CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION

2. POWER FACTOR
a) Power Measurement
b) Determination of the Power Factor

3. DEFINITIONS OF POWER FACTOR

Apparent Power , Reactive Power , Active Power , Complex Power

4. POWER TRIANGLE

5. EFFECTS OF POWER FACTOR

a) Disadvantages Of Low Power Factor
b) Advantages Of High Power Factor

6. CAUSES OF LOW POWER FACTOR

7. LIMIT OF POWER FACTOR FOR DIFFERENT TYPE OF LOADS

8. POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT

9. POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT EQUIPMENT

10. CALCULATIONS OF POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

a) Power Factor Correction By Static Capacitors
Capacitor Rating Calculations
b) Power Factor Correction In Three – Phase Systems
Advantages and Limitations Of Static Capacitors
Location Of Capacitors
c) Power Factor Correction By Synchronous motors

11. IMPORTANCE OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT.

12. REFERENCE.
INTRODUCTION
The Electrical energy is almost exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed in the
form of alternating current. Therefore, the question of power factor immediately comes
into picture. Most of the loads (e.g. Induction motors, Arc lamps) are inductive in nature
and hence have low lagging power factor. The low power factor is highly undesirable as
it causes an increase in current, resulting in additional losses of active power in all the
elements of power system form power station generator down to the utilization devices.

In order to ensure most favorable conditions for a supply system form engineering
and economical standpoint , it is important to have power factor as close to unity as
possible.

POWER FACTOR
The Cosine of angle between voltage and current in an a.c. circuit is known as

POWER FACTOR

In an a.c. circuit, there is generally a phase difference Ø between voltage and

Current. The term Cos Ø is called the power factor of the circuit. If the circuit is
Inductive, the current lags behind the voltage and power factor is referred to as
Lagging. However in a capacitive circuit, current leads the voltage and power is
said to be leading.

Let an inductive circuit taking a lagging current I from supply voltage V, the angle
of lag being Ø. The phaser diagram of the circuit is shown in Fig (1).

The circuit current I can be resolved into two perpendicular components, namely;

a) I cosØ in phase with V.

b) I sinØ, 90º out of phase with V.

The component I cosØ is known as Active or wattful component, where as

component I sinØ, is Called the Reactive or wattless component. The reactive
component is a measure of the power factor.
If the reactive component is small, the phase angle Ø is small and hence power factor
CosØ will be high. Therefore, a circuit having small reactive current (i.e. I sinØ) will have
high power factor and vice-versa. It may be noted that value of power factor can never
be more than Unity.

1. It is a usual practice to attach the word ‘lagging’ or ‘leading’ with the numerical
value of power factor to signify whether the current lags or leads the voltage. Thus if the
circuit has a p.f. Of 0.5 and the current lags the voltage, Generally write p.f. As 0.5
(lagging).

2. Sometimes power factor is expressed as a percentage. Thus 0.8 (lagging) power

factor may be expressed as 80% (lagging).

DEFINITIONS OF POWER FACTOR

The term CosØ in the term (VI CosØ i.e. in the average power) is called POWER
FACTOR. It is the Cosine of the angle between the voltage and current in any a.c.
circuit.
The power factor is defined as the as the ratio of the Real or Active power (P) and Volt-
amperes (S). S = V I

Power Factor = P/ S = P / V I (Watt / VA)

Active or True Power

Apparent Power

CosØ = R / Z or P / S = V I CosØ
VI
The term CosØ in the expression P = V I CosØ is Called Power Factor. For
sinusoidal waveforms the power factor is the cosine of the phase angle Ø between
voltage and current.

Power Factor = Cos Ø

Cos Ø = P / V I
P = V I Cos Ø
I = P / V Cos Ø
The current I is affected by the power factor. The supply voltage V is kept fairly constant.
Hence, for a given power P required by the load, the current I taken by the load varies
inversely as the load power factor Cos Ø. Thus, a given load takes more current at a
power factor than it does at a high power factor.
The term SinØ in the expression Q = V I SinØ is called Reactive Factor and is
expressed either as
SinØ = X / Z or Q / S = V I Sin Ø
VI

= Reactive Power
Apparent Power
With reduction of magnitude of Ø, the phase angle between the voltage and current,
power factor improves and reactive power decreases. Improvement of power factor in
any a.c. system is highly desired. The following table represents the power factor of
different loads.
LOADS POWER FACTOR

R Unity (CosØ = 1)

L Zero Lag [CosØ = Cos (-90º) = 0]

C Zero Lead [CosØ = Cos (+90º) = 0]

R-L Lagging (CosØ)

R-C Leading (CosØ)

Power Factor (p.f.) is unity in resistive circuit (the angle between Voltage and
Current being Zero), leading in capacitive circuit (Current being leading the Voltage)
lagging in inductive circuit (Current being lagging the Voltage).

APPARENT POWER :
The product VI is called the Apparent Power and is usually
indicated by the symbol ‘ S’ . It is expressed in VA.
Apparent power (S) = V I (VA or KVA)

REACTIVE POWER :
The product of rms Values of voltage and current with the
sine of the angle between them is called the Reactive
Power in a.c. circuit and is denoted by Q, the unit being
VAR (Volt- Ampere Reactive) or KVAR ( kilovolt- Ampere
Reactive).

Reactive power (Q) = V I Sin Ø or I² X (Watt)

The other names of reactive power are Wattless power and Quadrature power.

ACTIVE POWER :
The product of rms Values of voltage and current with the
cosine of the angle between them is called the Active
Power in a.c. circuit and is denoted by P, the unit being W
or KW (Watt or Kilowatt).

Active power ( P) = V I Cos Ø or I² R (Watt)

The other names of active power are Real / True/ Actual/ Useful/ Wattful power.
COMPLEX POWER :
The three sides ( S,P,Q) of a power triangle can be
obtained from the product V I*. This is known as complex
power. S denotes it.

Let V = V e јθ and I = I e j (θ + Ø)
Then V I* = V e jθ. I e –j (θ + Ø)
= V I e-jØ
= V I CosØ – j V I Sin Ø
S = P – j Q ( For the Capacitive Circuit )

Similarly, for the Inductive Circuit,

V I* = V ejθ. I e-j (θ – Ø)
=V I ejØ
=V I CosØ + j V I SinØ
S=P+jQ

[+Q indicates lagging Reactive Power While -Q indicates leading Reactive Power]

POWER TRIANGLE

The analysis of power factor can also be made in terms of power drawn by the a.c.
circuit. It is the geometrical representation of the apparent power, average power and
reactive power. In an inductive load the V-I phaser are shown in fig(A) While the real
reactive components of the current and shown in fig(B) and fig(C) represents the power
triangle for the inductive load.

If each side of the current triangle OAB of fig(C) is multiplied by voltage V, then the
power triangle OAB shown in fig(C), where
OA = V I CosØ and represents the active power in watts or KW.
AB = V I SinØ and represents the reactive power in VAR or KVAR.
OB = V represents and I the apparent power in VA or KVA.

The other name of power triangle is KVA Triangle. The following points may be noted
form the power triangle.

1. The apparent power in an a.c. circuit has two components i.e. Active and Reactive
Power at right angles to each other.

(OB) ² = (OA) ² + (AB) ²

(Apparent power) ² = (Active power) ² + (Reactive power) ²
(KVA) ² = (KW) ² + (KVAR) ²
KVA = √ (KW) ² + (KVAR) ²

2. Power factor, CosØ = OA/OB = Active power/ Apparent power

CosØ = V I CosØ/ V I = KW/ KVA
KW = KVA CosØ (KVA =KW/ CosØ)
Thus the power factor of a circuit may also be defined as the ratio of active power to the
apparent power. This is a perfectly general definition and can be applied to all cases,
whatever be the waveform.

3. The lagging reactive power is responsible for the low power factor. It is clear form the
power triangle that smaller the reactive power component, the higher is the power factor
of the circuit. Power Factor, SinØ = AB/OB = Reactive power / Apparent power
SinØ = V I SinØ/ V I = KVAR/ KVA
KVAR = KVA SinØ
= KW/ CosØ X SinØ (KVA = KW/ CosØ)
KVAR = KW tan Ø
tan Ø = KVAR/ KW = Reactive power / Active power

4. The leading currents, the power triangle become reversed. This fact provides a key to
the power factor improvement. If a device taking leading reactive power (e.g. Capacitor)
is connected in parallel with the load, then the lagging reactive power of the load will be
partly neutralized, thus improving the power factor of the load.

5. The power factor of a circuit can be defined in one of the following three ways:

(a) Power Factor = Cos Ø = Cosine of angle between V and I.

(b) Power Factor = R/ Z = Resistance / Impedance Power
(c) Factor = V I CosØ/ V I = Active Power/ Apparent Power

6. The reactive power is neither consumed in the circuit nor it does any useful work. It
merely flows back and forth in both direction in the circuit. A Wattmeter does not
measure reactive power. If the current lags behind the voltage, the reactive power
drawn is known as lagging reactive power. However, if the circuit current leads the
voltage, the reactive power is known as leading reactive power.

POWER FACTOR IN CABLES

For a Single- Core Cable the insulation resistance is given by expression

Ri = ρ In D/ d
2ΠL

Assuming ρ to remain constant the impressed voltage V will send a current through the
insulation and this current will be in phase with V.
On account of the capacity effect of the dielectric and the inters heaths a charging
current flows form the supply the value of this charging current being ωCV

V
1/ ω C = ωCV where ω = 2 П f and C has the values as found in earlier sections. The
charring current leads the voltage V by 90º and the total current drawn from the supply
is the phaser sum of currents V / Ri and ωCV. The total current I lead the voltage by an
angle Ø where CosØ gives the power factor of the Cable. (In practice Ø is very nearly
equal to Π/ 2).

CosØ = Cos (Π/2 – δ) = Sin δ = δ (Since δ is small)

In other words, Power factor of the Cable = δ
When δ is small, Sin δ = tan δ = δ
Therefore, δ = V * 1
Ri * ωCV
=1/ωCRi = 1/ Ri * 1/ ωC
δ = G/ωC Where 1/Ri = G = Conductance of the Cable
Power factor of the cable = G/ωC

Power Factor In Cables = G / ωC

POWER MEASUREMENT

For a Single- phase A.C.circuit is measure the power by an Instrument. So it is known

as Wattmeter. A Wattmeter has two coils, First is Current Coil(C.C.) ,it is line to series
and second is Pressure Coil (P.C.), it is line to parallel. The connection of Wattmeter is
shown in figure.

POWER W = V I CosØ

Determination Of The Power Factor : For a Single–phase A.C.circuit, the induction

motor with the instrument is following reading :
Voltmeter Reading = 250 Volt
Ammeter Reading = 20 Amp
And Wattmeter Reading. = 4KW

We know that ; Power W = V I CosØ

Power Factor CosØ = W/ V I

The Value of the reading above the instrument : CosØ = 4 * 1000

250 * 20
CosØ = 4/5 = 0.8

Power Factor CosØ = 0.8

 Importance of Power Factor

A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any electric utility
company since if the power factor is less than one, they have to supply more current
to the user for a given amount of power use. In so doing, they incur more line losses.
They also must have larger capacity equipment in place than would be otherwise
necessary. As a result, an industrial facility will be charged a penalty if its power
factor is much different from 1.

Industrial facilities tend to have a "lagging power factor", where the current lags the
voltage (like an inductor). This is primarily the result of having a lot of electric
induction motors - the windings of motors act as inductors as seen by the power
supply. Capacitors have the opposite effect and can compensate for the inductive
motor windings. Some industrial sites will have large banks of capacitors strictly for
the purpose of correcting the power factor back toward one to save on utility
company charges.

Power Factor

For a DC circuit the power is P=VI, and this relationship also holds for the
instantaneous power in an AC circuit. However, the average power in an AC circuit
expressed in terms of the rms voltage and current is

where is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The additional term is
called the power factor

From the phaser diagram for AC impedance, it can be seen that the power factor is R/Z. For a
purely resistive AC circuit, R=Z and the power factor = 1

Importance of Power Factor

A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any electric utility
company since if the power factor is less than one, they have to supply more current
to the user for a given amount of power use. In so doing, they incur more line losses.
They also must have larger capacity equipment in place than would be otherwise
necessary. As a result, an industrial facility will be charged a penalty if its power
factor is much different from 1.
 INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES TEND TO HAVE A
"LAGGING POWER FACTOR", WHERE THE
CURRENT LAGS THE VOLTAGE (LIKE AN
INDUCTOR). THIS IS PRIMARILY THE RESULT OF
HAVING A LOT OF ELECTRIC INDUCTION MOTORS
- THE WINDINGS OF MOTORS ACT AS INDUCTORS
AS SEEN BY THE POWER SUPPLY. CAPACITORS
HAVE THE OPPOSITE EFFECT AND CAN
COMPENSATE FOR THE INDUCTIVE MOTOR
WINDINGS. SOME INDUSTRIAL SITES WILL HAVE
LARGE BANKS OF CAPACITORS STRICTLY FOR
THE PURPOSE OF CORRECTING THE POWER
FACTOR BACK TOWARD ONE TO SAVE ON UTILITY
COMPANY CHARGES
POWER FACTOR – WHAT IS IT & WHY DO WE CARE ABOUT IT?

Power factor is a measure of how effectively you are using electricity. Various types
of power are at work to provide us with electrical energy. Here is what each one is
doing.

Working Power – the "true" or "real" power used in all electrical appliances to
perform the work of heating, lighting, motion, etc. We express this as kW or
kilowatts. Common types of resistive loads are electric heating and lighting.

An inductive load, like a motor, compressor or ballast, also requires Reactive Power
to generate and sustain a magnetic field in order to operate. We call this non-
working power kVAR's, or kilovolt-amperes-reactive.

Every home and business has both resistive and inductive loads. The ratio between
these two types of loads becomes important as you add more inductive equipment.
Working power and reactive power make up Apparent Power, which is called kVA,
kilovolt-amperes. We determine apparent power using the formula, kVA2 = kV*A

Going one step further, Power Factor (PF) is the ratio of working power to apparent
power, or the formula PF = kW / kVA. A high PF benefits both the member and
utility, while a low PF indicates poor utilization of electrical power. Dakota Electric
applies an additional charge to large businesses with a PF less than 90%.
Here is an example. A steel stamping operation runs at 100 kW (Working Power)
and the Apparent Power meter records 125kVA. To find the PF, divide 100 kW by
125 kVA to yield a PF of 80%. This means that only 80% of the incoming current
does useful work and 20% is wasted through heating up the conductors. Because
Dakota Electric must supply both the kW & kVA needs of all members, the higher
the PF is, the more efficient our distribution system becomes.

Improving the PF can maximize current-carrying capacity, improve voltage to

equipment, reduce power losses, and lower electric bills.

The simplest way to improve power factor is to add PF correction capacitors to the
electrical system. PF correction capacitors act as reactive current generators. They
help offset the non-working power used by inductive loads, thereby improving the
power factor. The interaction between PF capacitors and specialized equipment,
such as variable speed drives, requires a well designed system.

F correction capacitors can switch on every day when the inductive equipment
starts. Switching a capacitor on can produce a very brief "over-voltage" condition. If
a member has problems with variable speed drives turning themselves off due to
"over-voltage" at roughly the same time every day, investigate the switching control
sequence. If a member complains about fuses blowing on some, but not all, of their
capacitors, check for harmonic currents.

There are other ways to help correct power factors, and Dakota Electric welcomes
the opportunity to provide a PF review and savings estimate for any particular
application.

CORRECTION OF POWER FACTOR WITH CAPACITORS

Description:
Power factor is the relationship (phase) of current and voltage in AC electrical
distribution systems. Under ideal conditions current and voltage are "in phase" and
the power factor is "100%." If inductive loads (motors) are present, power factors
less than 100 % (typically 80 to 90 % can occur)

Low power factor, electrically speaking, causes heavier current to flow in power
distribution lines in order to deliver a given number of kilowatts to an electrical load.

The Effects?
The power distribution system in the building, or between buildings, can be
overloaded by excess (useless) current.

Electrical costs are increased and Dakota Electric Association's Commercial &
Industrial Members may pay additional fees for power factor less than 90%.
Generating and power distribution systems owned by Dakota Electric have their
capacity measured in KVA (kilovolt amps).

KVA = VOLTS X AMPS X 1.73 (three phase System) ÷ 1,000

With unity power factor (100%), it would take 2,000 KVA of generating and
distribution network capacity to deliver 2,000 KW. If the power factor dropped to
85%, however, 2,353 KVA of capacity would be needed. Thus we see that low
power factor has an adverse effect on generating and distribution capacity.

Low power factor overloads generating, distribution, and networks with excess KVA.

Dakota Electric Association monitors members with loads greater than 100 KW in
order to ensure their power factor is above 90, otherwise an additional fee, usually in
the form of extra demand charges is assessed each month.

If you own a large building, you should consider correcting poor power factor for
either or both of these reasons:

• To reduce additional power factor charges from Dakota Electric Association

and
• to restore the (KVA) capacity of overloaded feeders within the building or
building complex.

There are several methods of correcting lower power factor. Commonly used are:

a) Capacitor Banks:

The most practical and economical power factor

correction device is the capacitor. It improves the power factor
because the effects of capacitance are exactly opposite those of
inductance

The var or KVAR rating of a capacitor shows how much reactive power the capacitor
will supply. Since this kind of reactive power cancels out the reactive power caused
by inductance, each kilovar of capacitance decreases the net reactive power
demand by the same amount. A 15 KVAR capacitor, for example, will cancel out 15
KVA of inductive reactive power.

Capacitors can be installed at any point in the electrical system and will improve the
power factor between the point of application and the power source. However, the
power factor between the load and the capacitor will remain unchanged. Capacitors
are usually added at each piece of offending equipment, ahead of groups of motors
(ahead of motor control centers or distribution panels) or at main services.
 b) Switched Capacitors:

Plants equipped with very large, intermittent inductive

loads, such as large motors, compressors, etc., may require
switched capacitors; that is, capacitors are connected to
individual motors or groups of motors. Therefore, they are only
in action when the motor load is turned on. Or, capacity may be
switched on and off at the substation, depending on measured
power factor. The switching feature is only required if the
capacitors needed are so large that they cause an undesirable
leading power factor during times when large motors are turned
off.

Power Factor
The Power Factor of your electrical system can cost you money. A low Power Factor
will cause your utility company to add a penalty to your electric bill, and your
increased system losses will turn electricity into wasted heat, shortening equipment
life.

What Is Power Factor?

Power Factor (pf) is the ratio of real power to total power. Real, or productive power,
is the actual power used in a building, measured in kilowatts (kW). Reactive power
generates the magnetic field for inductive loads such as motors, transformers,
lighting ballasts, etc. Reactive power is measured in kilovars (kVAR).Total power
(measured in kVA) is a combination of real power and reactive power .

The basic formula for Power Factor is the mathematical ratio of real power to total
power. This ratio is an effective measure of system electrical efficiency and is
represented as a percentage or decimal (e.g., 90% or 0.9).

Other Power Factor Calculations

Graphically, the Power Triangle on a system would look like this:

The relationship between kVA, kW, and kVAR is as follows:

*kVA2= kW2 + kVAR2 or VA2 = W2 + VAR2

Thus, with substitution, another formula for power factor could be derived:

On a single-phase circuit, the current will usually lag behind the voltage. The amount
of the lag can be measured in degrees (360° for one complete cycle). The cosine of
this phase angle also equals the power factor.
EFFECTS OF POWER FACTOR
System Capacity –

Your kVA is the total power available. Your useful power kW =

(kVA)(pf). The higher the system power factor, the more system
capacity that is available. With more system capacity, voltage will
remain more stable as loads are cycled on and off. Also more loads
can be added to the system as needed.

System Losses –

With a higher Power Factor, less current flows through your

system. There is less power lost (I2R losses) to heating of cables, bus
bars, transformers, panels, etc. These devices will run cooler and last
longer too.

Utility Charges –

Electric utilities must maintain a high Power Factor on their

distribution system for efficiency. They will typically bill customers for a
low Power Factor or they may bill on kVA demand, which Power Factor
will affect. Most utilities that bill a Power Factor penalty require a user
to maintain a 95% Power Factor to avoid penalty.
POWER FACTOR AND MOTOR LOADING

Power Factor is affected significantly by motor loading. Figure 1 represents a typical

T-frame motor curve. It is evident that the highest Power Factor is at full loading.
Since this Power Factor will affect the system Power Factor, proper sizing of motors
is important. Over-sizing motors will lower the system Power Factor. Understanding
motor efficiency and Power Factor is important in building automation. As you can
see, your control scheme for the loading of chillers can affect your power usage.

Frequently we get calls on chiller applications using watt transducers. The installer
believes the watt transducer is reading low, compared to voltage and current
measurements. We usually find the chiller is only partially loaded and the Power
Factor is low (e.g., 48% pf at 25% loading).

The addition of capacitors or the use of high efficiency motors will improve the
Power Factor. Application of capacitors at the right locations and precautions
involving electronic equipment need to be considered. High efficiency motors are
more expensive but have a higher Power Factor.
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Capacitors are typically added to a system to increase system Power Factor. Some
users install switched capacitor banks at the incoming service for utility bill savings
only.

Since capacitors only improve a system from the capacitor back to the power
source, many users will install capacitors at motor loads so they will be switched with
the motor. With this method the benefits of lower *(I2R) losses improve their whole
system. The addition of variable frequency drives will usually improve the Power
Factor.

Measuring Power Factor

There are several methods to calculate Power Factor. The method is usually
determined by the math capabilities of the automation system. If a watt transducer is
used with a voltage and current transducer, the following formula is used:

If a VAR and Watt Transducer are used, the following formula would be used:

If a phase angle transducer is used to determine phase angle, then the following
formula is used:

pf = Cos Ø
POWER AND POWER FACTOR MEASUREMENT FOR
SINGLE PHASE LOAD

Tasks of the measurement

Measure active power, power factor and apparent power consumption of the
single-phase load. Use universal clamp digital meter for the measurement.
Active power should be measured also using analogue wattmeter and current
instrument transformer (CT). Evaluate B-type expanded uncertainty (k = 2) of
active power measurement for both cases. Compensate methodical error in
case of measurement by means of analogue meter. Current transformer
transformation error is negligible. Find whether the difference of the
measurement results corresponds to their reported accuracy.
Measure the voltage on the secondary winding of the current transformer
and check if the transformer is not overloaded.

Measurement hints

- Use the power supply of 120 V, 50 Hz (voltage between any two terminals of the 3
×120 V power line system at the switchboard).

- Since the load current is higher than 5 A at 120 V, a current instrument transformer
(CT) has to be used.

- Do not leave the load connected to the source for more than 2 minutes. It is not
designed for permanent usage.

- The secondary winding of the current transformer cannot be left open if primary
winding is connected to measured current. For connections of primary and
secondary windings of the CT, the thick wires with connection clips are to be used
to assure minimal transition resistance.
ABSTRACT

The traditional approach to power factor correction in a facility is to add capacitors to

individual loads such as motors and fluorescent lighting circuits, to add a capacitor
bank with switching to a major distribution panel, or to add a capacitor bank with
switching to the power input panel from the utility lines. Recently it has been shown
that careful selection of high-efficiency motors for a facility can result in new motors
with a significantly higher power factor than the motors they replaced. This paper
compares and discusses the cost-effectiveness of installing capacitors on individual
motors with the cost-effectiveness of installing high-efficiency, high power factor
motors.

INTRODUCTION

Facilities with a low power factor sometimes pay a utility rate penalty. Recently, it
has been shown that careful selection of high-efficiency motors with high power
factors can improve the economic benefit of replacing standard-efficiency motors
with high-efficiency motors by as much as 30% [1]. The combination of an energy
cost savings from improved efficiency and a power factor penalty cost savings from
improved power factor makes the economics of selecting high-efficiency motors
even more attractive. In some cases, the economic benefit from a reduced power
factor penalty provides enough incentive to choose a high-efficiency
high power factor motor as a viable approach to power factor correction.

There are two conventional approaches to power factor correction in facilities: one is
installing capacitors on motors, motor circuits, fluorescent lighting circuits, and other
inductive loads; the other is installing capacitors at the entrance of the main power
lines in the facility. The cost of the capacitors is repaid through the savings from the
utility penalties that would have been charged for the poor power factor. However,
to the present authors' knowledge, no one has compared the cost-effectiveness of
using high-efficiency, high power factor motors with the cost-effectiveness of
installing capacitors on motors.

This purpose of this paper is to describe the conditions under which one of the
following techniques should be employed to reduce power factor penalty charges:

1. Replace failed standard-efficiency motors with premium-efficiency, high power

factor motors,

2. Replace failed standard-efficiency motors with new standard-efficiency motors

and install capacitors on the new motors.
DATA COLLECTION
Motor Power Factor and Efficiency

Information about the performance of motors was obtained from a valuable and
user-friendly resource called Motor Master, available from the Washington State
Energy Office [2]. Motor Master contains a database of over 11,000 motors, and
has data on motor models, costs, efficiencies at different loads, and power factor at
different loads. We used the Motor Master database by taking a sample of ten
standard-efficiency motors and ten high-efficiency, high power factor motors for each
horsepower rating. The efficiency and power factor were recorded for load factors of
100%, 75%, 50% and 25%.

We have compiled a list of motor sizes and their efficiency at different loads in

Table 1. The table was constructed by computing the average efficiency of a

standard-efficiency motor (EFs) and the average efficiency of a high-efficiency, or
premium efficiency, motor (EFp). A similar table was developed for motor sizes and
their power factor at different loads.

Table 2 lists the average power factor for a standard-efficiency motor (PFs) and the
average power factor of specific high- efficiency motors with high power factors
(PFp). Both tables list the cost premium (CP) for high-efficiency motors. The cost
premium is defined as the difference in the cost of a high-efficiency motor and the
cost of a standard-efficiency motor. In the economic analysis of correcting power
factor by replacing a standard-efficiency motor with a high-efficiency motor, the
implementation cost is the cost premium. We have used this data to evaluate the
cost-effectiveness of correcting power factor. We hope that energy and plant
managers, as well as energy analysts and consultants, will use these tables as
another data resource to utilize when selecting or specifying motor types and sizes.

Capacitor Cost

When selecting a capacitor to correct the power factor of a motor, the capacitor must
be properly sized to meet the desired level of power factor correction. The size of
the capacitor in kVARs will increase substantially with the desired power factor.
Since power factor is described by the cosine function, incremental improvements
ipower factor demand increasingly more capacitance. For instance, a motor circuit
with total kW input of 100 kW at 80% power factor would need a capacitor rated at
27 kVAR, 42.5 kVAR, and 75.0 kVAR to improve the power factor to 90%, 95%, and
100%, respectively. Although increasingly more capacitance is needed for better
power factors, the cost of installing a capacitor on a certain size motor increases
slowly since large capacitors cost less per kVAR than small capacitors.
We compiled list prices of 150 capacitors from national manufacturers and
distributors. Based on that data, we constructed a quadratic function to estimate the
cost of a capacitor described as

y(x) = 194.69 + 11.000x - 0.004x 2

where x is the desired kVAR rating of the capacitor and y is the cost of the capacitor.
Graph 1 shows the predictability of costing capacitors. Manufacturers of capacitors
must recover setup costs regardless of a capacitor's size. Thus, the average cost of
a capacitor is higher for smaller capacitors. However, the cost of capacitors rated 50
kVAR and above can be linearly estimated since the average cost stabilizes at about
$13 per kVAR.

MOTOR LOADS
Motor loads are usually specified in terms of horsepower, efficiency, and load factor.
Since the load factor varies greatly with the motor's application, load factor is often
the leading factor for correct energy cost analysis. However, power factor has
become one of the emergent energy measurements for facility managers as utility
companies move away from traditional kW billing to newer rate structures such as
direct kVA billing. The relationships of real power (kW), apparent power (kVA), and
reactive power (kVAR) are described as follows:

kVAR = √ (kVA2 - kW2 )

where
kW = LF * HP * C / Efn

kVA = kW / PF
and,
LF = load factor
HP = horsepower
C = conversion, 0.746 kW/hp
EF = efficiency
PF = power factor

A motor with a higher power factor requires less total current and less reactive
current for an equal amount of useful work. That is, less reactive power is needed to
generate the flux for the magnetic field of the motor in order to produce the same
amount of real work. A motor with a higher efficiency rating requires less electric
power for an equal amount of useful work. An improvement in efficiency reduces the
total power requirement which can mean a reduction in power factor penalties as
well as a reduction in energy costs.
Because the power factor and efficiency of a motor vary with the load of the motor,
the equations above must be calculated with the power factor and efficiency ratings
at the given load factor. Motor power factors begin to erode as motor operation
drops below 75% of rated load and decline sharply below 50% of rated load [3].
Table 2 shows that power factors of all motors deteriorate markedly at load factors of
50% and especially at load factors of 25% - regardless of whether the motors are
standard-efficiency or premium-efficiency. Efficiencies often peak at 75% load and
deteriorate noticeably at lower load factors. From Table 1, we can see that
efficiency drops 5-7% in smaller motors and 2-4% in larger motors. It is clear from
this data that it is not very cost-effective to run motors at low load factors.

UTILITY POWER FACTOR CHARGES

There are three principal methods by which utilities charge for a customer's
poor power factor. These are direct kVA charges, billing demand adjustments for
low power factor, and charges for excess kVARs. In the economic analysis of power
factor cost savings in this kVA = kW / PF
And LF = load factor
HP = horsepower
C = conversion, 0.746 kW/hp
EF = efficiency
PF = power factor

A motor with a higher power factor requires less total current and less reactive
current for an equal amount of useful work. That is, less reactive power is needed to
generate the flux for the magnetic field of the motor in order to produce the same
amount of real work. A motor with a higher efficiency rating requires less electric
power for an equal amount of useful work. An improvement in efficiency reduces the
total power requirement which can mean a reduction in power factor penalties as
well as a reduction in energy costs.

Because the power factor and efficiency of a motor vary with the load of the motor,
the equations above must be calculated with the power factor and efficiency ratings
at the given load factor. Motor power factors begin to erode as motor operation
drops below 75% of rated load and decline sharply below 50% of rated load [3].
Table 2 shows that power factors of all motors deteriorate markedly at load factors of
50% and especially at load factors of 25% - regardless of whether the motors are
standard-efficiency or premium-efficiency. Efficiencies often peak at 75% load and
deteriorate noticeably at lower load factors. From Table 1, we can see that
efficiency drops 5-7% in smaller motors and 2-4% in larger motors. It is clear from
this data that it is not very cost-effective to run motors at low load factors.
UTILITY POWER FACTOR CHARGES
There are three principal methods by which utilities charge for a customer's poor
power factor. These are direct kVA charges, billing demand adjustments for low
power factor, and charges for excess kVARs. In the economic analysis of power
factor cost savings in this

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION GUIDE

Use High-Efficiency Motors Use Capacitors

when the motor is: when the motor is:

20 HP or less Greater than 20 HP

at 50-100% load at 50-100% load

Less than 5 HP 5 HP or more

at about 25% load at about 25% load

Utility Rate Two

Under the second rate structure, our analysis reveals that installing capacitors on
standard-efficiency motors or replacing standard-efficiency motors with high-
efficiency motors are cost-effective only for motors rated less than 5 HP at 25% load.
The simple payback period varies from 1.3 years to 2.6 years. Most facilities that
employ either method of power factor correction for motors rated less than 5 HP at
25% load will observe a payback period of less than two years. Neither method is
an economically attractive approach to power factor correction for any motor rated at
5 HP or above. For capacitor power factor correction, the SPP declines slightly as
the level of power factor correction increases from 90% to 95% and from 95% to
100%. <am looking to clean this paragraph up, suggestions welcome>

Utility Rate Three

For facilities that are penalized under the third utility rate structure, installing
capacitors is cost-effective for 100% power factor correction of motors rated at 100
HP and above. A facility that fits these conditions can expect the power factor
penalty cost savings to repay the cost of the capacitors in about 1.7 years. The
simple payback period varies from 1.4 years to 2.1 years depending on the size of
the motor above 100 HP and the load factor at which the motor operates.
Conversely, installing capacitors is not cost-effective for 90% power factor
correction, 95% power factor correction, and motors rated below 100 HP.
Furthermore, replacing standard-efficiency motors with high-efficiency motors is not
cost-effective under any circumstances for a facility with this utility rate. <am looking
to clean this paragraph up>

ECONOMIC INSIGHTS TO CORRECTING POWER FACTOR

The SPP of correcting power factor with high-efficiency motors increases as the
motor size increases. Graph 3 shows that the cost-effectiveness for installing high-
efficiency motors decreases, in general, as the horsepower of the motor increases.
There are three reasons that explain this observation:
1) The difference between the power factor of a standard-efficiency motor and
the power factor of a premium-efficiency motor decreases as the size of the
motor increases;

2) The difference between the efficiency of a standard-efficiency motor and the

efficiency of a premium-efficiency motor decreases as the size of the motor
increases; and

3) The cost of a motor increases as the size of the motor increases.

Generally, the SPP of correcting power factor with capacitors increases as the
desired power factor increases. Though the potential for savings is highest at 100%
correction, the reactive power rating of the capacitor increases greatly as the desired
level of power factor correction approaches 1.0. In other words, there is a
diminishing return of investment in power factor correction using capacitors

The load factor of the motor has little or no effect on the cost-effectiveness of
correcting power factor with high-efficiency motors. On the other hand, the cost-
effectiveness of correcting power factor with a capacitor is moderately affected by
the operating load. or example, Graph 4 shows SPP versus load factor for four
different sized motors at 90% power factor correction. The SPP decreases for each
motor size as the load factor decreases. The reader should conclude that correcting
power factor with capacitors become more cost-effective for all motors as the motor
load decreases. We should expect this result since low load factors correspond to
low power factors.

More importantly, Graph 6 shows the cost-effectiveness of correcting power factor

with capacitors increases as the size of the motor increases. The graphs are
intended to provide a quick, visual comparison of correcting power factor with
premium-efficiency motors and capacitors for constant load factors. Although the
graphs were constructed with discrete data, they display smooth, continuous curves
to facilitate the reader's perception.
We have shown that the SPP for capacitor power factor correction decreases for
larger motors and smaller load factors. In other words, the most cost-effective
situation occurs when a large motor operates at a low load factor. It is under these
conditions that the largest kVAR loads in the motor circuit arise. Since the most
potential for reducing kVAR occurs in larger circuits and the cost of capacitance is
dictated by economies of scale, the economic performance of correcting power
factor with capacitors improves dramatically for large oversized motors. In fact,
motors rated at 100 HP and above at 25% load have a simple payback period of 6
months or less.

ADDITIONAL BENEFITS

There are additional benefits to consider before choosing a power factor correction
technique for a facility. One of the benefits of correcting power factor with capacitors
is that the capacitor can be installed any time during the life of the motor. Correcting
power factor in this way can be cost-effective whether or not the motor has failed.

An additional benefit to correcting power factor with a high-efficiency motor is the

energy cost savings that come from improved efficiency of the motor. Facilities that
have

policy of buying high-efficiency motors should purchase high-efficiency, high power

factor motors to reduce energy consumption costs and to reduce possible power
factor penalty charges. Since the design of a motor and its efficiency primarily
determine the cost, a high power factor motor often costs no more than its low power
factor counterpart.

CONCLUSION

For facilities with power factor penalties in their utility rate, the economic benefit of
improving power factor often leads to the installation of capacitors to correct the poor
power factor of electric motors. In this paper, we have demonstrated that replacing
standard-efficiency motors with carefully selected high-efficiency, high power factor
motors is a better alternative to power factor correction for certain smaller-sized
motors. Plant engineers and managers at this type of facility should use high-
efficiency motors to correct the power factor of small motor loads and use capacitors
to correct the power factor of large motor loads.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to acknowledge Mr. Ricardo Alvarado, former student
assistant at the University of Florida Industrial Assessment Center, who helped
research data extracted from the Motor Master database.
 MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR

If a consumer improves the power factor, there is reduction in his maximum kVA
demand and hence there will be annual saving over the maximum demand charges.
However, when power factor is improved, it involves capital investment on the power
factor correction equipment. The consumer will incur expenditure every year in the
shape of annual interest and depreciation on the investment made over the p.f.
Correction equipment. Therefore, the net annual saving will be equal to the annual
saving in maximum demand charges minus annual expenditure incurred on p.f.
correction equipment.

The value to which the power factor should be improved so as to have maximum net
annual saving is known as the most economical power factor.

Consider a consumer taking a peak load of P kW at a power factor of CosØ1

and charged at a rate of Rs x per kVA of maximum demand per annum.
Suppose the consumer improves the power factor to CosØ2 by installing p.f.
correction equipment. Let expenditure incurred on the p.f. correction
equipment be Rs y per kVAR per annum.The power triangle at the original p.f.
CosØ1 is OAB and for the improved p.f. CosØ2,it is OAC.

kVA max. demand at CosØ1, kVA1 = P/CosØ1 = P SecØ1

kVA max. demand at CosØ2, kVA2 = P/CosØ2 = P SecØ2

Annual saving in max. demand charges = Rs. X(kVA1 – kVA2)

= Rs. X(P SecØ1 – P SecØ2)
= Rs. XP(SecØ1 – SecØ2)

Reactive power at CosØ1, kVAR1 = P tanØ1

Reactive power at CosØ2, kVAR2 = P tanØ2

Leading kVAR taken by p.f. correction equipment = P( tanØ1 – tanØ2)

Annual cost of p.f. correction equipment = Rs.P y ( tanØ1 – tanØ2)