Poetics

Study Guide by Course Hero

the first major treatises about drama in the West. Much of

What's Inside Western thought and philosophy owe their roots to the writings
and teachings of Aristotle. Although fragmentary, Poetics has
left its mark on the development of Western literature and
j Book Basics ................................................................................................. 1 theater.

a Main Ideas .................................................................................................... 1 PERSPECTIVE AND NARRATOR

Poetics is written in the first person wherein Aristotle
d In Context .................................................................................................... 3
addresses his readers and invites them into dialogue, using the
a Author Biography ..................................................................................... 4 first person plural us.

k Plot Summary ............................................................................................. 6 ABOUT THE TITLE

Poetics is a treatise on poetry as it was conceptualized in
c Chapter Summaries ................................................................................ 7 ancient Greece. Aristotle uses the word poetics to include a
range of artistic work that, in modern times, would be classified
g Quotes ......................................................................................................... 14
as poetry, drama, and theater.

m Glossary ...................................................................................................... 17

e Suggested Reading ............................................................................... 17

a Main Ideas

j Book Basics Epic Poetry

AUTHOR
Epic poetry is a narrative or storytelling form that features a
Aristotle
plot with a beginning, middle, and end and is built around a
single action. This action is often broader and more far-
YEARS WRITTEN
reaching than that in tragedy, as epic poetry is not meant to be
c. 350–335 BCE
performed on the stage. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey are
GENRE primary examples, often referenced by Aristotle, of epic
Philosophy poetry. These poems cover large amounts of time and many
different episodes of the characters' experiences. For
AT A GLANCE instance, The Odyssey has multiple working parts: it covers the
Historians and literary experts commonly believe that Aristotle 10 years of hardship and adventures that Odysseus must
wrote Poetics as a response to Greek philosopher Plato's undergo to return home, but it also tells the story of Penelope
negative framing of poets and poetry in The Republic (c. 360 and her son, Telemachus, as they attempt to fend off suitors
BCE). Poetics is Aristotle's treatise on dramatic performance and keep faith that Odysseus is still alive.
poetry, in which he describes the different types of poetry and
outlines their most important elements. This text was one of Aristotle explains epic poetry as poetry that uses heroic meter,
Poetics Study Guide
which in classical Greek poetry is the same as dactylic
hexameter, to convey its story. Hexameter refers to the meter,
or pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, of the poem.
Dactylic describes a poetic foot, referring to the number and
pattern of stressed syllables. A dactyl is one long followed by
two short syllables. Hexameter indicates that there will be six
feet in each line of the poem: the first five feet are dactyls, and
the last foot is a two-syllable foot called a spondee. The
rhythm created is something like DUM dah dah | DUM dah dah |
DUM dah dah | DUM dah dah | DUM dah dah | DUM DUM. This
structure is much more natural in Greek and Latin poetry and
has not been successfully used in English poetry very often.
Greek Tragedy
Tragedy is different from epic poetry in the scope of its plot. It
is a type of dramatic poetry that can be broken down into six
elements: plot, character, thought, diction, lyrical song, and
spectacular presentment (the acting or stage element).
Tragedy has several requirements: There must be a tragic
action, a reversal of situation, a reveal or recognition, and a
stirring of fear and pity. The audience should then purge these
emotions when it experiences catharsis at the end of the
tragedy. Aristotle also argues that tragedies should almost
always end with a reversal from good to bad fortune.
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides were three great Greek
tragedians whose work still exists today. Aristotle frequently
uses their plays as examples when illustrating various points
about the tragic form. Sophocles's play Oedipus Rex, also
known as Oedipus the King, tells the story of King Oedipus of
Thebes who unknowingly fulfills a prophecy to kill his father
and marry his mother. This play remains one of the most
famous of the Greek tragedies and is still performed in modern
times.
Plot
Plot is the key element in both tragedy and the epic poem.
Aristotle illustrates how both these forms use imitation in order
to create their characters and their plots. Plots must
demonstrate unity in order to feel natural and believable and
should evoke a feeling of catharsis in the audience. In
Aristotle's view, the characters are secondary to the plot,
although he insists it is also vital to have characters perform
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Main Ideas 2
believable actions that are consistent with their characters.
Aristotle proposes that the plot in either type should be a
unified whole based around the imitation of a central action.
Plot always requires a beginning, middle, and end, and Aristotle
emphasizes the importance of each of these parts naturally
being the cause or the effect of the next part. It is essential
that plot develops in an organic way and not as a result of the
poet's forcing events via unlikely character actions or
motivations.
Imitation
In Poetics, imitation is the core idea behind the creation of any
art. According to Aristotle, it is the primary motivation behind
all poetry. Aristotle explains imitation in this context as the
driving force behind humankind's desire to create art. In the
cases of drama and poetry, the thing being imitated is human
action.
Catharsis
Catharsis is something that sets tragedy apart from epic
poetry and other forms. Aristotle proposes that a tragedy
should evoke an emotional response in the reader. More
specifically, the tragedy should make the audience go through
an emotional process that begins with their feeling a sense of
horror or fear that in the climax and denouement of the play
subsequently turns into a feeling of pity or sorrow. This allows
the audience to purge their feelings and experience a feeling
of wonder in the end of the story.
Unity
Unity of plot is crucial to both tragic and epic poetry, and it
occurs when all parts of the plot work in harmony to create an
organic whole. This means that the plot cannot jump around in
space or time in confusing ways, and it should be based
around a single main event. It is also important that the plot
feels organic, meaning that the characters are not committing
actions solely as tools of the plot. The characters should act
and react in ways natural to them, and this should in turn play
into the overall shape and movement of the plot.
Poetics Study Guide
d In Context
Tragedy in Ancient and
Classical Greece
Aristotle lived in the period of Greek history known as Classical
Greece. The period covered most of the 5th and 4th centuries
BCE and is usually recognized as ending with Macedonian king
Alexander the Great's death in 323 BCE. From this period, only
the works of three major tragedians—Sophocles, Aeschylus,
and Euripides—survive. Aristotle frequently references the
works of these three writers as examples for his arguments
about poetry and tragedy.
The earliest of the great Greek dramatists was Aeschylus, who
lived between 525 and 455 BCE. He was a major participant in
the dramatic competition held every year as a part of the
Festival of Dionysus, where three tragedies would be
presented followed by a lighthearted satire play. Although it is
estimated that he wrote around 90 plays, only seven of his
tragedies survive completely. Aeschylus significantly changed
Greek tragedy by adding a second actor to the
play—previously, only one actor played all of the parts, with a
chorus narrating in the background. This allowed dialogue to
develop between characters and consequently opened up
more possibilities for the writing.
Sophocles was born around 496 BCE in the village of Colonus,
located just outside Athens, and died in 406 BCE in Athens
around the age of 90. Not much is known about Sophocles's
life, and most of what remains are his works of tragedy. As with
Aeschylus, only seven of Sophocles's tragedies have survived
in their entirety: Ajax, Antigone, Trachinian Women, Oedipus the
King, Electra, Philoctetes, and Oedipus at Colonus. None of the
exact dates are known for any of these plays, although Ajax is
generally regarded as the earliest of the seven, and it is known
that Philoctetes was first performed around 409 BCE.
Sophocles's tragedies usually focus on a few central
characters with the protagonist exhibiting a major fault that
leads tragically to his or her demise. His main character will
usually make a crucial error of judgement, which affects each
of the surrounding characters, moving the play and all its
characters toward a tragic end. In contrast to Aeschylus, the
action and tragedy of Sophocles's plays usually take place
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In Context 3
within one generation of characters, instead of being spread
over longer time periods.
Euripides was a dramatist who lived and worked parallel to
Sophocles. He was born around 484 BCE and lived until 406
BCE. Little is known of his personal life, but 19 of his plays
survive today. Like Sophocles and Aeschylus, Euripides
competed in the Festival of Dionysus, which he won four times
over the course of his life. Euripides is notable for his rational
attitude toward religion and for his realistic characters with
normal human flaws. He commonly incorporates in his plays
dialogue about contemporary philosophical or social issues.
The tragedy of Euripides's plays, unlike those of Sophocles
and Aeschylus, often comes about from a combination of
chance, chaos, and character flaws. The gods do not interfere
or affect the tragedy in any way, but instead watch the
unfolding with disinterest. This realistic and true-to-life style is
a signature of Euripides's work.
Each of these dramatists was influenced by a poet who lived
hundreds of years before any of them. Homer, famous for the
epic poems The Iliad and The Odyssey (c. 8th century BCE),
lived in either the 8th or 9th century BCE. Little is known about
Homer, including whether or not he is responsible for the two
epics. It has generally been agreed, however, that he likely did
write, or at least contribute to, both poems.
The Iliad is a tragic poem detailing the Trojan War. It is
composed of various episodes, although Achilles is thought to
be the main protagonist. The Odyssey tells the story of
Odysseus, the king of Ithaca, who spends 10 years trying to
reach home after the Trojan War. Meanwhile, his wife,
Penelope, and son, Telemachus, fend off suitors who insist that
Odysseus is dead in their attempt to marry Penelope. These
two poems are foundational works to all subsequent Greek
poetry and drama and are frequently referenced by later
writers, including Aristotle.
Writing of Poetics
Much is unknown about Aristotle's work Poetics, including
precisely when it was written. As a result, it is difficult to say
exactly what influences surrounded him when he wrote it.
However, it has been argued that Aristotle wrote Poetics as a
response to some of Plato's criticisms of and challenges to the
importance of poetry in Greek society. As a pupil, Aristotle
frequently disagreed with his teacher, and this debate
Poetics Study Guide Author Biography 4

informed much of his later writing and theory.
Plato saw poetry as of doubtful importance. In fact, he
proposed that literature was a distraction or misdirection from
the truth. Aristotle, however, suggests in Poetics that poetry
and art arise from a human desire to imitate and that this
desire is connected with the human experience of empathy.
the development of criticism. Italian poet Dante Alighieri,
famous during the Middle Ages for The Divine Comedy (c.
1308–21), considered Aristotle a master of knowledge. British
writer T.S. Eliot, a 20th-century poet and critic, considered
Aristotle a master writer and referenced lines from Poetics in
his own essays.

Aristotle categorized rhetoric and the arts as productive

sciences as opposed to theoretical sciences. Art, he argued,
was a product of the human imagination, giving insight into the
human condition. The theoretical sciences, on the other hand,
represented the study of knowledge for its own sake.
Poetics often lacks organization. Aristotle jumps between
ideas and frequently repeats himself. He adds extra
information and interjections between longer sections of text.
The lack of order indicates that the original text was likely
taken from his teaching notes or from notes taken by his
students on the subject.
a Author Biography
Early Life
In 384 BCE, Aristotle was born in the Macedonian city of
Stagira in ancient Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was the
royal court physician to Amyntas III, the King of Macedonia and
grandfather of Alexander the Great. Aristotle trained in
medicine while at court with his father, and when his father
died in 367, he moved to Athens and joined the Greek
philosopher Plato's Academy. He was 17 at the time.

Contemporary Relevance Aristotle stayed at the Academy and studied avidly under Plato
for 20 years. Philosophy experts surmise that many of Plato's
Not only does Poetics give modern readers a sense of the
dialogues written during this period were influenced by the
important elements of poetry and drama in ancient Greece, but
conversations between teacher and pupil. Aristotle was also
it also provides some of the earliest available writing on the art
writing during this period, but only fragments of his work from
of drama in Western culture. Both Plato's writings on poetry
the Academy survive. In one of his earliest works, titled
and Aristotle's response have been used in Western art
Eudemus (c. 352 BCE), of which only small pieces remain,
criticism since they were written.
Aristotle employs his teacher's style of dialogue to reflect on
some of Plato's views. In this work, Aristotle details his theory
In contemporary thought, a common criticism of Poetics is that
that death is the soul returning home, thus making the state of
it tries simply to provide a formula or recipe for art. Part of this
death a happier one than that of life.
criticism results from the way Aristotle elevates the technical
and theoretical construction of drama and poetry above its
Aristotle agreed with and used many of Plato's philosophies
expressive aspects. However, his opinion of certain aspects of
and techniques while at the Academy. However, he eventually
poetry is at times inconsistent in the text and is still a matter of
began to diverge from his teacher's ideas. Aristotle seemed to
much debate.
have remained on good terms with the school and with Plato,
but his writings started to reflect a disagreement with some of
Another aspect of Poetics that is central to the ongoing
Plato's foundational theories. One of the main philosophical
conversation about poetry and criticism is the concept that
points that Aristotle took issue with was Plato's Theory of
both Aristotle and Plato seemed to agree on—that poetry (and
Forms. This theory holds that the real world of physical
art generally) is a form of mimesis, or imitation. This claim is
substance is changeable and, therefore, unreliable. Ideas, on
quite contentious. It has been at the forefront of many
the other hand, are a more accurate representation of reality.
conversations about the relevance of art and creative works.
Aristotle argues against this theory in many of his works, citing
Aristotle's doctrine on poetry and drama has had a huge its implausibility, and proposes alternative possibilities.
influence on Western thought about art, literature, and theater.
At the same time that Aristotle was studying at the Academy in
Aristotle's work has shaped both the development of art and

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Poetics Study Guide
Athens, King Philip II of Macedonia, son of Amyntas III, went to
war against many of the Greek city-states. This war created ill
will toward Macedonians living in cities like Athens. It was,
consequently, a difficult time for Aristotle to be a Macedonian
resident there. Eventually, years after Aristotle left Athens,
Philip conquered Athens in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338
BCE and united much of Greece.
Travels and Later Life
Around the time of Plato's death in about 348 BCE, Aristotle
left Athens for Assus, a city in Anatolia, which is part of
present-day Turkey. As Plato's student of 20 years, Aristotle
would likely have been a candidate for taking over as head of
the Academy. Some sources suggest that Aristotle left Athens
because he was not given the post as a result of academic
disputes. Other sources theorize that he left Athens shortly
before Plato died as a result of political tensions between
Athens and Macedonia at the time.
In either case, Aristotle moved to Assus at the invitation of his
friend Hermias, who was ruler of the city. He could not return
to his hometown of Stagira, which had been destroyed
previously by the Macedonian King Philip II. While in Assus,
Aristotle married Pythias, who was the ward or niece of
Hermias. It is speculated that she was much younger than
Aristotle, perhaps around the age of 18, while Aristotle was
about 37 at the time. They had one child, a daughter, and
Pythias died after only 10 years of marriage.
Aristotle was eventually forced to leave Assus when his friend
Hermias was captured, tortured, and executed by the Persians.
Aristotle wrote his only known poem, "Ode to Virtue," (c.
341–322) as a tribute to Hermias.
After leaving Assus, during a time of relative peace between
Macedonia and Athens, Aristotle was invited by King Philip II to
return to Macedonia and reside in the court. There, he served
as tutor to Alexander the Great, Philip II's son. Aristotle
remained at the court for seven years.
Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 BCE and formed a school
known as the Lyceum. In 323 BCE, influenced by increasing
anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens after the death of
Alexander the Great, Aristotle moved to the house left to him
by his mother's family in Chalcis. A year later he died there of a
stomach problem at the age of 62.
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Author Biography 5
Contributions to Philosophy
and Science
Most of Aristotle's surviving works come from his time at the
Lyceum. While studying and teaching there, he invented the
concept and system of academic disciplines. This system
helped organize his writings on different scientific and
philosophic topics. He grouped the sciences into three
categories: productive, practical, and theoretical.
Much of Aristotle's remaining work is fragmentary. The pieces
he published during his life are now almost completely lost. The
works still remaining today are primarily notes from texts and
treatises that Aristotle wrote to use in his teachings. These
make up only about a third of his known works. It is known
through fragments and the writings of others that Aristotle
published essays, poetry, and Platonic dialogues, but none of
these works remain in their entirety. It is unclear how his
surviving works were preserved and how they were handed
down. It is widely believed, however, that they were passed
between scholars after his death and eventually ended up in
Rome.
Aristotle researched and wrote on a wide array of subjects.
Most of his work falls into three categories: dialogues and
popular works, collections of scientific data and research, and
systematic works. He is sometimes called "the founder of
logic" as the result of some of his writings, including the text
Prior Analytics (c. 350 BCE). One of his most famous texts still
remaining is his work titled Metaphysics. It is a philosophical
treatise on being, form, and matter. He also made contributions
to the fields of astronomy with his studies on comets,
chemistry and its many processes, and the field of
meteorology. He was particularly interested in rainbows.
Aristotle was a great student of zoology and biology. He is
believed to have performed dissections on several different
species of animals to study anatomy. He wrote about the
internal workings of animals, developed a logical theory of
generation and reproduction, and recognized the difference
between arteries and veins. While living in Assus, he and his
assistants made a study of biology and marine biology and
managed to observe details in different organisms that were
so minute that they were not confirmed until much later when
the microscope was invented. While many of his observations
were flawed for lack of better access to resources and
Poetics Study Guide Plot Summary 6

technology, his studies of medicine and science formed much Poetics ends with a discussion on the role of critics and
of the foundation for what is known today. criticism and a final decisive comparison of epic poetry and
tragedy. Aristotle delineates his argument for why, in the end,
tragedy is actually a higher form of art than the epic poem.

k Plot Summary
Aristotle's Poetics begins with a statement of intention to
discuss poetry in its various forms. Aristotle proposes to
inquire into the workings of the "good" poem and outlines the
various types of poetry he will discuss in his treatise. Much of
his writings on the form of comedy and a few other types of
poetry seem to be lost from the text, however.

In his first few chapters, Aristotle introduces the types of

poetry he will examine and his overarching concept that poetry
and art are forms of mimesis. He focuses primarily on the
forms of tragedy, comedy, and epic poetry, which also shape
his focus for the majority of the treatise.

Aristotle proposes that the object of this imitation in poetry is

human action. He explains that while this focus is common in
comedy, drama, and epic poetry, each of these types of poetry
deal with different types of human action. Epic poetry and
tragedy, he argues, are higher forms of art than comedy, which
deals with the ludicrous.

The first five chapters of Poetics are initial observations and

introductory explanations. Subsequent chapters delve into
more detail about the forms of tragedy and epic poetry.
Tragedy, according to Aristotle, is an imitation of an action in
its entirety and requires a unified and organically developed
plot. There are various types of tragedy and six main elements
of the tragic form.

Tragedy also relies on the plot devices of situational reversal,

recognition, and the tragic incident. Tragedy uses fear and pity
as tools to create catharsis in the audience. The audience
should go through the experience of fear or horror that turns
to pity, and by the closing of the tragedy, they should feel a
purging of those emotions. This experience is central to the
importance of the tragic form.

Epic poetry is often longer than tragedy and more far-reaching.

Plot in epic poetry covers a longer time span and has a
broader focus but should still be unified and have a natural
sense of cause and effect. Aristotle gives the example of the
Iliad as an epic poem that focuses on one part of the Trojan
War.

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Poetics Study Guide
c Chapter Summaries
Chapters 1–5
Summary
Chapter 1
Aristotle introduces the question "What are the elements of a
good poem?" He proposes to inquire into at least two of these
elements: plot structure and the number and type of parts that
make up a poem. He offers five general categories to be
discussed: epic poetry, tragedy, dithyrambic poetry, comedy,
and music. All five of these categories share the trait of
imitation, and each uses different tools to mimic reality. There
are three main ways that each category differs in regard to
imitation: the medium of imitation, the things being imitated,
and the way those things are imitated. Imitation is expressed
through means of harmony, rhythm, language, and poetic
meter. Dithyrambic poetry (a Greek hymn usually expressed
through song and dance), tragedy, and comedy each
incorporate these means of imitation.
Chapter 2
The object that art aims to imitate is humans in action. There
are three ways humans may be portrayed: as better than they
are in reality, as worse, or as they actually are. Aristotle
explains that Homer and Polygnotus both represent people as
better than they really are, Hegemon and Pauson portray their
characters as less good, and Dionysius and Cleophon draw
their characters in the middle. He argues that this division
illustrates the difference between tragedy and comedy:
tragedy portrays people as better than in reality, and comedy
portrays them as worse.
Chapter 3
The third type of imitation is the manner in which things are
imitated. For example, a poet may choose to narrate, using
their own voice, or may take on a particular personality in their
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Chapter Summaries 7
narration, or exist only as a neutral observer. The word drama
is often associated with these types of poetry because their
focus is on people in action.
Chapter 4
Poetry springs from two deep human instincts: the instinct for
imitation and the instinct for harmony and rhythm (including
poetic meter). Then poetry splits in two different directions.
These can be described as poetry written about noble and
good characters and poetry written about more flawed
characters. This is how the distinction between tragedy and
comedy is created. According to Aristotle, Homer is the first
poet to compose satirical poetry and create the basis for
comedy.
Aristotle describes tragedy as developing slowly and through
many stages. Dialogue gains greater importance, the number
of actors gradually increases, sets are introduced, meter
changes from trochaic (syllabic pattern of stressed
unstressed) to iambic (unstressed stressed), which is
considered a more natural speaking pattern. He references
Aeschylus as being responsible for incorporating a second
actor and reducing the prominence of the chorus, and
Sophocles he gives credit for adding yet a third actor and
developing the stage scenery.
Chapter 5
Comedy can be described as an imitation of something that is
imperfect or ugly in a way that does not communicate or
create pain. Unlike tragedy, comedy did not pass through the
same extended period of development and originated in Sicily.
Epic poetry and tragedy both deal with characters on a higher
moral level. Epic poetry can be distinguished from tragedy by
its restriction to a single kind of meter and its longer length.
Analysis
Aristotle introduces the main topics and concepts of his
treatise by offering definitions and drawing distinctions
between genres. Epic poetry and tragedy are presented as
similar forms of art, whereas comedy has a distinct history and
separate timeline of development. These art forms are all
Poetics Study Guide
rooted in the human desire to imitate the surrounding world.
There is a general attitude of disdain toward early comedy, and
Aristotle draws a distinction between satirical works produced
pre-Homer and the genre of comedy that began with Homer's
movement away from personal satire into the dramatization of
the absurd. The topic of dithyrambic poetry is introduced but
then fades into the background, shifting the discussion more
fully to the forms of epic poetry, tragedy, and comedy.
Dithyrambic poetry is a form of ecstatic hymn in honor of the
god Dionysus.
Aristotle brings up two writers, Sophron and Xenarchus.
Sophron was a writer of mimes, as was his son Xenarchus.
Xenarchus wrote during the reign of Dionysius I. Both spoke
and wrote in the Dorian dialect, which Aristotle also mentions
in reference to the creation of the genres of tragedy and
comedy. The reader should be careful not to confuse
Dionysius, the 5th-century king, with the Greek god Dionysus.
Aristophanes is another important name mentioned in Chapter
2. Aristophanes was a famous writer of comedy in the early 5th
and late 4th centuries BCE. He was widely viewed as a
merciless satirist, and Aristotle probably brings up his name
here with Sophocles because he is discussing the
development of both tragedy and comedy. When Aristotle says
"Polygnotus depicted men as nobler than they are, Pauson as
less noble, Dionysius drew them true to life," the first two
names are referring to famous Greek artists of the 5th century
BCE, but it is unclear which Dionysius he is referencing.
Chapters 6–8
Summary
Chapter 6
Aristotle sets aside the subjects of comedy and epic poetry
and introduces tragedy as the topic of the following chapter.
He defines tragedy as poetry that concerns serious actions of
a certain gravity, uses language that incorporates harmony,
rhythm, and song, and is performed by actors. Tragedy
consists of six main elements: character, plot, diction, thought,
spectacle (acting), and song. Aristotle argues that plot is
central to tragedy, while character development is secondary.
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Chapter Summaries 8
"Thought" seems to indicate the intellectual aspects of the
work, and diction the order and meaning of words. Spectacle,
or the actors and acting, has the power to incite emotion, but
Aristotle considers it the least important of the six elements of
tragedy.
Chapter 7
Chapter 7 focuses primarily on the structure of tragic plot. The
plot must have a beginning, middle, and end, each part
naturally causing or following the previous. Aristotle suggests
that a plot gains adequate gravity through length. He argues
that a small thing (or short plot) is not notable, but something
that is too large to see the shape of is also problematic. The
plot of a tragedy should be long but have a clear shape and a
sense of wholeness.
Chapter 8
The tragic plot must be built around a single main action. In
regard to the protagonist of the story, only the character's
actions that are relevant to the main thread of the plot should
be included. If actions or events do not make an impact by their
inclusion or exclusion from the plot, then those actions are
unnecessary.
Analysis
Aristotle clearly lays out the ground rules for a successful work
of tragedy. His concept of a tragedy is a drama performed by
actors and incorporating both spoken language as well as
song. However, a good tragedy should also be able to stand
alone as a moving work without needing to be performed by
actors.
At the center of a work of tragedy is the plot. Aristotle claims
that the plot holds more importance than character, arguing
that "the Plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul
of a tragedy." The sequence of a plot, besides having the parts
of beginning, middle, and end, must contain a shift of fortune
from good to bad or from bad to good.
In Aristotle's view, length is crucial to the success of the
tragedy, and the trick is to create a long work that also has a
clear shape and movement. Unnecessary additions to the plot
Poetics Study Guide
only disrupt its unity and thus its effectiveness. He insists that
"beauty depends on magnitude and order," meaning that length
and unity must work together to create something that may be
considered beautiful.
Chapters 9–12
Summary
Chapter 9
The chapter opens with the argument that the poet's job is to
write about what may happen, as opposed to what has
happened already. While comedy might invent characters as
well as plot, tragedy usually uses the names of real people to
give credibility and weight to the story. Aristotle emphasizes
the creation of plot over the use of language, as the poet's job
is to imitate action. The poet and the historian have distinctly
different jobs: the poet writes about the universal, and the
historian's focus is the specific. Aristotle also insists that plots
should not be episodic, as episodes are not connected by
organic cause and effect. Plots should evoke surprise and
emotion in the reader, and those feelings are stronger when
events have clear cause and effect instead of being the result
of chance.
Chapter 10
Plots can be organized into two types: simple and complex. A
simple plot is defined as a plot in which "the change of fortune
takes place without Reversal of the Situation and without
Recognition."
A complex plot uses the situational tools of "reversal" and/or
"recognition." These situations should be natural and logical
effects of the preceding situation.
Chapter 11
Chapter 11 defines the previously mentioned concepts of
"reversal of situation" and "recognition." Reversal of situation is
a device wherein the plot flips around to the opposite of its
initial trajectory. Recognition occurs when the central
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Chapter Summaries 9
characters experience a reversal in knowledge or emotion—for
instance, when the protagonist experiences a shift from hate
to love. Combined, reversal and recognition usually inspire pity
or fear in the audience and are based on the idea of surprise.
Aristotle briefly mentions a third part of the plot, which he calls
"the Scene of Suffering." This is a scene that portrays
destruction or pain, such as a scene of physical violence or
death.
Chapter 12
Chapter 12 introduces the tangible parts a tragedy may be
divided into. Aristotle outlines these parts as prologue, episode,
exode, and choric song.
Analysis
The poet writes about possibility, and the historian records
events that have come to pass—Aristotle argues that this, and
not the style of writing itself, is the difference between the
poet and the historian. Yet the poet can still write about
historical events without becoming a historian, because they
can choose to write about events that are relatable to the
audience. In this way, the poet is still writing about the universal
instead of the particular. Chapters 9 through 11 deal primarily
with the plot devices used in tragedy and detail how these
devices should be used.
Aristotle references the Greek historian Herodotus in Chapter
9. Herodotus was a famous 5th century BCE historian who
wrote the first major narrative history in the Western world—a
history of the Greco-Persian wars. Herodotus lived and wrote
in the century before Aristotle, and, while Aristotle seems to
have respect for him as a scholar, he does not consider
Herodotus a poet or an artist.
Aristotle also uses the story of Oedipus as an example of the
plot device "Reversal of the Situation." Oedipus is a legendary
Greek figure and has been the subject of many tragedies,
including those by Sophocles and Euripides.
Chapter 12 seems to be a type of interjection of additional
basic information about the organization of a tragedy's parts,
and Aristotle does not go into any more detail on the subject.
This type of tangential interlude in the midst of a series of
chapters or paragraphs focused on a particular topic happens
Poetics Study Guide
multiple times in the text and indicates that some parts of the
original text are probably missing.
Chapters 13–16
Summary
Chapter 13
In this chapter Aristotle lays out the aims of a tragic poet and
what the poet should avoid. A tragedy should follow the
complex plot structure instead of the simple and should
prompt pity and fear in the audience. It should avoid overly
simplistic movement such as the complete downfall of the
antagonist, because this type of plot does not evoke emotion
in the audience. Aristotle proposes that a true tragedy involves
a character who is brought from good to bad fortune not
through evil or immorality in themselves, but through human
error. He outlines a few of the major tragic characters, such as
Oedipus and Telephus, and explains that most of the best
tragedies are written about them.
Chapter 14
While pity and fear can be created through the acting and
production of a tragedy, Aristotle argues that a good poet can
create those feelings through the construction of the plot. He
then details the types of actions or situations that cause
people to experience feelings of fear or pity. These feelings
are created, he claims, when a tragic accident happens to
people who have a close relationship—such as a family
member killing another family member. When such a situation
is set up with "skillful handling," it should incite strong feelings
of horror and sympathy in the audience. To handle the tragic
situation skillfully, the action may be done with conscious
understanding of the relationship between the characters (a
mother knowingly murdering her children). There is also the
option that the action may be committed without knowledge of
the relationship, with understanding dawning after the deed is
done (Oedipus unknowingly murdering his father).
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Chapter Summaries 10
Chapter 15
The topic of Chapter 15 is the tragic character. Aristotle argues
that speech or action that can be qualified as "good" is relative
to class and propriety. In order to be more true to real life,
"good" actions should be assigned to characters in which they
would be believable. Characters must be both believable and
consistent. However, Aristotle follows this argument by
insisting that the poet, in writing the character, should mimic a
portrait artist by elevating the character somehow. For
instance, if the poet is writing a character with flaws, the poet
should preserve the type of character while still painting the
individual as more than a common person.
Chapter 16
This chapter details the types of recognition, which is a plot
device briefly explained in previous chapters. Aristotle poses
that "recognition through signs" is the least skillful of the
various forms. He explains this form as a situation in which a
sign or symbol, such as a particular weapon or birthmark,
reveal information about a character and cause the
recognition. Aristotle argues that recognition in the form of a
character revealing information because the poet needs it
revealed, and not as a natural progression of the plot, is also
artless. A third kind of recognition occurs when an object or
experience wakes a feeling in the character. The fourth type of
recognition comes about through a process of reasoning. The
best type of recognition, Aristotle insists, is the realization that
occurs through the natural development of events within the
plot.
Analysis
Aristotle makes the case that a tragic plot must not be over
simplified, or it will not have the desired effect on the audience.
Complexity and characters who are relatable and make human
errors, as opposed to characters who are without fault or who
are completely evil, have the power to move an audience.
Interestingly, Aristotle classifies "women and slaves" as lower
forms of beings to whom certain characteristics such as "valor"
should not be applied, because they would not be believable.
Yet many of the plays he references do contain principal
female characters.
Pity and fear are central concepts to the tragic form, and
Poetics Study Guide
generally Aristotle seems to hold the opinion that the goal of
tragedy is to awaken these emotions in the reader and that this
should be done through an organic development of events. No
other emotions seem as integral to the tragic form, and it
seems that fear and pity must always follow an order: first the
audience feels fear or horror, and then in the final tragic scene
this fear turns to pity.
Aristotle references characters from popular plays to support
his opinions about tragedy. Specifically, in Chapter 14 he
mentions that "Clytemnestra was slain by Orestes and Eriphyle
by Alcmaeon." The two plays he's referring to here are
Aeschylus's "Oresteia" and a work that presumably was written
by Euripides but that no longer exists. Both are examples of
matricide.
Chapters 17–19
Summary
Chapter 17
Aristotle discusses the importance of working out the technical
details of the acting and setting of any play very carefully. It is
the job of the poet, he explains, to make sure that the whole
setting is clear and can be seen in its entirety by the audience.
The poet must also pay attention to the gestures of the
characters and make sure that the emotions the actors portray
are natural and realistic.
The second part of the chapter describes how the poet should
approach the creation of the plot. A general outline should be
made first, and then the details filled in afterward. After the
outline, what is filled in is called the "episodes," or the actual
detailed scenes of the play.
Chapter 18
According to Aristotle, the overall structure of a tragedy can be
classified as the complication and the unravelling. The
complication is everything leading up to the climax, whereas
the unravelling, or denouement, is the rest.
He then goes on to delineate the four types of tragedy: the
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Chapter Summaries 11
complex, the pathetic, the ethical, and the simple. The
complex, as discussed in previous chapters, uses both the
reversal and recognition plot devices. In the pathetic the
motive is passion, and in the ethical the motive is
correspondingly ethical. The simple type uses only one of the
two plot devices.
Aristotle tells the reader that the poet should not try to make
an epic poem into a tragedy. An epic poem has multiple parts,
whereas a tragedy focuses on one plot thread. Aristotle gives
the example of how an unsuccessful tragedy might try to tell
the entire story of the entire Iliad, as opposed to just the Fall of
Troy.
Aristotle briefly touches on the subject of the chorus,
mentioning that it should be thought of as an actor in the play,
integral to the plot, and not as unrelated interludes.
Chapter 19
Chapter 19 expounds on two of the six parts of tragedy: diction
and thought. Thought encompasses the areas of proof and
refutation, the inspiring of different emotions, and the
suggestion of importance. Thought pertains mostly to speech
and not the parts of the plot conveyed through action or other
means.
Diction is the breakdown of how speech is delivered. Aristotle
gives examples such as command, prayer, statement, threat,
and question to illustrate how diction is employed.
Analysis
One of Aristotle's chief concerns seems to be the natural and
organic development of the plot. This notion comes back in
these chapters multiple times and is connected to the
audience's response to the tragic play. Aristotle argues that
the plot must develop organically and that the characters'
motives and emotions must be conveyed believably through
diction and acting.
He also stresses repeatedly the importance of including
certain elements in the creation of the tragic plot and also
insists that a specific order of development be followed when
the poet writes the tragedy. Many of these ideas are
expansions on ideas that have been discussed repeatedly in
earlier chapters.
Poetics Study Guide
Again he uses The Odyssey to illustrate his discussion about
how plot can be reduced to its essence. He describes the main
points of The Odyssey's plot, claiming "This is the essence of
the plot; the rest is episode."
When Aristotle breaks up plot into two
categories—complication and denouement—he is including
many things in these parts. The more common approach to
plot in contemporary times is to divide it into three parts: rising
action, climax, and falling action. Aristotle seems to be
combining the rising action and the climax under the umbrella
term of "complication," whereas the denouement includes
possibly part of the climax and the falling action to the end of
the story.
When Aristotle discusses the role of the chorus in Greek
tragedy, he asserts that the chorus should be "an integral part
of the whole" and should actually be treated as an actor. He
insists that this should be done "in the manner not of Euripides
but of Sophocles." This could be taken to mean that Euripides,
who reduced the role of the chorus, still had not reached the
ideal form of tragedy in his treatment of the chorus role.
Sophocles, in Aristotle's opinion, was more successful in this
regard.
Chapters 20–22
Summary
Chapter 20
This chapter is likely an aside and focuses primarily on the
basic elements of language. Aristotle begins with the concept
of a letter, which he defines as a single sound grouped with
other sounds to form syllables and words. He explains
syllables as consonants, or mutes, grouped with a vowel to
form a single sound. The chapter continues to describe
connecting words, verbs, and nouns. Sentences and phrases
are explained as groups of words that contain significant
meaning.
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Chapter Summaries 12
Chapter 21
Aristotle delves deeper into the significance of words. He
postulates that all words can fall into the following categories:
current, strange, metaphorical, ornamental, or newly coined or
altered. Current words refer to terms in popular usage,
whereas strange words are words used in other countries and
languages. Metaphor seems to encompass the use of an "alien
term" to describe something outside the term's normal range
of meaning, as well as the use of analogy and hyperbole. The
description of ornamental words is missing from the chapter.
Newly coined and altered words are words changed or put into
use by the poet when they are not also in general usage. The
chapter includes an aside at the end that details the masculine,
feminine, and neuter gender of Greek nouns.
Chapter 22
In Chapter 22, Aristotle describes the importance of using the
correct amount of metaphorical language and strange/altered
words in poetry. Use too much metaphor, and the meaning
becomes an overly complex riddle. Use too many strange or
altered terms, and the poem becomes indecipherable jargon. In
both cases, the text will become ridiculous, and the interesting
language will lose any effect. However, moderate use of these
two types of language is necessary for elevating a poem above
the mundane.
Analysis
These three chapters are slightly tangential to the core topic
of tragic and epic poetry. Aristotle focuses more on the micro
elements of language and their workings before zooming back
out to poetry. He concerns himself with how language works
on an elementary level to create certain effects in poetry.
True to many of Aristotle's other works in classification,
Chapter 20 delves into a method of deconstructing language
into its most basic elements. Aristotle classifies the "letter" as
an "indivisible sound, yet not every such sound, but only one
which can form part of a group of sounds." Letters are the
building blocks of syllables, which in turn are used to build
connecting words, nouns, and verbs, and these build
sentences. Although this chapter is only fragmentary and
probably doesn't impart more than a glimpse of Aristotle's
ideas about linguistic classification, it is an interesting insight
Poetics Study Guide
into his views of the elements of language.
Metaphor is another focal point, and Aristotle gives many
examples from Greek texts to illustrate the different ways his
definition of metaphor can be understood. Aristotle's concept
of metaphor seems to be relatively broad and sometimes
extends to other literary devices. For instance, he gives the
example "'Verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus
wrought'" and calls this a type of metaphor, explaining that "ten
thousand is a species of large number, and is here used for a
large number generally." This would be classified in
contemporary language as hyperbole and not as metaphor.
Aristotle again mentions the word propriety, but this time he is
referring to a tasteful use of metaphor and unusual language in
a poem, instead of the broader concept of assigning believable
qualities to certain classes or types of character.
Chapters 23–24
Summary
Chapter 23
The topic shifts away from the tragic to epic poetry in this
chapter. According to Aristotle, epic poetry should follow the
same dramatic principles as tragedy. More specifically, it
should be constructed of a beginning, middle, and end, and the
plot must be unified. Epic poetry differs from historical writing
in that the focus of epic poetry is the single action, whereas
historical writing deals with one time period.
Aristotle illustrates the structure of an epic poem through
Homer's handling of the war of Troy. Homer writes about the
war within certain parameters, and he does not try to
encompass the entire war in his epic. Rather, he chooses a
single part of the war and writes about multiple episodes that
take place within that part.
Chapter 24
Epic poetry is similar to tragedy in its requirements of situation
reversal, recognitions, and a need for general unity of plot. It
does not, however, incorporate song and acting or
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Chapter Summaries 13
performance.
Epic poetry is also set apart from tragedy in its length and
scale, which is much longer and broader. It is possible for epic
poems to take on events of a much larger scale over a longer
timespan because they do not have to be conveyed by actors
on a stage within a certain timeframe.
Epic poetry also uses heroic meter, whereas tragedy can use a
variety of meters and aims for a naturalness of speaking.
Additionally, Aristotle introduces the idea that epic poetry
employs the irrational with good effect. Tragedies, he argues,
deal with the wonderful but should leave out the irrational.
Analysis
Aristotle continues to laud Homer's writing in these chapters
and uses his Iliad and Odyssey as prime examples of the epic
poem. Within the parameters that Aristotle sets for a
successful epic, The Iliad and The Odyssey work because they
focus on many events that surround one central idea—in the
case of The Odyssey, for example, the story follows
Odysseus's journey and the events surrounding it.
Aristotle also mentions two epics called The Cypria and The
Little Iliad in comparison to Homer's texts. These two epics are
presumed to have been written around the 7th century BCE,
and they seem to have been well known in Aristotle's time and
earlier. However, they have been almost completely lost in the
time since, and only a handful of lines survive from either. All
that is known about both epics has been reconstructed from
references in texts like Poetics, and the surviving lines are
those quoted by other authors.
Aristotle argues that epic poetry is freed from much of the
constraints of tragedy because it is not expected to be
performed on stage. Epic poems, therefore, are capable of
handling complex stories over long timespans and can still
have the power to move the audience. Tragedies face more
limitations because they need to translate to the stage, and
many scenes used in epic poems would look ludicrous if
enacted on stage.
Poetics Study Guide
Chapters 25–26
Summary
Chapter 25
Aristotle presents the issue of critical objection in poetry. As
discussed earlier in the text, Aristotle returns to the idea that
the poet's job is to imitate either things as they are said to be,
things as they should be, or things as they were or are.
As such, he argues, poetry can express two main faults: faults
in the very essence of poetry and accidental faults. If the
problem is in the fact that the poet imitated something that
lacked substance, then the error lies in the poetry itself. If the
poet makes the wrong decision, this is the time for criticism
and feedback. However, even if the poet makes a mistake or
describes the impossible, Aristotle seems to argue that the
quality of art is more important than correctness of the subject
matter.
This topic takes Aristotle back to the concepts of language
and the poet's use of metaphor to describe things in one of the
three above-mentioned types of imitation. Pertinent usage of
language, Aristotle seems to say, can help the writer avoid
rudimentary errors in the poem.
Chapter 26
Aristotle opens this chapter with the question of whether the
epic poem or tragedy is considered the higher art form. He
compares the two forms in terms of level of refinement and the
audience's ability to discern. He posits that, if refinement
makes one art form higher than the other, tragedy's reliance on
extra embellishment through acting makes it the less advanced
of the two forms. Epic poetry, by contrast, uses more subtle
techniques to engage an audience with a refined palate.
However, Aristotle reminds the reader that tragedy should also
have a strong enough plot to be conveyed through reading
alone. Thus, the flaw that makes it a lower art form than epic
poetry is not actually inherent in the tragic form at all.
At this point in the chapter, Aristotle reverses stances on
which art form is the higher. He argues that tragedy does
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Quotes 14
everything that epic poetry is capable of, but within a narrow
and more focused scope. In addition, because of its much
wider scope, epic poetry cannot have the same unity of plot as
the tragedy is capable of.
Aristotle concludes Poetics with the assertion that the tragic
form is, in fact, superior to the epic poem and recaps a list of
some of the main topics of the treatise.
Analysis
Aristotle seems to find the idea of probable impossibility
versus improbable possibility one of great import to the epic
poem. It is a concept he brings up in multiple chapters as a vital
element of the epic poem, but not necessarily of tragic works.
This sort of attribution gives the reader an inkling of Aristotle's
preference for the tragic form, despite his high opinions of
Homer's epic poems of many centuries earlier.
Aristotle seems to take a negative view of critics on the whole,
proposing that they often pass groundless adverse judgement
on works. There are times, however, when criticism can be
helpful to the poet, as when the poet has fallen victim to his or
her own errors.
He employs a version of the reversal of situation in his own
final chapter, luring the reader into thinking his opinion lies on
one side of the matter but then reversing sides. This creates an
interesting effect in conclusion of his treatise, as he proves his
point that the audience is more likely to engage when
surprised by a reversal in the plot. It's an interesting technique
Aristotle attempts—he tries to prove his point about plot
reversal to the reader by actually executing a sort of reversal
of his own, thus illustrating his opinion in a more tangible way.
g Quotes
"We must represent men either as
better than in real life, or as worse,
or as they are."
— Narrator, Chapter 2
Poetics Study Guide Quotes 15

These are the three ways that poetry may represent humans: reasonable amount of time.
tragedy usually represents them as better and comedy as
worse.
"Beauty depends on magnitude

"Hence, some say, the name of and order."

'drama' is given to such poems, as — Narrator, Chapter 7

representing action."
Aristotle argues that something must have a certain
— Narrator, Chapter 3 magnitude, or importance, to be beautiful.

This is an early and notable usage of the word drama in

reference to tragic and comic poems, which were also acted
"Unity of plot does not, as some
out on the stage. However, "drama" here is not referring to the persons think, consist in the unity
acting aspect of the poems, but to the fact that they center on
human actions. of the hero."

— Narrator, Chapter 8
"Objects which in themselves we
view with pain, we delight to Aristotle explains that having a single protagonist isn't enough
to create a unified plot because the span of a single person's
contemplate when reproduced life and experiences is far too long and complex to create a
single plot.
with minute fidelity."

— Narrator, Chapter 4
"Poetry tends to express the
Here Aristotle discusses the role of imitation in art and how
universal, history the particular."
something that could repulse us in real life (such as a dead
body) could be rendered beautiful through art. — Narrator, Chapter 9

In Aristotle's opinion, history is concerned with specific details

"Tragedy is an imitation of an while poetry should be connecting to the audience through
universal themes. Poetry should be concerned with the
action that is complete, and whole,
relatable and the universal experience.
and of a certain magnitude."

— Narrator, Chapter 7 "Recognition, as the name

indicates, is a change from
This quotation refers to the concept of unity of plot and
describes the requirements for the action being imitated in a
ignorance to knowledge."
tragedy. The object of imitation must be something of weight
and meaning and not of a trivial nature. On the flip side, it — Narrator, Chapter 11
should not be so large that it cannot be acted out in a

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Poetics Study Guide Quotes 16

This quotation refers to the plot device of "recognition," which
is a character having a revelation about his or her relationship
to another character or some information that has been
previously unknown or withheld. This device is important in the
tragic plot.
The "they" in this quote are the "good portrait-painters."
Aristotle uses this comparison to explain why imitation works
powerfully in poetry as well as in painting or visual art.
"Poetry implies either a happy gift

"Pity is aroused by unmerited of nature or a strain of madness."

misfortune, fear by the misfortune — Narrator, Chapter 17

of a man like ourselves."

This quotation is somewhat obscure in its exact reference but
— Narrator, Chapter 13 seems to be referring to the poet's power as translated
through characters. The actors must portray characters in a
way that is believable, and the characters must convey either
This quotation defines the emotions of pity and fear,
"a happy gift" or "a strain of madness."
particularly in the context of the tragic poem. Humans are
moved to feel sympathy for a character who suffers unjustly.
They feel fear as the result of being able to see themselves
and the possibility of their own suffering within a character
"Identity exists where the
who is experiencing misfortune. Complication and Unravelling are
the same. Many poets tie the knot
"Fear and pity may be aroused by well, but unravel it ill."
spectacular means; but they may
— Narrator, Chapter 18
also result from the inner structure
of the piece." The complication refers to the climax and events leading up to
it, as these are where the conflict in the story comes to a head.
— Narrator, Chapter 14 The unravelling also can encompass the climax of the story,
when everything becomes clear and progresses to the end.
Aristotle poses the idea that these two—the complication and
The actual acting and performance of a piece can move an
the unraveling—can be parts of a plot and can take place at the
audience to feel emotions like fear and pity, but these
same time—the climax and the falling action—which makes for
emotions are stronger and more artfully produced if they are
a better poem.
evoked by the story itself. Aristotle often argues that a tragedy
should be just as effective when read as when experienced on
the stage.
"For what were the business of a
speaker, if the Thought were
"They, while reproducing the
revealed quite apart from what he
distinctive form of the original,
says?"
make a likeness which is true to
life and yet more beautiful." — Narrator, Chapter 19

— Narrator, Chapter 15

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Poetics Study Guide Glossary 17

It is the speaker's job in the tragedy to reveal the intellectual

aspects of the play and not the job of the action or the e Suggested Reading
structure of the plot itself.
Aristotle. Introduction to Aristotle. Edited by Richard McKeon,
Modern Library, 1992.
"The poet should prefer probable
Aristotle. Politics. Translated by Ernest Barker, Oxford UP,
impossibilities to improbable 1995.

possibilities." Barnes, Jonathan. "Rhetoric and Poetics." The Cambridge

Companion to Aristotle, edited by Jonathan Barnes, Cambridge
— Narrator, Chapter 24 UP, 1995.

McLeish, Kenneth. Aristotle: Aristotle's Poetics. Phoenix, 1998.

Aristotle argues that it is more believable and organic to create
impossible situations that feel probable to the audience rather Plato. The Republic. Translated by H.D.P. Lee, Penguin, 2008.
than possible or realistic situations that feel improbable within
Woodfin, Rupert, and Judy Groves. Introducing Aristotle. Icon,
the structure of the plot.
2012.

m Glossary
denouement (n) in a story, the part of the plot that follows the
climax and resolves the conflict

diction (n) the way language is presented and enunciated in

speaking or song

dithyrambic poetry (n) type of poetry performed at festivals in

praise of Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and theater. It was
usually performed as a mixture of choral singing and dance.

iambic (adj) referring to a pattern of syllables that alternate

between one unstressed syllable and one stressed syllable

hexameter (n) in poetic meter, a line with six feet (the basic
unit of syllabic combinations in poetic meter)

meter (n) within poetry, the pattern of stressed and unstressed

syllables

mimesis (n) a Greek term meaning "to imitate" and often used
in the context of philosophy

purgation (n) a purification or cleansing, purging

spectacle (n) the performance aspect of a tragedy, including

acting, costumes, music, and scenery

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