MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

FIBER OPTICS and NETWORKS

Module -1
Overview of Optical fiber Communications
Historical development, The general system, Advantages of optical fiber communication, Optical
fiber waveguides: Ray theory transmission, Modes in planar guide, Phase and group velocity,
Cylindrical fiber: Modes, Step index fibers, Graded index fibers, Single mode fibers, Cutoff
wavelength, Mode field diameter, effective refractive index. Fiber Materials, Photonic crystal
fibers.

Text Book:
1. John M Senior, Optical Fiber Communications, Principles and Practice, 3rd Edition,
Pearson Education, 2010, ISBN:978-81-317-3266-3

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one point to another.
When the information is to be conveyed over any distance a communication system is usually
required. Within a communication system the information transfer is frequently achieved by
superimposing or modulating the information onto an electromagnetic wave which acts as a carrier
for the information signal. This modulated carrier is then transmitted to the required destination
where it is received and the original information signal is obtained by demodulation. Many
techniques have been developed for this process using electromagnetic carrier waves operating at
radio frequencies as well as microwave and millimeter wave frequencies. However
communication can also be achieved using electromagnetic carrier wave selected from optical
frequencies range.
1.1Historical development
The use of visible optical carrier waves or light for communication has been common for many
years.

Figure 1.1: Visible optical waves

Simple systems such as signal fires, reflecting mirrors and, more recently, signaling lamps have
provided successful, if limited, information transfer.
In 1880 Alexander Graham Bell reported the transmission of speech using a light beam. He
proposed a photophone after four years of invention of telephone modulated sunlight with a
diaphragm for speech transmission over 200m. Though there were investigations related to optical
communication it was limited to low capacity communication link. This is due to lack of suitable
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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

optical sources , light transmission in atmosphere is limited to line of sight and signal is severely
affected by disturbances such as rain, snow, fog , dust and atmospheric disturbances.
In order to reduce the effect of atmospheric disturbances, lower frequency (longer wavelength).
Longer wavelength electromagnetic waves are selected for information transfer as it is less affected
by the atmospheric conditions. Depending on wavelengths, these electromagnetic carriers are
transmitted over distance. i.e. the information-carrying capacity is directly related to the bandwidth
or frequency extent of the modulated carrier.
In theory, the greater the carrier frequency, the larger the available transmission bandwidth and
this in turn improves the information- carrying capacity of the communication system. Therefore
radio communication was developed to higher frequencies (i.e. VHF and UHF) and lead to
introduction of high frequency microwave and millimeter wave transmission. The relative
frequencies and wavelengths of these types of electromagnetic wave can be observed from the
electromagnetic spectrum shown in Figure 1.1.

Figure 1.2 The electromagnetic spectrum showing the region used for optical fiber
communications
In 1960’s LASER was invented. This device provided a powerful coherent light source along with
modulation at high frequency. Due to low beam divergence of laser and also due to atmospheric
conditions made the device limited for short distance applications. Inspite of problems, it has

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

applications such as linking of television camera to a base vehicle and for data links of a few
hundred meters between buildings.
In 1966, kao and hockham, proposed optical communication through dielectric waveguides or
optical fibers fabricated from glass. This avoids the degradation of optical signal by atmosphere.
But attenuation was very high of about 1000dB/Km. In order to replace the coaxial cables
attenuation must be around 5 to 10 dB/Km .There were problems with jointing the fiber cables in
order to achieve the low loss.
Optical frequencies have very small wavelengths. Thus, new technology was required for
development of optical components. Hence semiconductor optical sources (LED and LASER) and
detectors (photodiode) compatible in size with optical fibers were designed.
Initially semiconductor lasers had very short lifetime, but significant advances increased its life
span to greater than 1000h to 7000h. these devices were fabricated from alloys of gallium arsenide
(AlGaAs) which emit infrared bandwidth of 0.8 and 0.9 micrometer.
By the use of other semiconductor alloy the wavelength range was extended to bandwidth range
of about 1.1 to 1.6 micrometer.
With the discovery of phenomenon of photonic bandgap (created in structures which propagate
light such as crystal or optical fibers). Single mode fiber came into existence. They only transmit
a single mode of light and hence carry more optical power than a conventional cable.
Wide range of conventional fiber components (splices, connectors, couplers etc) and active
optoelectronic devices (sources, detectors, amplifiers etc) are now available.
1.2The general system

Figure (a): The general communication system

 General communication system conveys the signal from the information source over
transmission medium to the destination.

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

 It consists of transmitter or modulator linked to the transmission medium and a

demodulator at the destination point.
 The transmission medium consists of a pair of wires, a co-axial cable or a radio link.
 The signal is attenuated or suffers loss when passed through a transmission medium. This
results in degradations due to contamination by random signals and noise.
 Therefore, in any communication system there is a maximum permitted distance between
transmitter and receiver beyond which the system fails to give good communication.
 To overcome the above drawback repeaters or line amplifiers at intervals are installed down
the link. They remove signal distortion and increase signal level.

Figure (b): Optical Fiber Communication system

 The information source provides an electrical signal to a transmitter. The transmitter
consists of an electrical stage which drives an optical source to give modulation of the light
wave carrier.
 The optical source may be either a semiconductor laser or light-emitting diode (LED) to
convert electrical signal into optical signal.
 The transmission medium consists of an optical fiber cable.
 The receiver consists of an optical detector (p-n, p-i-n or avalanche photodiodes) which
drives a further electrical stage and hence provides demodulation of the optical carrier. In
some cases phototransistor or photoconductors are used for detection of optical signal.
 The optical carrier may be modulated using either an analog or digital information signal.
 Analog modulation involves the variation of the light signal from the optical source in a
continuous manner whereas in digital modulation , discrete changes in intensity of light
(on-off pulses)are obtained .

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 Analog modulation techniques are easy to implement and simpler but less efficient and
requires high signal to noise ratio at receiver compared to digital modulation.
 Linearity by optical sources is not provided for high frequency modulation.
 For these reasons , analog optical communication link is preferred for short distance
applications and for lower bandwidth operations.

Figure (c): Digital optical communication link

 Figure(c) shows a block schematic of a typical digital optical fiber link
 The input digital signal from the information source is encoded for optical transmission.
 The laser drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of the semiconductor laser using the
encoded digital signal. Thus digital signal is launched in to optical fiber cable.
 The avalanche photodiode (APD) detector is followed by a front-end amplifier and
equalizer or filter is used in receiver part. This will provide gain, linear signal processing
and noise reduction.
 The obtained signal is decoded at the decoder, to get the original digital signal.
1.3Advantages of optical fiber communication
Some of the advantages of optical fiber cable over metallic cables are as follows:
1. Enormous potential bandwidth
 The optical frequency in the range 10 13
to 10 16
Hz yields a far greater potential
transmission bandwidth than metallic cable system ( coxial cable bandwidth up to
around 500 MHz) or milimetre wave radio system ( modulation bandwidth
700MHz).
 Enhanced bandwidth utilization can be achieved by transmitting several optical
signals,
 WDM is possible with optical fiber.
2. Small size and weight

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

Optical fiber have very small diameter which are often no greater than the diameter of a
human hair. Even when such fiber are covered with protective coating they are much
smaller and lighter than copper cables
3. Electrical isolation
Optical fiber are fabricated from glass or plastic polymer, are electrical insulator and they
do not exhibit earth loop and interface problem.
This property makes it suitable for using in electrical hazardous environments, as it won’t
produce any arc or spark when short circuited.
4. Immunity to interference and cross talk
Optical fibers form a dielectric waveguide and are free from electromagnetic interference,
radio frequency interference.
Optical fiber system is unaffected by transmission through an electrically noisy
environment and requires no shielding form EMI.
5. Signal securities
The light from optical fiber does not radiate significantly and therefore provide a high
degree of signal security. Any attempt to acquire a message signal transmitted optical may
be detected.
6. Low transmission loss
Fibers are fabricated with low losses, as low as 0.15dB/Km.
This helps in implementation of communication link with widely spaced repeaters or
amplifiers. This reduces the system cost and complexity.
7. Ruggedness and flexibility
Although protective coatings are essential, optical fibers may be manufactured with very
high tensile strengths.
Surprisingly, though fiber is a glassy substance. It can be be bent to quite small radii or
twisted without damage.
Optical fiber is flexible, compact and extremely rugged.
Considering the size and weight advantage optical fiber cables are generally superior in
terms of storage, transportation, handling and installation to corresponding copper cables,
It has comparable strength and durability corresponding to copper cables.
8. System reliability and ease of maintenance

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As optical fibers have low loss property, requirement for immediate repeaters or line
amplifiers to boost the signal strength reduces.
Due to less requirement of optical repeaters and amplifiers system reliability is enhanced.
9. Potential low cost
The glass is the transmission medium for optical fiber. It is made up of sand which is not
a scarce resource. So when compared with copper conductors, optical fibers provide low
cost line communication.
Though it has not yet been achieved in all the other component areas associated with optical
fiber communications. For example, the costs of high-performance semiconductor lasers
and detector photodiodes are still relatively high
Dis-advantages:
1. High initial cost
2. Lack of standards
3. Maintenance and repairing cost
4. Radiation darkening
5. Jointing and testing procedure
6. Difficulty in splicing
Applications:
1. Public network applications
2. Military applications
3. Civil applications
4. Telephone applications
5. Medical applications
6. Industrial applications
7. Local area networks
1.4Optical fiber waveguides: Ray theory transmission
[A transparent core with a refractive index n1 surrounded by a transparent cladding of slightly
lower refractive index n2. The cladding supports the waveguide structure while also, when
sufficiently thick, substantially reducing the radiation loss into the surrounding air. the light energy
travels in both the core and the cladding allowing the associated fields to decay to a negligible
value at the cladding–air interface. ]
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Ray theory transmission

(a) Total internal reflection
The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum
to the velocity of light in the medium. A ray of light travels more slowly in an optically
dense medium than in one that is less dense, and the refractive index gives a measure of
this effect.
Consider figure (a) below, When a ray is incident on the interface between two dielectrics
of differing refractive indices (e.g. glass–air), refraction occurs.

Figure (a): Light rays incident on a high to low refractive index interface (e.g. glass–air):
refraction
The light ray incident from high index medium n1 with an incident angle 𝝋𝟏 to the normal
at the surface of the interface.
If the dielectric on the other side of the interface has a refractive index n2 which is less
than n1, then the refraction is such that the ray path in this lower index medium is at an
angle φ2 to the normal, where φ2 is greater than φ1.
The angles of incidence φ1 and refraction φ2 are related to each other and to the refractive
indices of the dielectrics by Snell’s law of refraction.

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,
In Figure (a) that a small amount of light is reflected back into the originating dielectric
medium. This is called as partial internal reflection.
As𝑛1 > 𝑛2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑2 > 𝜑1 . When the angle of refraction is 90° then the refracted ray
emerges parallel to the interface between the dielectrics, the angle of incidence must be
less than 90°. This is the limiting case of refraction and the angle of incidence is now known
as the critical angle (𝜑c ).

Figure (b) : critical angle

It is shown in figure (b) and the value of the critical angle is given by:
𝑛1 sin 𝜑1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜑2
𝜑2 = 900 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜑1 < 900
𝑛2
Then, 𝑛1 sin 𝜑1 = 𝑛2 , sin 𝜑1 = where 𝜑1 = 𝜑c
𝑛1
𝑛2
Therefore , critical angle formula is : sin 𝜑c = 𝑛1
𝑛
𝜑c = sin−1 𝑛2
1

At angles of incidence greater than the critical angle the light is reflected back into the
originating dielectric medium known as total internal reflection with high efficiency around
99.9%. It is shown in figure (c).

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Figure (c): total internal reflection where φ > φc

Consider figure (d) , that total internal reflection occurs at the interface between two
dielectrics of differing refractive indices when light is incident on the dielectric of lower
index from the dielectric of higher index, and the angle of incidence of the ray exceeds the
critical value. This is the mechanism by which light at a sufficiently shallow angle (less
than 90° − φc) may be considered to propagate down an optical fiber with low loss.

Figure (d): total internal reflection phenomenon within fiber core.

Figure (d) illustrates the transmission of a light ray in an optical fiber via a series of total
internal reflections at the interface of the silica core and the slightly lower refractive index
silica cladding. The ray has an angle of incidence φ at the interface which is greater than
the critical angle and is reflected at the same angle to the normal.
The light ray is known as meridional ray because it travel through the fiber core axis. It is
also assumed that fiber is lossless.
(b) Acceptance angle

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Figure (d) :- The acceptance angle θa when launching light into an optical fiber
Consider a meridional ray A incident on fiber core axis at an angle of 𝜽𝒂 and is refracted
at air-core interface .
This refracted ray hits the core-cladding interface at an angle of 𝜑𝑐 (critical angle). As the
angle of incidence ϕ > 𝜑𝑐 , light ray is totally internally reflected back to the same medium
at same angle throughout the length of the fiber.
Now consider a ray B incident at core axis at an angle greater than 𝜃𝑎 and is refracted to
core. Within core-cladding interface angle of incidence is ϕ < 𝜑𝑐 , then it is not totally
internally reflected . The ray is lost by radiation in cladding.

Thus for rays to be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they must
be incident on the fiber core within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half angle
θa.
Hence θa is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to be
propagated. This is known as Acceptance angle or Total Acceptance angle or maximum
angle.
(c) Numerical aperture
The ray theory analysis to obtain a relationship between the acceptance angle and the
refractive indices of the three media involved, namely the core, cladding and air. This leads
to the definition of Numerical Aperture.

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Figure (e) The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fiber in air at an input angle
less than the acceptance angle for the fiber
A light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle θ1 to the fiber axis which is less than the
acceptance angle for the fiber θa.
The ray enters the fiber from a medium (air) of refractive index n0, and the fiber core has
a refractive index n1, which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index n2.
Considering the refraction at the air–core interface and using Snell’s law.

1
Considering the right-angled triangle ABC from figure

2
where φ is greater than the critical angle at the core–cladding interface.

3
Using the trigonometrical relationship sin2 φ + cos2 φ = 1,

4
When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, φ becomes equal to the
critical angle for the core–cladding interface. Also in this limiting case θ1 becomes the
acceptance angle for the fiber θa. Combining these limiting cases.

5
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Hence the NA is defined as:

6
Here n0 = 1.
The incident meridional rays vary over the range 0 ≤ θ1 ≤ θa will be propagated within the
fiber.
The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference Δ between
the core and the cladding which is defined as:

7
Hence combining Eq. 6 with Eq. 7, we can write

8
(d) Skew Rays
(of a pair of lines) neither parallel nor intersecting.
suddenly change direction or position
There are two types of rays exists: (1) Meridiomal Ray (2) Skew Ray
[A meridional ray or tangential ray is a ray that is confined to the plane containing the
system's optical axis and the object point from which the ray originated.
A skew ray is a ray that does not propagate in a plane that contains both the object point
and the optical axis. Such rays do not cross the optical axis anywhere, and are not parallel
to it. ]

A Meridional Rays are travel through the fiber axis whereas Skew Rays are will not travel
through the fiber axis.
The rays which follow the helical path through the fiber are called as Skew Rays.

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Figure
1.3:
The
cross

sectional view
From figure 1.3 it is seen that helical path traced through the fiber gives a change in
direction of 2γ at each reflection. Where γ is the angle between the projection of the ray in
two dimensions and the radius of the fiber core at the point of reflection.
Skew rays emergence from fiber in air depends on number of reflections they undergo
rather than input conditions to the fiber.
When the light input to fiber is non-uniform, skew rays will give a smoothing effect on the
transmitted light which in turn gives more uniform output. The smoothing amount depends
on number of reflections a skew ray undergo.
Acceptance angle for skew ray is more than meridional ray.

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Figure 2.7 The ray path within the fiber core for a skew ray incident at an angle θs to the
normal at the air–core interface.
Skew ray incident on the fiber core at point A, at an angle 𝜃𝑠 to the normal at the fiber end
face. The ray is refracted at the air-core interface before it travels to point B in the same
plane.
The angle of incidence and reflection at point B are ϕ. The angle of incidence ϕ is greater
than critical angle for core – cladding interface.
When considering the ray between points A and B, it is necessary to determine the direction
of ray path AB to the core radius at point B.
As the incident and reflected ray at point B are in same plane it is cos ϕ. The two
perpendicular planes through which ray AB traverses are considered, then γ is the angle
between core radius and ray projected onto plane BRS normal to the core axis. θ is the
angle between the ray and a line drawn parallel to the core axis. To determine ray path AB
with respect to radius BR in these two perpendicular planes requires.
Multiplication of cos γ and sin θ = cos γ sin θ
Hence , reflection at point B is cos ϕ
cos ϕ = cos γ sin θ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
Using limiting condition for TIR , ϕ > ϕ𝑐 . we can write ϕ = ϕ𝑐 , equation 1 becomes
= cos γ sin θ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 2
The critical angle is given as:
𝑛
ϕ𝑐 = sin−1 𝑛2 and 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (ϕ𝑐 ) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (ϕ𝑐 ) = 1 using this,
1

𝑛 2 𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
cos ϕ𝑐 = √1 − Cos ϕ𝑐 (𝑛2 ) = √ --------------------------------------------------3
1 𝑛1 2

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For air – core interface, if we apply snell’s law

𝑛1
𝑛0 sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 = 𝑛1 sin 𝜃 , sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 = sin 𝜃 ---------------------------------------------------4
𝑛0

Using 2 and 3 in 4, we get

𝑛1 Cos ϕ𝑐
sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 = -----------------------------------------------------------------------------5
𝑛0 cos γ

From equation 3 in 5, we get

𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝑛1 √ 𝑛1 2
sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------6
𝑛0 cos γ

Where 𝑛0 = 1 for air

sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 cos 𝛾 = √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 = 𝑁𝐴 -------------------------------------------------------------7

√𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
sin 𝜃𝑎𝑠 =
cos 𝛾
The acceptance angle for skew rays
√𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
𝜃𝑎𝑠 = sin−1 ( ) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------8
cos 𝛾

1.5Modes in planar guide

The planar guide is the simplest form of optical waveguide.
Assume it consists of a slab of dielectric with refractive index n1 sandwiched between two
regions of lower refractive index n2.
Consider a plane monochromatic wave propagating in the direction of the light ray within
the guide.
As RI within guide is n 1 and optical wavelength λ in this region is given as 𝜆/𝑛1 . Vacum
propagation constant is denoted as k and for guide with RI 𝑛1 it is 𝑛1 𝑘.
θ is the angle between the wave propagation vector or the equivalent ray and the guide axis
In below figure wave is propagating in z and x direction
The component of the phase propagation constant in the z direction 𝛽𝑧 is given by:
𝛽𝑧 = 𝑛1 𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
The component of the phase propagation constant in the x direction 𝛽𝑥 is:
𝛽𝑥 = 𝑛1 𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The light wave hitting the interface between the higher and lower refractive index media
reflects back. The total phase change after two successive reflections at upper and lower

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

interfaces between points P and Q is 2𝑚𝜋 , where m is an integer. Then constructive

interference occurs.

Figure (a)The formation of a mode in a planar dielectric guide: a plane wave propagating
in the guide shown by its wave vector or equivalent ray – the wave vector is resolved into
components in the z and x directions
The interference of two plane waves is shown in figure (b)

Figure (b): The interference of plane waves in the guide forming the lowest order mode
(m = 0)
It is assumed that the interference forms the lowest order (where m = 0) standing wave,
where the electric field is a maximum at the center of the guide decaying towards zero at
the boundary between the guide and cladding.
The electric field penetrates some distance into the cladding. This phenomenon is called as
Evanescent field . The sinusoidally varying electric field in the z direction is also shown in
figure (b).
The stable field distribution in the x direction with periodic z dependence is known as a
mode.

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Figure (c) shows examples of such rays for m = 1, 2, 3, together with the electric field
distributions in the x direction. It is observed that m denotes the number of zeros in this
transverse field pattern. In this way m signifies the order of the mode and is known as the
mode number.

Figure (c) : transverse electric (TE) field patterns of three lower order models (m = 1, 2,
3) in the planar dielectric guide
1.6Phase and group velocity
All electromagnetic waves, whether plane or otherwise, there are points of constant phase.
For plane waves these constant phase points form a surface is called as a wavefront.
As a monochromatic lightwave propagates along a waveguide in the z direction and at a
phase velocity υp given by:

1
where ω is the angular frequency of the wave.
Practically producing perfect monochromatic light wave is not possible. Group of waves
with closely similar frequencies propagate so that their resultant forms a packet of waves
called as wave packets.

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The formation of such a wave packet resulting from the combination of two waves of
slightly different frequency propagating together is shown in figure. This wavepacket does
not travel at phase velocity but will propagate at group velocity 𝑣𝑔 .

2
The group velocity relates to the propagation characteristics of wave groups or packets of
light.
The propagation constant for a medium with RI n1 is given by expression.

2𝜋 𝑐
𝛽= 𝑛1 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜆 =
𝜆 𝑓

2𝜋 𝑛1 𝑓
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 , 𝛽 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 2𝜋𝑓 = 𝜔 ,
𝑐
𝜔 𝑛1
𝛽= 3
𝑐

Where c is the velocity of light in free space.

The relationship for phase velocity in terms of RI n1:

𝜔 𝜔 𝑐
𝑣𝑝 = = 𝜔 𝑛1 = 4
𝛽 𝑛1
𝑐

Similarly, where in the limit δω/δβ becomes dω/dβ, the group velocity:
𝑑𝜔⁄
𝑑𝜆
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝛽⁄ 5
𝑑𝜆
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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

2𝜋 𝜔 𝑛1 2𝜋𝑐 2𝜋
Where 𝑛1 = ,𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 = 𝑛1
𝜆 𝑐 𝜆 𝜆

It is assumed that n1 is not constant, as we know 𝑅𝐼 𝑛 =

𝑐
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑣

Upon differentiating we get.

2𝜋𝑐
)𝑑(
𝑑𝜔⁄ = 𝜆 ⁄ = −2𝜋𝑐/𝜆2
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆
2𝜋 𝑑(2𝜋𝑛1 ) 𝑑𝜆 𝑑(𝑛1 )
𝑑𝛽⁄ 𝑑 ( 𝑛 ) 𝜆 − 2𝜋𝑛1 2𝜋𝜆 − 2𝜋𝑛1
= 𝜆 1 ⁄ = 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆2 𝜆2

𝑑𝛽⁄ 2𝜋 𝑑(𝑛1 ) 2𝜋𝑛1 1 𝑑(𝑛1 ) 𝑛1

𝑑𝜆 = − 2
= 2𝜋 [ − 2]
𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆

Equation 5 is reduced to

𝑑𝜔⁄ −2𝜋𝑐 −2𝜋𝑓𝜆 −ω

𝑑𝜆 𝜆2 𝜆2 λ
𝑣𝑔 = = = =
𝑑𝛽⁄ 1 𝑑(𝑛1 ) 𝑛 1 𝑑(𝑛1 ) 𝑛 1 𝑑(𝑛1 ) 𝑛1
𝑑𝜆 2𝜋 [ − 21 ] 2𝜋 [ − 21 ] 2𝜋 [ − 2]
𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆

−1 −1
−ω 1 𝑑(𝑛1 ) 𝑛1 −2πf 𝜆2 𝑑(𝑛1 )
𝑣𝑔 = [ − 2] = [𝜆 − 𝑛1 ]
2πλ 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝜆 2πλ 𝑑𝜆
−𝑓𝜆 𝑐
𝑣𝑔 = =
𝑑(𝑛1 ) 𝑑(𝑛1 )
[𝜆 − 𝑛1 ] [𝑛1 − 𝜆 ]
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝑑(𝑛1 )
If [𝑛1 − 𝜆 ] = 𝑁𝑔
𝑑𝜆

The parameter Ng is known as the group index of the guide.

1.7Step index fibers
On the basis of number of modes propagating within fiber, there are two types :
1. Single Mode Fiber
2. Multi-Mode Fiber
On the basis of refractive index profile, there are two types:
1. Step Index Fiber
2. Graded Index Fiber

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

The optical fiber with a core of constant refractive index n1 and a cladding of a slightly
lower refractive index n2 is known as step index fiber. This is because the refractive index
profile for this type of fiber makes a step change at the core–cladding interface.

The refractive index profile and ray transmission in step index fibers: (a) multimode step
index fiber; (b) single-mode step index fiber
The refractive index profile equation for both the cases :

Figure (a) shows a multimode step index fiber with a core diameter of around 50 μm or greater,
which is large enough to allow the propagation of many modes within the fiber core.
Figure (b) shows a single-mode or monomode step index fiber.
It allows the propagation of only one transverse electromagnetic mode (typically HE11).
It has the core diameter must be of the order of 2 to 10 μm.it is axial ray shown in figure.
The single-mode step index fiber has the distinct advantage of low intermodal dispersion
(broadening of transmitted light pulses), as only one mode is transmitted, whereas with multimode
step index fiber considerable dispersion may occur due to the differing group velocities of the
propagating modes.

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

For lower bandwidth applications multimode fibers have several advantages over single-
mode fibers.
 The use of incoherent optical sources (e.g. most light-emitting diodes) which cannot be
efficiently coupled to single-mode fibers;
 Larger numerical apertures, as well as core diameters, facilitating easier coupling to optical
sources
 Lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors.
Multimode step index fibers allow the propagation of a finite number of guided modes along the
channel. The number of guided modes is dependent upon the parameters (i.e. relative refractive
index difference, core radius) of the fiber and the wavelengths of the transmitted light which are
included in the normalized frequency V for the fiber.
The total number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for a step index fiber is related to the V
value for the fiber by the approximate expression:

1.8Graded index fibers

Graded index fibers do not have a constant refractive index in the core* but a decreasing core index
n(r) with radial distance from a maximum value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond the
core radius a in the cladding. Graded index fibers are therefore sometimes referred to as
inhomogeneous core fibers.
This index variation may be represented as:

where Δ is the relative refractive index difference and α is the profile parameter which gives the
characteristic refractive index profile of the fiber core.
 When α = ∞ it takes step index profile,
 When α = 2 a parabolic profile and
 when α = 1 a triangular profile

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

The graded index profiles which produce the best results for multimode optical propagation have
a near parabolic refractive index profile core with α = 2. This range of refractive index profiles is
shown in figure.

A multimode graded index fiber with a parabolic index profile core is illustrated in Figure. This is
for meridional ray which takes curved path.

The refractive index profile and ray transmission in a multimode graded index fiber
Multimode graded index fibers have less intermodal dispersion than multimode step index fiber
because of its index profiles.

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

An expanded ray diagram showing refraction at the various high to low index interfaces within a
graded index fiber, giving an overall curved ray path
The above figure shows how a ray takes curved path along with varying RI. The rays traveling
close to the fiber axis have shorter paths when compared with rays which travel into the outer
regions of the core.
A similar situation exists for skew rays which follow longer helical paths, as illustrated in Figure.

A helical skew ray path within a graded index fiber

The total number of modes in GIF is calculated using formula:

Hence for a parabolic refractive index profile core fiber (α = 2),𝑀𝑔 , which is half the number
supported by a step index fiber (α = ∞) with the same V value.
Difference between Step index fiber and Graded index fiber
Sl No Parameter Step Index Fiber Graded index fiber
1. Data rate Slow Faster compared to SIF
2. Coupling efficiency Higher Lower
3. Oscillatory fashion or curved
Ray Path TIR (Normal)
path
4. Changes continuously with
NA Remains Same
distance from fiber axis
5. Bandwidth
10-20 MHz/Km 1 GHz/Km
Efficiency
6. Pulse spreading More Less
7. Less of about 0.3 dB/Km at Less of about 0.6 to 1
Attenuation of light
1.3𝜇𝑚 dB/Km at 1.3𝜇𝑚
8. Light source LED LED , LASERs
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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

9. Local network
Applications LAN and WAN
communication

1.9 Single mode fibers

In multimode fibers, it is difficult to design for single mode fibers as it has a disadvantage of
coupling one mode to another mode because of fiber imperfections and input mismatches. Hence,
the fiber must be designed to allow only one mode while all other modes are attenuated by leakage
or absorption.
Advantage of single mode fiber: dispersion caused by the delay differences between different
modes in a multimode fiber may be avoided.
For single mode operation, only fundamental mode LP01 mode exists. The single mode
propagation of LP01 mode in step index fiber is possible over range 0 ≤ 𝑉 ≤ 2.405 .
The normalized frequency for fiber can be adjusted within the range by reducing core radius and
refractive index difference ∆< 1% .
For single mode step index fiber operation Vc value is 2.405.
Graded index fibers can also be designed for single-mode operation. The cutoff value of
normalized frequency Vc to support a single mode in a graded index fiber is given by:
2
𝑉𝑐 = 2.405 √1 + 𝛼

1.10 Cutoff wavelength

The equation for normalized frequency is:
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑉= 𝑎𝑁𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑛1 √2 ∆ 1
𝜆 𝜆

Where a – Radius of fiber core

NA – Numerical Aperture
𝑛1 – Refractive Index of core
∆ - Relative refractive index difference
The cutoff wavelength is denoted as 𝜆𝑐 and for single mode fibers cutoff normalized frequency is
denoted as 𝑉𝑐 .
Single-mode operation only occurs above a theoretical cutoff wavelength λc given by:
2𝜋
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑎𝑛1 √2 ∆ 2
𝜆𝑐

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

2𝜋
𝜆𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑛1 √2 ∆ 3
𝑉𝑐

Dividing equation 1 by 2 , we get

2𝜋
𝑉 𝑎 𝑛1 √2 ∆
𝜆
= 2𝜋
𝑉𝑐 𝑎𝑛1 √2 ∆
𝜆𝑐

𝑉 𝜆𝑐
=
𝑉𝑐 𝜆
𝑉𝜆
Thus 𝜆𝑐 = 4
𝑉𝑐

For step index fiber, 𝑉𝑐 = 2.405 . Eq 4 will become

𝑉𝜆
𝜆𝑐 = 5
2.405

Problem
1. Determine the cutoff wavelength for a step index fiber to exhibit single-mode
operation when the core refractive index and radius are 1.46 and 4.5 μm, respectively,
with the relative index difference being 0.25%.
Solution: Vc = 2.405 For SMSIF
𝑛1 = 1.46
a = 4.5 μm
∆ = 0.25%
𝜆𝑐 = ?
𝑉𝜆
𝜆𝑐 =
2.405

𝜆𝑐 = 1.214 μm = 1214 nm
Hence the fiber is single-moded to a wavelength of 1214 nm.
1.11 Mode field diameter
MFD is an important parameter for characterizing single-mode fiber properties which takes into
account the wavelength-dependent field penetration into the fiber cladding.
 MFD is important parameter in determinig the single mode fiber properties.
 It helps in determining the field penetration into the cladding.
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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

 For step index and graded (near parabolic profile) single-mode fibers operating near the
cutoff wavelength , the field distribution is considered as Gaussian.
 The figure shows the electric field distribution for single mode fiber. It is for fundamental
mode and mode field diameter is given as 2𝜔0

 Another parameter MFD is related to is spot size . spot size is mode field radius i.e 𝜔0 .
Where 𝜔0 is half width of the field diameter
 For multimode fibers refractive index profiles, operating wavelengths vary compared to
single mode fiber. As the MFD for SMF is considered as fundamental mode in MMF. The
Mode Field Diameter for MMF is larger than the SMF.
1.12 Effective refractive index
The rate of change of phase of the fundamental LP01 mode propagating along a straight fiber is
determined by the phase propagation constant β.
2𝜋
𝛽= 1
𝜆

If the wavelength of the fundamental mode is denoted as 𝜆01 . Equation 1 becomes

2𝜋
𝛽= 2
𝜆01

Since β gives the increase in phase angle per unit length. Hence:
2𝜋
𝛽𝜆01 = 2𝜋 or 𝜆01 = 3
𝛽

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

Effective refractive index for single mode fiber is defined as the ratio of the propagation constant
of the fundamental mode to that of the vacuum propagation constant. It is denoted by 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 .
𝛽
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 4
𝑘

Hence, the wavelength of the fundamental mode λ01 is smaller than the vacuum wavelength λ by
the factor 1/𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 where:
2𝜋
𝜆 𝜆
𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 01 =
2𝜋 𝜆01
𝜆

The fundamental mode propagates in a medium with a refractive index n(r) which is dependent on
the distance r from the fiber axis. The effective refractive index can therefore be considered as an
average over the refractive index of this medium

Using relation 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑏)

neff is equal to β/k, therefore

The dimensionless parameter b which varies between 0 and 1. It is useful for designing single
mode fibers. As the relative refractive index difference is very small and it gives small range for
β.

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

The normalized propagation constant (b) of the fundamental mode in a step index fiber shown as
a function of the normalized frequency (V)
1.13 Fiber Materials
In selecting fiber materials for optical fibers , there are few requirements to be fulfilled:
1. It must be possible to make long, thin , flexible fibers from materials.
2. The material must be transparent at particular optical wavelength in order for fiber to guide
light efficiently.
3. The slight difference in refractive index of core and cladding must be there.
Materials that satisfy these requirements are glass and plastic.
The majority of fibers used is glass fibers made of silica (SiO2) or silicate . the variety of glass
fibers are available, from moderate loss fibers with large core used for short distance applications
to low loss fibers used in long distance applications.
Plastic fibers are less used compared to glass fibers because of high attenuation. They are preferred
for short distance applications. It has an advantage of mechanical strength over glass fibers.
Glass Fibers
Glass fibers are made of mixtures of metal oxides or sulfides. In crystalline materials molecules
are arranged in well defined manner bt in glass molecules are arranged randomly i.e a randomly
connected molecular network.
Because of a randomly connected molecular network glass does not have a defined melting point.
When a glass is heated from room temperature, it remains solid to several hundred degree
centigrade.
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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

As the temperature increases further , glass begins to soften and at very high temperature it
becomes viscous liquid .therefore term ‘melting temperature’ is used in fiber fabrication. This term
refers to temperature range where glass becomes fluid and to free itself to form quickly bubbles.
The RI of core and cladding are different but are made of same material using fluorine or various
oxides, dopants such as : 𝐵2 𝑂3 , 𝐺𝑒𝑂2 and 𝑃2 𝑂5 are added to silica. By addition of dopants ,
changes the RI of material.

From figure , addition of dopants like 𝐺𝑒𝑂2 and 𝑃2 𝑂5 increases the RI. Whereas doping silica with
fluorine and 𝐵2 𝑂3 decreases the RI.
Cladding must have lower RI than core. The following compositions can be used.
 𝐺𝑒𝑂2 − 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 ; 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
 𝑃2 𝑂5 − 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 ; 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 ; 𝐵2 𝑂3 − 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
 𝐺𝑒𝑂2 − 𝐵2 𝑂3 − 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑒 ; 𝐵2 𝑂3 − 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 − 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
The raw material for silica is high purity sand. The glass made from pure silica is known as “Silica
Glass, Fused Silica or Vitreous Silica”
The properties of glass made from pure silica or glass are:
 Resistance to deformation at temperatures as high as 10000c .
 Glass has low thermal expansion. Because of this property glass has high resistance to
breakage from thermal shock.
 Good chemical durability.
Dis-advantage: Its High melting temperature as glass is prepared from molten state. This can
be avoided by using vapour deposition techniques.

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

Active Glass Fibers

 Adding more earth elements into a normal passive glass results in active glass fibers with
a new optical and magnetic properties.
 These properties allow the material to perform amplification, attenuation and phase
retardation as light passes through it.
 Doping or addimpurities can be done for silica, tellurite and halide glass.
 Two commonly used materials for fiber Lasers are Erbium and Neodymium.
 It is difficult to avoid clustering effect beacause of earth elements . these elements have
low ionic concentration.
Plastic Optical Fibers
 The increasing demand for high speed services has lead fiber developers to create high
bandwidth polymer (plastic optical fibers - POF).
 The core of this fiber is either polymethylmethacrylate or a perflourinated polymer. These
fibers are referred to as PMMAPOF and PFPOF.
 Plastic fibers exhibit more signal attenuation than glass fibers but they are tough and
durable.
 Compared with silica fibers, the core diameters of plastic fibers are 10-20 times larger.
This allows connector can be coupled to fiber easily without any coupling losses and with
good coupling efficiency.
 Thus plastic injection molding techniques can be used to fabricate connectors, splice and
transceivers.
1.14 Photonic crystal fibers.
 Optical fibers consists of solid silica core and cladding regions in which light travel. The
core RI n1 is increased by doping silicon with germanium.
 A new class of micro structured optical fiber has been developed, it consists of fine array
air holes running longitudinally down the fiber cladding.
 Since the microstructure within the fiber is highly periodic due to fabrication process, these
fibers are referred to as photonic Crystal Fibers (PCFs) or Holey fibers.
 In conventional optical fibers, electromagnetic modes are guided by TIR in core region but
in PCfs two different mechanisms occurs.

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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

 Guided modes are trapped within a fiber containing air holes by an effect similar to TIR. it
is called as modified TIR and referred as Index Guided Fiber
 Another method is to trap to a guided mode into core of either higher or lower index by a
photonic bandgap effect. it is called as modified TIR and referred as Index Guided Fiber
Index Guided Microstructures
 Though the principles of guidance and characteristics are similar to conventional fibers.
 Index guided fiber have greater RI difference between core and cladding.
 Cladding contain air holes with a RI of 1 compared with normal silica cladding with index
of 1.45. This value is close to core index of about 1.462.
 The physical difference between the index guided PCFs and conventional fiber is in the
way the guided modes interacts with cladding region..
 In normal fiber, interaction will be at first order and independent of wavelength but index
guided structure cladding index to be strong function of wavelength.
 For Shorter wavelength, effective index is slightly lower than core index and hence guided
waves remain tightly confined to core.
 For longer wavelengths, effective index contrast is larger. This results in losses.
 This high index difference in PCF reduces the core diameter from around 8micrometer to
less than 1 micrometer , this increases intensity of light which in turn increases the non-
linear effects.
 Two common index-guided PCF designs are shown

Two index-guided photonic crystal fiber structures. The dark areas are air holes while the white
areas are silica
 In both cases a solid-core region is surrounded by a cladding region containing air holes.
The cladding region in Figure (a) comprises a hexagonal array of air holes while in Figure
(b) the cladding air holes are not uniform in size and do not extend too far from the core.
The hole diameter d and hole to hole spacing or pitch Λ are critical design parameters used
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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

to specify the structure of the PCF. This property, which cannot be attained in conventional
fibers, is particularly significant for broadband applications such as wavelength division
multiplexed transmission.
Photonic bandgap fibers
 The fiber has a hollow core surrounded by a cladding region which contains air holes
running along the length of the fiber.
 The functional principle of PBF is similar to the role of periodic crystalline lattice in a
semiconductor which blocks electrons from occupying a bandgap region
 Two different PBG fiber structures are shown in Figure.
 These fibers are called as air guiding or hollow core PBG fibers
 The hollow core of PBF is fabricated to have less material absorption and attenuation
compared to conventional fibers.

Figure : Photonic bandgap (PBG) fiber structures in which the dark areas are air (lower refractive
index) and the lighter area is the higher refractive index: (a) honeycomb PBG fiber; (b) air-
guiding PBG fiber

Question Bank
1. With neat block diagram explain optical fiber communication system.
2. Discuss advantages of optical fiber over metallic cables.
3. Discuss dis-advantages and applications of fiber cable.
4. Define refraction, reflection, total internal reflection , acceptance angle and numerical
aperture .
5. Derive an expression for acceptance angle and numerical aperture for meridional rays.
6. Derive an expression for acceptance angle and numerical aperture for Skew rays.
7. Explain modes in planar guides.
8. Derive an expression for phase velocity and group velocity.
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 MODULE -1 :- FIBER OPTICS AND NETWORKS

9. Explain step index and Graded index fiber with equation.

10. Difference between SIF and GIF.
11. Discuss about single mode fiber.
12. Derive an equation for cut off wavelength.
13. Explain mode field diameter.
14. Discuss about effective refractive index.
15. Explain different fiber materials.
16. Explain photonic crystal fiber.

35