (gray) with cp. and gn. (light gray)
replacing sl. (dark gray with segregate of cp.); euhedral
quartz (black); 140 x . pg. 101.
FIG. 109.
C o b a l t . O n t a r i o . T e m i s k a m i n g m i n e . Pseudo-
dendrites of n a t i v e s i l v e r - d y s c r a s i t e surrounded
by sa., sm., n c , br., replacing dolomitic gangue; some den-
drites are filled with calcite; hypogene; 2 X . pg. 44, 101.

FIG. 110.
C o b a l t , O n t a r i o . T e m i s k a m i n g m i n e . Same
as fig. 109; 20 x. pg. 44, 101.
FIG. 111.
Cobalt, Ontario. Canada. Silver-dyscrasite
segregation (black and white) and br. surrounded by seam of
intergrowth of sa., ra. and n c ; s i l v e r occurs also in small
particles in the seam between other minerals; black outside
is dolomite; süver tarnished in air; 120 X . pg. 48, 91, 93, 101.
FIG. 112.
C o b a l t O n t a r i o . L a R o s e m i n e . Veinlets of A g
(white) with n c and br. (gray) in sm. and ra. (light and
somewhat darker gray). 150 x . pg. 102.

FIG. 113.
V a l d ' E v a n c o n . P i e m o n t . I t a l y . Nugget. Granu-
lar texture of g o 1 d; twins; CrO„, HCl; 50 X . pg. 106, 110, 1 U .

FIG. 114.
M a r t a p o e r a . B o r n e o . Nugget. Concentric texture of
g o l d containing Pt, Hg, Ir, Os; Cr0 , HCl; 600 X . pg. 107,112.
3
 LIST O F FIGURES. 151

FIG. 115.

G r a v e l o t t e mine. M u r c h i s o n Range. Hae-

n e r t s b u r g . T r a n s v a a l . G o l d and l i m o n i t e de-
posited simultaneously in concentric shells; all white spots are
gold; limonite: dark gray; s t i b i c o n i t e : black; 150 X .
pg. 96, 108, 115.

FIG. 116.

G r a v e l o t t e mine. M u r c h i s o n Range. Hae-

n e r t s b u r g , T r a n s v a a l . G o l d (white) and l i m o -
n i t e (dark gray) deposited together in s t i b i c o n i t e (gray);
the limonite between the gold seams is light gray due to the
multitude of small gold particles of 0.001 m.m. and smaller in it
and the gold below the surface; 200 X . pg. 96, 108, 115.

FIG. 117.

D u t c h G u y a n a . S u r i n a m e . Nugget of g o l d and
l i m o n i t e ; gold is partly coarse and partly arranged concen-
triccally with the limonite shells; 130 x. pg. 96. 108, 109, 114.

FIG. 118.

Dutch Guyana. S u r i n a m e . Same as 117; 3 5 0 X .

pg. 96, 108, 109, 114.

FIG. 119.

L a P a z . B o l i v i a . Flattened nugget; highly deformed

crystals and crushed, faulted and broken zones; 60 x . pg. 109,
113.

FIG. 120.

D u t c h G u y a n a . S u r i n a m e . Nugget. Cluster-like
shapes of g o l d and l i m o n i t e , deposited simultaneously
from colloidal precipitates; 600 x. pg. 109, 113, 114.

FIG. 121.

F a c z e b a y a . T r a n s y l v a n i a . Vein of n a t i v e g o l d
(white) and q u a r t z (black) in propylite; quartz in euhedral
crystals between which gold is deposited; 3 0 X . pg. 111.
152 LIST O F FIGURES.

FIG. 122.

O r a v i c z a . B a n a t . H e l e n a m i n e . G o l d (white)
in squares, replacing calcite and surrounded by r a m m e l s -
b e r g i t e and s m a l t i t e (light gray); dolomite: black;
60 X . pg. 111.

FIG. 123.

O r a v i c z a . B a n a t . H e l e n a m i n e . Same as 122;
in the middle, a square of gold etched with CrO , HCl, which s

shows zonal texture resulting from different Ag contents; 400 X .

pg. 111.
FIG. 124.
B e r e z o w s k . U r a l . G o l d (white) in a i k i n i t e (gray),
which is replaced by cv. (dark gray veinlets); black: holes;
65 X . pg. 111.

FIG. 125.
W o i t z k o i mine. Gov. Olonez. S i b e r i a . G o l d
(white) replacing bn. (gray) and c a l c i t e (black); bornite
replaces calcite as well along rhombohedral faces; 30 X . pg. 111 •

FIG. 126.
Siberia. ? . G o l d (white), s u l v a n i t e (light
gray) and rhombic c h a l c o c i t e (somewhat darker gray) in
fissures through vein quartz (black); sulvanite contains co-
v e l l i t e in fissures. 40 X . pg. 111.

FIG. 127.
RedjangLebong. Rich Leader from Lebong
D o n o k v e i n . S u m a t r a . G o l d (white) together with
c h a l c o p y r i t e (light gray) and a g u i l a r i t e (rough
gray surface) in quartz (black); sphalerite in small patches
(dark gray); 450 X . pg. 112.

FIG. 128.

T o t o k . C e l e b e s . G o l d in irregular veinlets together

with q u a r t z (gray) replacing c a l c i t e (black); acetic acid;
60 X . pg. 112.
 LIST OF FIGURES. 153

FIG. 129.
D u t c h G u y a n a . S u r i n a m e . N u g g e t . G o l d in
l i m o n i t e ; small crystals along border; 350 X . pg. 109, 114.

FIG. 130.
W i t w a t e r s r a n d . T r a n s v a a l . G o l d i n coarse and
small particles in p y r i t e ; 700 X . pg. 115.

FIG. 131.
U r a l . M a g n e t i c p l a t i n u m ; CrO ,HCl; crystallo-
s

graphical texture due to transformations of the Pt-Fe alloy;

350 x. pg. 117, 119, 120.

FIG. 132.
U r a l . M a g n e t i c p l a t i n u m ; Cr0 ,HCl; irregular
3

granular, fine striae on the grains hardry visible, twinning;

350 x. pg. 117, 119.

FIG. 133.
U r a l . M a g n e t i c p l a t i n u m ; same as 132; twin;
1400 X . pg. 117, 118.

FIG. 134.
U r a l . P l a t i n u m euhedral between c h r o m i t e
(gray, badly polished); i r i d o s m i n e laths (white) in the
platinum grain to the left; 100 X . pg. 118, 119, 120.

FIG. 135.
U r a l . N y s c h n e T a g i l s k . Boundaries of three pla-
tinum grains; Cr0 , HCl; 3 systems of lines; nugget of 70 grams;
3

in black spot to the left 2 small laths of iridosmine. 200 x.

pg. 118, 119, 120.

FIG. 136.
B ü h l . W e i m a r . I r o n (white) surrounded by seam of
oxide (gray), then by irregular seam of t r o i l i t e (pyr-
r h o t i t e ) in basalt (very hght gray); basaltic gangue is dark
gray and black; 120 X . pg. 123.
154 LIST OF FIGURES.

FIG. 137.
G r e e n l a n d . D i s c o . T r o i l i t e (light gray) traversed
and surrounded by oxide (black-gray); white small seam;
cementite; graphic texture of "pearlite a oxide" (on the right);
600 X . pg. 123, 124.

FIG. 138.
G r e e n l a n d . D i s c ö . Coarse graphic intergrowth of
c e m e n t i t e (white) and p e a r l i t e (light gray, mottled
because slightly polished after etching) black: oxide; picric
acid; 80 X . pg. 124.

FIG. 139.
G r e e n l a n d . D i s c ö . Coarse and crystallographic inter-
growth of c e m e n t i t e (white) and pearlite (black and mott-
led) in a grain of iron in basalt; the grain occupies nearly the
whole figure; picric acid; 35 X . pg. 124.

FIG. 140.
G r e e n l a n d . D i s c ö . Widmanstatten texture of ce-
m e n t i t e (white) and p e a r l i t e (mottled) same as 139;
600 X . pg. 124.

FIG. 141.
O r e g o n . J o s e p h i n e mine. Graphic intergrowth of
n i c k e l - i r o n and o x i d e . 600 X pg. 125.

FIG. 142.
O r e g o n . J o s e p h i n e mine. Graphic intergrowth of
iron (white) and copper (grayish, mottled); HNO, dil.; black:
oxide; 600 X . pg. 125.

FIG. 143.
L a n g b a n . Sweden. L e a d , granular; twins; HNO,;
75 x. pg. 126.
INDEX TO FIGURES
AND
GENERAL INDEX.
 INDEX T O FIGURES.
Hgs.
Aguilarite 12'
Aikinite 124
Allemontite 64—72
Antimony **3
Argentite (33), (36), 105, 108
Arsenic 37, 58—62
Arsenopyrite 29
Bismuth 40, 61, 62, 73—86
Bismuthinite 83—85
Bornite 47, 125
Bornite-chalcopyrite 45, 46, 48
Bornite-chalcocite 49, 50
Breithauptite 110, 111, 112
Calcite (dolomite) 32, 33, 34, 36, 125
Cementite 14, 137—140
Chalcocite 45, 51, 52, 92, 93, 104, (126)
Chalcotite-bornite 49, 50
Chalcopyrite 21, (36), 47, (41), (108), (127)
Chalcopyrite—bornite 45,46,48
Chalcopyrite — sphalerite 17—20, 56, 108
Chalcopyrite — stannite 44
Cheleutite 40
Chloantite 84
Chromite 134
Cleavages 19, 20, 21, 135
Copper 87—99
Copper — silver alloy 97—99
Copper pitch ore 95
Cuprite 95
Dyscrasite —silver 109—111
Enrichment 92, 93, 105, 125
Etchfigures 23
Ferrite 14, 138, 139, 140
158 INDEX TO FIGURES.
Flgf.
Galena 22, 23, (33), 38, 41, 55, 57, 57a, (108)
Galena — tetrahedrite 23
Gold 39, 113-130
Gold — silver 1 2 3

Hessite \ 1 0 6

Iridosmine . . . 134, 135

Iron 14,136-142
Iron — nickel
Iron — copper , • • • ™
Josephinite 141, 142
Lead 1 4 3

Limonite 91. H 5 - H 8
Magnetite 5 6

Metasomatism 21, 30-41, 47, 57, 57«, 76-85,92, 93,105, 107,

109—111, 122, 123, 125, 128
Niccolite 35, (36), (41), 110. 111, 112
Pearlite 14, 138, 139, 140
Pentlandite > jjj
i5

Pentlandite — pyrrhotite 15, 16

Platinnm 131-135
Pronstite 25. 26, 35, (36), 60
Pyrite '
4 5 1 3 0

Pyrrhotite 15, 16, 18, 19, (27), 53, 54

Pyrrhotite — pentlandite '!Q
Pyrrhotite — chalcopyrite — sphalerite . ! . . . . 18, 19
Pyrrhotite — sphalerite • • 27
Quartz >
m
*I
Rammelsbergite 35, 41, 77-82, 110-112, 122
Replacement * * Metasomatism.
Safflorite 32,35,39-41, 61, 62, 68, 69, 76, 77, 79-82, 107, 110,
Segregations 14-20, 42-46, 48-50, 64-€7, 110,

Silver 31,37,68, 100-112

97—99
Süver - copper ™ »
Süver — dyscrasite !'„
Smaltite 31, 33, 83-86. 107, 112, 122
Sphalerite .' 17-21, 27. 38. (41).56. (57),,(108)
Sphalerite - chalcopyrite 17-20. « U 0 8
Sphalerite — chalcopyrite — pyrrhotite 18—1»
 INDEX TO FIGURES. 159
Figs.
Sphalerite — stannite 42,43
Sphalerite — pyrrhotite 27
Stannite — chalcopyrite 44
Stannite — sphalerite 42, 43,
Sulvanite 126
Tetrahedrite (21), (23), 24
Texture (ceUular) 101, 102, 103
(concentric) 95, 114, 120
(concentric shaly) 57,57a, 70, 71, 89, 90, 91, 115—118
(curvi-planar) 49, 50, 97, 98
(emulsion) 43, 95, 104, 120
(eutectic, eutectoidic) 14, 48, 64—67,97—99,137—139
„• (feathery, plumose) 28, 59
(granular) 23, 27, 52, 53, 58, 63, 66, 75, 87, 113, 143
„ (graphic intergrowth) . . . . 48, 64—67, 137—142
(lattice, crystallographic) 18—20, 44, 46, 51, 93,111,
131, 140
„ (incipient lattice) 21, 47
„ (network) 14, 15
(pseudo-dendritic) 31—41, 57, 60, 76—82, 109—111,
122, 123
„ (recrystallization) 87, 113
(scaly) 71, 72
(zonal) 24—26, 56, 57, 89, 100, 123
Troilite 136, 137
Twins . . . . 17—20, 27—29, 51—55, 58, 63, 73—75, 87,
90, 93, 113, 132, 133, 143
Würtzite 28, 30
 GENERAL INDEX.

Abbreviations 53, 57. montite, f i g . 68), 92. 97 (silver, f i g .

Abrasives 7. 68).
Absorption-index 30. Anglesite 31, n o .
A c e t i c a c i d 44. Anisotropic minerals 33.
A c i c u l a r 54. Annaberg 67 (arsenic, f i g . 37), 79 (bis-
A d u l a r i a 107. m u t h , f i g . 75). 98 (silver, f i g . 37)-
A g a t e 50. A n t h r a c i t e 38.
Antimony 66, 6 8 - 7 0 , 91. 9 5 . 97-
Aguilarite 107, 112.
A i k i n i t e 107, r n (fig. 124). A n t i o q u i a 113 (gold).
Alabandite 75. Aragonite 95.
A l b i t e 85. Argentite 44, 48, 73, 91. 92. 9 5 ~ 3 . i o

Alghero Sassari 85 (copper). 107, i n , 112.

A l l e m o n t 69 (antimony). 72, 73, (alle- Arqueros 92.
montite, f i g . 64—67), 97. Arsenic 6 5 - 6 8 , 68, 69, 91, 9 5 . 97. 98.

Allemontite 42, 69, 7 0 - 7 4 . — -antimony 48.

A L L E N , E . T . 60. Arsenopyrite 31. 3 > 68, 69, 81, 107.
8

Allotriomorphic 54. "3-

— granular 56.
— texture 41.
A l l o t r o p i c transformation 48, 53.
A l l o t r o p y 48, 53.
A l l o y A g - C u 23, 41, 88 (figg. 9 7 ~ 9 9 )
94, 101.
A l l u v i a l deposits 107, 109, 113, " 7 -
A l m e r i a 103 (amalgam).
A l t a i 99 (silver), n 1 (gold).
A r t i f i c i a l hght 1.
A t a c a m a 86 (copper, f i g . 95)-
A u g i t e 18, 21, 31.
Azurite 87, I t » .
B A K H U I S R O O S E B O O M , H . W . 15, 26,
59-
B a l d B u t t e M i n e 114 (gold).
B a r i t e 92, 97, 98. 7 - i o

A l t a i t e 75. Barkeville 115 (gold).

Altenberg 80 (bismuth). Basic lavas 84.
Altenkirchen 85 (copper). B A S T I N , E . S . 104.
A l u n d u m 8. B A T E M A N , A . M . 59-
Amorphous minerals 33. B E C K , R . 118, 120, 121.
A m p h i b o l e 31, 85. B E C K — B E R G 121.
A m y g d a l o i d a l 54. B E C Q U E R E L 84.
Analyser 6. Bendigo 112 (gold).
Analysis 38. B E N E D I C K S , E . 125.
Anatase 116. Berezowsk n o (gold, f i g . 124).
Andreasberg 67 (arsenic f i g . 59), 69 Berzelianite 107, 112.
(antimony, f i g . 6 8 - 7 0 ) , 73 (alle- Betzdorf 85 (copper).
 GENERAL INDEX. 161

B E U T E L L , A . 88, 94, 104, 115. Cementite 122, 124.

Bieber 80 (bismuth). Chabazite 85.
B i n a r y systems 16. C H A D B O U R N , C H . H . 104.
Bisbee 87 (copper, f i g . 88, 89, 90). Chalanches, L e s , 6 9 (antimony).
Bismuth 29, 44, 45, 48, 49, 66, 75—82, Chalcedony 107.
90, 92, 95, 98, 101, 102, 105. Chalcocite 2, 24, 47, 48, 54, 84, 86,
B i s m u t h i n i t e 76, 78, 79, 80 81. 87, 93. 9 7 . 9 9 . Hti
B i s m u t i t e 81. — -bornite (see bn.-cc.).
B i t u m i n o u s shales 92, 94. — -covellite 47.
B l a d e d 54. Chalcopyrite 16, 26, 29, 41, 44, 45,
B O E K E , H . E . 121, 122, 125. 46, 66, 76, 77, 97-
Bonidoro mountains 114 (gold). — -bornite (see bn.-cp).
BORNEMANN, K . 89, IO4. — -sphalerite (see sl.-cp.).
Borneo 70 (antimony), 107, 112 (gold Chanarcillo 91, 9 9 (silver, f i g . 102,
f i g . 114), 121 (platinum). i°3)-
B o r n i t e 26, 84, 92, 93, 97. I 0
3. IO
7> Cheleutite 80.
in. Chilagos 81 (bismuth).
— -Chalcocite 42, 47. Chloantite 66, 76, 77, 78, 79.
— -Chalcopyrite 47. Chlorite 85.
B o t r y o i d a l 54. Chromic oxide 8.
Boulder C o 115 (gold). Chromite 117, 119.
Bourg d'Oisans 110 (gold). Chrysokolla 85, l i l .
Break-down 15, 24. Cinnabar 31, 32, 103.
Breithauptite 44, 77, 92, 101, 102. Cleavage planes 25, 26, 37, 43, 44, 46.
Broken H i l l 70 (antimony), 9 9 (silver — triangles 29.
fig- 105). Cliff M i n e 87 (copper, f i g . 87, 96).
B r o m y r i t e 31, 93, 99. Cobalt district 44 (fig. 109, 110) 48
B r u n s w i c k , N . 70 (antimony).
;
(fig. i n ) 90, 91, 92, 93, I Q
i ( g-
fi

B H Ü N T O N , S. 59. 109—112).
B ü h l 123 (iron, f i g . 136). — -nickel ores 44, 81, 92, 97, 99,
B U R G E R S , G . K . 89. 101.
B u r r a B u r r a mine 8 6 (copper). Cobaltite 77, 95.
Butte 101 (silver). C O H E N , E . 82, 83, 89.
Colloidal solutions 41, 83.
Cable mine 114 (gold). Color 29, 51.
C a l a B o n a M i n e 8 5 (copper). — of the powder 32.
Calcite 31, 32, 43, 81, 85, 92, 99, Coloradoite 75.
101, 102, I I I . Colquiri 100 (silver).
California 70 (antimony). Columnar 54.
C A M P B E L L , W . 13, 81, 89, 104. Comstock 101 (silver).
Campo Morado 100 (silver f i g . 100). Conceicao 113 (gold) 119 (platinum).
Carborundum 8. Concentric 54.
Caribou mine 101 (silver f i g . 108), — shaly structure 37, 45, 50, 69,
115 (gold). 71. 73. 5> 8 IO
7> I 0
9> I I 2
> X I
4. I X
5-
Cassiterite 31, 77. Condado Serro 118, 119 (platinum).
Celebes 112 (gold fig. 128). Congruent meltingpoint 22.
Cell-texture 25, 97, 99. Constantine 8 8 (copper).
Cells 23. Constitution diagrams 15—26.
Mineragraphy. 11
162 GENERAL INDEX.

Contact-me tamorphic deposits 49. Dolomite 31.

Copiapo 86 (copper) 100 (silver).
Copper 11, 31, 49, 77, 82—89, 92,
96, 99, 105, 125.
— arsenates 84, 86.
— carbonates 84.
— pitchore 84, 86.
— Queen Mine Ar. 87 (copper fig.
88-90).
— selenides 94, 107.
silver-alloy 41, 88 (fig. 97—99).
94, 101.
Coralloidal 54.
Cornwall 77 (bismuth) 85 (copper).
Coro Coro 83, 84, 87 (copper) 92, 96.
Corrego des Lages 119 (platinum).
Covelhte 93.
Croesus Mine (Ca) 114 (gold).
Crown Point 114 (gold).
Crystal-shape and structure 38.
— structure 36.
CrystaUinity 39, 55.
Crystallographical texture 25, 26, 47,
56. 93-
Cuchara Mine 100 (silver).
Cuprite 31, 32, 84, 85, 86, 87.
Curvi-planal (see fan-like) 42.
Damararaland 88 (copper).
Datolite 85.
Dauphiné 69 (antimony) 73
montite (fig. 64—67).
DAVY, W . M . 13.
Dedolomitisation 44, 97, I O I , 102.
Delafossite 84.
Dendrites 24, 43.
Description 50.
Diamantine 8.
Diamond 117.
— powder 8.
Diffusion 45, 49.
Dimorphism 54.
Disco 122, 124 (iron fig. 137 — 140).
Disks 8.
Dispersion 34.
— of doublé refraction 35.
— of polariz. directions 35.
DOERINCKEL, F . Il6.
Domeykite 84, 87, 92.
Doublé refraction 32.
DRUDE, P. 39.
DUPARC, M . L . 121.
Durango 100 (silver).
Dutch Guyana (Suriname) 109, 113
(gold fig. 117, n 8 , 120, 129).
Dyscrasite 48, 66, 73, 91 (fig. i n )
93, 99. I ° I (fig- m ) -
Echizen 68 (arsenic).
Edele Braunspath formation 98 (sil-
ver).
Eisenblüthe 95.
E l Oro Mine 114 (gold).
Electro-osmosis 84.
— -kinetic phenomena 84, 95, 108.
Electrolytic etching 38.
Electrum i n .
Elliptical polarization 6, 34.
Eluvial deposits (gold) 109, 120.
Emery 8.
EMMONS 108.
Emplectite 77.
Ems 85 (copper).
Emulsion (texture) 46.
Enantiotropic 54.
Equi-granular-texture 41.
Equihbrium diagrams 15.
alle- Erzgebirge 80 (bismuth).
Etch figures 37.
Etching 36, 51.
— by heating 38.
Euhedral minerals 42.
Eutectic 41.
— (mixture) 54.
— point 21, 22.
— temperature 23, 42, 54.
— texture 22, 24, 41, 56, 87, 101.
Eutectoid 41.
Eutectoidic texture 22, 25, 42, 56.
Examination 52.
Fabric 40, 55.
Faczebaye (Hungary) 75 (tellurium)
110 (gold, fig. 121 fig. 39)-
Fahlbands 95, 99-
 GENERAL INDEX. 163

Fahhun 107, 111 (gold). Globular 54.

Fair Vew Mine 114 (gold). Glynn Linnedale 81 (bismuth).
Famatina (cerro) 100 (silver). Gn-pr-td-pg-ar 47.
Fan-li ke (see curviplanar) 23, 42. Gold n , 29, 31, 33, 45. 95. 99-
F A R N H A M , C. M . 13. 105-116,
Feldspars 31. — selenides 94.
F E N N E R , C. N . 89. Goldfield 114 (gold).
Ferrite 122, 124. GRANIGG, B. 13, 60, 89.
Ferro-platinum 117, 119. Granular texture 56.
Fibrous 55. Granularity 40, 55.
Fi li form 54. Graphic intergrowth 23, 25, 41, 56,
Filters 2. 72. 73. i o
3-
F I N D L A Y 26, 59. G R A T O N , L . C. 60, 61.
Flosferri 95. Gravelotte mine 114 (gold, fig. 115,
Fluorite 92, 97. 116).
Foliated 55. Great Boulder Reef 107 (gold).
Forms of minerals 54. — Fingalmine 113 (gold).
Fortress pattern 79. G R I N D I N G 6—11.
Fredericksburg 107 (gold). — powders 7.
Freiberg 44 (fig. 3 ! ~ 3 4 ) 4 ° ( 8 - ll
Guanaco (Cerro) 99 (silver) 108, 113
42) 66, 67 (arsenic) 69 (antimony) (gold).
Guerrero 87 (copper) 100 (silver fig.
91, 92. 97-
100).
F R E U N D U C H , H . 84.
F R I E D R I C H , K . 89, 94, 104. GüERTLER, W . I25.

Friedrichssegen 85 (copper). G U I L D , F . N . 60, 93, 104.

Frieseite 66, 67, 97, 98. Gumeschewskoi Mine 86 (copper).

Fürstenberg 98 (silver). Gunnison, Co 75 (telluruim).
Gusjewa 120 (platinum).
Galena 29, 31, 37, 44, 49. 74. 77. Gypsum 84, 85.
96, 101, 107, 110, 112, 114.
— covellite 48. Haenertsburg 115 (gold fig. 115, 116).
— pearcite 48. H A L L , T>. A . 61.
— tetrahedrite 48. H and pres s 13.
Gardette 110 (gold). Hardness 27.
Garnet 31, 85, 99, 107. Harz 41. (Rammelsberg), 107.
Gels 50. H E L D E R M A N , W . D . 83, 89.

Genesis 52. Helena mine (Banat) n 1 (gold fig.

Geological thermometers 48. 122, 123).
Gesegnete Bergmannshoffnung 98 Hematite 26, 48, 84.
(silver). Herberton 81 (bismuth).
Getreue Nachbarschaft 67 (arsenic Herdorf a/d Sieg 85 (copper fig. 85).
fig- 37) 98 (silver fig. 37). Herrensegen 97 (silver).
Geyer 80 (bismuth). Herrerias 103 (amalgam).
G I B B S 15. Hessite 74, 99, 113.
G I L B E R T , C. C. 60. Heulandite 85.
Gilpin County 101 (silver fig. 108). H E Y C O C K 89, 116.

G I U R G E N , E . 89. H E Y I R O NISHIO 89.

Glacier ice 49. High-temperature-deposits 41.

164
Himmelfahrt mine
3 -34)-
R
H i m m e l s f ü r s t mine 9 7 (silver).
H l N T Z E 52.
H l S E C . R . VAN 104.
H o h e Goldberg (Salzburg) III (gold).
HOSTETTER, J. C.
H o u g h t o n 87 (copper, f i g . 97, 9 - 99)-
H O Y T , S. L . 60.
H t e . Iturie 115 (gold).
Huasco alto 9 9 (silver).
H u n t i l i t e 103.
H U S S A K E . 60, 115,
H y p i d i o m o r p h i c 55.
— granular 56.
IDDINGS 40.
Identification of minerals 28—39.
Idioblasts 42.
Idiomorphic 55.
— minerals 42.
Igneous rocks 40.
Ilmenite 21, 25, 48.
Immersion 6, 31.
Imsbach 88 (copper).
Incongruent melt 21.
Inesite 107.
Infusorial earth 8.
Internal reflections 32.
Investigation of specimens 28.
Iodyrite 93.
I r i d i u m 107, 116.
Iridosmine 112, 116—120.
Iron 25, 31, 48, 116, 121 — 125.
— spinel 26, 48.
ISAAC, E . 121, 125.
Isère 110 (gold).
Isometric minerals 33.
Isotropic minerals 33.
J a m n y , M t . , (Pzribram)
mony).
J A N E C K E , E . 82, 83, 89.
J a p a n 8 6 (copper f i g . 92, 93).
J e ü o u s precipitates 41.
— mediae 42.
Joachimsthal 66, 67 (arsenic f i g .
60—62) 80 ( b i s m u t h f i g . 40,
84) 93- 98 (süver).
GENERAL INDEX.
9 7 (silver f i g . Johann Georgenstadt 79 (bismuth)
98 (silver).
J O H N S T O N , W . A . 116.
Josephine mine 125 (nickel-iron f i g .
141, 142.
Josephinite 122.
121. Junge hohe B i r k e 67 (arsenic) 6 9 (an-
8
timony).
J U N N E R , N . R . 116.
K A L B , G . 74.
Kalgoorlie 113 (gold).
118, 121. K a m a z i t e 122.
K a m e n u s c h k a 120 (platinum).
K a o l i n 107, 108, 113.
KapiHar Chemie 84.
K&usersteimel mine 85 (copper, fig.
91).
K e l e p h i t i c zones 21.
K E I X E R B E R R V , J . N . 89.
K E M P , J . F . 121.
K e r n C o K e r n v i l l e 70 (antimony).
Kiesgrube (Geyer) 80.
K i n g s mountain mine 107.
K I R K E R O S E 116.
K y s c h t i m s k , K o n ü c h o w s k mine 86
(copper).
K l o n d i k e 115 (gold).
K N I G H T , C . W . 81, 104.
K N O P F , A . 121.
K O E N I G S B E R G E R , J . F . 39.
Kongsberg 90, 91, 92, 95, 98 (silver).
Kotschkanar 120 (platinum).
K R E M A N N 95, 105.
L a P a z 100 (silver) 113 (gold).
L a Rose mine 102 (silver f i g . 112).
L a k e superior 49, 83, 84, 87 (copper
fig. 87, 96-99) 92, i Q I
(silver).
6 9 (anti- L a m e l l a r 55.
LANEY, F. B 60.
L a n g b a n 126 (lead. f i g . 143)-
L a t t i c e texture 47, 48, 56, 93.
L A U G B X I N , D . H . M c . 59, 61.
Lead 31, 125.
— zinc ores 45.
L E P K O W S K Y , W . v . 89.
78,
L E R O U X , A . 89, 94, 104.
 GENERAL INDEX. 165

L I N C O L N , F . C . 115. Mossy 54.

L i m o n i t e 50, 85, 96, 106, 107, 108, M o u n t i n g of specimens 12.
113, 114, 115. M Ü G G E , O. 60.
L i q u i d u s curve 18. M O L L E R , R . 105.
L i s t of reagents 57. Munga Creek 69, 7 0 (antimony, f i g .
L l V E R S I D G E IO7. 63)-
L O C K E , A . 61. M ü n s t e r t h a l 73 (allemontite).
M U R D O C H , J . 14, 60.
Magmatic deposits 25, 41, 43, 46. M u t u a l intergrowth 42, 56.
Magnetite 25, 81, 113, 117.
— -ilmenite-iron spinel 48. Nagyag 107.
— -hematite 48. Nagyagite 75.
Malachite 50, 86. Nakrite 100.
M a l a j a Prostokischenka 120 (plati- N a t i v e metais (grinding) 11.
num). N e t w o r k texture 25, 2 6 .
M a m m i l l a r y 54. N e w Granada, 113 (gold) 121 (plati-
Manantoddy 112 (gold). num).
Manganese oxides 9 6 . N . Guinea 107.
Mansfeld 42, 92, 94, 9 7 (silver f i g . N i c c o ü t e 44, 66, 76, 77, 99, 101, 102,
104). 103.
Marienberg 66, 6 7 (arsenic) 7 9 bis- Nickel-iron 122, 125.
muth) 9 8 (silver). Nischne T a g i l s k 86 (copper), 120
M a r k i r c h 6 6 (arsenic f i g . 58) 9 7 (sil- (platinum).
ver). NISSEN, A . E . 60.
Martapoera 107, 112 (gold f i g . 114) N o d u l a r 53.
121 (platinum). Nonesuch F o r m a t i o n 88 (copper).
Matchlen mine 88 (copper). Nomenclature L i s t 53.
MERVIN, H . E . 60 . Nugget (gold) 109, i n , 113.
Metacrist 55. — (platinum) 117, 121.
Metallographic microscope 1.
Metasomatic deposits 45, 49. Oaxaca 114 (gold).
M e t a s o m a t i s m 43—45. Object-glass 12.
Meteorites 25. Objectives 6.
M i c a 31. Oblique Ught I .
Microscopes 4. Oculars 6.
Microscopical Arrangement 1. O E B B E K E , K . 89, 104, 115.
M I L L E R , W . G . 82, 104. Offenbanya 107, 110 (gold).
M i n a s Geraes 113 (gold) 119 (plati- O ü v i n e 18, 21.
num). Olonez, gov. 111 (gold f i g . 125).
M i n e de K i l o 115 (gold). Ontario 44.
M i x e d crystal 16. O ö l i t i c forms 50.
M O E S V E L D , A . L . 82. O p a l 50.
Mohawk M i n e 114 (gold). O p t i c a l bench 5.
M o l d a v i a 85 (copper). O r a v i c z a 111 (gold f i g . 122, 123).
Monte C a t i n i 85 (copper). Ore-formation 39.
Moresnet 45 (fig. 38, 57) 49. Orthoclase 42.
Morro Velho 113 (gold). O s m i u m 107, 116.
Moschel Landsberg 103 (amalgam). Oued B o u d o u k a 88.
 GENERAL INDEX.
166
OVERBECK ÓO. Preparation of specimens 6.
Ovifak 122, 124 (iron, fig. 137-140). Prescott 101 (silver).
Ozaruzawa Mine 86 (copper). Prince Wüliam (N. Brunswick) 70
(antimony).
Paleh-leh (Celebes) 112 (gold). Prism illuminator 2.
Palladium 90, 105, 116. Propylite 110.
PALMER, Ch. 78, 82, 104. Proustite 31, 32, 66, 67, 73, 77, 91,
Pan-idiomorphic-granular 56. 92, 96, 98, 107.
Paragenesis 50. Pseudo-dentritic formations 43—45,
Paramorphism 55. 67, 78, 79, 80, 97, 103, i n .
PARRAVANO 74. Pseudoinorphism 55.
Pary 113 (gold). Psilomelane 50.
Pearlite 23, 122 — 124. Pumice 8.
Pectolite 85. Pyrargyrite 36, 68, 77, 79, 91, 92,
Pegmatite 42. 96, 107.
Pelgrimsrust 115 (gold). Pyrite 28, 34, 98, 107, 115.
Pentlandite 25, 26, 41, 45- Pyrognostics 50.
Peritectic reaction 21, 42. Pyromorphite 31.
Perowskite 117. Pyrrhotite 19, 25, 26, 41, 45, 49, 7 ,
6

Perseverancia 113 (gold). 81, 84, 107, 123, 124.

PETRENKO, G . J . 81, 105. pentlandite 25, 26, 41, 45.
Pfalz 103 (amalgam). Pzribram 69 (antimony) 74 (alle-
Phases 15. montite, fig. 71—72).
Phenocrysts 42, 55.
Physical chemistry 40. Quartz 31, 32, 42, 101, 107.
Piemont 111 (gold, fig. 113)- Quicksilver 90, 103, 105.
PINA Y RUBIES, S. 121.
Plagioclase 18. Rammelsberg 41.
Plane glass illuminator 2. Rammelsbergite 77, 78, 79, 81, 99,
Platinum 31, 68, 90, 105, 107, n o , 101, 102, 103, III.
112, 116-121. RANSOME, F. L . 60.
Plessite 122. Rauris i n (gold).
POCKELS, F . 39. RAY, J . C. 60.
POGUE, J . E . 60. Reaction rim 21, 42, 123.
Poikilitic 55. Reagents 57.
Pöintelite lamp 1. Realgar 66.
Polarized light 6, 32—35, Jft. Rebosadero 86 (copper).
Polarizer 6. Recrystallization 49, 83, 87, 105, 110,
Polianite 80. in.
Poüsh 28, 51. Rectiplanar lamellae 23.
Polishing 6—11. Redjang Lebong mine 107, 112 (gold,
Polybasite 97, 99, i°7- fig. 127).
Polymorphism 55. Redruth 81 (bismuth, fig. 85) 85
Polysymmetry 55. (copper).
Polysynthetic twinning 55. Reflection 30—32.
Port Phillipe 113 (gold). — capacity 30 — 32.
POSNJAK E . 60. Reforma mine 100 (silver).
Prehnite 85. I Refraction-indices 31.
 GENERAL INDEX. 167

R E I N H E I M E R , S. 60. 73. 74. 79. 81, 84, 87, 9 0 - 1 0 5 .

Reniform 54. — amalgam 103.
Retardation 18. — -coating 29.
Rheinpfalz 88 (copper). — -copper 24, 88 (fig. 97—99).
R h o d i u m 116. — -dyscrasite 48.
Rhodochrosite 107. — Islet mine 103 (silver).
R h y t m i c a l precipitation 50. — K i n g s P i n a l 100 (silver).
R i k u c h u prov. 86 (copper). — ores 38, 81.
R i o Albacete 119 (platinum). — Reef (Utah) 92.
ROBERTS-AUSTEN 116. — tellurides 92.
R O G E R S , A . F . 60, 61. S i m a u mine (Sumatra) 112 (gold).
ROSENHAIN, W . 26, 59. Simultaneous deposition 41.
Rouge 8. SINGEWALD, S. T . 61.
RUER, R. II6, 125. S l i d i n g 49.
R u t h e n i u m 116. Smaltite 44, 66, 67, 69, 78, 79, 81,
R u t i l e 107, 110, 117. 97, 100, 101, 102, III.
Solid solution 16, 24—26.
Safflorite 44, 66, 67, 69, 73, 78, 79, Solidus curve 18.
97, 100, 101, 102, m . Solowioff (placer) 120 (platinum).
Salida M i n e (Sumatra) 92, 99 (silver, SOSMAN, R. B . 121.
f i g . 106) 107, 112. Source of l i g h t 1.
Salzburg 111 (gold). South R i v e r Side 70 (antimony, f i g .
SAMPSON, £. 39. 63)-
San V i t o 70 (antimony). Sphalerite 16, 26, 31, 38, 41, 44, 46,
Sardinien 70 (antimony).
5 ° . 77-
S a x o n y 44, 46, 92.
— -chalcopyrite 16, 26, 46.
Schalenblende 50.
—. -stannite-chalcopyrite 46.
Schapbachite 77, 80.
Stage of microscopes 4.
Schlangenberg 99 (silver) 111 (elec-
S t a l a c t i t i c 54.
trum).
Stannite 26, 46.
Schmiedeberg 66, 67 (arsenic) 98 (sil-
Sternbergite 66, 67, 97, 98.
ver).
S t i b i c o n i t e 107.
Schneeberg 79 (bismuth, f i g . 40,
S t i b n i t e 68, 69, 73, 107, l i l .
76—83) 93, 98 (silver).
Stonewall Jackson M i n e 101 (silver).
S C H N E I D E R H Ö H N , H . 14, 26, 39, 59,
Stromeyrite 93, 99, 100.
61, 89, 105, 115, 121.
Structure 40, 55.
S C H W A R Z , M . V . 89, II5, I25.
S t ü t z i t e 99.
Sedimentary deposits 41. Substitution, see Metasomatism.
S E G A L L , J . 61. Sudbury 41 (fig. 15).
Segregation 25, 41, 45. Sulitjelma 41, 46.
Seignette salt 30. Sulphur 75.
Selenium 75, 92, 107. Sultepec 100 (silver).
— -galena 107, 111. Sulvanite m (fig. 126).
S H O R T , M . N . 61. Sumatra 112.
Siderite 31. Supersaturation 23.
Siegerland 110 (gold). Surface-skin 7.
S i ë r r a G o r d a 86 (copper). Suriname 1071
Silver I X , 29, 31, 33, 44, 66, 67, 68, S y l v a n i t e 74, 75.
168 GENERAL INDEX.

Val d'Evancon 111 (gold, fig. 113)-

Taenite 122.
Taltal 113 (gold).
TAMMANN, G . 26, 59, 121, 125.
Tasna 81 (bismuth, fig. 73. 74)-
Technical arrangement 12.
Telluriutn 74—75.
Temiskaming 77, 81 (bismuth, fig.
86).
Vater Abraham mine 67 (arsenic) 98
(silver).
VAN DER V E E N , R . W . 6I, 74, 89,105.
Verespatak 110 (gold).
Vertical illuminator 2.
Vesuvio Mine 86 (copper).
VOGEL, R . 26, 59, n 6 .
VOGT, J . H . 95, 5 - I 0

— mine 101 (silver).

Voormans Lode (Io) 114 (gold).
Tennantite 42.
Tenorite 84. WARREN, C. H . 61.
Terrera mine 115 (gold). Wax 12.
Tetrahedrite 37. 4 . 9L 92, n o .
8

Weimar 123.
Texture 10, 25, 37, 55- Wheal Basset Mine 85' (copper).
— of mineralaggregate 40, 56.
Wheels 8.
Thaumasite 85.
WHITEHEAD, W. L . 14, 61, 105.
Thermodynamic potential 16.
Widmanstatten pattern 25, 122, 124.
Theta mine 115 (gold).
WIGHT 89, 94. I 0
5-
Thin sections 39.
Wire silver 91, 94. 97 ) 99
I G I

THOMPSON, A . P . 61.
(fig. 102, 103), 100.
TIKONOWITCH, M . N . 121.
Wittichen 80 (bismuth) 97 (süver).
Tilkerode 107.
Wittichenite 77, 80.
Tinash 8.
I Witwatersrand 107, 115 (g°l > S- d fi

TOLMAN, C. F . 61.
130).
Totok mine (Celebes) 112 (gold, fig.
Woitzkoi mine i n (gold, fig. 125).
128).
Wolfach 97 (silver).
Transformation 15, 24, 77.
Wolfram are lamp 1.
Transition point 21, 75, 77-
Wolframite 77, 80.
— temperature 21.
Würtzite 38, 43, 50-
Tripolite 8.
Wijnad 112 (gold).
Troilite 123.
TURNER, H . W . 61. Xenotim 117.
Twinning 10, 37, 3 > > 49-
8 48

— planes 25, 46. Zacatecas 100 (silver).

UGLOW, W. L . 116.
Zeoütes 92. 98. 99-
Zonal crystals 18, 43-
Umangite 68, 69.
_ structure (Texture) 37, 43, 49-
Uncle Sams Lode 114 (gold).
Zschorlau 67 (arsenic).
Ural 119 (platinum, fig. I 3 Ï 3 5 ) -
I_

Zwickau 85 (copper).
Uraninite 77, 79, 80.
ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. 14.

Fig. 15.
F i g . 16.

F i g . 17.
Fig. 18.

Fig. 19.
F i g . 20.

F i g . 21.
Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.
F i g . 24.

F i g . 25.
Fig. 26.

Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.

Fig. 29.
Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.
F i g . 32.

F i g . 33.
F i g . 34.
Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.
Fig. 37.

Fig. 38.
F i g . 40.
Eig. 41.

Fig. 42.

2
Fig. 43.

Fig. 44.
Fig. 45.

Fig. 46.
Fig. 47.

Fig. 48.
Fig. 49.

Fig. 50.
Fig. 51.

Fig. 52.
Fig. 53.

Fig. 54.
F i g . 55.

F i g . 56.
Fig. 57.

Fig. 57a.
F i g . 58.

F i g . 59.
F i g . 60.

F i g . 61.
Fig. 62.

Fig. 63.
Fig. 64.
F i g . 65.

F i g . 66.
Fig. 67.

Fig. 68.
F i g . 69.

F i g . 70.
F i g . 71.

F i g . 72.

3
F i g . 73.

F i g . 74.
F i g . 75.

F i g . 76.
F i g . 77.

F i g . 78.
Fig. 79.

Fig. 80.
 F i g . 81.

F i g . 82.
F i g . 83.

F i g . 84.
 F i g . 85.

F i g . 86.
Fig. 87.

Fig. 88.
 F i g . 89.

F i g . 90.
Fig. 91.
 Fig. 92.

Fig. 93.
Fig. 94.

Fig. 95.
F i g . 96.
Fig. 97.
Fig. 98.
F i g . 99.
F i g . 100.

F i g . 101.
F i g . 102.

F i g . 103.
F i g . 104.

F i g . 105.
F i g . 106.

F i g . 107.
 mm

F i g . 108.

F i g . 109.
F i g . 110.

F i g . 111.
Fig. 112.

Fig. 113.
F i g . 114.

F i g . 115.
 r

F g . 116.

F i g . 117.
Fig. 118.

F i g . 119.
F i g . 120.

F i g . 121.
F i g . 122.

F i g . 123.
F i g . 124.

F i g . 125.
F i g . 126.

F i g . 127,
Fig. 128.

Fig. 129.
F i g . 130.

F i g . 131.

5
F i g . 132.

F i g . 133.
F i g . 134.

F i g . 135.
F i g . 136.

F i g . 137.
Fig. 138.

Fig. 139.
F i g . 140.

F i g . 141.
F i g . 142.

F i g . 143.
For the examination of ores and
id metais by incident light we recom-
mend the following instruments:

Metallographic Microscopes
with vertical illuminators
of various types.
New Vertical Illuminator
for investigations with
polarised light.
The Vertical Illuminator may be sub-
sequently added to any existing mi-
croscope of our make. One and the
same instrument then becotnes equally
well available for the examination of
thin sections by transmitied light as
well as of polished surfaces by inci-
dent light.

Grinding and Polishing Machines with pulley foroperation

by a motor.
Grinding and Polishing
Materials
In addition, we recommend
for the examination of mine-
rals and rocks by transmitted
light:

Petrological Micros-
copes,
ranging from the simplest to
the most compled designs,
as well as accessory apparatus.

Cutting Machines
for crystals and rocks.

Grinding Apparatus, as
designed by E . Wülfing, for
preparing accurately orien-
tated sections of crystals.
D e v i c e for the automatic
operation of this grinding
tripod.

Descriptive and illustrated literature with prices on application

R. WINKEL G.m.b.H. Optical Works

Established 1857. GÖTTINGEN. Established 185 7.
 yr% wm*n mrm Large Metallographic
WHfö
mUÊ MUÈJL 2l3l Microscope

Admits of subjective observation and taking of photograpbic records o f

large and heavy objects. T h e rotary stage» provided w i t h eompound slide
m o t i o n , is otherwise firmly attached to a heavy and massive frame. T h e
coarse and fine adjustment mechanism impart motion to the tube only.
The eye end o f the microscope as w e l l as the H o m a l projection lenses
are stationary, the magnification remains the same.
PROSPECTUS Ml KRO 397 FREE.

Metallmikroskope.

Mikrophotographische
Einrichtungen.

Poliermaschinen.

Polier-Mittel.

Metallographische
Mustersammlungen.
Verlangen Sie bitte Prospekte.

P. F . D U J A R D I N &. C I E .
DUSSELDORF O E R M A N Y I .
 ERNST LEITZ
OPTICAL WORKS WETZLAR (Germany).

Microscopes and microscopical outfits for the investigation of minerals

and ores in transmitted incident and polarised light.
CATALOGUES ON APPLICATION.