Week 4 5

Week 2: Brief discussion of
physics behind fiber optics

• Nature of light
• Basic principles of optics
• Reflection and refraction
• Interference and diffraction
• Types of optical fiber
• Devices used in fiber optics
Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

The Nature of Light
• Quantum Theory – Light consists of
small particles (photons)
• Wave Theory – Light travels as a
transverse electromagnetic wave
• Ray Theory – Light travels along a
straight line and obeys laws of
geometrical optics. Ray theory is valid
when the objects are much larger than
the wavelength (multimode fibers)
Quantum and Wave Theories

Visible spectrum—Newton’s
experiment
Demo:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/scienceopticsu/newton/

Types of waves (continued)
Wave motion demo
http://www.matter.org.uk/schools/Content/seismology/longitudinaltransverse.html

Light is type of electromagnetic
radiation
• Electric, magnetic fields orthogonal to each
other and direction of propagation
– Both have strength and direction.
– Eye (and most other things) affected primarily
by electric field
– Magnetic field much weaker

Electric and magnetic fields of
light wave
Source: Dutton, Figure 3

Field distributions in plane E&M waves
Electric and magnetic
fields are orthogonal
to each other and to
the direction of
propagation Z

Propagation of electromagnetic
waves
• Demonstration
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/emWave/emWave.html

Polarization states
• If the electric field is oscillating along a
straight line, it is called a linearly
polarized (LP) or plane polarized wave
• If the E field rotates in a circle (constant
magnitude) or in an ellipse then it is
called a circular or elliptically polarized
wave
• Natural light has random polarization

Polarization
• What would happen when there

are two electromagnetic waves?

Adding two linearly
polarized waves with zero
phase shift will generate
another linearly polarized
wave

Linear Polarization

Adding two linearly
polarized waves with
equal amplitude and
90o phase shift results
in circular polarized
wave

Circular Polarization

Adding two linearly polarized waves with a
phase shift will produce an elliptically
polarized light

Elliptical Polarization

Polarization
Source: Hecht, Physics

Polarization
The picture can't be display ed.
Demo
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/polari
zedlight/filters/index.html

Circular polarization
• Electric, magnetic fields can rotate as wave

propagates
• Referred to as “circular polarization”
Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud Source: Dutton, Figure 5
Why polarization take place?
• When the speed of the two orthogonal

polarizations is different due to
material having different refractive
index in each polarization.

Basic principles of optics
• Light propagation ( Fiber bend around the

corner, minimum radius 2cm for MM
(Multi-Mode))
• Law of refraction

Refraction
Demo
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/refraction/in
dex.html
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/polarizedlig
ht/brewster/index.html
• http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/polarizedl
ight/3dpolarized/index.html
• http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/polarizedl
ight/waveform3d/index.html
Reflection
Source: Zona Land, http://id.mind.net/~zona/index.html

Reflection
Demo
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/specu
lar/index.html

Basic relationships
• Frequency —  or f (Hz or cycles/second)
• Angular frequency —  = 2f
• Wavelength —  (m, cm, nm)
• Wave number — k (dimensionless), proportional to number
of waves per unit length
• Period — T (seconds, msec, microsecond, nanosecond)
• Amplitude — A
• Velocity — v (m/sec)
v=f
k = 2/
• Propagation of a wave
y(x,t) = A sin (kx-kvt) = A sin (kx – t)

Refraction (continued)
• Snell’s law:
ni sin i  nr sin r

Law of refraction
Note:
1. when light passes from material of lower RI to
higher, refracted angle becomes smaller.
2. When light passes from material of higher RI to
smaller, refracted angle becomes larger.
3. If we keep on increasing angle of incident larger
and larger, corresponding angle of refraction get
larger. A stage will reach that refracted angle
becomes 90 and corresponding incident angle is
still small.
 i  i
Incident medium,
ni refraction
Incident ray
Refracted ray medium, nr
refraction Incident medium,

medium, nr Refracted ray ni
Incident ray
r r
Figure 2. (a) Snell’s Law for light entering a (b) Snell’s Law for light entering a less
denser medium dense medium
Refraction of light rays
n2 < n1
n1
Source: Tipler, Physics

Refraction and total internal
reflection

Total internal reflection
r=90o
refraction medium,
refraction medium,
nr < ni
nr < ni
Refracted ray
Reflected ray
Incident medium, i
ni
Incident medium, Incident ray

Incident ray ni
cr
(b) Critical angle for refraction (b) Total internal reflection, i > cr

Total internal reflection
• Demo
http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/propagation/propagation.html

Numerical Aperture
• Cone of Acceptance
• NA is the measure of the light
capturing ability of the fiber at
the input of fiber.
• See page 64
NA & Cone of Acceptance
Source: Dutton
Cone of Acceptance
Source: Dutton

Cone of Acceptance
• If a ray enters the fiber at an angle within the cone
then it will be captured and propagate.
• If a ray enters the fiber at an angle outside the
cone then it will leave the core and eventually
leave the fibre itself.
• The Numerical Aperture is the sine of the largest
angle contained within the cone of acceptance.

NA
• NA is related to number of important fibre
characteristics.
1. It is a measure of the ability of the fibre to
gather light at the input end.
2. Because it is a measure of the contrast in RI
between the core and the cladding, it is a good
measure of the light guiding properties of the
fibre.
3. The higher the NA the tighter (smaller radius) we
can have bends in the fibre before loss of light
becomes a problem.
Optical fiber construction
n2 < n1
Source: Nortel
Optical fiber construction
(continued)
Source: Corning
Light propagation in a glass fiber

Dispersion ( Note)
• Newton's experiments illustrated the
dispersion of sunlight into a spectrum (and
recombination into white light).
– Sunlight consists of a mixture of light with
different wavelengths.
• A dispersive medium is one in which
different wavelengths of light have slightly
different indices of refraction
– Crown glass is a dispersive medium since the
index of refraction for violet light in crown
glass is higher than for red light
Dependence of index of refraction on 
• Index of refraction not constant
• Since index of refraction is determined by speed of light in
the medium, follows that speed of light in medium is
function of 
– Shorter wavelengths travel slower because index of
refraction is greater. So some wavelength will arrive
before the other.
– Using multimode fiber, the light is able to take many
different modes or paths as it travels in the fiber.so the
distance traveled by the light in each mode is different
from the other.
– These all will lead to dispersion of information bearing
light waves over distance
Dependence of index of
refraction on 

Types of Dispersion
• Chromatic or material dispersion
• Modal dispersion
• Wave guide dispersion
Source: Dutton
Chromatic dispersion
• Optical signal ( pulse) has range of wavelength rather than
specific narrow wavelength. Fiber has different RI
characteristics at different wavelength, so each wavelength
will travel at different speed in fiber. That is Shorter
wavelengths travel slower because index of refraction is
greater. So some wavelength will arrive before the other,
will result in pulse smearing or dispersion.
OR
• Material dispersion or chromatic dispersion is caused by
the fact that the refractive index of the glass we are using
varies slightly with the wavelength. A single pulse has a
range of wavelengths, and will spread out to some degree
during its travel.
Modal dispersion
– Using multimode fiber, the light is able to take many
different modes or paths as it travels in the fiber. So the
distance traveled by the light in each mode is different
from the other. When pulse is sent, part of that pulse (
ray) take different modes. As a result, some of the
components of the pulse arrive before the other. The
difference between the arrival time of light taking the
fastest mode vs. slowest mode gets greater as the
distance gets greater.

Wave guide dispersion
• The shape or profile of the fiber has a great effect
on the optical signal. This because the E and H
fields that constitute light pulse extends outside
the core into the cladding. The amount of overlap
between the core and the cladding strongly
depends upon the wavelength. We know that RI of
core is higher than the cladding therefore shorter
wavelength travels slowly than longer ones. Thus
signal are dispersed.( because every signal
consists of range of wavelengths.)
Dispersion (continued)
• Waveguide dispersion
– Light travels in both core and inner cladding at slightly different
speeds (faster in cladding)
• Material and waveguide dispersion opposite effects. They both depend
on wavelength.
– Can be balanced to allow for zero dispersion at a particular
wavelength between 1310nm and 1650 nm
• Total effect called “chromatic dispersion”
Source: Corning
Effect of chromatic dispersion
Source: Nortel

Interference and Diffraction
• Extremely important for fiber optics

• Both effects limit performance of optical
fiber

Interference
• Interference from two point sources
– Originates because waves from two sources are
in phase or out of phase, depending on position
(distance from the two sources)
– Gives rise to series of alternating light and dark
bands on target at fixed distance from the sources
• Basic relationships
– Maxima at angle  given by d sin  = m, m = 0,
1, 2…
– Minima at angle  given by d sin  = (m+1/2),
m = 0, 1, 2… Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud
Interference – Young’s
experiment
Nowadays this would be replaced by a laser Source: Dutton,
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/interference/doubleslit/index.html
Intensity of interference pattern

Intensity of interference pattern
(continued)

Interference—demonstration
– Maxima at angle  given by d sin  = m, m = 0, 1, 2…
– Minima at angle  given by d sin  = (m+1/2), m = 0, 1, 2…
• For light of 650 nm (red), d = .2 mm = 1 x 10-4 m
– Maxima at  = .00325 radians = .186o
– At 10 m, distance to first maximum = 3.25 cm
• For light of 650 nm (red), d = .1 mm = 1 x 10-4 m
– Maxima at  = .0065 radians = .372o
– At 10 m, distance to first maximum = 6.5 cm
– http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/lightandcolor/in
terferencehome.html

Light reflection at boundary

(continued)


Diffraction
• Origin
– Wave nature of light at sharp boundaries
– Significant when opening ~  or when large
magnifications are involved
• Large magnifications amplify problem
• Ultimately limits resolution of microscopes, telescopes
• http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/diffractio
n/basicdiffraction/index.html
• http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/diffractio
n/diffractionorders/index.html

Calculation of diffraction
relationships

Diffraction
Opening ~  Opening >> 

Diffraction — mathematical results
– d sin  = m, m = 1, 2, 3, 4 gives angles of
minimum intensity
• Solving for angle ,  = sin-1(m/d)
– I = I0 [sin (/2)/( /2)]2
– =(2/) a sin 
• If a << , then angles for first several
minima large
• Note that if d >> , then angles for first
several minima (m=1, 2…) very small
Diffraction — mathematical
results
a first minimum
 y
Laser
• Basic trigonometry: y/d = tan , so that y = d tan 

• For light of 650 nm (red), opening d = .1 mm =
1 x 10-4 m
– Computing angle,  = sin-1(m/d) = sin-1(1 x 650 x 10-9/10-4) = sin-
1(6.5 x 10-3)  0.0065 radians
– First minimum at  = .0065 radians = .3724o

– At D = 10 m, distance to first minimum y = 10m tan 0.0065  10m x
0.00655 = 0.065 m = 6.5 cm
Typical diffraction pattern
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/diffraction/p
articlesize/index.html

Diffraction gratings
• Use large number of lines to amplify diffraction effects
• Result is to sharpen diffraction maxima, minima
– More importantly, pattern shifts to repeating light, dark bands with
little or no fall off of intensity
• Provides way to separate wavelengths of light (and information they
are carrying)
More lines

Diffraction gratings (continued)
• Diffraction gratings specified by number of lines/mm
• Calculation of maximum for diffraction gratings follows two slit interference
formula, since the grating looks like a long row of slits
– d sin  = m, where d is line (slit) separation = 1/lines per mm
• This gives angle to mth maximum
• Projection onto target at distance D gives y  mD/d
• Be careful to keep all distances in same units (mm, cm, or m)
first maximum
 y
Laser

Diffraction gratings (continued)
• Example: 500 l/mm => d = 1/500 mm = 2 x 10-6 m
 = 650 nm, D = 10 m, m = 1
• Then y = mD/d = 1 x 650 x 10-9 x 10/(2 x 10-6) = 3.25 m
• Below is diagram of what would happen to a mixture of
blue and red light incident on a diffraction grating
Source: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/gratcal.html
Scattering
• Definition: Photons interact with material in
propagation medium
• Nonlinear: cannot generally be
compensated
– Problems can only be fixed by making better
fiber
• Types
– Impurities in fiber: light exits fiber at high
angles or is absorbed

Scattering (continued)
– Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS): similar to
SBS
• Effect originates in molecular rather than acoustical
vibrations
• Primarily a problem with multiple wavelength
systems at high powers

Summary of phenomena associated with
light and their effects
• Refraction: basis of optical fiber through total internal reflection
– Variation of refraction with  leads to dispersion in fiber and limits
its length
• Interference: affects design of optical components, especially when
light enters or leaves a medium
– Forms basis for design of some filters
• Diffraction: limits all optical performance
– Forms basis for many devices which allow separation of light
waves
• Scattering: limits long distance propagation of light
• Dispersion: limits long distance propagation of light signals
• Polarization: limits long distance propagation of light signals at high
speed

Optical phenomena and their impact on
optical fiber performance
• Scattering: scattering of light in fiber from various sources leading to
gradual attenuation with distance
• Dispersion: speed in fiber varies with , leading to blurring of pulses
– Can be partially or totally compensated
• Polarization: fiber supports two orientations, orthogonal, which vary
leading to smearing of pulses
• Refraction/reflection: determines diameter of core, index required for
cladding to achieve single mode, multimode
• Mixing: different wavelengths interact in fiber, causing signal
degradation
– Can be partially compensated

Multimode Step-Index

Multimode Step-Index

Single Mode

Main types of optical fiber in common
use today
• Multimode
– More than one path for light as it travels down fiber
– Core 50, 62.5, 100 micrometers
– Primarily for short distances
• Single mode
– Only a single path for light as it travels down fiber
– Core: 8.3-10 micrometers
Source: Arcelect.com

Fiber Construction

Multimode fiber construction
• Modern multimode fibers all use “graded index” (GI)
technology
• Operates in second transmission window, around 1310 nm
• Idea is to gradually decrease index of refraction of core
outwards
– Pulses travel slower in regions of higher index of
refraction
– Decrease is from center (highest r.i.) to outer edge of
core (lowest r.i.)
– Since pulses travel longer distances when bouncing off
of cladding, they travel faster there, resulting in less
dispersion
• 200 MHz bandwidth over 2 km
Types of single mode fiber
• Non-dispersion-shifted (NDSF)
– ITU spec G.652
– 95% of deployed plant
– TDM in 1310 nm, DWDM in 1550 nm regions
– Chromatic dispersion zero at 1310 nm
• Dispersion-shifted (DSF)
– ITU spec G.653
– TDM in 1550 nm regions
– Chromatic dispersion zero point “shifted” up to
1550 nm
– Used for soliton transmission
Types of single mode fiber
(continued)
• Nonzero-dispersion-shifted (NZ-DSF)
– ITU spec G.655
– TDM, DWDM in 1550 nm regions
– No zero dispersion point in operating regions,
but uses chromatic dispersion to compensate
other problem of four wave mixing

Calculation of material dispersion
• Dispersion measured in units of time, usually
picoseconds (ps)
– Tells how much smearing out in time a pulse will suffer
• Fiber specifications given in units ps/nm-km
– nm refers to spectral width of the source
• This is a physical characteristic of the laser or LED used
– km refers to the length of the fiber
• You must determine this from your physical installation
– May be read as “picoseconds of pulse spreading per
nanometer of source spectral width and per kilometer of
path length”

Calculation of dispersion
(continued)
• Example
– You have a 10 km fiber, with dispersion specified as 5
ps/nm-km at the wavelength you’re using
– You are using a laser with spectral width 12 nm
– Your pulses are 200 ps long to start
– Dispersion = 5 ps/nm-km x 12 nm x 10 km = 600 ps
• This means that your pulses have spread out by 600 ps, for a
total length of 200 ps + 600 ps = 800 ps
• As this is 4 times the starting length of the pulses, the system
probably would not work

Calculation of dispersion
(continued)
• When reading dispersion off of a graph, for
these calculations, use absolute value of
dispersion
– If dispersion is negative, means shorter
wavelengths travel more slowly
– If dispersion is positive, means longer
wavelengths travel more slowly
– Pulse smears in either case
– Sign is important if you’re trying to compensate
for dispersion
Fibers and windows
850 nm 1310 nm 1550 nm 1625 nm
Multimode 
NDSF  
(TDM-single (DWDM-multiple
channel) channels if used
with dispersion
compensators)
DSF 
(TDM-single
channel)
NZ-DSF 
(TDM & DWDM)

Optical fiber devices
• Splitters
• Combiners
• Filters
• Light sources
• Detectors
• Switches
• Opto-electronic converters

Week 4 5

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Week 2: Brief discussion of

physics behind fiber optics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Dutton, Figure 3

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

• What would happen when there

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Hecht, Physics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

• Electric, magnetic fields can rotate as wave

• When the speed of the two orthogonal

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

• Light propagation ( Fiber bend around the

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Zona Land, http://id.mind.net/~zona/index.html

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

refraction Incident medium,

Source: Tipler, Physics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Tipler, Physics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Incident medium, Incident ray

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Hecht, Physics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Hecht, Physics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

• Extremely important for fiber optics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Nowadays this would be replaced by a laser Source: Dutton,

Source: Dutton, Figure 7

Source: Hecht, Physics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Dutton, Figure 8

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Dutton, Figure 9

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud

Source: Tipler, Physics

Laser and Fibre Optics by Dr. Usman Masud