10 Chapter2

CHAPTER - II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction
The Literature Review is a thorough summary of the recognized

facts and information in academic literature about a given subject. Most
cited sources in a dissertation or thesis are listed in the Literature Review.
The researcher must locate previous research studies (usually found in
professional journal articles) that have contributed to the field in a manner
similar to what his or her own thesis or dissertation proposes. If little
academic writing exists on a given subject, composing the Literature
Review will be a very difficult task. The standard Literature Review
should justify the reason for the scholar’s research. The researcher must
convince the reader that his or her research is important and beneficial.
The literature review allows the researcher to establish his or her
theoretical framework and methodological focus. The Literature Review
often becomes the basis for the entire thesis or summarizes each piece of
literature in a few sentences and identifies the approach taken by each
author’s dissertation. It must evaluate the approach of each author and
must put it into a context.
The researcher must explain why each piece of literature was

chosen as reference material for the dissertation or thesis. It demonstrates
the researcher’s knowledge of the field. The researcher should not merely
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report what he or she has read. Instead, the researcher must show that he
or she has a thorough, deep connection to the area of study; knows what
the most important issues are and their relevance to his or her
investigation; understands the controversies; recognizes what has been
neglected; knows where previous studies have gone and anticipates where
the field will go as a result of his or her study.
2.2 Objectives of the Related Literature

The review of related literature is an essential and significant
aspect of a research process. A systematic review of the related literature
can help the researcher the following ways. It can:
 show how another researcher handled a similar problem

 suggest a method or technique of dealing with problem
 reveal new sources of data which the researcher may not have
known
 introduce the researcher to the eminent personalities whose
work may not have been known before
 help the researcher to evaluate the research effort by
comparing it with the efforts made by others
2.3 Sources and Types of Research Literature
Books, journals, reports, popular media, memos, minutes, internal

reports, published and unpublished papers, introductory and overview
texts, methodological and confessional writing, edited collections and
literature reviews, primary sources, secondary sources, are the types of
research literature. The following figure (Figure. 2.1) shows some of the
questions a literature review can answer.
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Figure. 2.1
Some of the Questions a Literature Review can answer
An analysis of the literature regarding “Information Technology

Fluency among the Teacher Educators in Relation to Certain Selected
Variables” results in the identification of three broad topics. The first
topic is easily identified as "IT Fluency”. A second but the sub category in
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which a significant amount of research exists is "Information Technology”
and its “integration into the field of education.” Finally, there is
considerable information regarding researches in "the higher education
scenario”.
The research studies reviewed here include closely related

investigations which have been carried out in India and abroad on various
dimensions of the research problem selected by the investigator. Many
similar results which are described in technical reports of various
journals, articles, surveys, projects and papers delivered at conferences
are also reviewed. However, it is to be noted that research studies on
information technology fluency are comparatively rare.
2.4 Review of Studies on Information Technology Fluency
Nancy Sardone (2011) conducted a study on “Developing

Information Technology (IT) Fluency in College Students: An
Investigation of Learning Environments and Learner Characteristics”.
Using a causal-comparative research method, data from 120
undergraduate students studying computer concepts were analyzed to
determine the relationship between learning environment, IT fluency, and
course satisfaction.
The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship, if any,

between traditional and constructivist learning environments to the
development of IT fluency and course satisfaction in a course in which
students were learning to become IT fluent under a revised definition. The
study is among the few quantitative studies designed to analyze the factors
influencing IT fluency in the general college undergraduate population.
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Results suggested that in learning environments based on active
learning strategies, IT fluency was achieved and course satisfaction was
significantly higher regardless of preferred learning style. This research
can be used as conceptual model of how current college students prefer to
learn IT to determine how undergraduate programs might change existing
curricula to better prepare their students for the rapidly changing 21st
century workplace. Overall, study findings added to an understanding of
higher education learning environments, student characteristics, and how
IT fluency is achieved. The results of the study has implications for
designing learning environments and usage associated instructional
methods that foster learning IT concepts in undergraduate programs.
These results provided additional support to the constructivist learning
theory and its execution in higher education classrooms where IT concepts
are taught to non-technology majors.
Jazlin Ebenezer and et al., (2011) conducted a study titled “One

Science Teacher’s Professional Development Experience: A Case Study
Exploring Changes in Students’ Perceptions of their Fluency with
Innovative Technologies”. The purpose of this case-study was to narrate a
secondary science teacher’s experience of his professional development
(PD) education and training in innovative technologies (IT) in the context
of engaging students in environmental research projects The sources from
which the narrative is derived include (1) the science teacher’s reflective
reports during three summer institute programs and (2) the science
teacher’s reflective reports while subsequently engaging students in IT-
embedded environmental research projects in his classroom. The science
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teacher’s explanations for changes in students’ perception of their IT
fluency illuminate his personal narrative. The science teacher attributed
his growth and significant changes in students’ perceptions of their IT
fluency to the following mechanisms (a) a personal commitment to
developing his own and his students’ IT abilities in the context of doing
environmental research projects, and (b) an increase in class time devoted
to science education due to school-time scheduling policy. The study
implied that immersive professional development opportunities have the
potential to produce significant increases in students’ perceptions of their
IT fluency.
Marcia Sharp (2010) conducted a study on the “Development of

an Instrument to Measure Students’ Perceptions of Information
Technology Fluency Skills: Establishing Content Validity”. The purpose
of this study was to establish the content validity of an instrument to
measure students’ perceptions of their IT fluency skills using a rigorous
judgment-quantification process. The IT fluency instrument developed
and validated herein will be used for future studies comparing allied
health students’ perceptions of their IT fluency skills with their actual IT
fluency skills.
This research required the drafting of a Perceptual IT Fluency Skills

Student Survey for use with allied health students. The draft survey
included measures of students’ perceptions of their IT fluency skills based
on their contemporary skills, foundational concepts, and intellectual
capabilities. The contemporary skills section was composed of eight
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multiple choice questions. The foundational concepts portion contained
six multiple-choice questions that focus on the student’s knowledge of
computer operations, networks, and e-mail. The intellectual capabilities
section included five multiple-choice questions to elicit the student’s
ability to manage computer problems, adapt to new technology, and
communicate concepts.
A panel of experts was used to validate the draft Perceptual IT

Fluency Skills Student Survey. Seven experts were asked to identify
omitted areas and to suggest areas for improvement, and these revisions
were made. The process used to determine content validity proved to offer
consistency, rigor, and structure to the instrument development. The
results support the content validity of this instrument as a tool for
measuring students’ perceived information technology (IT) fluency
skills.Results from the panel of experts yielded a 0.87 overall content
validity index.
Rafeedali (2009) studied “Computer Based Technology and its

Pedagogical Utility.” The objectives of the study were to identify the basic
computer knowledge among the higher secondary school teachers, to find
out the purposes of using computer resources among the higher secondary
school teachers, to find out the extend of use of computer resources in the
teaching-learning process among the higher secondary school teachers.
A self-developed tool (Computer Awareness Questionnaire) was

used for the study. The objective scoring procedure was adopted for
analyzing the questionnaire. The study found that most of the higher
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secondary school teachers have basic computer knowledge. Higher
secondary teachers were not using the IT resources in the class room
interactions. Only 13% of higher secondary school teachers were using
power point in the class room.
Vincent De Paul (2007) conducted a study on “Commitment

among Primary School Teachers with respect to their Job Satisfaction,
Self-Efficacy, and Educational Technology Efficacy.” The results showed
that the above mentioned skills of teachers were average among teachers
of Pudukkottai district.
Gary Schneider (2006) conducted a research study titled “Faculty

Survey: Knowledge and Use of Information Technology In Leadership
Education” that explored the knowledge and use of information
technology (IT) among faculty members in the Department of Leadership
at the University of Memphis in the spring of 2006. A project was
established to complement the study to consider patterns of use by faculty
groups within the department, and to supplement the information provided
by the EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research (ECAR) in its recent
annual surveys concerning the knowledge and use of IT among
undergraduate populations.
Kvaviks and Caruso (2005) reported that over 70% of the

undergraduate students interviewed in the ECAR study indicated a
preference for at least a “moderate” use of IT as a means of instruction. In
the present survey, faculty in the Department of Leadership expressed an
even stronger preference, with over 80% preferring at least “moderate”
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use, and the majority of those indicating a preference for the “extensive”
use, of technology in the classroom. Although, the DL faculty did not
assess the level of impact on their students’ learning as highly as was
described in the previous paragraph, they did indicate a general liking for
IT as an instructional tool, felt it had a positive impact on their teaching,
and, for the most part, expressed confidence about their abilities to use IT
well. While the ECAR students rated “convenience” as the chief benefit
offered through IT, the DL faculty gave their strongest scores to the ways
in which IT has helped them communicate better with their students.
Ulla Bunz (2004) conducted a study titled “The Computer e-mail-

Web (CEW) Fluency Scale-Development and Validation.” The purpose of
this research was to develop an instrument to assess people’s fluency with
the computer, e-mail, and the Web (CEW fluency). Such an instrument,
tapping into digital divides, could fill the existing void that exists between
previously developed computer literacy or experience scales and the ever
faster development of Internet technology. The research was conducted in
two stages.
He took the cues for the study from the CITL monograph, and
attempted to assess more general “fluency” skills. In addition, though
computer fluency, email fluency and web fluency can be expected to be
related, this study presumed that email and web fluency were not
necessarily subsumed by "computer fluency." Specifically, the purpose of
this study was to develop what we hope is a more general and useful
measure, the Computer-Email-Web Fluency (CEW Fluency) scale.
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Overall, results indicated that the longer subjects had been using the
Internet, the greater their overall CEW Fluency. Results indicated that
subjects had to be classified at least at an "intermediate" level of web
expertise to have higher CEW Fluency. Results also indicated that there
was no statistical difference between "experience" and "expertise" with
regard to web editing fluency. Overall, the more comfortable subjects felt
with computers or the Internet, the higher their reported CEW Fluency.
One exception to this overall trend was that only subjects who felt very
comfortable with the computer reported high web editing fluency.
Sharon Fass McEuen (2002) conducted a study titled “How fluent

with IT are our students? It was a survey of students from South Western
University explored how FIT they see themselves. The survey focused on
the following questions.
 How fluent with IT do students see themselves?

 What are their technology strengths?
 What are their technology weaknesses?
 How do they use technology?
A current overview of the student population in reference to the

components of FITness provided a starting point for developing new IT
fluency initiatives. The survey questionnaire developed by the researcher,
using the components of each of the three elements of FITness (Skills,
Concepts and Capabilities) as mentioned in the FITness Report or NRC
Report (1999), rate the students’ skill level, capabilities and knowledge of
IT concepts. The study found that the students of SU are more capable
with the IT skills than with the other two components of IT fluency.
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2.5 Review of Journals on Information Technology Fluency and
IT Literacy
Ebenezer and et al., (2011) in the article “Engaging students in

environmental research projects: Perceptions of fluency with innovative
technologies and levels of scientific inquiry abilities” which was
published in the journal “Journal of Research in Science Teaching ” (Vol.
48, Issue 1, pp. 94-116 )reported a study which used a mixed-method. The
purpose of this study was to investigate the changes in high school
students’ perceptions of fluency with innovative technologies (IT) and the
levels of students’ scientific inquiry abilities as a result of engaging
students in long-term scientific research projects focusing on community-
based environmental issues. Over a span of 3 years, a total of 125 ninth-
through twelfth-grade students participated in this study. A project-
specific Likert-scale survey consisting of three parts (fluency with
All Technologies, GPS/GIS, and CBL2/Easy Data) was administered to
all students as a pre- and post-test. At the end of the study, 45 students
were randomly interviewed and asked to elaborate on the changes in their
perceptions of fluency with IT. The results indicated statistically
significant increases (p < 0.001) in students’ perceptions of their fluency
with IT. Qualitative analysis of students’ interview results corroborated
the statistical findings of students’ changes in perceptions of their fluency
with IT. Students’ research papers based on the environmental studies
conducted at the interface of classroom and community were analyzed
using the Scientific Inquiry Rubrics, which consist of 11 criteria
developed by the researchers. Results indicated the students’ abilities to
conduct scientific inquiry for 7 out of 11 criteria were at the proficient
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level. This study clearly pointed to the correlation between the
development of IT fluency and ability levels to engage in scientific
inquiry based on respective competencies. Ultimately, this research study
recommended that students’ IT fluency ought to be developed and
assessed concurrently with an emphasis on contemporary higher order
scientific inquiry abilities.
Chitra Sohani (2011) in the research article “Introducing Co-

operative Learning and Multiple Intelligences to Student Teachers
through A Game Event: A Case Study” which was published in the
journal“Experiments in Education” (vol. 39, Issue 3, pp. 23-28) described
the described the systematic effort to train future teachers in co-operative
principles, combined with training in multiple intelligences, through the
organization of a special game event entitled “Eight Dimensional
Groups,” at the S.N.D.T.College of Education for Women in Pune,
Maharashtra. Positive feedback obtained from student teachers is
presented along with the researcher’s reflections on the project. The study
emphasized the need to implement Cooperative Learning (CL) and the
necessary to develop appropriate competencies in student teachers. The
study advocated that the training teacher trainees for CL as well as
multiple intelligences those are the two different dimensions of teacher
training at S.N.D.T. was best done through experimental learning. The
article described in detail a special game event entitled “Eight
Dimensional Groups,” which was conducted to promote CL among the
student teachers. The purpose the game event was to tap the various kinds
of intelligences hidden inside the teacher trainees and to promote
cooperation among the teacher trainees.
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Vijay Kumar (2011) in the article “Technology: A Catalyst of
Teaching-Learning Process” which was published in the journal
“Edutracks” (vol.10, Issue 11, pp.3-5) asserted that updating the technical
professional knowledge and skills of teachers is the need of the hour. He
stated that the teacher educators must acquire new knowledge and skills
before they can prepare their students to meet the demands and challenges
of the 21st century. ICT in Computer Assisted teaching, online-teaching
online- designing of courses, online assessment and online- deliver of
courses are stated in the article. There is need for the effective use of ICT
to motivate the students and make the classes dynamic as they learn new
skills and techniques.
Maria Isabel Hernandez Romero and Alfredo Marin Marin

(2010) in the research article “Use of Information and Communication
Technology among English Language Teaching (ELT) students in a
Mexican University: A Survey” which was published in the
journal“International Journal of Educational Research, Development and
Extension” (vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 7-21) described the survey conducted by
them about the Use of Information and Communication Technology
among English Language Teaching (ELT) students in a Mexican
University. The study set out to determine if the students used ICT tools
for academic purposes, what ICT tools were used for information
management, how often these ICT tools were used by the students and the
functions of ICT used for information management. The method of study
followed was survey method. The collected data were both quantitative
and semi-qualitative in nature. A 24-item semi-structured questionnaire
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was designed by the researchers for the purpose of the study. The
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the
analysis of the data. The results showed that, in general the participants
seem to use ICT tools for academic purposes in a variety of types although
some training may be necessary. In terms of frequency of use, some
differences were observed among some tool types. Also, the participants
reported using several functions offered by every single ICT tool. The
study concluded that there was an apparent lack of formal training in the
use of ICT tools.
Wolfram Laaser (2010) in the article “Certain Issues in European

e-Education at Tertiary Level” which was published in the journal
“International Journal of Educational Research, Development and Extension”
(vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 7-21) discussed certain quality issues related to e-
Education in Europe. The article started with a recent review on ICT
applications at European Universities, its scope and implications for virtual
universities. It showed up that quality regulations and interpretations of
standards vary. It is pointed out that some action lines of the European
Commission to promote e-learning and virtual mobility are mentioned to
improve quality of e-learning ., it is also pointed that the financial means to
support the programs are quite modest. Next, the spectacular failure of the
British e-University is discussed. It showed that sustainable development of
e-Learning is possible only if realistic business plans are set up and if some
additional criteria for sustainable project design are taken into consideration.
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Seetha Lakshmi and Pratima Majal (2010) in the research article
“Introduction of Video Conferencing in Tamil Classroom: A Study”
which was published in the journal “International Journal of Educational
Research, Development and Extension” (vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 7-21) focused
on a pilot lesson cum research on how video conferencing software can
create a positive environment for students to interact and learn as well as
to adopt new skills for communicating via this tool. The Tamil lesson was
conducted in a class room at the Pre-service Tamil Teacher Training class
in the National Institute of Education (NIE), Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore. For the purpose of the study, the researchers
utilized the Wimba Live Classroom software. The pilot video
conferencing lesson at NIE was used as research set out to answer the
research questions. Important features of technical and educational
methodology issues were presented in the paper as the researchers from
both fields share their experiences in the pilot study. The researcher found
that the online tutorial was very helpful in explaining various issues
through the use of examples. It was also found that the tool was an
effective aid for the student trainees to understand and provide answers on
issues such as the guidelines for oral examination, to motivate students to
speak in spoken Tamil and to guide them back to talk in Tamil if they
resort to speaking in English while conversing in Tamil. The researchers
concluded their results that a lesson need not necessarily be conducted in a
formal classroom where teachers and students from all around the world
can unite and study together via the computer-mediated synchronous tool
of video conferencing.
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Verhoeven (2010) in the article “Information and
Communication Technologies in the Life of University Freshmen:
An Analysis of Change” which was published in the journal “Computers
and Education” (vol. 55, Issue 1, pp. 53-66) reported a study which tried
to find out whether freshmen, after 6 months at the university, changed
their self-perception of ICT competences and computer use in comparison
with their behavior at secondary school, and what factors can explain the
self-perception of ICT competences and computer use in secondary
school, in the university and their possible change. Hypotheses were
developed and tested to answer the research questions. Students who
consider the computer to be a useful instrument, have control over the
computer, possess a certain level of Internet competence, and are at ease
with computers are more likely to have the skills needed to maintain a
computer, to develop a web site, and to use basic ICT skills. The
predictors have little influence on Internet usage. The same predictors
contribute modestly to the explanation of the different frequencies of
computer use, and a few of the predictors explain parts of change in ICT
skills and frequency of computer use.
Erlich, Zippy and et al., (2009) in the article “The Effect of

Computer Literacy Course on Students’ Attitudes toward Computer
Applications” (EJ816678) which was published in “Journal of Educational
Technology Systems”, (v37, Issue.1, pp.83-95) indicated that the use of
technologies as teaching aids and tools for self-study is influenced by
students’ attitudes toward computers and their applications. The purpose
of this study was to determine whether taking a Computer Literacy and
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Applications (CLA) course has an impact on students’ attitudes toward
computer applications, across various undergraduate disciplines. A
Computer Application Attitude (CAA) questionnaire was administered at
the beginning and at the end of the semester to social science students
enrolled in a CLA course. The study population was divided into two
groups according to the students’ field of study: quantitative-oriented and
qualitative-oriented. A significant difference was found in attitudes before
and after the CLA course only in the quantitative group. Based upon the
results of this study, it is recommended to offer different computer literacy
courses to the different groups to improve students’ attitudes toward the
use of these applications.
Kaminski and et al., (2009) in the research article “Workforce

Readiness: A Study of University Students’ Fluency with Information
Technology” which was published in the journal “Computers and
Education” (Vol. 53, Issue 2, pp. 228-233) reported the study which
collected data from a large sample of freshmen in 2001 and a random
stratified sample of seniors in 2005 examined students perceived FITness
(Fluency with Information Technology). In the fall of 2001 freshmen at a
medium sized research-one institution completed a survey and in spring
2005 a random sample of graduating seniors completed a similar survey.
The surveys measured the student’s self-reported proficiency in
basic information technology knowledge and skills such as word
processing and presentation software as well as more complex
applications such as digital audio. They found a significant increase in
perception of skills in presentation software and browsers and although
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both groups reported low skill levels, a significant decrease in perception
of skills in database, web animation, programming, desktop publishing,
digital video and video audio. Although one might assume an
undergraduate would indicate an increase in information and
communicationtechnology skills, this study found that often student’s
perceptions of ability decline. However this decrease may be due to their
increased awareness of the skills needed in the workforce.
Lei, Jing (2009) in the article “Digital Natives as Pre-service

Teachers: What Technology Preparation is needed?” (EJ835233) which
was published in the Journal of “Computing in Teacher Education”,
(vol.25, no.3, pp.87-97) presented a study which focused on "digital
natives" as pre-service teachers to examine their beliefs, attitudes, and
technology experiences and expertise, identify the strengths and
weaknesses in their technology knowledge and skills, and explore what
technology preparation was needed to prepare them to integrate
technology in their future classrooms. Results revealed that (a) the digital-
native pre-service teachers reported strong positive beliefs in technology,
yet moderate confidence and reserved attitude in using technology; (b) the
majority (80%) of them spent the most time on social-communication
activities, and only about 10% of them spent the most time on learning-
related activities; (c) they were very proficient with basic technologies but
were not familiar with more advanced technologies; (d) the scope of their
use of Web 2.0 technologies was limited to mainly social-networking Web
sites, and they lacked the experiences and expertise in using Web 2.0
technologies with great potential for classroom application; and (e) they
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lacked experiences and expertise in using classroom technologies,
especially assistive technologies. The results suggested that, growing up
with technology, digital natives as pre-service teachers are savvy with
basic technologies and social-communication technologies. However,
their technology proficiency is limited by both the narrow scope and the
lack of depth of their technology activities. Systematic technology
preparation is needed to help them learn more advanced technologies,
classroom technologies, and assistive technologies, and more important, to
help them make the connections between technology and teaching and to
help them make the transition from digital-native students to digital-native
teachers.
Vannatta (2008) in the article “The Impact of

Assessing Technology Competencies of Incoming Teacher Education
Students” which was published in the journal “Computers in the Schools”
(Vol. 25, Issue 1-2, pp. 90-97) reported a study which had madean effort
to establish a baseline of technology competency among the entering
education students. This performance-based assessment evaluates word-
processing, presentation, spreadsheet, graphic/drawing, and Internet skills.
Although students were not required to pass the ATC, failure impacts their
final grade in an Introduction to Education course. This paper explored the
impact this assessment has had on the students’ use and development
of technology in subsequent courses. Student perceptions of the ATC and
its impact were elicited through a self-reported survey administered in a
junior-level education course. Results indicated that the ATC has
facilitated technology use among the participants. Respondents also
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revealed that their high school experiences with technology adequately
prepared them for passing the ATC, despite the fact that most students are
unable to pass the ATC in the first attempt.
Mc Manus (2006) in the article “Assessing Proficiencies in Higher

Education: Benchmarking knowledge and ICT skills of students at an
Urban Community College” which was published in the journal
“Community and Junior College Libraries” (Vol. 13, Issue 3, pp. 43-51)
described the administration of the Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) Literacy Assessment at the Bronx
Community College (BCC) of the City University of New York (CUNY)
in spring 2005, and interprets the data in the context of profiles of the test
populations. Data collected in the 2005 Large Scale ICT Literacy
Assessment at 31 campuses is viewed as contributing in meaningful ways
to the emerging portrait of BCC students’ proficiencies. Viewed in
conjunction with data from surveys, portfolios, course requirements, and
reports from faculty and staff based on day-to-day interactions with
students, BCC students show evidence of impressive momentum in
developing ICT skills. The snapshot of proficiencies of students has
developed a picture with an increasingly sharp focus, detailing distinctive
characteristics of students at an urban community college, and the skills
and knowledge they bring as they enter BCC. A multifaceted approach to
assessing proficiencies, fluency, and competencies in use
of information technologies is recommended based on the BCC
experience. The resolution of the image that emerged using the ICT
Literacy Assessment was enhanced by the comparative data it provided,
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and the picture is becoming increasingly recognizable as matching the
profile of the students with whom we interact with every day at BCC. The
author concluded that colleges and universities seeking to assess
proficiencies in information and communications technology need to learn
more about new assessment tools.
Campe, Werner, and Denner (2005) in the article titled

“Information Technology Fluency for Middle School Girls” which was
published in the journal “Computers and Advanced technology in
Education” described an after school program for middle school girls that
aims to develop IT fluency by teaching them to make computer games.
They presented data from the games that show how participants have
made substantial strides toward information technology fluency. The
findings suggested that most girls developed skills in graphics, use of a
database, and the use of the internet. They developed capabilities such as
sustained reasoning and managing complexity. And they developed
concepts such as algorithmic thinking and programming and information
organization. The authors stated that in order to participate in the changing
world of technology, students must develop information technology (IT)
fluency, rather than simply IT literacy. Fluency includes three kinds of
knowledge: skills, concepts, and capabilities. The acquisition of these
kinds of knowledge is more likely to happen in the context of project-
based work. Because of the continued majority of males in IT, it is
essential that efforts are made to increase the participation of girls.
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Collier and et al., (2004) in their article entitled “Infusing
Technology Skills into a Teacher Education Program: Change in
Students’ Knowledge about and Use of Technology”, which was published
in the Journal of “Technology and Teacher Education”; (vol.12, pp. 447-
468) presented a research study stated that teacher educators should
systematically review their early childhood / elementary programs and
made changes to meet current technology standards (ISTE, 2000).
Technology instruction was totally integrated into the other courses. Data
collected from faculty, course syllabi, and pre-service teacher self-
assessment surveys revealed effective, scaffold hands-on experiences and
increased modeling of technology to increase future teachers’ ability to
select and use appropriate technologies in instruction.
Eric, Fox and Patrick, Ghezzi (2004) in the article “Effects of

Computer-Based Fluency Training on Concept Formation” which was
published in the “Journal of Behavioral Education Springer Netherlands”
(Volume 12) provided a preliminary analysis of how the techniques of
fluency training can be combined with systematic concept instruction to
improve the learning of complex verbal concepts. Fluency techniques,
which require the learner to respond accurately at high rates, have
typically focused on definition learning when teaching concepts. To
examine this issue, 41 undergraduate students completed a computer-
based instructional module on logical fallacies. Participants were assigned
to one of four groups, with the modules for each group differing only in
the type of practice provided-either fluency or practice with either
examples or definitions. Examination of posttest scores revealed
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significantly higher scores for participants in the examples groups than
those in the definitions groups, but low experimental power prevented a
clear conclusion to be drawn about differences between the fluency and
practice groups.
Dougherty (2002) in the article “Teaching the Use of Complex IT

in Specific Domains: Developing, Assessing and Refining a Curriculum
Development Framework” which was published in the journal “Education
and Information Technologies” (Vol.7, Issue 2, pp. 137-154) reported on a
study that addresses the need for developing an Information
Technology Fluency (ITF) framework which is a methodology for
constructing components (case studies) for inclusion into existing or
newly proposed courses to help students develop the skills needed for this
challenge. He developed, assessed and refined a curriculum development
framework. Results obtained using the framework are reported, compared
to similar work at a different institution, and used to suggest
improvements to the framework. He stated that Information
technology holds the promise of increased productivity. However, rapidly
evolving tools require a professional able to incorporate these tools into
their careers effectively, which signals the need for IT curriculum
development initiatives that incorporate the use of complex, domain-
specific IT applications in specific professional fields.
Wetzel, Keith (1993) in the article “Teacher Educators’ Uses of

Computers in Teaching” which was published in “Journal of Technology
and Teacher Education”, (vol.1, no.4, pp.335-52) discussed ISTE/NCATE
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(International Society for Technology in Education / National Council for
the Accreditation of Teacher Education) computer / technology standards
for pre-service teachers in the context of faculty preparation to integrate
technology. Results of a survey on the use of technology to teach
education majors at Arizona State University are presented, and a team
approach to faculty preparation in technology applications was described.
2.6 Review of Articles on Information Technology Fluency
Thomas, Mackey and Trudy, Jacobson (2011) in the article

“Reframing Information Literacy as a Metaliteracy” stressed the need for
spreading IT literacy a compulsory skill to be achieved by everyone. He
differentiated IT literacy and IT Fluency in this article. Social media
environments and online communities are innovative collaborative
technologies that challenge traditional definitions of information literacy.
Metaliteracy is an overarching and self-referential framework that
integrates emerging technologies and unifies multiple literacy types. This
redefinition of information literacy expands the scope of generally
understood information competencies and places a particular emphasis on
producing and sharing information in participatory digital environments.
Ching Sing Chai,ee Tan and et al., (2011) in the article “Modeling
Primary school Pre-service Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical
Content Knowledge (TPACK) for meaningful learning with information
and communication technology (ICT)” cited that within the field of
educational technology, Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge
(TPACK) has been theorized as a seven-factor construct to describe
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teacher’s integration of information and communication technology (ICT)
in their teaching. However, this framework has yet to be successfully
validated through survey instruments. The paper examined the construct
validity of a TPACK survey that was contextualized for the pedagogical
approaches employed in a 12-week ICT course designed with reference to
the TPACK framework for Singaporean primary school pre-service
teachers. Using this framework, the researchers were able to uncover five
of the seven TPACK constructs which were a better model fit as compared
with several extant studies of TPACK surveys. Using these results, pre
and post-course structural equation models were constructed to explain the
relationships amongst the different constructs of teachers’ TPACK
perceptions. It was found that pedagogical knowledge had a direct impact
on TPACK at the beginning of the course. As teachers made connections
between their technological knowledge and pedagogical knowledge to
form technological pedagogical knowledge during the course, the direct
relation between pedagogical knowledge and TPACK became
insignificant whereas the relations between pedagogical knowledge and
technological pedagogical knowledge, and technological pedagogical
knowledge and TPACK were strengthened. The comparison between the
pre and post-course models also revealed that the pre-service teachers’
perceived relations between content knowledge and TPACK changes from
insignificant to significant. The implications of these findings and
suggestions to improve the construct validation of the TPACK framework
are discussed in this paper.
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Ulla Bunz (2011) in the article “Perceived versus Actual Computer-
e-mail-web Fluency” described about a study which compare
people’s perception of their computer-email-web (CEW) fluency to
their actual abilities performing related tasks. A total of 61 subjects (51%
female mean age 19) participated in the research sessions. Participants
completed the CEW fluency scale. Results show that the less computer
anxiety subjects reported, the higher they perceived their CEW fluency to
be (p = 0.001), but there was no significant relationship between computer
anxiety and actual fluency (p = 0.12). There was no gender difference as
to actual CEW fluency (p = 0.11), but women perceived their fluency
lower than did men (p = 0.012). Overall results validate the robustness of
the CEW fluency scale, help identify CEW fluency as a digital divide
component, and underscore the importance of initiatives to raise women’s
technological self-confidence.
Mary, Somerville and et al., (2010) in the article “Toward Large

Scale Assessment of Information and Communication Technology
Literacy: Implementation Considerations for the ETS ICT Literacy
Instrument” detailed about the case study. The purpose of this paper was
to provide guidance to those contemplating or preparing to administer a
large scale information literacy assessment such as the ETS ICT
assessment instrument. The case studies and literature review provide real
life examples of how to consider implementing the ETS ICT instrument
with special attention to issues such as collaboration, timing, marketing,
budgeting, and developing a strategy that includes a discussion of how
testing results will inform campus information literacy curriculum
development and programming. The paper provided background
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information, techniques and guidance for academic librarians
contemplating future administrations and usages of large scale
assessments of student information and communication technology skills,
like the ETS ICT assessment. Examples of necessary planning stages and
collaboration are provided as well as a discussion of the value of large
scale assessments for students, campuses and information literacy
programs.
Yolanda Gayol (2009) Fielding Graduate University, USA and his

Co-author Ouanessa Boubsil, University of Maryland University College,
USA in the article “Digital Fluency of Students at a Distance Education
University” on digital fluency pointed out that in less than four decades,
information and communication technology (ICT) has changed the way
people work, communicate and learn. Digital competencies are now
essential in the knowledge society and universities all over the world are
adopting ICT standards to enhance these competencies regardless of the
instructional modality used (online, blended or face-to face).
Digital fluency has become a strategic goal in education, since

knowledge workers are required to intensively use information technology
products and services. A vast amount of literature assessing instrumental
ICT skills is available at all levels of education and training. However,
reports exploring digital competencies related to academic tasks in
graduate education are scarce, particularly those addressing ICT fluency
beyond the notion of technical literacy. This study reports the level of
digital fluency found amongst faculty of a graduate distance education
institution. The ability of faculty to access and communicate with students
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at a distance is explored. A customized survey evaluating the ICT skill
levels associated with specific mentoring tasks was designed and applied
to a random sample of faculty at three graduate colleges. The analysis of
the institutional context provided a strong foundation for professional
development and policy making in the three graduate colleges. A long-
term faculty development training plan, enriching the digital competencies
of faculty mentors, is feasible and realistic as a result of this evaluation.
Mindell Reiss Nitkin (2008) Simmons College, Patricia Clarke,

Simmons College, in an article entitled “Technology Fluency of
Undergraduate Business Students: A sampling of Current Practice”
emphasized that although technology fluency has been evaluated for
undergraduate students in the information systems major, it has not been
analyzed extensively for undergraduate students in the broader business
curriculum. Accordingly, this paper discussed current practices in teaching
and assessing the fluency that undergraduate business students are
expected to have with core business software applications. The focus is
primarily on the most widely used applications in word processing,
spreadsheet, and presentation software. Data was collected through
surveys of accounting and finance faculty at institutions of higher
learning. Survey results indicated that 75% of faculty respondents expect
proficient or advanced skills in word processing for the students. The
same levels of proficiency were reported at 70% for spreadsheets and 66%
for presentation software. Results also indicated that a relatively small
percentage of colleges and universities have formal, explicit plans to
assess the competency of core business software skills.
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HerbLin Senior Scientist, National Research Council in his article
entitled “Fluency with Information Technology” (1999) referred to the
NRC report on IT Fluency. He explained that the Computer Science and
Telecommunications Board of the National Research Council has
completed a study on what people need to know about information
technology in order to be able to use it effectively now and in the future.
Based in part on a wide range of input from the community at large
(including CNI), the report concluded that basic skills (e.g., the use of
word processors, e-mail, and Web browsers) is necessary but not
sufficient for what the authoring committee calls "fluency with
information technology." Equally necessary is the effective use of
technology.
Jossey-Bass and Edgerton, (1992) in the handbook named “Improving

Undergraduate Education through Faculty Development”, made several
hypotheses. Faculty ownership was cited as an important issue. The
handbook suggested that if faculty personally feel a relationship to a
program, the chance of success is much greater. Administrative support
was listed as the second issue. Although every site visited had obvious
enthusiasm on the part of administration, perception of this enthusiasm by
faculty was an important contributor toward success. The third issue was
that of local expertise versus outside consultants. Although the hypothesis
had been made that local expertise was preferred, it was found that the
majority of faculty appreciated the additional stimulation and insight
brought by outside trainers. An issue not often discussed in the literature
was the use of evaluations and follow-up activities. Evaluation is an
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essential component of any training system. And although there are "one-
shot" programs available, the majority of faculty surveyed in the
handbook found that this was a generally inadequate method of
information technology training.
2.7 Review of Surveys on Information Technology Fluency
In 2006, EDUCAUSE Center for Applied Research conducted a

survey titled “Students and Information Technology in Higher Education”,
which focused on students’ experiences with and opinions about
information technology. The information that the students provided was
reported in a national study that will be available to higher education
institutions. The primary goal of the study was to better understand
student experiences with information technology. The survey asks for
basic background information and questions about:
 What kinds of information technologies does the students use

and how often?
 What is the level of skill at using different information
technologies?
 How these technologies contribute to the students’
undergraduate experience?
 What value information technologies provide in teaching and
learning in higher education?
Karen Kaminski, Jamie Switzer and Gene Gloeckner (2005), School

of Education/Adult Education and Training, Colorado State
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University, Conducted a survey titled “Workforce Readiness: A Study of
University Students’ Fluency with Information Technology”, collected
data from a large sample of freshmen in 2001 and a random stratified
sample of seniors in 2005 examined students perceived FITness (Fluency
with Information Technology). In the fall of 2001 freshmen at a medium
sized research-one institution completed a survey and in spring 2005 a
random sample of graduating seniors completed a similar survey. The
surveys measured the student’s self-reported proficiency in basic
information technology knowledge and skills such as word processing
and presentation software as well as more complex applications such as
digital audio. We found a significant increase in perception of skills in
presentation software and browsers and although both groups reported
low skill levels, a significant decrease in perception of skills in database,
web animation, programming, desktop publishing, digital video and video
audio. Although one might assume an undergraduate would indicate an
increase in information and communication technology skills, this study
found that often student’s perceptions of ability decline. However this
decrease may be due to their increased awareness of the skills needed in
the workforce.
In partial implementation of the institutional action strategies

concerning student IT literacy, the University Information Technology
Council (UITC) distributed a departmental survey of IT entry and exit
competencies during the Fall 2001. The results of that survey indicated
that desired entry-level IT skills currently identified by departments align
with a number of discipline-specific courses already in place to remediate
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and reinforce skill levels. Interviews conducted during 2003 validated
survey results plus provided insight and more detailed information as to
what interviewees believed to be important IT literacy skills, knowledge,
and attitudes. Results of this research were compared with UND data to
produce the list of student IT literacy skills, knowledge and attitudes
below. This list is the major recommendation of this report. The depth of
proficiency in each will need to be defined by each discipline; however, a
basic proficiency level should be determined by the university as a whole.
The North West Research Group (2000) conducted a survey titled

“Information Technology Indicators Residential Survey” for the City of
Seattle’s Department of Information Technology. The research group
completed development of a set of Information Technology indicators,
marking the first time that a comprehensive effort has been made to look
at the full range of impacts that technology is having in the Seattle region.
These indicators were developed as a joint effort between the Department
of Information Technology and the Citizens Telecommunications and
Technology Advisory Board along with significant public input and the
help of a broad-based Technical Advisory Group. Specifically, the
objectives of this study were to measure the following:
 Residents’ ownership and access to information technology
 Residents’ usage of information technology
 Level of technology literacy in the community
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 Integration of technology into local community activities
 Awareness and use of City services online and on cable TV
 Residents’ feelings about privacy, security, and safety on the

Internet
 Residents’ perceptions of the impact that technology is having on

their personal time, quality of life, and the quality of life for the
City
President Clinton (1997) established four significant initiatives to

support the use of the computer and technology in education.
“The President’s Educational Technology Initiative” (1997) was
composed of four pillars:
 Modern computers and learning devices will be accessible to every

student.
 Classrooms will be connected to one another and to the outside
world.
 Educational software will be an integral part of the curriculum-and
as engaging as the best video game.
 Teachers will be ready to use and teach technology (The President’s
Educational Technology Initiative, 1997).
2.8 Studies on Development of Computer Literacy Measurement

Instruments
Over the last few years a considerable body of literature has
developed to describe computer usage and attitudes toward computers,
computer anxiety, computer stress, perceptions of computers. This broad
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array of research is multi-disciplinary and incorporates a wide variety of
perspectives and topics. However, at its foundation this research is
directed at influencing a person’s ability to use a computer efficiently.
Bunz, Ulla (2004) in his study “Development and Validation of

CEW Fluency Scale” described about the steps followed in the
development of a computer literacy scale. The purpose of this study was
to continue the validation process of a new measure of computer, email,
and web fluency (CEW Fluency). The sample consisted of 143 student
volunteers enrolled at a large U. S. Midwestern university. Subjects
reported their self-assessed computer-email-web fluency to be very high,
especially regarding computer, email, and web navigation fluency. Web
editing fluency was reported at a slightly lower level, mostly due to a wide
variation regarding subjects’ ability to create a website. Reliabilities of the
subscales and the total scales were lower than during the previous study,
but still within acceptable range (between 0.64 and 0.79). Correlations
between the subscales were higher than in the previous studies. The scale
needs more testing before its stability can be ascertained.CEW Fluency
scores were correlated to a number of demographic variables, including
gender, major, or ability to access the Internet from home. However, a
variety of interesting findings did emerge.
Overall, results indicated that the longer subjects had been using the
Internet, the greater their overall CEW Fluency. Results indicated that
subjects had to be classified at least at an "intermediate" level of web
expertise to have higher CEW Fluency. Results also indicated that there
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was no statistical difference between "experience" and "expertise" with
regard to web editing fluency. Overall, the more comfortable subjects felt
with computers or the Internet, the higher their reported CEW Fluency.
One exception to this overall trend was that only subjects who felt very
comfortable with the computer reported high web editing fluency.
Rawstorne, Caputi and Smith (2003) conducted a study

“The Development of a Measure of Subjective Computer Experience”.
The present study examined the psychometric properties of a recently
developed measure of subjective computer experience using a sample of
179 first year psychology students. The Subjective Computer Experience
Scale (SCES) was developed to measure the construct of subjective
computer experience, defined for present purposes, as a private
psychological state reflecting the thoughts and feelings a person ascribes
to some previous or existing computing event. Factor analysis revealed
five factors that were labeled, Frustration-Anxiety, Autonomy-Assistance,
Training-Education, Enjoyment–Usefulness and Negative Performance
Appraisal, respectively. Acceptable internal-consistency estimates of the
five subscales were obtained. Convergent validity was evidenced by
significant correlations between the SCES and measures of computer
attitude and objective computer experience. Evidence for divergent
validity was obtained with scores on four of the five subscales of the
SCES being unrelated to dispositional coping style. In sum, the SCES was
found to have promised as a psychometrically sound instrument for
measuring subjective computer experience.
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The Computer Self-efficacy Scale (CSE) (Murphy, Coover and
Owen, 2001) measured perceptions of respondents’ capabilities regarding
specific computer-related skills and knowledge. This scale consisted of 32
items that were rotated into three factors, including beginning-level
computer skills, advanced-level computer skills, and mainframe computer
skills. The reported reliabilities respectively were alphas of 0.97, 0.96, and
0.93. The authors concluded among other things that women hold lower
self-efficacy beliefs than men.
The Computer Understanding and Experience Scale (CUE)

(Potosky and Bobko, 1998) was a self-report measure of computer
experience. The scale consists of twelve items that were rotated into two
factors, technical competence and general competence. A number of the
items used actually refer to tasks more commonly performed by network
administrators or computer specialists than the average computer users,
such as “recovering deleted or lost data,” “writing computer programs,” or
“using a mainframe computer system.” This scale also included one
question about email,“I know what e-mail is,” without going into more
specific details of actual usage of this technology. Results suggested that
the CUE Scale provides an internally consistent, self-report measure
which may be subdivided into two related subscales.
The Windows Computer Experience Questionnaire (WCEQ)

(Miller et al., 1997) was a comparatively short measurement instrument,
consisting of only 13 items. The authors rotated these items into four
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factors, accounting for 67.2% of variance and reporting a coefficient alpha
reliability of 0.74.
Computer Literacy Test was developed by Simonson et al., (1987)

together with the Computer Anxiety Index (CAIN). The literacy
instrument consists of 80 multiple choice items in three subsections,
including computer systems, computer applications, and computer
programming. The reported reliability for this scale is 0.86. The CAIN
scale consisted of 26 items and reported an alpha of 0.90. The authors
successfully applied the Computer Literacy Test to establish validity.
One of the most detailed measurement instruments was the Cassel

Computer Literacy Test (CMLRTC) (Cassel and Cassel 1984). This test
consisted of 120 multiple choice items that were designed to measure a
user’s understanding of computer functionality. The items were divided
into six subtopics, including computer development, technical
understanding, computer structure, information processing, information
retrieval, and communication systems. Miller et al. (1997) criticized that
there was no reliability or validity data known about the Cassel Test.
The Standardized Test of Computer Literacy (STCL) (Montage

et al., (1984), Torardi (1985) was an equally lengthy instrument,
consisting of 80 multiple choice items determining a user’s level of
computer literacy. This test was divided into three subsections, including
computer applications, computer systems, and computer programming.
The overall reported reliability for this scale was a coefficient alpha of
0.86, with subscale reliability for the computer applications measure of a
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coefficient alpha of 0.75. Interestingly, both this and the Cassel scale use
the term “literacy,” but survey rather technical components of computer
usage. The use of this term may be connected to the date of publication of
these scales, as computer use in the 1980s was much more dependent on
understanding the underlying programming structure of both hardware and
software than it is now.
Normative data were collected from 341 college students from six
different universities. The examination was found to have a reliability
estimate of 0.86. A computer anxiety index (CAIN) was also developed.
This instrument was designed to be used to determine a person’s level of
computer anxiety. Normative data from 1943 students were collected. The
CAIN was found to have a reliability of approximately 0.90. Both the
eighty-item achievement test and the twenty-six item CAIN were sent to a
nationwide selection of instructional computing specialists who evaluated
them. This evaluation was used to revise the two tests.
The Computer Aptitude, Literacy, and Interest Profile (CALIP)

(Poplin et al., 1984) purported to measure a person’s level of computer
literacy, aptitude and interest in computer technology, using one subtest
each for interest and literacy, and four for aptitude. The purpose of the
present study was twofold: (a) to investigate differences in computer
aptitude among 56 junior high school students with learning disabilities
and 56 non-learning-disabled peers, and (b) to consider gender differences
in computer aptitude among the entire sample population. Subjects in each
group were administered the Computer Aptitude, Literacy, and Interest
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Profile (CALIP) (Poplin, Drew, and Gable, 1984), and their composite
scores were compared. Results indicated no significant difference in
scores earned by students with learning disabilities and those of their non-
learning-disabled peers. Likewise, intergroup score comparison suggested
that no relationship existed between gender and computer aptitude among
students in this sample.
The Computer Literacy Examination: Cognitive Aspects (CLECA)

scale (Cheng, Plake and Stevens 1985) focused specifically on high
school students’ cognitive knowledge about computers. This scale
consisted of 39 multiple choice questions and reported an overall
coefficient alpha reliability of 0.87.
2.9 Project on Information Technology Literacy in Higher

Education
The University of North Dakota (UND) contracted with Colleges
in 2003 to conducted a benchmarking study in the area of Student
Information Technology (IT) Literacy specifically addressing the issues of
Information Technology skills, knowledge, and attitudes upon entrance to
the University, assessment of IT skills, knowledge, and attitude upon
entrance, remediation of IT skills, knowledge, and attitude when found
deficient, Information Technology skills, knowledge, and attitudes upon
graduation from the University, assessment of IT skills, knowledge, and
attitude upon graduation etc.
Data for this benchmarking study was collected by a College Senior

Consultant from a variety of sources both in person and via electronic
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communication. When the University of North Dakota surveyed
department heads concerning IT entry and exit competencies of
undergraduate students, those competencies encompassed more than skills
alone. They included knowledge of the ethical use of computers, copyright
law, and privacy issues as well as word processing, web browser, and
email skills. Thus, UND joined with others in defining IT literacy as a
combination of IT skills and information literacy.
Key stakeholders in the project representing the following

departments or committees were interviewed. A UND survey distributed
to 74 department heads (approximately 50% return rate) identifying entry
IT skills for new students, IT exit competencies expected of graduates
upon completion of degree program, and remediation interventions.
 Ohio University - Main Campus
 Southern Illinois University – Carbondale
 SUNY at Buffalo
 University of Louisville
 University of Missouri-Kansas City
After all data was collected, University of North Dakota

information was compared to that of peer institutions. Recommendations
were then developed to assist UND in formulating an IT literacy program
specific to the needs of the University.
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2.10 Studies on the Impact of IT Changes in the Faculty
Community of Higher Education
There were many studies on the transformation in higher education
faculty members who, historically, have been the purveyors of
information in the educational setting.
Ayers (2005) discussed the resistance of some faculty members to

take advantage of opportunities that are provided for them by the
assortment of technology that many campuses have purchased. Dede
(2005) suggested that faculty require a new set of capabilities-to be able to
work with students in several new ways: in co-designing learning
experiences; in fostering a communal environment in which students can
learn from one another; in employing learning-by-doing pedagogies that
capitalize on the use of IT to provide virtual and augmented reality
opportunities; and in applying newer forms of assessment that are more
diverse than the traditional measures provided by tests and papers. These
changes will not occur without conscious attention and effort on the part
of those in higher education.
Hartman, Moskal and Dziuban (2005) as the outcome of their

study concerning student opinions of what qualities were inherent in good
teachers, reported the following results: the ability to facilitate, not dictate,
student learning; the knowledge of how to use both oneself and
educational tools in order to communicate effectively; the capacity to be
authentic in relationships with students; the ability to organize courses
well; the professionalism to be respectful and concerned toward each
student; and the commitment to assess and evaluate fairly and effectively.
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Perry (2004) noted the inequities apparent in the huge amounts of
money institutions have spent for IT in comparison to how vastly
underused these tools are by the faculty for whom they are intended. The
changes being suggested with respect to faculty processes, in many cases,
would be paradigmatic.
Rickard and Oblinger (2003) in their article “Applying the

principles of teaching and learning” made several suggestions to improve
the effectiveness of the teaching learning process. In consideration of IT in
higher education, they discussed faculty members’ fear of failure and their
lack of time to develop, not just new lessons, but new forms of lessons –
this complicated further by the frequent lack of institutional rewards for
making such an effort.
Frand (2000) in responding to the changes occurring in the learner

population, identified a need for change in the faculty as well when he
wrote that faculty needs to become, “not just a sage-on-the-stage, but a
guide-on-the-side.”
2.11 Studies on Faculty Attitudes toward Information Technology
Selvam (2006) conducted a study on “The Attitude of Primary

Teachers towards Total Quality Management in relation to their Attitude
towards Educational technology.” He found that there was significant
correlation between the total quality management and Education
technology mean attitude scores among the primary teachers in Thanjavur
district of Tamilnadu and total quality management significantly
influenced education technology among teachers.
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Karpaga Kumaravel and Ramakrishnan (2005) conducted a
study on “Web access and Usage behavior of Teacher Educators and
Student Teachers”. The study included the propose of accessing the web,
web searching methods, web searching skills and the evaluation of
information obtaining from the web. The survey technique was used in the
study. The result suggested that the teacher educators and student teachers
need some training in the searching of the web.
Vannatta et al., (2004) examined various teacher dispositions that

predicted technology use among k-12 teachers. The Teachers’ Attitude
Survey Questionnaire measured a variety of teacher attitude and amount
of technological use in their professions. This study examined the long
term effects of PICT participation to determine the degree to which
teachers continued to use technology in the classroom and facilitate
technology use with their students. In addition, this group was compared
to a matched control group of non-PICT participants from comparable
schools. Results indicated two-year and three-year participants reported
significantly higher levels in all areas (technology comfort and risk-taking,
perceptions of usefulness, teacher use) except student use when compared
to the control group. One-year participants did not report significantly
higher outcomes in several areas when compared to non-PICT teachers.
Effect sizes indicate that two and three years of PICT participation had a
moderate to large effect on all aspects of technology use among
K-12 teachers.
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Long and Long (2004) stated that Information technology skills
were being viewed as one of necessity and required skills for all
employees of the new era.
Das (2003) conducted a study on “Computer –Assisted Instruction:

Attitudes of Teachers”. The study revealed that there was significant
difference between the experimental and control group in their attitude
towards computer education. As a result of training in computer assisted
instruction (CAI) the attitude of the experimental group became more
favorable towards computer education.
Hong and Ridzuan (2003) investigated student attitudes towards

the use of internet for learning. This study investigated the success of a
technology and internet enriched teaching and learning environment in
molding positive attitude among students towards using the internet for
learning at the university in Malaysia.Students were provided with
computers facilities, required to complete two compulsory generic courses
in information technology, and the lecturers actively encouraged the use
of information technology, in particular, the Internet in the teaching and
learning processes. Results from the study indicated that students had
positive attitudes toward using the Internet as a learning tool, adequate
basic knowledge of the Internet, and viewed the learning environment as
supportive of using the Internet for learning. Students with better basic
Internet skills and who viewed the learning environment as promoting the
use of the Internet favored using the Internet for learning. The university
achieved its objectives of promoting the use of the Internet for teaching
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and learning purposes. As the university begins to offer Web-based
courses, the generic courses in information technology should likewise be
redesigned to introduce the concepts of Web-based learning environments.
These courses should in fact be conducted as Web-based courses to
prepare the students to learn in these learning environments.
Poonam Kumar and Anil Kumar (2003) examined “Effect of a

Web Based Project on Pre-service and In-service Teacher’s Attitude
towards Computer and their Technical Skills” found that there is
significant change in student’s attitude towards computer and their fluency
in using technology after the training.
Gruich, James Joseph (2002) studied attitudes towards utilization

of technologies, faculty attitude towards teaching with technology, the
integration of technology for teaching and the instructor’s belief towards
the use of technology among community college faculty in selected
southern states. A survey was conducted using the “Faculty Instructional
Computing Questionnaire” and found that faculty had a higher attitude
towards teaching with technology.
Huneke (2002) conducted a study on “Student Integration and

Attitudes towards Technology use as Predictors of Institutional
Commitment”. The findings of the study included a number of significant
relationships, such as that the variables of academic and social integration
had a much greater impact on students institutional commitment than the
variables related to students attitudes toward technology use.
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Lukow (2002) conducted a study on “Learning Styles as Predictors
of Student Attitudes toward the Use of Technology in Recreation
Courses”. The results indicating the frequent use of computers for “one to
one” communication (e-mail) and web surfing supported the literature
regarding the steady increase in the use of electronic mail and the internet
by students in higher education.
Shahapur (2002) made an attempt to study the “Attitude of

Secondary School Students towards Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)”.
The results showed that (i) boys of aided schools have a more favorable
attitude towards CAL than boys of government schools. (ii) girls of aided
schools differed in attitude towards CAL from girls of government
schools,(iii) there was a significant difference between boys and girls of
aided schools in respect of their attitude towards CAL and (iv) no
significant difference is found between the boys and girls of government
schools in respect of their attitude towards CAL.
Varank (2002) found that teachers who received the training scored
higher on attitude scales, with more positive attitude towards computer
use in the classroom, than those teachers who had received no training.
Similarly, instruction scored higher on motivation scales than students
who had received similar lessons without computer support.
Granger (2002) discussed case studies of four Canadian schools

that investigated successful ICT implementations. This study highlighted
teachers’ resistance to technical equity. In this study, an analysis of data
from qualitative case studies of four Canadian schools illuminated factors
that facilitate successful ICT implementation. Findings suggested that
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informal ICT education, such as ‘just-in-time’ learning, is most influential.
Furthermore, supportive and collaborative relationships among teachers, a
commitment to pedagogically sound implementation of new technologies,
and Principals who encourage teachers to engage in their own learning
were viewed as highly useful factors.
Leftwich, Elizabeth Rogers (2000) studied experience and events

affecting university freshmen’s attitude towards computer technology.
Survey technique was used to assess the attitude.
Milbrath et al., (2000) examined pre-service teachers’ changes in

computer anxiety perceived influence of computer technology, fluency of
using work processing, e-mail, spread sheet, better base management,
statistical packages and CD-ROM, data bases and perceived self-efficacy.
This longitudinal study examined prospective teachers’ changes in
perceived anxiety/discomfort with and use-fullness of computer
technology, frequency of using word processing, e-mail, spreadsheets,
database management, statistical packages, and CD-ROM databases, and
perceived self-efficacy with the six selected computer technologies over
three years of study. Statistical analyses of data involved three time
periods and two student teacher cohorts. Significant time effect, cohort
effect, and time by cohort interaction effect are discussed.
Toppin (1998) conducted a study on “Attitudes of College students

toward Computers”. Descriptive results indicated that the majority of
student surveyed have low anxiety, high confidence, high liking and
usefulness attitudes towards computers.
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Meyer and Schranz (1997) stated that faculty attitudes are only
one of the issues that need to be factored into the effective use of
information technology. The age of using information technology in the
classroom has occurred so rapidly, and faculty can be found on both sides:
those who have adopted information technology easily and effectively,
and those who have resisted using information technology as a negative
change in the classroom.
Collis and et al., (1996) conducted an international study involving

children, teachers, and computers, Pelgrum and Plomp stated that the
teachers are the main gatekeepers in allowing educational innovations to
diffuse into the classrooms. Therefore one of the key factors for effecting
an integration of computers in the school curriculum is adequate training
of teachers in handling and managing these new tools in their daily
practices (as cited in Collis et al., 1996). They found that the "degree of
classroom computers was closely tied to extent of training in integration
techniques" (Collis et al., 1996).
Fisher, Dwyer and Yocam (1996) in their landmark study, Apple

Classrooms of Tomorrow (ACOT), a ten-year qualitative study which was
begun in 1985 concluded that teacher beliefs, management, instructional
strategies, and student assessments changed over time as a function of
technology use. More specifically and pertinent to this proposed study,
wasthat technology acted as a catalyst for the changes in teacher attitudes,
which, in turn, brought about changes in instructional strategies and
classroom management. Learning became more student-centered as well
as interactive. Students were given more responsibility for their learning
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and became more independent learners. Teacher instructional behaviors
changed and became more constructivists in the presence of computer
technology.
Collis (1988) explained that in order for faculty to use available

information technology for personal use and in classroom instruction, it is
important for them to have both knowledge of and access to information
technology in training courses. Studies have shown that a lack of training
has had the largest effect on faculty attitudes toward the integration and
use of information technology.
Ibrahim (1995) examined in his study whether field

dependence/field independence and experience in using computers had
any relation with attitudes of teachers towards computers. He found
significant differences in attitudes towards computers between field
dependent and field independent teachers, less experienced and
experienced teachers less experienced and more experienced teachers and
experienced and more experienced teachers.
Stevens (1995) concluded that students who were taught in class

using computers experienced significantly more confidence towards
computers, less anxiety towards computers and a more positive attitude
towards learning process that did not use computers.
Willis et al., (1995) pointed out an example that teacher education

faculties at the University of Houston were surveyed following training
sessions. This study investigated the development and implementation of a
reproducible training model that utilizes a Lesson Planning Web Quest to
educate teacher candidates in effective technology integration. The
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findings of the study would help teacher educators better understand how
to facilitate training in the integration of technology, while taking
advantage of the affordances inherent Web Quests. The results showed
that 76 percent of the respondents said that information technology was
"Very Important to Extremely Important." These results showed that
faculty attitudes at that institution were relatively positive toward the
perceived importance of information technology after being exposed to
information technology training.
A common explanation of faculty reluctance to work with

information technology is information technology anxieties. Rutherford
and Grana, (1995) showed that faculty may have many different fears
relating to information technology. These include fear of change, fear of
time commitment, and fear of appearing incompetent, fear of "techno
lingo," and fear of failure. Fear of change is part of the human condition;
in the case of learning new technologies, not doing so may be a
devastating choice. Many faculties feel they simply cannot afford the time
needed to learn new technologies. Instructors may hesitate to try a new
computer skill with a class for fear of looking incompetent. Sometimes
technical acronyms can be overwhelming to novice users (FTP, HTML,
etc.). Lastly, the fear of failure is also part of the human condition but one
which must be overcome in order to gain knowledge.
Rutherford and Grana (1995) listed suggestions to help faculty

overcome fears and shift perspectives about information technology.
These suggestions included: 1) being realistic (knowing that information
technology is here to stay), 2) deciding who’s boss (recognizing what
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information technology can do to help in personal and classroom use), 3)
easing into the technical flow (build on previous learning experiences and
recognize that what is now being learned is simply an extension of what
has been done before), and 4) become familiar with techno-culture (read
relevant articles, attend offered training sessions). One other method
suggested by Rutherford and Grana is for faculty to network with others.
Learning the use of Internet searches, e-mail, and participating in subject-
related newsgroups can all be motivating factors for faculty.
Marcinkiewicz (1993/1994) found that educators are often resistant

to use computer technology in the classroom, so changing teachers’
attitudes is a key factor in fostering computer integration.
Gardner, Discenza, and Dukes (1993) determined that computer

anxiety is a major cause of resistance to using computers. This and other
research indicated that increased computer experience reduces computer
anxiety in many student teachers. However, it may depend on the type of
computer experience.
Beasley and Sutton (1993) found that at least 30 hours of

instruction and practice were required just to reduce anxiety about
technology. These authors contended that reducing uncertainty is just the
first step to becoming confident and competent users of technology.
Although teachers’ attitudes were not historically considered in the
introduction of computers into the classroom, many scholars now contend
that future successful implementations will need to address teachers’
attitudes toward computers.
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Rude-Parkins, Baugh, and Petroako (1993) in their study
compared the levels of adoption of technology and personality types,
defined three levels. At the "high level," teachers were enthusiastic and
integrated technology into the classroom. The "medium level" teachers
used some technology for personal use and some with students. The "low
level" adopters used technology neither with their students nor for
personal uses.
Delcourt et al., (1993) described the development of two

instruments for use with pre-service and practicing teachers’ attitude
towards computer technology and self-efficacy for computer technology.
TheSelf-Efficacy for Computer Technologies (SCT) and Attitude toward
Computer Technologies (ACT) assessed perceived usefulness of and
comfort/anxiety with computer technologies. Perceived self-efficacy for
computer technologies (word processing, electronic mail, spreadsheets,
database programs, statistical packages, and CD-ROM databases) was
measured by the SCT. In addition to data on construct validity, the results
of exploratory analyzed examining predictors of self-efficacy for
undergraduate students in business, education, and nursing are presented,
and implications and future research directions were discussed.
Kay (1993) made a study which examined the aspect of gender in

relation to attitudes about information technology. Older studies (previous
to 1990) showed that, in general, males were more computer literate than
females, which accounted for their greater confidence with computers.
Hignite and Echternacht (1992) in their research study examined

the relationship between teacher attitudes and computer skills concluded
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that it is critical for teachers to possess both positive attitudes and
adequate computer literacy skills successfully to incorporate technology
into the classroom. This study provided some very interesting outcomes as
a result of the statistical analyses performed, with only some 40% of the
subjects achieving a level of mastery on the ICT exam, clearly the focus of
further studies should be the basic factors associated with that
achievement.
Faseyitan et al., (1992) described a study that examined the effects

of personal attributes and attitudinal factors on the adoption of computers
for instructions by university faculty. Results were adopted which
indicated that the technical orientation of faculty’s discipline, computer
self-efficacy, computer utility beliefs and attitude towards computer were
predictors of adoption.
Results of many other studies showed that training has a positive

impact on some, if not all, aspects of subjects’ self-perception of
knowledge, confidence, and attitudes toward computers (Green and
Kluever et al., 1992).
Chaudhary (1990) conducted a study on “Teacher’s Attitude towards

School Television (STV) and its relation with Job Satisfaction”. He found
that job satisfaction was associated with the authority responsible. For
work allocation, intensive case studies revealed that the majority of
teachers did not operate STV regularly and the majority of TV sets were
out of order. Teachers perceived STV as a good tool for teaching and were
fairly satisfied with their job. Teachers teaching classes IV and V showed
a more positive attitude towards STV than teachers teaching classes 1.
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Kay (1989) described that compared differences in computer
attitude, degree of computer literacy and commitment to computer
between male and females students of university of Toronto.
Koohang’s (1989) research found that computer experience to be

significant regarding attitudes toward computers. Although teachers’
attitudes have not typically been considered in the introduction of
computers into the classroom, future successful implementation will need
to address teachers’ attitudes toward computers (Hunter and deLeeuw,
1988, as cited in Violato et al., 1989).
Loyd and Gressard (1986) showed that positive attitudes toward

computers are positively correlated with teachers’ experiences. With
familiarity, anxieties and fears tend to decrease and confidence increases.
Chen (1986) stated that attitude toward computers is a function of a

user’s experience with them. Chen’s study of high school students
compared computer experience with computer interest, confidence, and
anxiety. The scores indicated a positive correlation between interest in
computers and computer experience for both males and females.
However, males showed a greater level of self-confidence in their abilities
with computing and a lower computer anxiety level. There are almost an
equal number of studies that have found no significant differences
between males and females in their attitudes toward computer. Therefore,
gender issues will not be an aspect of this study at this time but may be
incorporated into future research relevant to the study topic.
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Gressard and Loyd (1986) found that elementary school teachers
that had received computer training were significantly less anxious and
more confident about computer use after training than before.
Gressard and Loyd (1985) developed an attitude measure that was

called the Computer Attitudes Scale (CAS). The CAS measures both
affective and evaluative aspects of attitudes and is comprised of four
factors: computer anxiety, efficiency, enthusiasm, and usefulness of
computers in instruction. Gressard and Loyd (1985) also established that
perceptions of the potential usefulness of computers can influence
attitudes toward computers. The amount of confidence a teacher possesses
in using technology may greatly influence his/her effective
implementation in the classroom.
2.12 Studies on Technology Integration into Education
Sharma et al., (2005) conducted a study on the status of computer

education in schools of Bhiwani. The study revealed that all teachers
working in schools of Bhiwani have positive attitude towards computer
education. They recognized that with passage of time, everyone will have
to acquire computer literacy if they want to cope with the technological
complexities of everyday life.
Granitz and Hugstad (2004) in their study pointed out that the
new literacy for the 21st century and beyond was clearly the ability to
utilize appropriate technological tools in an information society. The
personal computer and its associated technological innovations-the
Internet, electronic mail, and word processing software – have become a
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common ground. Current industry standards demanded skilled workers
who were fluent in the use of these technological skills. In addition to
basic computer skills, communication skills have become a significant
component adding to the existing computer skills.
Regina (2004) conducted a study titled “A Survey on the Principles

and Practices of Educational Technology in the Educational Institutions at
Higher Secondary Level in Bharathidasan University Area.”
The objectives of the study were to find out the practices of educational
technology in the educational institutions at the higher secondary level and
to quantify the practices in terms of percentage analysis. The tool used
was Educational Technology Information Schedule (ETIS) questionnaire.
The study found that a significant number of higher secondary schools in
Bharathidasan university area were adopting the principles and practices
of education technology.
Maniar et al., (2002) studied usage of internet for educational

propose. The study revealed that internet services for educational proposes
were utilized sometimes. The respondents used it more for class
assignment in comparison to research work and other educational
proposes. Significant difference was found in the internet usage for class
assignment in relation to the years of exposure.
Strehle (2002) discussed recommendations for redesigning teacher

education programmes and the need for integrating technology into
teacher educations in order to improve teachers’ attitude towards
technology. She studied the obstacles in using technology involved
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challenges in the teaching and learning environments. Three conclusions
emerged from the study. A match between the use of technology and the
goals of instruction was necessary. Technology tended to make tasks more
complicated, limiting the ability to incorporate technology into teaching.
Perhaps more important than the exploration of technology as an
instructional tool, however, was the insight gained into their own
philosophies of teaching and learning through participation in the
narrative of collaboration, and the ability to submit self-narratives for
discussion by groups of colleagues.
Katherine (2001) conducted a study on application of educational

technology in teaching of mathematics at secondary school level in
Bharathidasan university jurisdiction. The study revealed that all the
teachers of Bharathidasan university jurisdiction were having positive
attitude towards the application of educational technological aids at
secondary level.
Clark (2000) suggested that any technology inventions have been

introduced and used by educators with the belief that they would
positively impact students’ achievement and teacher’s performance. It
started with television, then computers, and now the Internet. Computers
and the Internet seem to have the most impact on the education system.
With advancement in today’s computer technology, there was a need for
schools to change their curriculum to ensure that students would possess
adequate computer skills needed to become an active participant in a more
computer technology oriented society.
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Burkholder (1995) observed that since the teachers are the ones
who will implement the technology, training should focus on them. He
contended that training should include strategic plans necessary to
integrate the use of technology in the classroom rather than introducing
teacher productivity tools alone.
Woodrow (1992) found that the integration of computers into

education requires an improvement in the instruction of teachers. Teachers
require technology in the use of education as an instructional as well as a
professional tool.
Solachi (1991) conducted a study on availability and utilization of

educational technology in the higher secondary schools of a district in
Tamilnadu. The study revealed that the utilization rate was higher in urban
schools as compared to rural schools. Government and aided schools also
differed in their utilization rate. The aided schools did a better job.
Between boys and girls schools, the boys’ schools utilized educational
technology more. Science teachers as compared to Humanities teachers
utilized more of non-projected visual aids.
Singh (1989) made an effort to find out the effectiveness of two

training strategies in developing teaching competence. One group of
student teachers was exposed to Observe-Demonstrate Practice (ODP)
teaching strategy i.e. observe good teaching in the real classroom
situation, and then see a demonstration on video film on a practice
teaching skill, followed by practice. In another teaching strategy the
sequence was demonstration followed by practice, followed by
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observation (DPO) the result of the study indicated that both the teaching
strategies were significantly effective in gaining understanding of
microteaching and in developing a positive attitude towards teaching.
Nagan (1988) found that mathematics could be taught more

effectively through the use of computers and computer assisted
programmes, and that the contribution of electronic devices such as
computers and calculators in increasing understanding in mathematics is
indisputable.
Bear and et al., (1987) cited that although there may not be
agreement on how to involve technology in curricula, one common goal is
to foster favorable attitudes toward computers. If positive attitudes are
developed in students (pre-service teachers) other objectives may become
secondary.
2.13 Studies on Faculty Integration of Information Technology
Sheridan and Herschede (2007) cited that utilizing the Internet

and e-mail services is as an important beginning for faculty to consider
when attempting integrating information technology into classroom
instruction. In general, students of this era have grown up using video
games, and have had basic information technology instruction at the high
school level. Taking the next step and learning to utilize e-mail
competently to communicate with other students and faculty and to use
the Internet for research can be an easier process for these students than it
is for faculty.
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Sheridan and Herschede (2007) stated that once these beginning
steps have been taken, faculty can begin to incorporate the use of a World
Wide Web homepage as an integral part of the course. The homepage can
be used to deliver material developed by the instructor, give access to
related materials, and give a forum for students to publish coursework
informally.
Sheridan and Herschede (2007) found that in order to integrate

information technology into their courses, faculty must first understand
student’s information technology background. Having grown up with
video games, students are less likely to suffer the computer anxiety that
adults may face. However, simply being comfortable does not mean that
students are familiar with the skills necessary for utilization in educational
environments.
Hope (2005) showed that collaborative work had a positive impact

on faculty’s acceptance of information technology. Camaraderie,
enthusiasm, and support are all benefits of learning to use information
technology collaboratively. The overwhelming issue, however, is that of
training. Without training, faculty is unlikely to acquire skills necessary to
either adopt information technology as a productivity tool, or to integrate
it into the university classroom.
Grejda and Smith (2004) in their surveys administered at Clarion

University, faculty indicated the desire to have specific information
technology expectations for pre-service teachers. They also indicated a
serious need for training in information technology integration into the
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teaching and learning process. Faculty was also interested in 1) seeing
how others are integrating information technology, and 2) assisting each
other with integration methods. The goals and objectives of the Clarion
program were to afford faculty members an opportunity to develop an
awareness of how information technology can facilitate their professional
performance, and to participate in information technology workshops and
follow-up sessions In general, literature shows that faculty are not
integrating information technology into their classes.
Skeele and Daly (2003) found that as paradigms in teaching styles

change, faculty’s role as educator continues to shift. Faculty can no longer
rely on simply giving students facts solely via lecture method. Previous
studies showed that changes in learning styles dictate a need for changes
in how knowledge is gained. First, faculty will increasingly guide and
facilitate learning, as well as assess the effectiveness of information
technology-based curriculum, and become active participants in the
learning process. Second, literature showed that trends are toward student
investigation of real-world educational problems using computer-assisted
solutions. Third, professional presentations, projects, and portfolios are
employed as alternatives to traditional forms of assessment. Fourth,
because of the increase in use of the Internet and the availability of e-mail,
research and projects done by faculty and students will become resources
for other faculty and students.
Hope (2003) performed a study which listed five factors that would
help make faculty more likely to adopt information technology: ease of
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implementation, access to information technology, collaboration, training,
and sufficient time. Learning to integrate information technology into
existing structures should not be overly complex. A growing area of
interest has been in collaborative work. There are three ways in which
collaborative work can be utilized using the computer: student to student,
student with faculty, and faculty to faculty.
Wetzel’s (1993) review of the ISTE/NCATE standards for teacher

preparation discussed professors who model uses of the computer in their
courses as one of the components of the standard. At Wetzel’s Arizona
State University-West Campus, a planning team is working to revise the
goals of the education program, which will include the infusion of
information technology into all courses. Separate content and methods
courses would be replaced by integrated courses, infused with information
technology, and taught on-site at a cooperating elementary school
(Wetzel, 1993).
Wetzel’s (1993) study showed that the largest percentage of faculty
indicated a willingness to require students to use computer tools to
complete assignment as long as students had adequate access to computers
either at home or at the university, and had received information
technology training.
Berenson and Stiff (1989), in their early study 85 faculty members
participated in a National Science Foundation study that showed that 67
percent seldom or never used the computer as a classroom demonstration
tool. The greatest use of computers by faculty included in the survey was
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for word processing. Only 14 percent of faculty made assignments
requiring students to use computers (Wetzel, 1993).
Rossberg and Bitter (1989) showed the other reasons for faculty’s
unwillingness to integrate information technology in a computer
integration project. As in other studies, the respondents in this study
indicated that the computer did not have the ability to be a time- saving
device until its uses had been mastered. The faculty in this study also
stated that information technology was viewed by them as a dehumanizing
device and that the kind of work done on the computer was done for the
faculty by staff members.
2.14 Studies on Information Technology Training to faculty
Abbey (2007) developed an information technology plan at

Southwestern Oklahoma State University to assist faculty in integrating
information technology. A tenure-track faculty position was redefined to
be Information Technology Coordinator. Release time was allotted to this
position, and duties included faculty training and support. The
Coordinator was also responsible for assisting faculty in revising and
updating education methods courses. The goals were to develop a
technologically literate faculty, to assist faculty in the integration of
information technology to enhance instruction and professional
productivity, and to prepare pre-serve teachers to use educational
information technology. In addition, several issues that were addressed
included the fact that some faculty simply did not want to be involved in
the use of information technology and the changing interaction between
faculty and student that information technology integration brings about.
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Bent (2006) developed a Web site which is an interactive software
tutorial called ‘Web Tutor’ which was designed to transform novice users
into competent, informed browsers. Bent designed this tutorial in the hope
that the Web would be taken more seriously as a research tool and
information source. James Madison University implemented this tool
which has now been used by thousands of students at the campus, as well
as professors.
Gordon and Hequet (2006) in their research stated that one of the
many methods currently being used more to expose faculty to information
technology is via the Web. However, many faculties may resent sitting in
front of a computer at the office to receive training rather than traveling
off-site. Administrators, though, may find it increasingly advantageous to
decrease training costs by providing that training on-site. There are
advantages and disadvantages to both. Providing on-site training may be
less expensive, but training off-site allows the trainee to work in a focused
environment, which can be otherwise hard to achieve. With committee
meetings, teaching roles, publishing requirements, and other projects
faculty may elect to make training a last priority. There may be hidden
benefits to instructor-led training that have been overlooked; perhaps a
pressure to attend that is otherwise ignored.
Gordon and Hequet (2006) cited that when considering the use of
a "live" instructor versus incorporation of the Web, there were several
considerations to be made. When considering using the Web, limits must
be recognized in the amount and type of material that can be presented
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effectively. The speed with which the new information technology must
be learned should be considered. Where live instruction takes place should
be a consideration; if faculty members must travel far to receive
instruction, they are less likely to attend. However, scheduling is a
companion issue to geography; the difficulty of arranging for many
faculties to meet at one time is a problem that is sometimes difficult to
overcome.
Ritchie and Hoffman (2005) of San Diego State University

developed a five-module on-line course to help faculty develop and
manage their own on-line course modules. The Web resources at the site
would be supplemented by faculty with the use of videotape and printed
materials, as well as both innovative and traditional instructional
strategies.
Shotsberger (2003) stated that traditionally, one of the methods for

training faculty has been the use of workshops. The obvious drawbacks to
this type of training have included: the time and money required to travel
to distant training sites, artificiality of training done in an isolated
classroom, keeping current with trends and changes as they occur, and the
fact that many faculty have only the summer months available for
extended learning sessions. One site currently available on the Web has
been posted by the Math Department at the University of North Carolina
at Wilmington (UNCW).
Strandberg (2000) stated that trainers should focus on these

factors: 1) finding subject matter experts, 2) making learning fun,
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3) junking of the technical manual and 4) providing follow-up. Although
training priorities between university faculty and business professionals
may vary somewhat, both groups must be aware of the importance
effective training has on attitude and, therefore, integration of the newly
learned information technology skills.
Although many universities have traditionally relied on a single

information technology class to carry the burden of informing faculty on
how to use and integrate information technology, a literature review
shows the growing trends to implement other training strategies. As
information technology upgrades are constant and rapid, training will be
continuous for active users.
Willis et al., (2000) investigated a study and cited that the quality of
information technology training is an issue that can keep faculty from
using and integrating information technology. Their survey addressed the
matter of staff development. About half of the faculty stated that the poor
quality of training offered was an "Important to Extremely Serious"
barrier. However, among the highest ranking barriers stated by faculty was
the limited instruction on integration of information technology learning
to communicate electronically, via e-mail and video conferencing, among
other methods, is an issue in information technology training.
Grejda and Smith (1994) at Clarion University conducted a study

and training activities were developed to meet the recommendations of the
International Society for Information technology in Education (ISTE). The
goals of the ISTE’s recommendations were to be met by a proposed
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sequence of activities that included a concentrated four-day training
sequence and a sequence of four evening follow-up sessions. Sessions
were scheduled for the intersession time period between the end of the
spring semester and the beginning of the summer semester. Faculty
worked independently and in groups to practice specific skills in an
applied context. Consultants were available to help troubleshoot any
problems that arose during training. Further follow-up sessions were
scheduled for the fall semester.
2.15 Studies on Obstacles to Information Technology use by Faculty
There are many obstacles that faculty face when attempting to

increase their knowledge, skills, attitudes, and integration of computers
into university classrooms. Information technology traditionally has not
been integrated into many university training programs. The lack of
equipment, training, and time constraints are the things that limit
information technology use of university faculty.
Gonzales and Hill (2007) cited in their study that if Information

Technology is to become a tool of choice for learning and information,
faculty must learn to model its use to students, and mentoring has been
found to be an effective way to encourage faculty to begin integrating
information technology.
Ritchie and Hoffman (2005) investigated a study and suggested

that few faculties use the Internet for course delivery. Universities
continue to hire faculty primarily for their content expertise, to the
exclusion of other skills such as Internet use. The time necessary to learn
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these skills, such as hypertext markup language (HTML), prevents many
faculties from attempt to publish course materials on-line. In the past
faculty were not expected to master such skills as page layout, but with the
increasing popularity of the Web, required knowledge has changed.
Attitudes about the Web continue to change. There was debate over
whether or not certain information found on the Web can be considered
"published." For the time being, at least, Web publication seems to be
accepted as merely an extension of word processing. This is a skill that
has also changed, and is now regarded as necessary for both students and
faculty. The next logical step is for the Web to become an "interactive
medium of instruction"
Ritchie and Hoffman (2005) further pointed out that there are
many issues involved for faculty in utilizing the Web for publishing.
Faculty must first be willing and agreeable to accept articles published on
the Web. Students and faculty must learn to recognize the appropriateness
of material found on the Web. On-line services must be readily available
both to students and faculty, and instruction in on-line course delivery
must be mastered.
Skeele and Daly (2003) in their study at Seton Hall cited other
reasons impeding faculty from using information technology include no
reward or recognition, limited time to re-prepare course materials, and
lack of funds to purchase software. Release time, specialized training,
support personnel, software and hardware funds, peer support, and
administrative recognition are all incentives that can be utilized in helping
faculty learn to use and integrate information technology in the classroom.
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The following table (Table: 2.1) by Parker (1997) presented the
results of a question set that addressed perceived obstacles that hinder
faculty use of information technology.
Table: 2.1
Obstacles that Hinder Faculty Use of Information Technology
Lack of Time 25%
Lack of Software 52%

Lack of Hardware 58%
Lack of Keyboarding Skills 13%
Lack of Knowledge of Available Information Technology Resources 29%
Availability of Computer Lab 23%
Availability of Computer Lab Worker 45%
Using Information Technology is Frustrating to me 13%
Changes are too fast to keep current 13%
Do not think Information Technology will enhance my Subject Area 16%
Hope (1996) in his study cited that although many faculties believe
that the Internet is becoming an important means of communicating and
delivering information to students, many feel overwhelmed by the rapid
method in which information technology is introduced. This feeling of
bombardment can cause faculty to have negative attitudes when
envisioning information technology integration. Computer information
technology should represent the end to a plethora of problems, not the
introduction of new ones. At its best; it should give faculty new methods
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for accomplishing tasks and teaching students necessary skills. Some
administrators leave the choice of information technology utilization to
faculty, and others make the decision for them.
Willis et al., (1995) in their study stated that forceful imposition of

information technology on faculty was not conducive to learning Placing
pressure on faculty to adopt information technology may actually have a
negative effect on faculty’s willingness to adopt new methods.
Wetzel (1993) found that although many faculty use computers for
word processing and e-mail, studies showed that smaller percentages
develop information technology applications for their courses. Reasons
cited in the literature for this lack of development include: 1) lack of
awareness of instructional potential, 2) lack of enough information
technology for it to make a difference, 3) lack of training and personal
expertise, and 4) a view of information technology as time consumptive
rather than time saving.
Willis (1993) found that hardware and software are no longer the
most important issues; the most important topics are instructional
strategies. Learning to recognize instructionally appropriate software and
cyclical training and support are other key issues.
Wetzel (1993) found that not all faculties are interested in learning
to use information technology for personal reasons or for integration into
the classroom. He showed that most faculties (81%) recommended that
students use information technology to complete course requirements.
Only one-half of the faculty, however, was willing to correctly
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demonstrate the best use of information technology. One of the reasons
that faculty gave for unwillingness to integrate and /or demonstrate
information technology was a limited knowledge base. Their answers to
the survey included such information as faculty’s unawareness of program
availability and the ability to have other faculty model the use of
information technology with specific course software.
Wetzel (1993) in his recent studies identified that lack of

knowledge about software, time constraints, and limited recognition of
information technologies potential are the obstacles to effective
integration of IT into their classrooms. For many faculties, information
technology experiences have been negative. Too often faculties receive
outdated hardware and software. Trainers from outside the university
environment are sometimes provided to faculty, and are not aware of the
issues that faculty may face. The trainers may carry preconceived ideas
about university education and faculty’s ability to acquire necessary skills.
Wetzel (1993) opined that lack of software and equipment were one
of the main complaints of faculty in previous studies concerned that is on
the decrease is the availability of hardware and software to both students
and faculty. At the time of Wetzel’s study, equipment security, lack of
presentation programs, suitable software, and student ability to access
equipment after class were all issues that needed to be addressed. Since
that time, most of the universities involved in the literature review have
continued to make necessary information technology upgrades and have
provided students and faculty with hardware and software necessary to
perform basic functions (i.e., word processing, electronic mail, etc.).
130

Staman (1990) believed that a lack of awareness of information
technology potential and successful examples of use of information
technology in disciplines contribute to faculty’s unwillingness to integrate
information technology into the classroom.
In an early study by Jacobson and Wellers (1987-88), survey

research found that among university faculty at the University of Illinois
at Urbana, although 96 percent were interested in using computers, 60
percent considered lack of training an obstacle.
2.16 Studies on Computer Technology and Teacher Instructional

Behaviour
The exceptionally large respondent base for the work of Becker

Ravitz, Wong (1999) and allowed the survey results of teacher’s
perceptions of their instructional practice to be seriously considered. More
than 4,000 teachers, administrators, and technology coordinators involved
in school reform were surveyed in 1998. Ravitz, Wong, and Becker sought
to discover (1) how computer technology use is related to teacher
pedagogical beliefs; (2) what constitutes good teaching practice; (3) how
teachers go about organizing learning in their classrooms; (4) how
teachers design student learning; and (5) how teacher practice changed
over the last three years. The four most common teaching practices
identified in this survey were students working individually to answer
questions from textbooks or worksheets, teachers leading whole-class
discussions, teachers questioning students for the correct answer, and
using introductory drills to begin a new unit of study. As the researchers
pointed out, such teacher instructional practices are traditional in nature.
131

However, Ravitz, Wong, and Becker also concluded that teachers
are more likely to adopt teaching practices associated with a
constructivism when their main goals for students changed, when their
understanding about how people learn changed; when they experienced
staff development associated with constructivism, and when they used
computer technology. The changes in teaching practice over the preceding
three years described by teachers are more constructivists in nature. More
and more, students taught or helped one another, worked in groups,
reviewed and revised their own work, and explored a topic of their own
without any teacher direction. Teachers increased the number of activities
occurring simultaneously in their classrooms and evaluated student work
based on their products rather than tests.
The evaluation report of the Oakland County School project (1991)

on Teaching and Learning with Technology utilized both qualitative and
quantitative methodology to answer several evaluation questions: (1) In a
technology-rich environment, how is technology applied to enhance
educational goals? (2) What kinds of staff development programs result in
the effective use of technology to accomplish curricular objectives? (3)
What is the impact of a technology-rich environment on teaching and
learning? Evaluators reported several findings concerned with changes in
teaching. Teachers perceived changes in their teaching characterizing
themselves as more reflective and more likely to seek out research to learn
more about educational processes including continuing their formal
education. The teachers also noted changes in classroom structure, their
instruction and interactions with students as well as their professional
132

practice. Most significantly, the teachers reported not wanting to teach
without technology. Teachers perceived changes in their classroom
practices as a reflection of their attitudes and skills growth. They felt more
able to tolerate ambiguity and shared ownership of the teaching learning
process with students. This project illuminated changes in teacher
instructional behavior and professional practice because of student use of
computer technology, but there was no discussion of teacher planning
behaviors or evaluation of instruction.
Howard Budin (1991) articulated his beliefs regarding the possible

effects of computer technology on the classroom teacher’s role. Budin
provided an essential context for understanding the interaction between
teacher role and computer technology by recounting the history of the
teachers. Three visions were included in his discussion: replacement,
implementation, and transformation. Rather than the usual notion of
technology replacing the teacher, Budin suggested using technology to
replace some instructional practice as a logical extension of implementing
technology. Most commonly, Budin suggested technology is seen as just
another tool to supplement curriculum rather than change it. Instead of
replacement and implementation, Budin conceived a vision where
technology helps transform curriculum, teacher’s role, and even school
structure. Echoing the reform concepts of Dewey and others, Budin
presented technology’s potentials: communication with distant places,
information access from new sources, collaboration, and critical thinking,
planning and implementing curricular projects, as a vehicle for renewing
the visions of educational reform.
133

Sheingold and Hadley (1990) surveyed teachers working in
technology-rich environments who taught grades 4-12. Respondents
perceived that their teaching changed in several ways, that is, teaching
behaviors were transformed. Teachers perceived themselves as
collaborators with their students, as facilitators of student learning, as
more flexible problem solvers, and they felt better able to meet the
individual needs of students. They credited the integration of computer
technology as a catalyst and educational tool causing the shift from
teacher-centered classroom to student-centered classroom. They altered
their vision of what students should learn and what their learning tools
should be. However, neither teacher planning nor evaluative behaviors
were investigated. Descriptions of teacher instructional behaviors were
expressed in broad generalizations. Sheingold and Hadley recognized that
the survey methodology could not validate the teachers’ perceptions.
Riel (1989) investigated the changes that take place in teaching and
learning when computer technology is incorporated into educational
practice over the course of one academic year. The four experienced
teachers were given one computer for use in their classrooms even though
two of the teachers had no previous experience or training with computers.
Although the remaining two teachers had extensive experience with
computers, neither teacher had a computer available for classroom use.
However, one of the teachers with computer experience had used
computers in a lab setting for three years, used computers part-time for
language arts and mathematics instruction, and currently had the
responsibility of leading his school’s computer lab. The other teacher with
134

computer experience had an Apple II for classroom use part-time in the
year prior to the study, and she had taught word processing classes
through a university extension program. Data for the study was collected
through weekly teacher interviews throughout the academic year, and
observers took notes in each of the classrooms three days a week. One to
three times a month, specific types of lessons and computer sessions were
videotaped. The results revealed changes in classroom environment,
interactive patterns, and student learning, but neither the spatial
arrangement of the classroom, the classroom time schedule, nor the
instructional behaviors of teacher was changed by the presence of the
computer. Rather, the teachers used the computer to enhance their
traditional instructional behaviors by using the computer to demonstrate
concepts to the whole class, thus continuing their use of whole class
instruction. Riel’s study did not investigate teacher planning or evaluative
behaviors.
2.17 Review of Studies on the Impact of Information Technology in

Higher Education
Clayton-Pedersen and O’Neill (2010) accentuated how IT can be

used to engage students in the construction of knowledge. They stated that
opportunities to engage in debates on real-world topics of importance, and
the self-awareness that comes from assignments related to personal
discovery, more likely produce a graduate who is ready to apply
him/herself in the world. In their study, “Curricula designed to meet 21st
century expectations”, they made the following implications: (1) faculty’s
135

understanding of the teaching and learning power of the technology need
to be increased, (2) increasing the use of technology will increase the
demand for technological tools to be effectively integrated into the
curriculum to enhance student learning, (3) tools need to be developed to
help faculty integrate technology into curriculum.
Hartman, Moskal and Dziuban (2009) reported the outcome of

their study “Preparing the academy of today for the learner of tomorrow”,
concerning student opinions of what qualities are inherent in good
teachers in the following results: the ability to facilitate, not dictate,
student learning; the knowledge of how to use both oneself and
educational tools in order to communicate effectively; the capacity to be
authentic in relationships with students; the ability to organize courses
well; the professionalism to be respectful and concerned toward each
student; and the commitment to assess and evaluate fairly and effectively.
IT can further each of these goals but, left to itself, cannot realize any of
them. In order for IT to be effective in the learning process, faculty will
need to know how to capitalize on all that IT has to offer. This likely will
require training and institutional support if it is to happen – thus, the
impetus for conducting the survey on which this study is constructed.
Perry (2004) in the article “Evaluating Course Management

Technology: A Pilot Study”, emphasized how various tools made
available through IT can deepen the educational process. She highlighted
course management systems that engage learners on several levels; made
note of the web-based modules that are being developed by various
136

publishers; promoted the proliferation of digital based libraries that are
making sources of knowledge increasingly available to a broader
populace; emphasized the arsenal of tools that IT makes available to
enhance learners’ engagement; and discussed how IT makes possible
better sequencing and alignment of programmatic curricula, as well as
cross-disciplinary opportunities for learning.
Carole, Barone (2003) in the book, “Information Technology,

Systems, and Services in Higher Education: A Primer”, discussed the
ways in which IT can be used to deepen the learning experience by
providing an active learning environment that provides a context for what
is learned – an environment that is social and collaborative, that meets the
student where she/he is in terms of skills and knowledge, and that is in the
student’s span of control.
Rickard and Oblinger (2003), in “Applying the principles of

teaching and learning”, stressed that IT can be used to accommodate
different learning styles as well as different learning needs, to adjust the
pace of learning for the individual learner, and to provide opportunities for
people with special needs (e.g. the disabled and the immigrant
populations). A teacher, by incorporating high expectations for students
into the classroom, can increase student motivation to learn. This directly
aligns to the expectations both the students and their parents already bring
to the classroom. The significance of prompt feedback to the learning
process is also invaluable to the millennial learner.
137

Seely Brown (2002) suggested that the changes brought on by IT in
the classroom involved the introduction of a new medium that invites
mutuality into the learning process. In the literature addressing these
changes, academicians, with varying points of emphasis, repeatedly have
identified benefits that IT brings to the processes of education.
Chickering collaborated with Ehrmann (1996) studied some

principles in light of the growing influence of IT in the educational forum.
Those principles were summarized as follows:
IT encourages communication between students and faculty by

increasing the avenues for various types of synchronous and asynchronous
communication – e-mail, computer conferencing, web access all make
new ways of relating possible.
IT fosters reciprocity and cooperation among students – e-mail,
discussion boards, and instant messaging present diverse venues for such
to occur.
IT promotes active learning techniques by offering students
opportunities to engage in simulations, virtual reality, and augmented
reality – all of which provide opportunities for active learning.
IT provides increased opportunities for feedback to students by
improving the range of communication tools that can be used by faculty.
IT maximizes time-on-task – at the same time that IT can make
studying more efficient, it also can draw the student into exploring issues
further through the use of hotlinks and the ease of accessing diverse
materials.
138

IT promotes high expectations by fostering improved skills of
analysis, synthesis, application, and evaluation.
IT accommodates diverse talents and ways of learning and, thus,
can be used to respond to diverse needs and levels of skill (Chickering and
Ehrmann, 1996).
Vishnu Moorthy (1996) conducted a research on “Role of
Information Technology in Higher Education”. It was a multi-disciplinary,
theoretical study pertaining to the role of information technology from the
perspective of Marxian Dialectics. It analyzed how the modern
Information Technology is playing the dual role of Educational
Technology and Information Technology Education in Higher Education.
2.18 Review of Related Studies on various aspects of Information

Technology and Teachers
Burson et al., (2007) found that information technology is still not

a priority in teacher education programs. In many instances, planning for
and integrating information technology into existing teacher preparation
programs is a piecemeal and uncoordinated effort. However,
administrators expect faculty to be technologically conversant with little
training. Faculty at the University of Texas had attempted to deal with
these issues by infusing information technology into their teacher
education curriculum, and by assisting colleagues in the training process.
Privateer (2007) developed the new Texas Essential Knowledge

and Skills (TEKS) which states that even students in lower classes should
have basic computer terminology familiarity, basic word processing skills,
the ability to manipulate simple graphics, and experience in presentations
139

and publishing (TEA, 1998). All these factors contribute to the knowledge
that information technology is an accepted and important part of the
university classroom. Therefore, faculty attitudes toward information
technology are increasingly relevant and important.
The significant and necessary transition into the next stage of the
information age will tend to remain a potential unless the emphasis on the
"conduit" evolves into one of "content" and "outcome." But what would
make the use of technology truly valuable would be how it would
encourage learners to develop.
Green (1996) used a clever analogy to describe the acceptance of

information technology. He stated that it took "40 years to get the
overhead projector out of the bowling alley and into the classroom." He
added that it is ironic that most bowling alleys now use computerized
projection systems much more than faculty use information technology in
classrooms. In spite of this, information technology has finally emerged as
a permanent, respected, and increasingly important component of the
university experience. The use of information technology at the university
level is increasingly common; e-mail addresses appear on syllabi, e-mail
is sometimes offered as an addition or an alternative to office hours;
commercial software or faculty-designed software might be part of
required resources; class sessions might be held in computer labs;
assignments and projects may involve the use of the Internet and the
World Wide Web (the Web). In addition to this list, many syllabi now
require that students present project information using multimedia
programs, including the use of digitized images and sound clips.
140

Morgan (1998) explained that after the concepts that students are to
learn are defined and the links to what students already know are
identified, it’s time to consider how technology can be used to enhance the
learning environment. Morgan further identifies the following four
checkpoints:
1) How does technology provide students with multiple exposures

to variations of concepts?
2) How does technology increase student productivity?
3) How does technology actively involve students in the learning
process?
4) How does technology engage students at higher levels of
Bloom’s Taxonomy?
According to Peck and Dorricot (1994) - “Hyper Media in
Education”, databases, spreadsheets, computer-assisted design, graphics
programs, and multimedia authoring programs allow students to
independently organize and analyze, interpret, develop, and evaluate their
own work. These tools engage students in focused problem solving,
allowing them to think through what they want to accomplish, quickly test
and retest solution strategies, and immediately display the results.
Muir (1994) concluded that Computers have served their purpose

when students using multimedia tools find learning more interesting and
engaging as a result of creating an interactive project (perhaps one that
makes information pop up on the screen when you click a button). When
students are more enthusiastic about research (because they know how
their fully interactive final report is going to look) then computers are
valuable contribution to the educational process.
141

Grejda and Smith (1994) at Clarion University explored the needs
of faculty in terms of information technology integration. Faculty
surveyed identified outcomes for themselves as well as students, and the
skills and knowledge needed to achieve the outcomes. Topics that were
agreed upon included the use of hypermedia, interactive video, integrated
software packages, compact disk information technology, electronic
networks, and desktop publishing. They were also interested in observing
model programs that effectively used information technology.
Tinker and Papert (1989) in “Using new technologies to increase

learning in mathematics and science”, made a number of
recommendations about how computers might be used in education: for
communication, for interfacing, for theory building, for creativity, for
database access, and for programming. Information technologies
challenge us to re-examine what is possible to teach, because they can
bring new resources and approaches into teaching that are not conceivable
without technology. The Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition
(1989) in recommending that the educational use of computers be
extended to include telecommunications noted that "Modern computer
technology, when used as a component in a telecommunications system,
offers a link between children, teachers, and the outside world in
educationally powerful ways."
Besides there were many studies examined the integration of

computer technology with curriculum (e.g., Buchanan, Luck, and Dulniak,
1996), professional technology training and support for teachers
(e.g., Schmidt, 1996), computer use (e.g., Weiss, 1996), the relationship
between computer technology and teacher attitude (e.g., Dwyer, Ring
142

Staff, and Sandholtz, 1991), student achievement (e.g., Becker, H. J.,
1987) as well as the relationship between computer technology and
teacher roles (e.g., Civello, 1999).
2.19 Insights from the Review and Rationale for the Present Study
In this chapter, a few literature related to the present study is

presented. The main aim of the review of the available literature in
research study is to provide an academic support to the study. IT in
general and IT fluency among the teacher educators in particular is a new
and innovative development in field of higher education. Research studies
on IT fluency of higher education faculty, with special reference to teacher
education are rare. However, quite a few reviews, reports, articles, surveys
and projects are available on the study. From a comprehensive review of
the related literature, it is found that no study has been conducted hitherto
on the assessment of IT Fluency among the teachers in general and teacher
educators in particular. Though there were some studies conducted abroad
to assess IT Fluency of the respondents, most of them were found to be
concentrated on assessing the IT literacy of the respondents.
A standardized instrument to assess the level of IT Fluency, based on the
NRC Report, was not found in any reviews by the researcher. To be
precise, research studies based on the principles of the National Research
Council were very rare. To strengthen study, literatures were collected
from various available sources. In this context the present study becomes
important and essential as endorsed by the specific concerns of earlier
researchers both in its aims of the study and its procedures. In this sense,
the present study is unique against the series of studies covered in this
review.
143

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CHAPTER - II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The Literature Review is a thorough summary of the recognized

The researcher must explain why each piece of literature was

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2.2 Objectives of the Related Literature

 show how another researcher handled a similar problem

2.3 Sources and Types of Research Literature

Books, journals, reports, popular media, memos, minutes, internal

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An analysis of the literature regarding “Information Technology

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The research studies reviewed here include closely related

2.4 Review of Studies on Information Technology Fluency

Nancy Sardone (2011) conducted a study on “Developing

The purpose of this research was to examine the relationship, if any,

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Jazlin Ebenezer and et al., (2011) conducted a study titled “One

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Marcia Sharp (2010) conducted a study on the “Development of

This research required the drafting of a Perceptual IT Fluency Skills

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A panel of experts was used to validate the draft Perceptual IT

Rafeedali (2009) studied “Computer Based Technology and its

A self-developed tool (Computer Awareness Questionnaire) was

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Vincent De Paul (2007) conducted a study on “Commitment

Gary Schneider (2006) conducted a research study titled “Faculty

Kvaviks and Caruso (2005) reported that over 70% of the

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Ulla Bunz (2004) conducted a study titled “The Computer e-mail-

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Sharon Fass McEuen (2002) conducted a study titled “How fluent

 How fluent with IT do students see themselves?

A current overview of the student population in reference to the

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Ebenezer and et al., (2011) in the article “Engaging students in

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Chitra Sohani (2011) in the research article “Introducing Co-

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Maria Isabel Hernandez Romero and Alfredo Marin Marin

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Wolfram Laaser (2010) in the article “Certain Issues in European

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Erlich, Zippy and et al., (2009) in the article “The Effect of

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Kaminski and et al., (2009) in the research article “Workforce

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Lei, Jing (2009) in the article “Digital Natives as Pre-service

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Vannatta (2008) in the article “The Impact of

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Mc Manus (2006) in the article “Assessing Proficiencies in Higher

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Campe, Werner, and Denner (2005) in the article titled

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Eric, Fox and Patrick, Ghezzi (2004) in the article “Effects of

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Dougherty (2002) in the article “Teaching the Use of Complex IT

Wetzel, Keith (1993) in the article “Teacher Educators’ Uses of

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2.6 Review of Articles on Information Technology Fluency