University of Zimbabwe

Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical Department
MSc Renewable Energy Programme
Lecture Notes: Bioenergy MREN 511
By
Dr. Eng. C.S. Shonhiwa
PhD Sci. (UZ), MSc. Chemical Engineering (UCLV), MSc Renewable Energy (UZ),
BSc Hon. Chemical Engineering Technology (UCLV), City&Guilds Boiler Operator
London
Email: shocle@yahoo.comEmail: shocle@yahoo.com. Or cshonhiwa@eng.uz.ac.zw
Mobile: 263773485140 or 263774355887
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Autotrophic Process: Plants and plant-like organisms
make their energy (glucose) from sunlight.
• Stored as carbohydrate in their bodies.
• 6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2
Why is Photosynthesis important?

• Makes organic molecules (glucose) out

of inorganic materials (carbon dioxide
and water).
• It begins all food chains/webs. Thus
all life is supported by this process.
• It also makes oxygen gas!!
Photosynthesis-starts to ecological food webs!
Photo-synthesis
means "putting together with light."
• Plants use sunlight to turn water
and carbon dioxide into glucose.
Glucose is a kind of sugar.
• Plants use glucose as food for
energy and as a building block for
growing.
• Autotrophs make glucose and
heterotrophs are consumers of it.
How do we know that plants make
carbohydrates from just carbon dioxide
water and light energy? Experiments!
• For example:
Jan Baptisa van Helmont (1648) planted a
willow branch weighing 5 pounds into 200
pounds of soil and then after 4 years the tree
weighed 169 lbs. and the soil was still
nearly 200 lbs.
 Photosynthesis

sunlight
Carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
absorbed by chlorophyll

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

As can be seen from the equation for photosynthesis, the

wood, bark, and root came from water and carbon
dioxide.
Plants in Action
Check it!

What is the
process
that uses
the sun’s
energy to
make
simple
sugars?
Plant leaves have many types of cells!
Plant Cells
The photograph below is an elodea leaf X 400.
Individual cells are clearly visible. The tiny
green structures within the cells are
chloroplasts
this is where
photosynthesis
happens.
Chloroplasts make the sugars!
 Plants
Leaves are green
because they
contain
the pigment:
chlorophyll

Leaves have a
large surface area
to absorb as much
"Thanks for the Glucose!"
light as possible
Chloroplasts
make the
oxygen too!
Stoma
This opening how plants exchange gases!
Check it! Can you name the two important
gases that go in and out of the leaves?
Why are the
stomata
located on the
underside of
leaves?
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Absorbing Light Energy to make chemical
energy: glucose!
• Pigments: Absorb different colors of white light
(ROY G BIV)
• Main pigment: Chlorophyll a
• Accessory pigments: Chlorophyll b and Carotenoids
• These pigments absorb all wavelengths (light) BUT
green!
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Why do we see green?
• Green color from white light
reflected NOT absorbed
• Chloroplast: organelle
responsible for photosynthesis
• Chlorophyll: located within
Chloroplast
• Green pigment
Visible light is only
a small part of the
electromagnetic
spectrum (all forms
of light).
• LIGHT behaves as if it were composed of
"units" or "packets" of energy that travel in
waves. These packets are photons.
• The wavelength of light determines its color.
Chlorophyll: A Light Absorbing Pigment
The Solar Panel Chemical!
Photosynthesis

Glucose provides the energy and

carbon needed to make other
plant materials like wax and
proteins.
Oxygen and Sugar!
• In plants and simple animals, waste products are removed
by diffusion. Plants, for example, excrete O2, a product of
photosynthesis.
 EQUATION FOR
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

WATER OXYGEN
6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY C6H12O6 + 6O2
CARBON GLUCOSE
DIOXIDE
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• 2 Phases
• Light-dependent reaction
• Light-independent reaction

• Light-dependent: converts light energy into

chemical energy; produces ATP molecules to
be used to fuel light-independent reaction

• Light-independent: uses ATP produced to

make simple sugars.
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Light-dependent reaction (LIGHT Reaction)
• Requires light
• Occurs in chloroplast (in thylakoids)
• Chlorophyll (thylakoid) traps energy from light
• Light excites electron (e-)
• Kicks e- out of chlorophyll to an electron transport chain
• Electron transport chain: series of proteins in thylakoid
membrane
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Light-dependent reaction (LIGHT Reaction)
• Energy lost along electron transport chain
• Lost energy used to recharge ATP from ADP

• NADPH produced from e- transport chain

• Stores energy until transfer to stroma
• Plays important role in light-independent reaction

• Total byproducts: ATP, NADP, O2

 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• How did we get O2 as a byproduct?!
• Photolysis: replaces lost electrons by splitting water
 Sun

Light energy transfers to chlorophyll.

• At each step
along the
transport chain, Chlorophyll passes energy down through the
electron transport chain.

the electrons
lose energy.
Energized electrons provide energy that

to ADP
splits bonds P
H2O
forming
+
H NADP+ ATP
oxygen
released
NADPH

for the use in

light-independent reactions
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• Light-independent reaction (Dark Reaction)
• Does not require light
• Calvin Cycle
• Occurs in stroma of chloroplast
• Requires CO2
• Uses ATP and NADPH as fuel to run
• Makes glucose sugar from CO2 and Hydrogen
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• What affects photosynthesis?
• Light intensity: as light increases, rate of
photosynthesis increases
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• What affects photosynthesis?
• Carbon Dioxide: As CO2 increases, rate of
photosynthesis increases
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
• What affects photosynthesis?
• Temperature:
• Temperature Low = Rate of photosynthesis low
• Temperature Increases = Rate of photosynthesis increases
• If temperature too hot, rate drops
 Check it!
1. The process that uses the sun’s energy to
make simple sugars is _____________.

A. Cellular respiration
B. Glycolysis
C. Photosynthesis
D. Photolysis
 Check it!
2. The function accomplished by the
light-dependent reactions is ______________.

A. Energy storage
B. Sugar production
C. Carbon fixation
D. Conversion of sugar
CALVIN CYLE
Calvin Cycle
• In the first stage of the Calvin cycle, a CO2 molecule
is incorporated into one of two three-carbon
molecules (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate molecule is
incorporated into one of two three-carbon molecules
(glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses
up two molecules of ATP molecule is incorporated
into one of two three-carbon molecules
(glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate or G3P), where it uses
up two molecules of ATP and two molecules of
NADPH, which had been produced in the
light-dependent stage
 Stage 1
The enzyme RuBisCOThe enzyme RuBisCO catalyses the
carboxylation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate, RuBP, a
5-carbon compound, by carbon dioxide (a total of 6
carbons) in a two-step reaction.
The product of the first step is enediol-enzyme complex that
can capture CO2 or O2 .
. The CO2 that is captured by enediol in second step produces
a six-carbon intermediate initially that immediately splits in
half, forming two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate, or
3-PGA, a 3-carbon compound (also: 3-phosphoglyceric
acid, PGA, 3PGA).
Overall Reaction
 C3 and C4 Plants
C3 and C4 plants are different processes that plants
use to fix carbon during photosynthesis process.
Fixing carbon is the way plants remove carbon from
the CO2 and turn it into organic molecules like
carbohydrates.
 C3 Plants
➢ A 3 carbon molecule 3-phosphoglycderic acid is
produced during the Calvin cycle.
➢ About 85% of the plants on Earth are C3 plants
such as most trees, wheat, rice, barley, cotton,
peanuts, grasses, spinach, etc.
➢ About 25% of the carbon fixed is released back into
the atmosphere during photorespiration
C3 Plants Carbon Fixation Pathway
C4 plants
A 4 carbon intermediate molecule (malic or
aspartic acid) is produced as and additional step
before the Calvin Cycle
In this step CO2 from the atmosphere is taken by
malic acid or aspartic acid in the bundle sheath to
form malate or aspartate which releases CO2 to the
chloroplast and the Calvin cycle begins.
About 3% of the plant species on Earth are C4
plants and these are: sugar cane, millet, sorghum,
corn, pine apple, cabbage
C4 plants Pathway
Comparison Between C3 and C4 Plants
C3 C4
Photorespiration High Low/negligible
Environment All Tropical, high daytime
temperatures, drought
Pathway Steps 1 2
First molecule 3-phosphoglycer Malic or aspartic acid
produced ic acid

Calvin Cycle Yes Yes

 What are Carbohydrates

• A group of organic compounds occuring in living

organisms and include sugars, starch and cellulose.
• They contain H and O in the ratio as of water 2:1
and can be broken to release energy.
• Can be classified into simple sugars and complex
sugars.
• Simple sugars are called monosacharrides.
• When two or more simple sugars are combined they
form complex sugars.
Carbohydrates
Simple Sugars
Disaccharides
Polysacharrides
 Assignment 1
• 1. With the aid of Calvin cycle explain the
photosynthetic pathways of C3 and C4. Plants. [10]
2. Justify why C4 plants are more preferable to be used
as energy crops. [5]
3. Which region(s) in Zimbabwe are more suitable for
C4 plants justify. [5]
4. Give as many examples as you can of C3 and C4
plants. [5]
 Energy Crops
Are plants grown to make biofuels, such
as bioethanol, biodiesel or combusted for its energy
content to generate electricity or heat, biogas for
heating or generation of electricity.
Biodiesel Energy Crops: Jatropha, ground nut,
rapeseed, palm kernel, soybean, cotton seed, rape seed,
sesame, copra, mustard seed, tobacco seed, etc.
Biogas Energy crops: Maize crop 205-450m3/tone of
VS, wheat grain 384-426,
 Biomass Fuel Characterisation
• Important for the optimization of energy
consumption

• Biomass Fuel characterization concerns with the

“analysis” and “energy content of fuel” (also known
as calorific value).
• Fuel analysis comprises of “proximate” and
“ultimate”.
 Proximate analysis:
In the proximate analysis, moisture (M), Ash (A) and
volatile matter (VM) are determined.
And Fixed carbon (FC) is obtained from the following
equation: FC=100-(%M+%A+%VM)
Ash: the residue obtained after complete combustion
of fuel. Its mainly CaO, MgO, SiO2 and Al2O3
Volatile Matter: It consists of volatile substances
formed during heating of fuel in absence of air.
Essentially these are gaseous substances like CO,
H2, H2O, CO2, CH4, N2,O2 and other hydrocarbons.
 Fuel Moisture
• Fuel moisture can be as follows:
• (a) Outside (rough) combines with fuel at extraction, transportation and storage.
It is easily removed by drying.
• (b) Hygroscopic, mainly absorbed by organic portions of fuel.
• (c) Constitutional (crystal water of molecule of some compounds in ash).
 Fuel Moisture
• In liquid fuels, moisture is an incidental admixture of water when transported and
stored. In gaseous fuels, moisture occurs in the form of steam whose boundary
contents depend on the temperature and pressure of fuel. Under certain conditions,
steam can be saturated and excess steam condensed in gaseous fuel. From the energy
point of view, moisture is a harmful admixture of all types of fuel. . Fuel moisture
can be as follows:
• (a) Outside (rough) combines with fuel at extraction, transportation and storage. It is
easily removed by drying.
• (b) Hygroscopic, mainly absorbed by organic portions of fuel.
• (c) Constitutional (crystal water of molecule of some compounds in ash).
• The content of moisture in solid fuels varies from 4 % to 55 % . In liquid fuels,
moisture is an incidental admixture of water when transported and stored. In gaseous
fuels, moisture occurs in the form of steam whose boundary contents depend on the
temperature and pressure of fuel. Under certain conditions, steam can be saturated
and excess steam condensed in gaseous fuel. From the energy point of view,
moisture is a harmful admixture of all types of fuel. .
 Terms For Proximate Analysis
• %Dry Basis=(%A or %VM)/(100-%M)x100
• %FC dry basis=100-(%M+%A)
• %Dry Ash Free Basis (daf)=%VM/(100-(%M+%A))
• Fuel Moisture:
 Ultimate Analysis
The ultimate chemical analysis determines the mass
percentage of carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O),
Nitrogen (N), Sulfur (S), ash and water in fuel.
For gaseous fuels, chemical analysis determines the
volume percentage of Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6),
Propane (C3H6), Butanes plus (includes butane and all
heavier hydrocarbons) (C4H8), Ethene (C2H4), Benzene
(C6H6), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Hydrogen (H2),
Nitrogen (N2), Oxygen (O2), and Carbon Dioxide
(CO2). In this textbook only the ultimate analysis is
used.
 Calorific Value
• The amount heat on complete combustion of 1kg of
fuel at reference state of product of combustion
(POC) i.e. CO2, H2O, SO2
• GCV is 25 degrees with POC of CO2(g), SO2(g)
and H2O(l)
• NCV is 100 degree with POC of CO2(g), SO2(g) and
H2)(g)
• So GCV > NCV by an amount equal to latent heat of
condensation.
• NCV = GCV – Heat of vaporization of water
• NCV = GCV – λ (9 %H + %M) kJ/kg
• λ=enthalpy of vaporization of water
 Biogas Technology
• Biogas is produced by anaerobic bacteria that
degrade Biomass organic material to biogas in four
steps:
➢ hydrolysis, acidification, production of acetic acid
and production of methane.
➢ The product of the digestive process, raw biogas,
consists of 50–75% methane, 25–50% carbon
dioxide and 2–8% other gases such as nitrogen,
oxygen and trace gases (e.g. hydrogen sulfide (H2S),
ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen). Before the biogas
can be converted into
Steps in Anaerobic Digestion
Sources of raw material
 1. Hydrolysis
• Hydrolysis is theoretically the first step of AD,
during which the complex organic matter (polymers)
is decomposed into smaller units (mono- and
oligomers).
Products of Hydrolysis
 2. Acidogenesis
• During acidogenesis, the products of hydrolysis
(Simple sugars, amino acids and fatty acids ) are
converted into acetate, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen as well as into volatile fatty acids
(VFA) and alcohols .
3. Acetogenesis
• Products from acidogenesis are converted into
acetate, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
 4.Methanogenesis
• The acetate is converted into methane (70%) whilst
carbon dioxide and hydrogen are also converted into
methane (30%)
• It is a critical step in the entire anaerobic digestion
process, as it is the slowest reaction of the process.
Methanogenesis
• Methanogenesis is severely influenced by operation
• conditions.
• Composition of feedstock, feeding rate, temperature,
and pH are examples of factors influencing the
methanogenesis process.
• Digester overloading, temperature changes or large
entry of oxygen can result in termination of methane
production.
Anaerobic Parameters
1.Temperature
 • Many biogas plants operate at thermophilic process
temperatures as the thermophilic process provides many
advantages, compared to mesophilic and psychrophilic
processes:
➢ effective destruction of pathogens
➢ higher grow rate of methanogenic bacteria at higher
temperature
➢ reduced retention time, making the process faster and more
efficient
➢ improved digestibility and availability of substrates
➢ better degradation of solid substrates and better substrate
utilisation
➢ better possibility for separating liquid and solid fractions
Operational Parameters 1.
Loading Rate
Hydraulic Retention Time
Design of Biogas Plants
• There are a range of designs of biogas plant that are
being used in different places .
• However, the designs that have been used in large
numbers are based on two basic design concepts.
• The floating drum biogas plant, as developed in
India, and the underground dome plant, developed
in China.
Floating Drum
Floating Drum
Floating Dome
Design Calculations
Fixed Dome
Typical Design Drawing
Pressures acting on the digester
Industrial Biogas Plants (CSTR)
Industrial Biogas Process flow
Landfill Biogas
 Biogas Utilization
• Biogas can be used in the same way as any other
combustible gas.
• The calorific value of biogas is about 6 kWh/m³ -
this corresponds to about half a litre of diesel oil.
Biogas Properties
Calculations of Dimensions of Digesters
Fundamental Geometrical Formulae
Parts of Biogas Plant and their functions
• The feed material is mixed with water in the mixing tank .
• Impurities liable to clog the plant are removed here.
• The fermentation slurry flows through the inlet into the digester.
• A stick is inserted through the inlet pipe' to poke and agitate the
slurry.
• The bacteria from the fermentation slurry are intended to produce
biogas in the digester . For this purpose they need time. Time to
multiply and to spread through- ' out the slurry.
• The digester must be designed so that only fully digested slurry can
leave it. Partitions ensure that the slurry in the digester has long flow
paths.
• The bacteria are distributed in the slurry by stirring (with a stick or
stirring facilities, If stirring is excessive, the bacteria have no time "to
eat".
• The ideal is gentle but intensive stirring about every four hours.
Optimum stirring substantially reduces the retention time.
 Inlet Tank
• Mixing tank at inlet Grit and stones settle at the
bottom of the mixing tank. For this reason the inlet
pipe should be 3-5 cm higher than the tank bottom.
• A round, cylindrical shape is cheapest and best for
the mixing tank.
• If the tank is filled in the morning and then covered,
the slurry heats up in the sun until the evening . Only
then is the plug removed (s).
 Inlet Tank
• The inlet must be straight. The axis of the inlet
pipe should, as far as possible, be directed into
the centre of the digester.
• This facilitates stirring and poking.
• The inlet should be as high as possible, so that
gritty deposits do not block the inlet pipe. In
fixed-dome plants, the inlet pipe must not pass
through the gas space
• For fibrous feed material, the diameter should be
200-400 mm.
 Inside Digester
• Path of the fermentation slurry in the digester. Fresh
fermentation material is lighter than fully digested
sludge. For this reason the former quickly rises to
the surface and then sinks only gradually. The
digestion process has two phases.
• The better these phases are separated, the more
intensive the gas production.
• The fermentation channel satisfies these conditions
best.
• Tandem plants are expensive and complicated . The
deeper the digester, the lower and less uniform its
temperature.
Stirrer
• Stirring facilities in the digester
• The impeller stirrer has given good results especially
in sewage treatment plants.
• The horizontal shaft stirs the fermentation channel
without mixing up the phases.
• For simple household plants, poking with a stick is
the simplest and safest stirring .
• What matters is not how good the stirring
arrangements are but how well the stirring is
performed.
 Outlet
• The outlet should be placed below the middle of
the digester, otherwise too much fresh feed
material will flow out of the plant too soon, thus
reducing gas production by as much as 35 % .
• The height of the outlet determines the level of the
surface of the fermentation slurry . This should be
8cm below the top edge of the wall.
• If the outlet is too low, digester volume is lost .
• If it is too high, the slurry will overflow the edge
of the wall.
 Floating Drum
• The gas drum should have a slightly sloping roof.
• When the cover plate is cut, a wedge should be cut
out.
• The cover plate must be rather larger than the
diameter of the drum with an overhang of 2cm
allowed.
• The gas pressure and the weight of the metal itself
give rise only to tensile forces in the jacket sheet.
• The loads from the guide tube must be reliably
transmitted to the cover plate.
 Water jacket
• The floating-drum must be able to move freely
up and down in the water jacket.
• It must be free to rotate.
• The water jacket must always be filled to the
top, as the gas space will otherwise be reduced
Estimation of of Biogas Produced

• Based on type of feedstock and the physical and

chemical nature of the feed stock such as:
i. Organic content (Carbohydrates, Proteins Fats and
Oils)
i. Carbon : Nitrogen Ratio (C:N)
ii. Dry Matter (DM%)
ii. Volatile Solids (VS%)
v. Indigestible Matter –Can be organic or inorganic
matter
Determination of Quantity of Biogas Produced
 Biogas yields fromvarious types
of
Substrate
agricultural biomass
Gas Yield L/kgVS
Pig manure 340-550
Cow manure 150-350
Poultry manure 310-620
Horse manure 200-350
Sheep manure 100-310
Corn straw 350-480
Rice straw 170-280
Grass 280-550
Elephant grass 330-560
Bagasse 140-190
Vegetable residue 300-400
Water hyacinth 300-350
Sewage sludge 310-640
algae 380-550
Live weight values of animal
husbandry dung yields
species Daily manure yield as Fresh manure solids Live weight
(%) of live weight content (%) (kg)

Dung urine TS VS

Cattle 5 4-5 16 13 135-800

Buffallo 5 4-5 14 12 340-420

Pigs 2 3 16 12 30-75

Sheep/goat 3 1-1.5 30 20 30-100

Chicken 4.5 - 25 17 1.5-2

human 1 2 20 15 50-80
 Estimation of Quantity of Gas produced
Vg (m3/day)=#live weight animals x %DM/live weight per day x%VS of DM xBiogas
yield (m3/kgVS)

Question
A farmer wants to put up a biogas digestor at his farm. He has 500 herd of beef cattle,
500 dairy cows which are penned the whole year, 100 pigs, chickens, 20 families each
family with average five people.
i.Calculate the energy demand of this farm.
i.Explain the advantages of using biogas at farm as a source energy.
i.Calculate the potential biogas yield from the animal waste generated by his animals and
farmer workers.
v.Calculate the volume of digester that would be required to digest all the available farm
waste.
v.Design the biogas digester for this farmer
i.Can biogas generated from farm waste satisfy the farms energy demands. Give reasons.
 Ethanol
• Ethanol fuel is the same type of alcohol found
in alcoholic beverages. It is often used mainly
as a biofuel additive for gasoline.
• It is commonly made from biomass such as
corn or sugarcane.
• Ethanol can be produced from a variety of
feedstocks such as sugar cane, bagasse,
sorghum, grain, switchgrass, barley, potatoes,
sweet potatoes, cassava, molasses, corn, grain,
wheat, as well as many types of cellulose
waste, algae, water-hyacinth
Selected Plants and Ethanol Yields
Energy Crop Ethanol yield gallons /Acre

Sugar beat 714

Sugar cane 662

cassava 410

Sweet sorghum 374

corn 354

wheat 277
Production Process from sugar cane
 Production Stages
• Fermentation: Prior to fermentation some crops
saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates
such as cellulose and starch into sugars.
• Currently cane sugar and corn starch can be
economically converted into ethanol.
• C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH+ 2 CO2 + heat

• Distillation
• Dehydration
 Distillation
• For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, the majority
of the water must be removed up to 95–96% due
to the formation of a low-boiling water-ethanol
azeotrope
• This mixture is called hydrous ethanol and can be
used as a fuel alone.
• Unlike anhydrous ethanol, hydrous ethanol is not
miscible in with gasoline, so the water fraction is
typically removed in further treatment .
 Dehydration
• Removes the water from an azeotropic ethanol/water
mixture.
• This process is used in fuel ethanol plants and is
called azeotropic distillation and consists of adding
benzene or cyclohexane to the mixture.
• When these components are added to the mixture, it
forms a heterogeneous azeotropic mixture which
when distilled produces anhydrous ethanol.
 Ethanol as Fuel
• Ethanol's higher octane rating allows an increase
of an engine's compression ratio for increased
thermal efficiency
• Fuel economy : Has low millage compared to
petrol, approximately 34% less energy content.
• However for E10 the effect is very small about
3%.
• C2H5OH + 3 O2 → 2 CO2 + 3 H2O + heat
 Other uses of ethanol
• Fuel gel
• Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells
• MTBEs substitute as to raise the octane
number.
 BIODIESEL PRODUCTION
• The SVO cannot be used in modern internal
combustion without some engines modification.
• The limitations are:
• High viscosity
• Poor atomization
• Poor volatility
• Thermal cracking in diesel engines
• Poor oxidation stability
• Polymerization in combustion chamber leading to deposits
• Injection fouling by deposits
• Fuel line and filter clogging
• Polymerization of triglycerides in lube oil
 SOURCES OF OIL
Oil Oil Oil per seeds[nc 1]
Crop
(kg/ha) (L(L/ha) (kg/100 kg)
Ground nut
Corn (maize) 145 172
Cashew nut 148 176
Cotton 273 325
Soybean 375 446
Coffee 386 459
Pumpkin seed 449 534
Sunflowers 800 952
Peanuts 890 1,059
Rapeseed 1,000 1,190
Jatropha 1,590 1,892
Macadamia nuts 1,887 2,246
Avocado 2,217 2,638
Oil palm 5,000 5,950
 Modification of SVO
• Transesterification of raw oil is mainly used to
produce bio-diesel, which is methyl or ethyl ester
based on whether methanol or ethanol is used in
the production process.
• As per the transesterification reaction, 3 moles of
methanol are required to react with 1 mole of
vegetable oil.
• The molecular weight of methanol is 32 and hence
96 g of methanol are required for the
transesterification of 1 mole (or 900 g) of Jatropha
curcus oil, which amounts to 10.67 % methanol.
 Optimum conditions
• The optimum concentration of methanol required for
effective transesterification of Jatropha oil is 20 %.
• The optimum concentration NaOH is 1.0 %.
• The maximum yield at 60ºC temperature is 98 %
was obtained at 90 min of reaction time.
• Basically 1liter of Oil; 5 grams of lye (caustic soda;
NaOH (> 95%) or KOH (> 85%)); at least 220 ml of
methanol (> 99%).
 Steps Involved
• First dissolve the lye into the methanol.
• Shake or swirl until all the lye has dissolved.
• This may take 10 minutes. It is normal that temperature rises. This mixture is called
sodium methoxide.
• Heat the Oil and to about 60 °C, then stop heating.
• Then add the methoxide mixture and make sure it is mixed well for at least 10
minutes.
• Leave the vessel and let the different constituents separate by sedimentation .
• The glycerin will settle out at the bottom.
• After 8 to 24 hours the sedimentation is complete and the glycerine can be drained
off.
• What remains is raw biodiesel. If the reaction went well and the biodiesel is clear, it
may be used straight, although its quality may be inferior because of impurities.
• Water washing will remove most of these impurities.
Simple Flow Diagram
The Chemistry of Transesterification
• Transesterification, also called alcoholysis, is the
displacement of alcohol from an ester by another
alcohol in a process similar to hydrolysis.
• Methanol is most commonly used for the purpose
since it is the cheapest alcohol available.
• Ethanol and higher alcohols such as isopropanol,
butanol etc. can also be used for the esterification.
• Using higher molecular weight alcohols improves
the cold flow properties of biodiesel but reduces the
efficiency of transesterification process.
• The reaction is as follows:
Reaction
Reaction Steps
Factors Affecting Transesterification

• Oil temp.
• Reaction temp.
• Ratio of alcohol to oil
• Catalyst type & conc.
• Intensity of mixing
• Purity of reactants
Typical Biodiesel Processing Plant
JATROPHA ALCOHOL(98 CATALYST(SO GLYCERINE BIODIESEL
OIL %) DIUM OR
POTASSIUM
HYDROXIDE
1050 liters 150 liters 3.8 kg 11kg 1000 liters

Almost all the biodiesel is produced using

the base catalyzed transesterification
process as it is the most economical one
requiring only low temperatures &
pressures with 98% yield.
Properties of Biodiesel
Properties Values
Specific gravity 0.87 to 0.89
Kinematic viscosity@
3.7 to 5.8
40°C
Cetane number 46 to 70
Higher heating value
16,928 - 17,996
(Btu/lb)
Lower heating value
15,700 - 16,735
(Btu/lb)
wt % 0.00 - 0.0024
Cloud point °C -11 to 16
Pour point °C -15 to 13
Iodine number 60 - 135
 Challenges of Jatropha Biodiesel
• The transesterification works well when the input
oil is of high quality.
• However, quite often low quality oils are used as
raw materials for bio-diesel preparation.
• In cases where FFA content of the oil is above 1%,
difficulties arise due to the formation of soap,
which promotes emulsification during the water
washing stage.
• If the FFA content is above 2%, the process
becomes unworkable
• As a mild solvent, biodiesel tends to dissolve sediments
normally encountered in old diesel storage tanks.
• Brass, teflon, lead, tin, copper, zinc etc. oxidize biodiesel
and create sediments.
• Biodiesel has poor oxidation stability. Use of oxidation
stability additives is necessary to address this problem.
• Low temperature can cause biodiesel to gel, but on warming
it liquefies quickly. Hence, insulation/jacketing of storage
tanks and pipelines would need to be done at the low
temperature zones.
• To avoid oxidation and sedimentation of tanks with
biodiesel, storage tanks made of aluminium, steel etc. are
recommended for usage.
 Assignment 2.Questions
1. How do Biodiesel emissions compare to that of petroleum diesel? [3]
2. What is the most suitable crop for biodiesel production in Zimbabwe? Justify your
answer. [3]
3. How does biodiesel compare to petroleum diesel in terms of performance? [2]
4. What is a diesel engine? [2]
5. What are benefits of using biodiesel? [5]
6. How is biodiesel produced? [5]
7. What is biodiesel? [2]
8. How does energy content affect biodiesel milage? [2]
9. Give a comparative analysis of biodiesel and petrol-diesel power. [5]
10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using ethanol instead of gasoline?
[5]
11. Will the use of biodiesel reduce environmental pollution? [3]
12. How are ethanol and biodiesel produced? [5]
13. How much land is required to meet 10% of ethanol requirements and 10%
biodiesel requirement in Zimbabwe? [5]
14. What by-product do ethanol and biodiesel generate? [3]
Total 50 marks Due Date 2nd March 2019
 Test 2 Multiple Choice
1. To breakdown biomass and produce energy we can use:
A. Yeast
B. Microrganisms
C. Algae
D. Bacteria
E. All the above
2. Which one of the following is not used to produce ethanol?
A. Corn starch
B. Oil crops
C. Cane sugar
D. Beet sugar
E. Microorganisms
3. Saccharomyces cervisier is a type of
A. Biodiesel
B. Sugar
C. Ethanol
D. Yeast
E. Corn ethanol
 4. The process of that converts solid coal into liquid hydrocarbon fuel is called:
A.Liquefaction
B.Carbonation
C.Catalytic conversion
D.Cracking
5. What is the typical operating temperature of mesophilic digester that is producing biogas at
higher rate?
A.75 to 85 oF
B.85 to 90 oF
C.90 to 95oF
D.100 to 105 oF
6. What are the main products produced by the acid forming bacteria during the initial biogas
digestion phase?
A.Water and methane
B.Carbon dioxide and organic acid
C.Struvite and hydrogen suphide
D.Water and completely digested sludge
 7. What best describes the methane forming bacteria in an aerobic digester?
A.Sensitive to environment and environmental changes
B.Fast growing organisms
C.Produce biogas at very low pH
D.They work best in the presence of oxygen
8. Bioethanol can be produced from lignocellulosic material such as switch grass
through:
A. Catalytic conversion of synthesis gas
B. Combustion in an oxygen rich atmosphere
C. Fermentation of synthesis gas
D. Fermentation of glucose under anaerobic conditions
9. Which of the following is not part of an ATP molecule
A.Adenine
B.Ribose
C.Chlorophyll
D.Phosphate
 10. Photosynthesis uses sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into:
A.Oxygen
B.High energy sugars
C.ATP and oxygen
D.Oxygen and high energy sugars
11. The stroma is the space that surrounds:
A.Thylakoids
B.Chloroplast
C.Plant cells
D.All the above
12. Where do the light dependent reaction take place?
A.In the stroma
B.Outside chloroplasts
C.In the thylakoids membrane
D.Only in the chlorophyll molecules
 13. The Calvin cycle is another name for:
A.Light independent reaction
B.Light dependent reaction
C.Photosynthesis
D.All of the above
14. Which of the following affects the rate of photosynthesis?
A.Water
B.Temperature
C.Light intensity
D.All of the above
15. What is the product of Calvin cycle?
A.Oxygen gas
B.ATP
C.High energy sugar
D.Carbon dioxide gas
 16. Jatropha tree is an ideal tree species for producing biodiesel in Zimbabwe because:
A.It grows only in Mutoko District
B.It can be harvested multiple times without having to replant
C.Breeding programms have been able to produce fast growing hybrids
D.Its productivity is unaffected by soil and water conditions
E.It has a low solar energy capture efficiency
17. Biogas can be readily produced from :
A.Palm oil
B.Pyrolysis
C.Animal manure
D.Jatropha seeds
E.Transesterification
18. Syngas from gasification of woody biomass is composed of :
A.Organic acids
B.Water and carbon dioxide only
C.Hydrogen, carbonmonoxide, some water vapor and carbon dioxide
D.Hydrogen sulphide and methane
 19.Biodiesel can be produced through a number of conversion technologies using specific
biomass resources including :
A.Complex hemicelluloses from woody materials
B.Syngas from wood residue material
C.Fats from animals
D.Algae
E.Black liquior gasification
20. Ultimate analysis of biomass fuels gives an indication of the:
A.Fuel’s HHV
B.Fuel’s CO2 emission
C.Fuel’s bulk density
D.Reactivity of the fuel
E.None of the above
21. Biochemical conversion of biomass to bioethanol is favoured by biomass characteristics
including:
A.High lignin content
B.High ash content
C.High glucose content
D.High starch content
E.High chloride content
 22 What is the best way to feed anaerobic digester
A.Once per day all feeding within 1 hour time span
B..twice per day
C.High feed flow rate
D.Small, frequent feed near continuous rate
23. What statement is most true about anaerobic digester mixing?
A.Need to bring food (VS) into contact with bacteria
B.Provide infrequent mixing
C.If the mixing is not working increase feed rate
D.Proper mixing is not that important to efficient digester operation
24. Listed below are the sludge lab results. The primary and secondary sludges are pumped to the
thickener Primary sludge-7% solid at 69% volatile. Secondary sludge -1.5% solids at 75%
volatile. Thickened sludge-4% solids at 72% volatile and digested sludge effluent- 3% solids at
63% volatile. Calculate the volatile reduction through the digestion process.
A.12%, B. 18%, C. 34% and D 38%.
25. The function accomplished by the light-dependent reactions is ______________.
A. Energy storage
B. Sugar production
C. Carbon fixation
D. Conversion of sugar
Pyrolysis/Destructive Destillation
 Definition of Pyrolysis
• The thermal degradation of biomass in the absence
of oxygen to produce condensable vapours, gases,
and charcoal; in some instances a small amount of
air may be admitted to promote this endothermic
process (where λ < 0.2).
• λ (lambda) is defined as the exact air (O2)/fuel ratio
required to completely oxidise the fuel. This is also
known as the stoichiometric ratio.
 Types of Pyrolysis
• Slow pyrolysis has been used for centuries to
produce charcoal, tars, alcohols such as ethanol and
methanol and other solvents.
• This is usually carried out in batch and carried out at
relatively low reactor temperatures [< 400°C],
atmospheric pressure, very low heating rates ranging
from 0.01°C/s to up to 2°C/s,
• Char, viscous tarry liquid and gases are formed in
approximately equal mass proportions due to the
slow degradation of the biomass and extensive
secondary intraparticle and gas/vapour phase
reactions
 Conventional Pyrolysis
• Is characterised by:
• long solids and volatiles residence times [typically
less than 5 s for volatiles; solids residence times can
be longer up to one minute,
• relatively low reactor temperatures [< 450°C],
• slow heating rates of the material of about 2-10°C/s,
• atmospheric pressure,
• low rate of thermal quenching of the products.
 Flash Pyrolysis
• Characterised by:
• moderate pyrolysis temperatures [400-600°C],
• atmospheric pressure,
• high heating rates [10-1000°C/s],
• gas/vapour product residence times less than 2 s
to maximise liquid yields at gas/vapour product
temperatures less than 500°C.
 Fast Pyrolysis
Characterised similarly by:
• higher heating rates than flash pyrolysis >1050C/s,
• higher reactor temperatures > 600°C
• rapid thermal quenching of the products [100-1000°
C/s].
• The fast pyrolysis process can be operated from
~425-550°C to optimise liquid yields depending on
the feedstock and above 600°C to increase or
optimise the gas yield, commonly referred to as
''syngas''.
 Pyrolysis of Biomass
• Generates biofuels without the competetion with
crop production.
• It is a cost-effective way of generating electricity
• Produces bio-char which can be used for heating as
well as soil conditioning
Pyrolysis of other organic waste
Pyrolysis of Tyres
Waste Oil Extraction
• Waste tyre oil extraction pyrolysis plant can
transfer the waste tyres into oil in normal
pressure.
• In general 2.5ton waste tyres can get 1ton fuel
oil .
• The waste tyre oil extraction pyrolysis plant for
fuel has no pollution to the air ,
• The waste tyre oil extraction pyrolysis plant not
only solve waste tyre pollution but also can
bring revenue
 Waste tyre oil extraction pyrolysis plant working steps
i. First, the raw materials are put into the reactor and seal the doors in
the reactor
ii. Second, start the machine and the reactor will be rotating while
being heated.
ii. When the inside temperature reaches 250 to 280 0C, the oil/ gas will
begin to generate and will flow through oil gas separator, and
continuous heating until the temperature goes up to of 350 to 460 0C
iv. In oil gas separator, light component will enter the condensers,
meanwhile, heavy component will be liquefied and then
automatically discharged into heavy oil tank
Most of the light component will be liquefied through condensers to
crude oil.
Small amount of oil gas cannot be liquefied and will be transferred by
water seal tank back to the burning
Gasification Technologies
• Products of gasification :
* Hydrocarbon gases (also called syngas).
* Hydrocarbon liquids (oils).
* Char (carbon black and ash).

• Syngas is primarily carbon monoxide and

hydrogen (more than 85% by volume) and
smaller quantities of carbon dioxide and
methane
Raw Materials for Gasification
Gasifier Plant
Gasifier Plant
 Types of Gasifiers
Updraft Gasifier
 Types of Gasifiers
Downdraft Gasifier
 Types of Gasifiers

Twin-fire Gasifier