CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the aggregate or

filler) embedded in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills the space
between the aggregate particles and glues them together. We can also consider concrete
as a composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are
embedded particles or fragments of aggregates. The simplest representation of concrete
is:
Concrete = Filler + Binder.
According to the type of binder used, there are many different kinds of concrete. For
instance, Portland cement concrete, asphalt concrete, and epoxy concrete. In concrete
construction, the Portland cement concrete is utilized the most. Thus, in our course, the
term concrete usually refers to Portland cement concrete. For this kind of concrete, the
composition can be presented as follows :
Cement
(+ ​Admixture​) → Cement paste
+ Water +
Fine Aggregate → Mortar
+
Coarse Aggregate → Concrete
Here we should indicate that admixtures are almost always used in modern practice and
thus become an essential component of modern concrete.

Admixtures are defined as materials other than aggregate (fine and coarse), water, fibre
and cement, which are added into concrete batch immediately before or during mixing.
The widespread use of admixture is mainly due to the many benefits made possible by
their application. For instance, chemical admixtures can modify the setting and hardening

1
characteristic of cement paste by influencing the rate of cement hydration.
Water-reducing admixture can plasticize fresh concrete mixtures by reducing surface
tension of water, air-entraining admixtures can improve the durability of concrete, and
mineral admixtures such as pozzolans (materials containing reactive silica) can reduce
thermal cracking.

Advantages and limitations

Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. It is used in many
different structures such as dam, pavement, building frame or bridge. Also, it is the most
widely used material in the world, far exceeding other materials. Its worldwide
production exceeds that of steel by a factor of 10 in tonnage and by more than a factor of
30 in volume. The present consumption of concrete is over 10 billion tons a year, that is,
each person on earth consumes more than 1.7 ton of concrete per year. It is more than 10
times of the consumption by weight of steel.
Advantages:
a) ​Economical: ​Concrete is the most inexpensive and the most readily available material.
The cost of production of concrete is low compared with other engineered
construction materials.
Three major components: water, aggregate and cement. Comparing with steel,
plastic and polymer, they are the most inexpensive materials and available in
every corner of the world. This enables concrete to be locally produced anywhere
in the world, thus avoiding the transportation costs necessary for most other
materials.
b). ​Ambient temperature hardened material: ​Because cement is a low temperature
bonded inorganic material and its reaction occurs at room temperature, concrete
can gain its strength at ambient temperature.
c) ​Ability to be cast: ​It can be formed into different desired shape and sizes right at the
construction site.
d) ​Energy efficiency: ​Low energy consumption for production, compare with steel
especially. The energy content of plain concrete is 450-750 kWh / ton and that of

2
 reinforced concrete is 800-3200 kWh/ton, compared with 8000 kWh/ton for
structural steel.
e) ​Excellent resistance to water. ​Unlike wood and steel, concrete can harden in water
and can withstand the action of water without serious deterioration. This makes
concrete an ideal material for building structures to control, store, and transport
water. Examples include pipelines (such as the Central Arizona Project, which
provide water from Colorado river to central Arizona. The system contains 1560
pipe sections, each 6.7 m long and 7.5 m in outside diameter 6.4 m inside
diameter), dams, and submarine structures. Contrary to popular belief, pure water
is not deleterious to concrete, even to reinforced concrete: it is the chemicals
dissolved in water, such as chlorides, sulfates, and carbon dioxide, which cause
deterioration of concrete structures.
f). ​High temperature resistance: ​Concrete conducts heat slowly and is able to store
considerable quantities of heat from the environment (can stand 6-8 hours in fire)
and thus can be used as protective coating for steel structure.
g). ​Ability to consume waste: ​Many industrial wastes can be recycled as a substitute for
cement or aggregate. Examples are fly ash, ground tire and slag.
h). ​Ability to work with reinforcing steel: ​Concrete and steel possess similar coefficient
of thermal expansion (steel 1.2 x 10​-5​; concrete 1.0-1.5 x 10​-5​). Concrete also
provides good protection to steel due to existing of CH (this is for normal
condition). Therefore, while steel bars provide the necessary tensile strength,
concrete provides a perfect environment for the steel, acting as a physical barrier
to the ingress of aggressive species and preventing steel corrosion by providing a
highly alkaline environment with pH about 13.5 to passivate the steel.
i) ​Less maintenance required: ​No coating or painting is needed as for steel structures.

Limitations:
a) ​Quasi-brittle failure mode: ​Concrete is a type of quasi-brittle material. (Solution:
Reinforced concrete)

3
b) ​Low tensile strength: ​About 1/10 of its compressive strength. (Improvements: Fiber
reinforced concrete; polymer concrete)
c) ​Low toughness: ​The ability to absorb energy is low. (Improvements: Fiber reinforced
concrete)
d) ​Low strength/BSG ratio (specific strength): ​Steel (300-600)/7.8. Normal concrete
(35-60)/2.3. Limited to middle-rise buildings. (Improvements: Lightweight
concrete; high strength concrete)
e) ​Formwork is needed: ​Formwork fabrication is labour intensive and time consuming,
hence costly (Improvement: Precast concrete)
f). ​Long curing time: ​Full strength development needs a month. ((Improvements: Steam
curing)
g). ​Working with cracks: ​Most reinforced concrete structures have cracks under service
load. (Improvements : Prestressed concrete).

1.1 Problem Description

Urbanization growth rate in India is very high due to industrialization. Growth rate of
India is reaching 9% of GDP. Rapid infrastructure development requires a large quantity
of construction materials, land requirements and the site. For large construction, concrete
is preferred as it has longer life, low maintenance cost and better performance. For
achieving GDP rate, smaller structures are demolished and new towers are constructed.
Protection of environment is a basic factor which is directly connected with the survival
of the human race. Parameters like environmental consciousness, protection of natural
resources, sustainable development, play an important role in modern requirements of
construction works. Due to modernization, demolished materials are dumped on land and
may not be used for any purpose. Such situations affect the fertility of land. As per the
report of Hindu online of March 2007, India generates 23.75 million tons demolition
waste annually. As per report of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Delhi, in India,

4
48million tons solid waste is produced out of which 14.5 million tons of waste is
produced from the construction of waste sector, out of which only 3% waste is used for
embankment.

Out of the total construction the demolition waste contains 40% of of concrete ,
30% of ceramics, 5% of plastics, 10% of wood, 5% of metal and 10% of other mixtures.
As reported by global insight, growth in global construction sector predicts an increase in
construction spending of 4800 billion US dollars in 2013. These figures indicate a
tremendous growth in the construction sector, almost 1.5 times in 5 Years. For production
of concrete, 70-75% aggregates are required. Out of this 60-67% is of coarse aggregate
and 33-40% is of fine aggregate. As per recent research by the Fredonia group, it forecast
that the global demand for construction the aggregates may exceed 26 billion tons by
2012.

Leading this demand the maximum user is China by 25%, Europe by 12% and
USA by 10%. India is also in top 10 users. From environmental point of view the
production of natural aggregates of 1 ton emits of 0.0046 million tons of carbon exist
whereas for 1 ton recycled aggregate produces only 0.0024 million tons carbon is

5
produced. Considering the global consumption of 10 billion tons per year of aggregate for
concrete production. The carbon footprint can be determined for the natural aggregate as
well as for the recycled aggregate.

The use of recycled aggregate generally increases the drying shrinkage, creep,
porosity of water and decreases the compression strength of concrete compared to that of
natural aggregate of concrete. It is nearly 10-30% as per replacement of aggregate.
Recycling reduces the cost (LCC) by 34-41% and CO​2 emission (LCCO​2​) by 23-28% for
dumping at public and private disposal facilities.

1.2 Objective of the project

The experiment is carried out to overcome the problems created due to huge requirement
of the raw materials for manufacturing the conventional building material and also to
minimize hazards caused by industrial waste on the environment. Some other objectives
are :

To use the demolished and construction waste aggregate in the new concrete as the
recycled concrete aggregate reduces the environmental pollution as well as providing
an economic value for the waste material.

To study the utilization of demolished and construction waste as a replacement of

natural coarse aggregate.

To study the physical properties of demolished and construction waste aggregate by

conducting experimental work.

To development of alternate low cost and environment suitable building materials

from industrial wastes in an economical way.

Importance must be given to cheap and locally available building materials and hence

6
 it is necessary to check and utilize the suitable waste products to replace some of the
coarse aggregate.

Dismantling Of the Material

The concrete from the dismantled buildings is taken and by using hammer we break the
concrete blocks into 20mm size aggregates as we do this manually we get irregular shapes

7
and hence after preparing the recycled aggregate we need to sieve the material through IS
20mm sieve and hence we get the required size of the aggregate.

The fig.1.1 and fig.1.2 shows the preparation of the recycled aggregate from the
dismantled building material.

Figure 1.1: Concrete waste

8
Figure 1.2: Recycled Coarse Aggregate

9
Outline of the Project

The methodology for recycling of concrete is as followed:

Select a grade of concrete for which a conventional mix is to be done.

Now, materials required for preparation for conventional concrete must be brought
and material testing must be done in the laboratory before mix is prepared.

All the physical tests on the aggregates have to be done according toIS:2386 (PART-

I) - Particle size and shape IS:2386 (PART III) – Specific gravity, Density, Voids,
Absorption and Bulking .

Also find the properties of the cement which is used in the mix

Now, using IS10262:2009 design the suitable mix for required grade of a
conventional concrete by considering the physical properties of the material.

Using the above mix design the mix is to be prepared and workability test has to be
done and 6 cubes are casted to find the strength of for 3Days, 7 days and 28 days.

Now, phase I of the project is completed next phase is preparing the concrete by
utilizing demolished concrete as a part of coarse aggregate.

Demolished concrete is collected from the site seeing that it does not contain any
chemicals

Now, using hammer make break the concrete waste into suitable size.

Physical properties of this demolished concrete is been found and accordingly we

adjust the water content for the new mix design and we find strength of the concrete
by preparing the cubes of different proportions of coarse aggregate and demolished
concrete.

Now, the cubes are tested for compressive strength and compare for best combination
of RCA and CA.

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1.3 Thesis Organization

Chapter 1 gives the introduction to the project: the problem identified the objective,
proposed outline of the project and scope of the project on dealing with the stated
problem.

Chapter 2 gives the summary of the literature review and the final conclusions
drawn from them.

Chapter 3 gives the procedures of the tests to be done on different materials used
in the preparation of concrete blocks for finding the physical properties which may be
useful in finding the mix design.

Chapter 4 gives the description of the mix design, this chapter involves in
designing mix ratios for the different combinations of RCA and CA.

Chapter 5 gives the results and their analysis. From these results we have plotted
the graphs and analyzed the results.

Chapter 6 gives the summary and final conclusions on the course of the project
and the future scope of work that can be further carried out.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

The chapter involves the discussion of various research papers reviewed for achieving the
aim of the project. The following research papers have discussed about the use of
recycled concrete in the regular construction activities so that we can decrease the
concrete waste in the environment and the research papers have also discussed about the
physical properties of the concrete waste.

2.2 Literature review

Sudhir at all (2013) ​the slump value of the normal concrete is observed to be less than
recycled one. The compressive strength of concrete containing 50% RCA has strength
close to normal concrete. Strength is high during initial stages and reduces in later stage.
Due to lack of treatment process for RCA adequate strength is not achieved.

Murali at all (2012) ​have considered the treatment of RCA before recycling He
observed flexural, compressive and split tensile strength of RCA is found to be lower than
natural aggregates. The strength of the RCA was improved by water and acid treatments.
Among HNO​3​, H​2​SO​4​ results of HNO​3​ were close to natural aggregates.

Morals at all (2010) ​has gives importance to the shape and size of the aggregates.
The ceramic material and mortar adhering to natural aggregates directly affects physical
and mechanical properties of RCA. Chemical composition of RCA is weakest as it

12
contains lot of sulphates and chlorides. Quality of RCA was improved by blending it with
natural aggregates.

Ashraf at all (2012) ​have discussed properties such as absorption and abrasion
were lower than the required replacement of natural aggregates by RCA, less workability
and decrease in strength. It can overcome by using super plasticizers and replacing 25 –
50 % of NCA with RCA and good results can be achieved. Using silica fume as
admixture performance of RCA is enhanced as it acts as interfacial zone between old and
new mortar.

13
Sonawane at all (2013) ​had discussed use of recycled aggregate up to 30% does not
affect the functional requirements of the structure as per the finding of test results​.

Various tests conducted on RAC are found to be satisfactory as per IS: 2386 Due to the
use of recycled aggregate in construction, energy and cost of transportation of NA and
excavation is saved.

Kumutha at all (2010) ​have discussed about recycled aggregate has influence on
the properties of the concrete ​.​It is possible to use 100% crushed concrete coarse
aggregate and 60% crushed brick fine aggregate since target strength is archived​. But,
there is a considerable decrease in the flexural strength.

Puri at all (2013) ​have considered the increase in the compressive strength and
flexural strength when aggregates are fully or partially replaced with construction debris.
Maximum strength is achieved by adding 25% RCA and 75% NA and the Production cost
also decreases. Decrease in slump values is observed

Yong at all (2009) ​have discussed about recycling of tested concrete cubes from

RMC’s RAC which can achieve high compressive strength, split tensile strength as well
as flexural strength.RAC has higher compressive strength of 28 days and higher split
tensile strength of 28 days compared to control concrete. The flexural strengths of 28
days RAC is lower than natural concrete.

Classification of concrete
Based on unit weight
Ultra light concrete <1,200 kg/m​3
Lightweight concrete 1200- 1,800 kg/m​3
Normal-weight concrete ~ 2,400 kg/m​3
Heavyweight concrete > 3,200 kg/m​3
Based on strength (of cylindrical sample)
Low-strength concrete < 20 MPa compressive strength

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Moderate-strength concrete 20 -50 MPa compressive strength
High-strength concrete 50 - 200 MPa compressive strength
Ultra high-strength concrete > 200 MPa compressive strength
Based on additives:
Normal concrete
Fiber reinforced concrete
Shrinkage-compensating concrete
Polymer concrete
Three-phase theory for Concrete
5.2.1 Three phases in concrete
Concrete consists of three phases, aggregate (coarse and fine), hardened cement paste
(hcp) and transition zone. Each phase can be further divided into multiple phases. For
example, the aggregate contains various minerals, voids and micro cracks. Since we have
discussed the properties of the first two phases, here we will concentrate on the properties
of transition zone.
5.2.2 Transition zone
a). Structure of transition zone:
The transition zone is defined as the region between large aggregate particles and the hcp
(or mortar). It exists as a thin shell, typically 10-50 micron thick. Formation of transition
zone can be attributed to poor packing and the formation of water films around large
particles during mixing. Owing to higher w/c ratio, the transition zone is more porous
than the bulk cement paste or mortar matrix. Also, due to low strength, micro-cracks
often form within the transition zone even before loading is applied.
b). Influence on concrete properties:
The transition zone is generally weaker than both the aggregate and the hcp. Although the
transition zone occupies much less volume than the other two phases, its influence on
concrete properties is very large. The existence of transition zone can be used to explain
why:
. Cement paste or mortar will always be stronger than concrete provided that they
have the same w/c ratio and be tested at same age.

15
 . The permeability of concrete is much higher than cement paste.
. Under the same loading, components of concrete (aggregate and hcp) can show
linear behaviour while concrete itself shows a nonlinear behaviour.
The first two questions can be easily explained by the high porosity and existing of
micro-cracks in transition zone. For the third question, we should note that it does not
take a lot of energy for the propagation of pre-existing micro-cracks in the transition
zone. Even at 40 percent of the ultimate strength of concrete, nonlinear behaviour can be
observed.

Fresh concrete
5.3.1 Definition
Fresh concrete is defined as concrete at the state when its components are fully mixed but
its strength has not yet developed. This period corresponds to the cement hydration stages
1, 2, and 3. The properties of fresh concrete directly influence the handling, placing and
consolidation, as well as the properties of hardened concrete.
5.3.2 Workability
a) Definition
Workability is a general term to describe the properties of fresh concrete. Workability is
often defined as the amount of mechanical work required for full compaction of the
concrete without segregation.
This is a useful definition because the final strength of the concrete is largely influenced
by the degree of compaction. A small increase in void content due to insufficient
compaction could lead to a large decease in strength.
The primary characteristics of workability are consistency (or fluidity) and cohesiveness.
Consistency is used to measure the ease of flow of fresh concrete. And cohesiveness is
used to describe the ability of fresh concrete to hold all ingredients together without
segregation and excessive bleeding.
b). Factors affecting workability

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. ​Water content: Except for the absorption by particle surfaces, water must fill the spaces
among particles. Additional water "lubricates" the particles by separating them with a
water film. Increasing the amount of water will increase the fluidity and make concrete
easy to be compacted. Indeed, the total water content is the most important parameter
governing consistency. But, too much water reduces cohesiveness, leading to segregation
and bleeding. With increasing water content, concrete strength is also reduced.
. ​Aggregate mix proportion: For a fixed w/c ratio, an increase in the aggregate/cement
ratio will decrease the fluidity. (Note that less cement implies less water, as w/c is fixed.)
Generally speaking, a higher fine aggregate/coarse aggregate ratio leads to a higher
cohesiveness.
. ​Maximum aggregate size: For a given w/c ratio, as the maximum size of aggregate
increases, the fluidity increases. This is generally due to the overall reduction in surface
area of the aggregates.
. ​Aggregate properties: The shape and texture of aggregate particles can also affect the
workability. As a general rule, the more nearly spherical and smoother the particles, the
more workable the concrete.
. ​Cement: Increased fineness will reduce fluidity at a given w/c ratio, but increase
cohesiveness. Under the same w/c ratio, the higher the cement content, the better the
workability (as the total water content increases). Admixtures: Air entraining agent and
superplasticizers can improve the workability.
. ​Temperature and time: As temperature increases, the workability decreases. Also,
workability decreases with time. These effects are related to the progression of chemical
reaction.
c). Segregation and bleeding
. ​Segregation (separation): Segregation means separation of the components of
fresh concrete, resulting in a non-uniform mix. More specifically, this implies
some separation of the coarse aggregate from mortar.
. ​Bleeding (water concentration): Bleeding means the concentration of water at certain
portions of the concrete. The locations with increased water concentration are concrete
surface, bottom of large aggregate and bottom of reinforcing steel. Bleed water trapped

17
under aggregates or steel lead to the formation of weak and porous zones, within which
microcracks can easily form and propagate.

Setting of concrete
a). Definition: Setting is defined as the onset of rigidity in fresh concrete. It is different
from hardening, which describes the development of useful and measurable strength.
Setting precedes hardening although both are controlled by the continuing hydration of
the cement. b). Abnormal setting
False setting:
If concrete stiffens rapidly in a short time right after mixing but restores its fluidity by
remixing, and then set normally, the phenomenon is called false setting. The main reason
causing the false setting is crystallization of gypsum. In the process of cement production,
gypsum is added into blinker through inter-grinding. During grinding, the temperature
can rise to about 120​o​C, thus causing the following reaction:
CSH​2 ​→ CSH​1/2
The CSH​1/2 is
​ called plaster. During mixing, when water is added, the plaster will
re-hydrate to gypsum and form a crystalline matrix that provides ‘stiffness’ to the mix.
However, due to the small amount of plaster in the mix, very little strength will actually
develop. Fluidity can be easily restored by further mixing to break up the matrix structure.
Flash setting: Flash setting is caused by the formation of large quantities of
monosulfoaluminate or other calcium aluminate hydrates due to quick reactivities

18
of C​3​A. This is a rapid set with the development of strength and thus is more severe than
false setting. However, as we mentioned before, flash setting can be eliminated by the
addition of 3-5% gypsum into cement.
Thixotropic set is due to the presence of abnormally high surface charges on the cement
particles. It can be taken care of by additional mixing.

Placing, Compacting and Curing

Concrete should be placed as close to its final position as possible. To minimize
segregation, it should not be moved over too long a distance. After concrete is placed in
the formwork, it has to be compacted to remove entrapped air. Compaction can be carried
out by hand rodding or tamping, or by the use of mechanical vibrators.
For concrete to develop strength, the chemical reactions need to proceed continuously.
Curing refers to procedures for the maintaining of a proper environment for the hydration
reactions to proceed. It is therefore very important for the production of strong, durable

19
and watertight concrete. In concrete curing, the critical thing is to provide sufficient water
to the concrete, so the chemical reaction will not stop. Moist curing is provided by water
spraying, ponding or covering the concrete surface with wet sand, plastic sheets, burlaps
or mats. Curing compounds, which can be sprayed onto the concrete surface to form a
thin continuous sheet, are also commonly used. Loss of water to the surrounding should
be minimized. If concrete is cast on soil subgrade, the subgrade should be wetted to
prevent water absorption. In exposed areas (such as a slope), windbreaks and sunshades
are often built to reduce water evaporation. For portland cement concrete, a minimum
period of 7 days of moist curing is generally recommended.
Under normal curing (at room temperature), it takes one week for concrete to
reach about 70% of its long-term strength. Strength development can be accelerated with
a higher curing temperature. In the fabrication of pre-cast concrete components, steam
curing is often employed, and the 7-day strength under normal curing can be achieved in
one day. The mold can then be re-used, leading to more rapid turnover. If curing is
carried out at a higher temperature, the hydration products form faster, but they do not
form as uniformly. As a result, the long-term strength is reduced. This is something we
need to worry about when we are casting under hot weather. The concrete may need to be
cooled down by the use of chilled water or crushed ice. In large concrete structures,
cooling of the interior (e.g., by circulation of water in embedded pipes) is important, not
only to prevent the reduction of concrete strength, but also to avoid thermal cracking as a
result of non-uniform heating/cooling of the structure.
After concrete is cast, if surface water evaporation is not prevented, plastic shrinkage may
occur. It is the reduction of concrete volume due to the loss of water. It occurs if the rate
of water loss (due to evaporation) exceeds the rate of bleeding. As concrete is still at the
plastic state (not completely stiffened), a small amount of volume reduction is still
possible, and this is accompanied by the downward movement of material. If this
downward movement is restraint, by steel reinforcements or large aggregates, cracks will
form as long as the low concrete strength is exceeded. Plastic shrinkage cracks often run
perpendicular to the concrete surface, above the steel reinforcements. Their presence can
affect the durability of the structure, as they allow corrosive agents to reach the steel

20
easily. If care is taken to cover the concrete surface and reduce other water loss (such as
absorption by formwork or subgrade), plastic shrinkage cracking can be avoided. If
noticed at an early stage, they can be removed by re-vibration .

Hardened concrete
5.5.1 Strength of hardened concrete
5.5.1.1 Introduction
A). Definition
Strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist stress without failure. The failure
of concrete is due to cracking. Under direct tension, concrete failure is due to the
propagation of a single major crack. In compression, failure involves the propagation of a
large number of cracks, leading to a mode of disintegration commonly referred to as
‘crushing’. The strength is the property generally specified in construction design and
quality control, for the following reasons: (1) it is relatively easy to measure, and (2)
other properties are related to the strength and can be deduced from strength data.
The 28-day compressive strength of concrete determined by a standard uniaxial
compression test is accepted universally as a general index of concrete strength.

Factors affecting concrete strength

Water/Cement Ratio
In the discussion of cement hydration, it has been pointed out that the density of hardened
cement (in terms of a gel/space ratio) is governed by the water/cement ratio. With higher
w/c ratio, the paste is more porous and hence the strength is lower. An empirical formula
relating f​c and
​ w/c was proposed by Abrams in 1919:
​
)c/w(5.1cBAf=
For 28 day strength, A is approximately 100 MPa. B is usually taken to be 4. It should be
noted that the equation gives very conservative estimates for concrete with low w/c ratio
(below about 0.38). Also, the strength continues to increase with decreasing w/c ratio
only if the concrete can be fully compacted. For concrete with very low w/c ratio, if no
water-reducing agent is employed, the workability can be so poor that a lot of air voids

21
are entrapped in the hardened material. The strength can then be lower than that for
concrete with higher w/c ratio.
While w/c ratio is the most important parameter governing the strength of concrete, it is
not the only parameter. Strictly speaking, the above equation is not correct. However,
with no test results available, an estimation of f​c from
​ w/c is a good first approximation.
Indeed, under the American practice of mix proportioning (ACI 211.1), the compression
strength is estimated (in a conservative way) from the water/cement ratio. Under British
practice, design tables and charts that take into consideration the types of cement and
aggregate are employed. More details will be provided in a later section on concrete mix
design.
Age and Curing Condition
The effect of curing temperature on concrete strength has already been discussed before.
Provided the concrete is properly cured, the strength increases with time due to the
increased degree of hydration. As a rule of thumb, for type I cement, the 7 day strength
can range from 60 – 80% of the 28 day strength, with a higher percentage for a lower w/c
ratio. After 28 days, the strength can continue to go up. Experimental data indicates that
the strength after one year can be over 20% higher than the 28 day strength. The reliance
on such strength increase in structural design needs to be done with caution, as the
progress of cement hydration under real world conditions may vary greatly from site to
site.

Fatigue strength of concrete

The fatigue of concrete is often analyzed using empirical approaches, following the same
concept of the Goodman’s law, i.e., the allowable stress oscillation decreases linearly
with the mean stress.

Rate effect on concrete strength and creep rupture

The strength of concrete is found to decrease with decreasing loading rate. At slower
loading rates, more time is allowed for the crack to propagate, and hence a lower stress is
required for the joining of cracks to cause failure. Indeed, concrete failure can occur if

22
loading is increased to 70-80% of the ultimate short-term strength and then kept constant
for a period of time. This phenomenon is referred to as creep rupture or static fatigue.

2.3 Conclusion

The above research papers discussed about the physical, chemical properties of concrete
and its behaviour when it is recycled. The variation of compression strength, Tensile
strength and various other properties on recycling of the demolished concrete or left out
fresh concrete is been studied. Our objective is to improve the strength as per Indian
standard by using a standard methodology.

23
24
 CHAPTER 3

LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS

3.1 Introduction

The chapter involves in material collection and the laboratory testing of the samples. This
involves the collection of samples and various test procedures conducted at the lab. The
laboratory testing of the samples is explained in detail along with the procedures and
results. These works play an important role in assessing the properties of the samples. The
evaluation of the properties by conducting various tests provides the opportunity to
determine whether the material is used for construction or not by considering the Indian
standard code.

3.2 Fine Aggregate

The material which passes through 4.75 mm sieve and retains on 75 microns sieve such a
material is known as fine aggregate. This is important material in the preparation of
concrete. The strength of the concrete depends up on the type of the fine aggregate used
and also quality of the material used. If at all low grade material is used then in such case
the slump value varies. Water absorption varies along with the strength of the material.
Fine aggregate is selected in such a way that all the material properties of such material
should satisfy the IS code requirements.

3.2.1 Specific Gravity of Fine Aggregate

Apparatus
25
1.A balance of capacity not less than 3kg ,readable and accurate to 0.5 gm and of such a
type as to permit the weighing of the vessel containing the aggregate and water .

A well ventilated oven to maintain a temperature of 100ºC to 110ºC

Pyconometer of about 1 liter capacity having a metal conical screw top with a 6mm hole
at its apex. The screw top shall be water tight.

A means supplying a current warm air.

26
 2.A tray of area not less than 32cm².

3.An air tight container large enough to take the sample.

4.Filter papers and funnel.

Procedure

1. Take about 500g of sample and place it in the pycnometer.

2. Pour distilled water into it until it is full.

3. Eliminate the entrapped air by rotating the pycnometer on its side, the hole in the apex
of the cone being covered with a finger.

4. Wipe out the outer surface of Pyconometer and weigh it (W).

5. Transfer the contents of the pycnometer into a tray, care being taken to ensure that all
the aggregate is transferred.

6. Refill the pycnometer with distilled water to the same level.

7. Find out the weight (W1).

8. Drink water from the sample through a filter paper.

9. Place the sample in oven in a tray at a temperature of 100ºC to 110º C for 24±0.5
hours, during which period, it is stirred occasionally to facilitate drying.

10. Cool the sample and weigh it (W2).

Using above observations the specific gravity of fine aggregate is found using the

w2​
w2​​ ​−​ (​ ​w −
​ ​ w​2
equation )

3.2.2 Particle Size Distribution

27
This test is done to determine the particle size distribution of soil as per IS: 2720 (Part 4)

– 1985.The apparatus required to do this test.

1. A set of fine IS Sieves of sizes – 2mm, 600µm, 425µm, 212µm and 75µm.

2. A set of coarse IS Sieves of sizes – 20mm, 10mm and 4.75mm.

3. Weighing balance, with an accuracy of 0.1% of the weight of sample.

4. Oven

5. Mechanical shaker

6. Mortar with rubber pestle

7. Brushes

28
Procedure

1. The dried sample is taken in a tray, soaked in water and mixed with either 2g of
sodium hexameta phosphate or 1g of sodium hydroxide and 1g of sodium carbonate
per liter of water, which is added as a dispersive agent. The soaking of soil is
continued for 10 to 12hrs.

2. The sample is washed through 4.75mm IS Sieve with water till substantially clean
water comes out. Retained sample on 4.75mm IS Sieve should be oven-dried for
24hrs. This dried sample is sieved through 20mm and 10mm IS Sieves.

3. The portion passing through 4.75mm IS Sieve should be oven-dried for 24hrs. This
oven-dried material is riffled and about 200g taken.

4. This sample of about 200g is washed through 75µm IS Sieve with half liter distilled
water, till substantially clear water comes out.

5. The material retained on 75µm IS Sieve is collected and dried in oven at a

temperature of 105 to 120oC for 24hrs. The dried soil sample is sieved through 2mm,
600µm, 425µm and 212µm IS Sieves. Soil retained on each sieve is weighed.

6. If the soil passing 75µm is 10% or more, hydrometer method is used to analyze soil
particle size.

3.2.3 Bulking Of Sand

Apparatus

Measuring jar, weighing balance, mixing pan, Trowel....etc

Procedure

1) Take200 ml of sand in Add water is one percentage of the weight (sand) and mixed
thoroughly and measures the increasing volume.

29
2) Add 1% of water and mix it thoroughly and find out the increase in the volume.

3) Add 2%, 3%,4%..........and the process is repeated for number of times and each
increase in volume is taken.

4) After the increase in volume there is a slow decrease in volume, then pure water is
added to the sand to increase it. That will give original volume.

5) When water added the volume of sand increased and an optimum volume of sand
reached.

6) A graph is plotted by taking percentage of increase in volume and bulking.

30
3.2.4 Density

Apparatus

Weigh machine, mould, towels, compacting rods etc…

Procedure

1. Take a mould available in the lab

2. Now, weigh the mould and note down the readings.

3. As we known the dimensions of the mould find out the volume of the mould

4. Now fill the mould with aggregate completely in three layers with perfect compaction
each time.

5. Now, find the weight of the mould again the difference in two weights is termed as
aggregate weight.

6. Now weight and volume of aggregate are used and density of the aggregate is found.

3.3 Coarse Aggregate

Material which passes through 4.75mm sieve and retained on 80mm sieve such material
is known as coarse aggregate the major part of the concrete is of coarse aggregate out of
all the aggregate used in concrete about 60 - 70% of the material is of coarse aggregate.
Hence it is the deciding factor to attain the calculated strength. The quantity and quality
of this type of materials is to be taken according to Indian standards only.

3.3.1 Specific Gravity of Coarse Aggregate

31
Apparatus

A balance or scale of capacity not less than 3 kg, readable and accurate to 0.5 g and of
such a type and shape as to permit the basket containing the sample to be suspended from
the beam and the weighed in water.

A well ventilated oven thermostatically controlled to maintain a temperature of

100oC to 110oC, A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container
of convenient size, A stout water tight container of convenient size, Two dry soft
absorbent cloths each not less than 75×45 cm.

32
Procedure

1. Take 2 kg of aggregate. Sample larger than 10mm

2. Wash the sample thoroughly to remove finer particle and dust.

3. Place the sample in a wire basket and immerse it in distilled water at a temperature
between 22​o​C and 32​o​C with a cover of at least 5 cm of water above the top of the
basket.

4. Remove the entrapped air by lifting the basket containing the sample 25 mm above
the base of the tank and allowing it to drop per second, care being taken to see that the
sample is completely immersed in water during the operation.

5. With the sample in water at a temper of 22​o​C-32​o​C (W).

6. Remove the basket and aggregate from water and allow to drain for few minutes.

7. Empty the aggregate from the basket to a shallow tray.

8. Immerse the empty basket in water jolt 25 times and the weight in water (w​2​).

o​ o​
9. Place the aggregates in oven at a temperature of 100​ C to 110​ C for 24+- 0.5 hours.
10. Remove it from the oven and cool it and find the weight. (w​2​)

3.3.2 Grain Size Analysis

This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained. The
mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser,
larger-sized particles. Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution. The
equipment required are Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush.

The stepwise procedure for conducting the grain size analysis is

1. Firstly 1000gm of sample collected

33
2. Prepare a stack of sieves. Sieves having larger opening sizes (i.e. lower numbers) are
placed above the ones having smaller opening sizes (i.e. higher numbers). To sieves
are arranged in the order of 4.75mm, 2mm, 425microns and 75microns from top to
bottom respectively.

3. Sieve through a nest of sieves by handshaking. At least 10 minutes of hand sieving is

desirable. Remove the stack and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve
with its retained soil.

4. The results of sieve analysis are generally expressed in terms of the percentage of the
total weight that passed through different sieves.

34
3.3.3 Water Absorption

This test helps to determine the water absorption of coarse aggregates as per IS: 2386
(Part III) – 1963. For this test a sample not less than 2000g should be used.

Apparatus

Wire basket – perforated, electroplated or plastic coated with wire hangers for suspending
it from the balance, Water-tight container for suspending the basket, Dry soft absorbent
cloth – 75cm x 45cm (2 nos.), Shallow tray of minimum 650 sq.cm area, Air-tight
container of a capacity similar to the basket and Oven.

Procedure

1) The sample should be thoroughly washed to remove finer particles and dust. Dried
and then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature
between 22​o​and 32​o​C.

2) After immersion, the entrapped air should be removed by lifting the basket and
allowing it to drop 25 times in 25 seconds. The basket and sample should remain
immersed for a period of 24 + ½ hrs afterwards.

3) The basket and aggregates should then be removed from the water, allowed to dry for
few minutes, after which the aggregates should be gently emptied from the basket on
to one of the dry cloth and gently surface-dried with the cloth and transferring it to a
second dry cloth to remove further moisture. The aggregates should be spread on the
second cloth and exposed to the atmosphere to direct sunlight till it appears to be
completely surface-dry. The aggregates should be weighed (Weight ‘A’).

o​ o​
4) The aggregates should then be placed in an oven at a temperature of 100​ to 110​ C for

24hrs. It should then be removed from the oven, cooled and weighed (Weight ‘B’).
35
 Water absorption = [(A – B)/B] x 100%

3.3.4 Density

Apparatus

Weigh machine, mould, towels, compacting rods etc…

36
Procedure

1. Take a mould available in the lab

2. Now, weigh the mould and note down the readings.

3. As we known the dimensions of the mould find out the volume of the mould

4. Now fill the mould with aggregate completely in three layers with perfect compaction
each time.

5. Now, find the weight of the mould again the difference in two weights is termed as
aggregate weight.

6. Now weight and volume of aggregate are used and density of the aggregate is found.

3.4 Cement

Cement is the binder material, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other
materials together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus
cementatim to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from
crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick
supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were later
referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment, and cement.

Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or

non-hydraulic, depending upon the ability of the cement to be used in the presence of
water The most important uses of cement are as a component in the production of mortar
in masonry, and of concrete, a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong
building material

3.4.1 Specific Gravity

37
Apparatus

Le Chaterlier’s flask, weighing balance, kerosene (free from water), Le Chaterlier”s flask,
is made of thin glass having a bulb at the bottom. The capacity of the bulb is nearly 250
ml. The bulb is 7.8 cm in mean diameter. The stem is graduated in millimeters. The zero
graduation is at a distance of 8.8 cm from the top of the bulb. At 2 cm from the zero, there
is another bulb is of length 3.5cm and capacity 17 ml. At 1 cm from bulb, the stem is
marked with 18 ml and is grated up to 24 ml.

38
Procedure

1. Dry the flask carefully and fill with kerosene to a point on the stem between zero and
1 ml.

2. Record the level of the liquid in the flask as initial reading.

3. Put a weighed quantity of cement (about 60 gm) into the flask so that level of
kerosene rise to about 22 ml mark, care is to be taken to avoid splashing and to see
that cement does not adhere to the sides of the above the liquid.

4. After putting all the cement into the flask, roll the flask gently in an inclined position
to expel air until no further air bubble rises to the surface of the liquid.

5. Note down the new liquid level as final reading.

3.4.2 Fineness

1. Dry the flask carefully and fill it with kerosene to a point on the stem between zero
and 1 ml.

2. Record the level of the liquid in the flask as initial reading.

3. Put a weighed quantity of cement (about 60 gm) into the flask so that level of
kerosene rises to 22 ml mark. Care is to be taken to avoid splashing and see that
cement does not adhere to the sides and above the liquid.

4. After putting all the cement into the flask, roll the flask gently in an inclined position
to expel air until no further air bubble rises to the surface of the liquid.

5. Note down the new liquid level as final reading.

3.4.3 Initial Setting Time

39
Procedure

1. Prepare a cement paste by gauging the cement with 0.85 times standard consistency
of the water which required to make a paste.

2. Start a stop-watch, the moment water is added to the cement.

3. Fill the Vicat mould completely with the cement paste. The mould rests on a
non-porous plate. Smooth off the surface of the paste making it level with the top of
the mould. The cement block thus prepared in the mould.

40
3.4.4 Normal Consistency of Cement

Apparatus

1. Vicats apparatus with a 10mm diameter plunger and a needle of 1mm square section

2. Vicat mould

3. Non porous pate

4. Measuring jar

5. Trowel

Procedure

1. The mould and the non porous plate are washed, cleaned and dried.

2. 400g of the given sample of cement is kept on the non porous plate.

3. 30% water by weight of cement is added very carefully to dry cement and mixed
thoroughly to get a neat cement paste. Care should be taken that the time of gauging is
not less than 3 minutes and not more than 5minutes.The gauging time shall be
counted from the time of adding water to the dry cement until commencing to fill the
mould.

4. The vicat mould is placed on the non porous plate and is filled with the prepared
cement paste. By using the trowel, the surface is smoothened.

5. By shaking mould slightly air from the sample is expelled.

6. The non-porous plate and mould are placed under the plunger.

7. The plunger is gently leveled to touch the surface of paste and then the indicator is
adjusted to show zero reading.

8. The plunger is released quickly and allowed to penetrate in to the paste.

41
9. When the plunger comes to rest, the reading on the index scale is noted.

10. Several trial pastes are prepared with varying percentages of water.

11. And the test is conducted until the needle penetrated 5mm - 7mm above the bottom of
the mould.

3.5 Recycled Coarse Aggregate

Materials which are dismantled are physical properties of their materials

42
collected from the respective site and then the are found using the below test procedure, if
the

43
values of these materials (properties such are as specific gravity, density etc…) are in the
range of Indian standards then in such a case these materials are allowed to use in the
preparing the cube for finding the compressive strength of the cube.

3.5.1 Specific Gravity

Apparatus

1. A balance or scale of capacity not less than 3 kg, readable and accurate to 0.5 g and of
such a type and shape as to permit the basket containing the sample to be suspended
from the beam and the weighed in water.

2. A well ventilated oven thermostatically controlled to maintain a temperature of 100​o​C

to 110​o​C.

3. A wire basket of not more than 6.3 mm mesh or a perforated container of convenient
size.

4. A stout water tight container of convenient size.

5. Two dry soft absorbent cloths each not less than 75×45 cm

6. A shallow tray of area no less than 650 cm​2​.

7. An air tight container of capacity similar to that of the basket.

Procedure

1. Take 2 kg of recycled aggregate. Sample larger than 10mm.

2. Wash the sample thoroughly to remove finer particle and dust.

3. Place the sample in a wire basket and immerse it in distilled water at a temperature

44
 between 22​o​C and 32​o​C with a cover of at least 5 cm of water above the top of the
basket.

4. Remove the entrapped air by lifting the basket containing the sample 25 mm above
the base of the tank and allowing it to drop per second, care being taken to see that the
sample is completely immersed in water during the operation.

o​ o​
5. With the sample in water at a temperature of 22​ C-32​ C (W).

6. Remove the basket and RCA from water and allow it to dry for few minutes.

7. Empty the aggregate from the basket to a shallow tray.

8. Immerse the empty basket in water jolt 25 times and the weight in water (w2).

9. Place the aggregates in oven at a temperature of 100​o​C to 110​o​C for 24+- 0.5 hours.

10. Remove it from the oven and cool it and find the weight (w2).

45
3.5.2 Grain Size Analysis

This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained. The
mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser,
larger-sized particles. Grain size analysis provides the grain size distribution, the
equipment required are Balance, Set of sieves, Cleaning brush.

Procedure

1. Firstly 1000gm of sample collected

2. Prepare a stack of sieves. Sieves having larger opening sizes (i.e. lower numbers) are
replaced above the ones having smaller opening sizes (i.e. higher numbers). To sieves
are arranged in the order of 4.75mm, 2mm, 425microns and 75microns from top to
bottom respectively.

3. Sieve through a nest of sieves by handshaking. At least 10 minutes of hand sieving is

desirable. Remove the stack and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve
with its retained soil.

4. The results of sieve analysis are generally expressed in terms of the percentage of the
total weight that passed through different sieves.

3.5.3 Water Absorption

This test helps to determine the water absorption of RCA.

Apparatus

Wire basket – perforated, electroplated or plastic coated with wire hangers for suspending
it from the balance, Water-tight container for suspending the basket, Dry soft absorbent

46
cloth – 75cm x 45cm (2 nos.), Shallow tray of minimum 650 sq.cm area, Air-tight
container of a capacity similar to the basket and Oven.

Procedure

1. The sample should be thoroughly washed to remove finer particles and dust, drained
and then placed in the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature
between 22​o​ and 32​o​C.
2. After immersion, the entrapped air should be removed by lifting the basket and

47
 allowing it to drop 25 times in 25 seconds. The basket and sample should remain

immersed for a period of 24 + ½ hrs afterwards.

3. The basket and aggregates should then be removed from the water and allowed to
drain for few minutes, after which the aggregates should be gently emptied from the
basket on to one of the dry clothes and gently surface-dried with the cloth,
transferring it to a second dry cloth. The aggregates should be spread on the second
cloth and exposed to the atmosphere to direct sunlight till it appears to be completely
surface-dry. The aggregates should be weighed (Weight ‘A’).

o o​
4. The aggregates should then be placed in an oven at a temperature of 100​ to 110​ C for
24hrs. It should be removed from the oven, cooled and weighed (Weight ‘B’).
A​ −​ B​
Water absorption = [ ​ ​ ​ ] x 100%.
A

3.5.4 Density

Apparatus

Weigh machine, mould, towels, compacting rods etc…

Procedure

1. Take a mould available in the lab

2. Now, weigh the mould and note down the readings.

3. As we known the dimensions of the mould find out the volume of the mould

4. Now fill the mould with aggregates completely in three layers with perfect
compaction each time.

5. Now, find the weight of the mould again. The difference in two weights is termed as
aggregate weight.

48
6. Now weight, volume and density of aggregate is found

3.6 Compressive Test

Out of many tests applied to the concrete, this is the utmost important test which gives an
idea about all the characteristics of concrete. By this single test one can judge that
whether Concreting has been done properly or not. For cube test two types of specimens
either cubes of 15 cm X 15 cm X 15 cm or 10cm X 10 cm x 10 cm depending upon the

49
size of aggregate is used. For most of the works cubical moulds of size 15 cm x 15cm x
15 cm are commonly used.

This concrete is poured in the mould and tamped properly so as not to have any
voids. After 24 hours these moulds are removed and test specimens are put in water for
curing. The top surface of this specimen should be made even and smooth. This is done
by putting cement paste and spreading smoothly on whole area of specimen.

These specimens are tested by compression testing machine after 7 days of curing
2​
or 28 days of curing. Load should be applied gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm​ per
minute till the Specimens fails.

Apparatus

Compression testing machine

Preparation of Cube Specimens

The proportion and material for making these test specimens are from the same concrete
used in the field.

Hand Mixing

1. Mix the cement and fine aggregate on a water tight none-absorbent platform until the
mixture is thoroughly blended and is of uniform colour.

2. Add the coarse aggregate and mix with cement and fine aggregate until the coarse
aggregate is uniformly distributed throughout the batch.

3. Add water and mix it until the concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the desired
consistency.

Sampling

1. Clean the mounds and apply oil.

50
2. Fill the concrete in the molds in layers approximately 5cm thick.

3. Compact each layer with not less than 35 strokes per layer using a tamping rod (steel
bar 16mm diameter and 60cm long, bullet pointed at lower end).

4. Level the top surface and smoothen it with a trowel.

51
Curing

The test specimens are stored in moist air for 24hours and after this period the
specimens are marked and removed from the moulds and kept submerged in clear fresh
water until taken out prior to test.

Precautions

The water for curing should be tested for every 7days and the temperature of water
must be at 27+-2​o​C.

Procedure

1. Remove the specimen from water after specified curing time and wipe out excess
water from the surface.

2. Take the dimension of the specimen to the nearest 0.2m.

3. Clean the bearing surface of the testing machine.

4. Place the specimen in the machine in such a manner that the load shall be applied to
the opposite sides of the cube cast.

5. Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.

6. Rotate the movable portion gently by hand so that it touches the top surface of the
specimen.

7. Apply the load gradually and continuously at the rate of 140kg/cm​2 per minute till the
specimen fails.

8. Record the maximum load and note any unusual features in the type of failure.

52
53
54
 Figure 3.1- Finding compressive strength

3.7 Tensile Strength

Apparatus

Compression testing machine weighing machine mixer, tamping rods

Procedure

1. Take mix proportion with water cement ratio of 0.45. Take material which will be
sufficient for casting three cylinders of the size 150 mm X 300 mm length. Cement
and fine aggregate to be first mixed at dry condition to uniform colour and then coarse
aggregate is added and mixed until coarse aggregate is uniformly distributed
throughout the batch. Now the water shall be added and the ingredients are mixed
until resulting concrete is uniform in colour. Mix at least for two minutes.

2. Pour concrete in moulds oiled with medium viscosity oil. Fill the cylinder mould in
four layers each of approximately 75 mm and tamp each layer for more than 35 times
with evenly distributed strokes.

3. Remove the surplus concrete from the top of the moulds with the help of the trowel.

55
4. Cover the moulds with wet mats and put the identification mark after about 3to 4
hours.

5. Remove the specimens from the mould after 24 hours and immerse them in water for
the final curing. The tests are usually conducted at the age of 7-28days. The time age
shall be calculated from the time of addition of water to the dry ingredients.

6. Test at least three specimens for each age of test as follows

56
 Figure 3.2 – Tensile test

3.8 Conclusion

In this chapter the physical properties of aggregates, cement and recycled aggregate is
discussed and found whether these are suitable for the mix design or not and also found
whether these material are according to Indian standard or not.

CHAPTER 4

MIX DESIGN
Concrete Mix Design Procedures
Mix design, or mix proportioning, is a process by which one arrives at the right
combination of cement, aggregate, water, and admixtures to produce concrete to satisfy
given specifications. It should be indicated that this process is considered an art rather
than a science.
5.6.1. Principal requirements for concrete

57
The main purpose of mix design is to obtain a product that will perform according to
predetermined requirements. These requirements include the following concrete
properties:
i). Quality (strength and durability)
Strength and permeability of hydrated cement paste are mutually related through the
capillary porosity that is controlled by w/c ratio and degree of hydration. Since durability
of concrete is controlled mainly by its permeability, there is a relationship between
strength and durability. Consequently, routine mix design usually focuses on strength and
workability only. When the concrete is exposed to special environmental conditions,
provisions on durability (e.g. limit on w/c ratio, minimum cement content, minimum
cover to steel reinforcement, etc) will also be considered.
ii).Workability
As we mentioned earlier, workability is a complicated concept for fresh concrete and
embodies various properties including consistency and cohesiveness. There is still not a
single test method that can fully reflect workability. Since the slump represents the ease
with which the concrete mixture will flow during placement, and the slump test is simple
and quantitative, most mix design procedures rely on slump as a crude index of
workability. Sometimes, the Vebe time may be employed.
iii).Economy
Among all the constituents of the concrete, the admixture has the highest unit cost,
followed by cement. The cost of aggregates is about one-tenth that of cement. Admixtures
are often used in small amounts, or they are required to achieve certain properties. To
minimize cost of concrete, the key consideration is the cement cost. Therefore, all
possible steps should be taken to reduce the cement content of a concrete mixture without
sacrificing the desirable properties, such as strength and durability. The scope for cost
reduction can be enlarged further by replacing a part of the portland cement with cheaper
materials such as fly ash or ground blast-furnace slag.
Fundamentals of mix design
i) w/c ratio

58
Water/cement ratio is the most important factor influencing various kinds of concrete
properties. For the strength of concern, the Abrams's law states:
f​c ​ = A/ B​1.5(w/c)
where f​c ​is the compressive strength, A is an empirical constant (usually about 100 MPa),
and B is a constant depends mostly on the cement properties (usually 4).
In practice, tables or charts are available for the determination of f​c ​from w/c, as well as
cement and aggregate type.
ii) cement content
At a given w/c ratio, increasing the cement content will increase workability and
durability. However, the cost and hydration heat will also be increased. To solve such a
problem, part of the cement can be replaced with fly ash or slag.
iii) major aggregate properties
a) maximum aggregate size:
The maximum aggregate size influences the paste requirement and optimum grading. The
larger the maximum size, the lower the paste requirement to achieve a given workability.
However, the larger the maximum aggregate size, the lower the strength.
The following considerations should be taken into account when choosing maximum
aggregate size: (a). For reinforced concrete, the maximum size should not exceed
one-fifth of the minimum dimension, or three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing
between bars. (b) For slabs on grade, the maximum size may not exceed one-third the
slab depth.
b) aggregate grading
The grading of aggregate is important to concrete because a good grading will decrease
the cement content and void in concrete and thus produce economical and better concrete.
For practical purpose it is adequate to follow grading limits specified by various
organizations (e.g. British Standards, ASTM), which are not only broad and therefore
economically feasible, but are also based on practical experience.

4.1 Introduction
59
One of the ultimate aim of studying the various properties of the materials of concrete
and hardened concrete is to enable a concrete technologist to design a concrete mix
design for a particular strength and durability. The design of concrete mix is not a simple
task on account of the widely varying properties of the materials. The conditions that
prevail at the site work in particular the exposure condition, and the condition that are
demanded for a particular work for which mix is designed. Design of concrete mix design
requires complete knowledge of various properties of these constituent materials, the
implications in case of change on these conditions at the site, the impact of the properties
of plastic concrete on the hardened concrete and the complicated inter-relationships
between the variables. All these make the task of mix design more complex and difficult.
Design of concrete mix needs not only the knowledge of material properties and
properties of concrete in plastic condition; it also needs wider knowledge and experience
of concreting. Even then the proportion of the materials of concrete found out at the
laboratory requires modification and readjustments to suit the field conditions.

Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting the suitable ingredients of
concrete and determining their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete
of certain minimum strength and durability as economically as possible. The first
objective is to archive the stipulated minimum strength and durability. The second
objective is to make the concrete in the most economical manner. Cost wise all concretes
primarily depends on two factors namely cost of the material and cost of material. Since
the cost of cement is many times more than cost of other ingredients, attention is mainly
directed to the use of as little cement as possible consistent with strength and durability.

4.2 Mix Design of Conventional Concrete (M25)

The following procedure is followed to design the concrete:

60
61
Step 1 : Target Mean Strength

= 25 ​+
f ​'​ c​ k​ ​=​ f ck +​1.65 ​×​σ 6.6

= 31.6

Table 4.1: Standard Deviation Values

62
Step 2: W/C Ratio

From the graph specified by IS10262, w/c is taken as 0.46 for 25 N/mm​2 compressive
strength of concrete.

From the Table 5 of Is 456 , for moderate condition, w/c ratio is 0.45

Hence, min of two values i.e., 0.45 is taken as w/c ratio.

Step 3: Water Content

From Table 2 of IS10262, assume 20mm of aggregate is been used and hence max water
content is 186 kg's, slum is assumed to be 100mm and hence water should be increases by
6%

Water content = 186 ​×​1.06 ​=​197.16

63
 Table 4.2: Water Content

Step 4: Calculation of Cement Content

w​
c​ ​=​ 0.45 Hence,

​ 197.16 =​ 438.13
c=
0.45

From table of IS456,

Min cement content = 320 and hence we use 438.13 Kg/m​3

64
Step 5: Calculation of Coarse Aggregate and Fine Aggregate

From IS10262 we have classified the zone of fine aggregate as Zone I and corresponding
volume of coarse aggregate for 20mm size is 0.62 if w/c is 0.5 but our w/c is 0.46 hence
the effective volume of coarse aggregate is 0.6, for w/c 0.42 volume of coarse aggregate
is found as 0.608 and hence volume of fine aggregate is 1 - 0.608 = 0.392

65
 Table 4.3: Zone Classification

Step 6: Mix Proportion

3
Volume of concrete = 1m​
438.13

Volume of cement = ​(3.2​ ​×​1000)

= 0.136m​3

3
Volume of water = 197.16 = 0.197m​

Absolute weight of all materials except total aggregates = 1 - (0.136 + 0.197) = 0.667

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Volume of coarse aggregate = 0.667×0.61×2.68×1000 = 1090.41 m​3

3
Volume of fine aggregate = 0.667×0.39×2.52×1000 = 655.52 m​

Step 7: ​Mix Ratio

438.13: 655.52: 1090.41

1:1.49:2.48

4.3 Mix Design of Recycled Concrete

The following procedure is followed to design the concrete

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Step 1: Target Mean Strength

f​ck​ '​​ =
​ ​ fck
​ ​ ​+​1.65​ ​×​σ

= 25 + 6.6

=31.6

W​
Step 2: ​ C​ Ratio

5. From the graph specified by IS10262, is taken as 0.46 for 25 N/mm​2 compressive
strength of concrete.

6. From the Table 5 of Is 456 , for moderate condition, w/c ratio is 0.45.

7. Hence, min of two values i.e., 0.45 is taken as w/c ratio.

Step 3: Water Content

From Table 2 of IS: 10262, assume 20mm of aggregate is been used and hence maxium
water content is 186 kg's.Slump is assumed to be 100mm and hence water should be
increases by 6% .​
Water content = 186 ​×​1.06 = 197.16

Step 4: Calculation of Cement Content

W​
C​ =0.45 hence c= 197.16/0.45 = 438.13

From table 2 of IS: 456, min cement content = 320 and hence we use 438.13 Kg/m​3

Step 5: Calculation of Coarse Aggregate and Fine Aggregate

From IS10262 we have classified the zone of fine aggregate as Zone I and corresponding

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volume of coarse aggregate for 20mm size is 0.62 if w/c is 0.5 but our w/c is 0.46 hence
the effective volume of coarse aggregate is 0.6, for w/c 0.42 volume of coarse aggregate
is found as 0.608 and hence volume of fine aggregate is 1 - 0.608 = 0.392

Step 6: Mix Proportion

Volume of concrete = 1m​3

438.13

Volume of cement = ​3.2​ ​×​1000

= 0.136m​3

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Volume of water = 197.16
3
= 0.197m​

Absolute volume total aggregates = 1 - (0.136 + 0.197)

3
= 0.667m​

Weight of coarse aggregate =

0.667×0.61×2.22×1000 =
903.25

Weight of fine aggregate =

0.667×0.39×2.52×1000 =
655.52

Step 7: ​Mix Ratio

438.13: 655.52: 903.25

1:1.49:2.06

4.4 Mix Design for Different Combinations of Natural and Recycled

Aggregates

All the steps above will be same in all the cases.Only the ratio changes as the effective
specific gravity changes i.e., only last two steps will change in each case.

4.4.1 Mix Ratio for Combination Of 50% CA And 50% RCA

Step 1: Effective Specific Gravity

70
 '​
G​ = (0.5×2.68) + (0.5×2.22) = 2.45

Step 2: Mix Proportion

Volume of concrete = 1m​3

438.13

Volume of cement = ​3.2​ ​×​1000

3
= 0.136m​

Volume of water = 197.16

3
= 0.197m​

Absolute volume total aggregates = 1 - (0.136 + 0.197)

= 0.667m​3

71
Weight of coarse aggregate = 0.667×0.61×2.45×1000

= 996.83

Weight of fine aggregate = 0.667×0.39×2.52×1000

= 655.52

Step 3: ​Mix Ratio

438.13: 655.52: 996.83

1:1.49:2.27

4.4.2 Mix Ratio for Combination Of 25% CA And 75% RCA

Step 1: Effective Specific Gravity

G= (0.25×2.68)+(0.75×2.22)

=2.335

Step 2: Mix Proportion

Volume of concrete = 1m​3

438.13 Volume of cement = ​3.2

×​1000

= 0.136m​3

3
Volume of water = 197.16 = 0.197m​

Absolute volume total aggregates = 1 - (0.136 + 0.197) = 0.667m​3

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Weight of coarse aggregate = 0.667×0.61×2.335×1000 = 950.04

Weight of fine aggregate = 0.667×0.39×2.52×1000 = 655.52

Step 3: ​Mix Ratio

438.13: 655.52: 950.04

1:1.49:2.16

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4.4.3 Mix Ratio for Combination Of 75% CA And 25% RCA

Step 1: Effective Specific Gravity

G = (0.75×2.68) + (0.25×2.22)

=2.565

Step 2: Mix Proportion

Volume of concrete = 1m​3

438.13

Volume of cement = ​3.2​ ​×​1000

3
= 0.136m​

Volume of water = 197.16 =

3
0.197m​

Absolute volume total aggregates = 1 - (0.136 + 0.197)

= 0.667m​3

Weight of coarse aggregate = 0.667×0.61×2.565×1000

= 1043.62

Weight of fine aggregate = 0.667×0.39×2.52×1000

= 655.52

Step 3: ​Mix Ratio

438.13: 655.52: 1043.62

1:1.49:2.38
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4.5 Conclusion

This chapter gives us the clear idea on the variation of effective specific gravity of the
material and variation of the mix ratio accordingly, these ratios are useful to caste cubes
and cylinders which are used for finding the compressive strength and the tensile strength
respectively.

CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the compressive test results, cubes of different mixes which are
discussed earlier, for each mix design 6 cubes are made so that tests on compression
can be done on two cubes for 7 days, 14 days and 28 days and average value is taken as
compressive strength and is considered generally it is because to minimize the error's.

5.2 Test results

Table 5.1: Physical Properties

Property Natural Recycled Fine cement

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 Aggregates aggregates aggregates
Specific gravity 2.68 2.22 2.52 3.2

water absorption 0.28% 0.35% - -

Bulk density 1680kg/m​3 1430kg/m​3 1487.4kg/m​3 -

Fineness - - - 92.7%

Initial setting time - - - 29min

As we discussed the various test procedures in the above chapter, by following those
procedures the tests are conducted. Test results of various tests for different materials
are mentioned in the table 5.1. As per code specifications obtained test results are
within the limits. Hence we can conclude that the physical conditions of taken
materials are good.

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5.3 Compressive Test Results

Table 5.2: Compressive Strength

Type of concrete 7 days 14 days 21 days

CA 18.82 22.4 27.9

RCA 17.84 19.04 25.77

50%RCA+50%CA 16.29 20.01 24.06

25%RCA+75%CA 18.14 19.54 -

75%RCA+25%CA 14.05 15.6 -

5.4 Comparative Graphs

7 Days Strength
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
7 Days Strength
6
4

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 2
0
100% CA 25 % RCA + 50% CA + 75 % RCA + 100% RCA
70% CA 50% RCA 25% CA

Graph 5.1 – 7 Days strength of different proportions of concrete

From the table 5.2, compressive strength of different combinations of concrete are
found out for 7 days and those values are plotted in the above graph i.e., in figure 5.1.
By observing the graph we can conclude that 25% replacement of RCA with CA gives
the better strength when compared to other combinations.

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 14 Days Strength
25

20

15

10
14 Days Strength
5

0
100% CA 25% CA + 50% CA + 75% RCA + 100% RCA
75% RCA 50%RCA 25% CA

Graph 5.2 – 14 Days strength of different proportions of concrete

From the table 5.2, compressive strength of different combinations of concrete are found
out for 14 days and those values are plotted in the above graph i.e., in figure 5.2. By
observing the graph we can conclude that 50% replacement of RCA with CA gives the
better strength when compared to other combinations.

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 21 Days Strength
30

25

20
15
21 Days Strength
10
5
0

100%
100% CA 50 % CA + 50% RCA
RCA

Graph 5.3 – 21 Days strength of different proportions of concrete

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From the table 5.2, compressive strength of different combinations of concrete are
found out for 21 days and those values are plotted in the above graph i.e., in figure 5.3.
By observing the graph we can conclude that 50% replacement of RCA with CA gives
the better strength when compared to other combinations.

5.5 Tensile Strength

Table 5.3: Tensile Strengths

CA 50% CA + 50% RCA RCA

21 days strength 3.4 3.52 3.02

21 Days Strength
3.6

3.5

3.4

3.3

3.2
3.1
28 Days Strength
3
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 2.9

2.8

2.7

CA 50% CA + 50% RCA RCA

Graph 5.4 – 21 Days tensile strength of different proportions of concrete

From the table 5.3, tensile strength of different combinations of concrete are found out
for 21 days and those values are plotted in the above graph i.e., in figure 5.4. By
observing the graph we can conclude that 50% replacement of RCA with CA gives the
better strength when compared to other combinations.

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5.6 Conclusion

The results of the specific gravity, density and other physical properties of the materials
are found to be within the limits specified by the IS code and hence these materials can be
used in the construction materials.

From the above analysis we conclude that replacement of CA with RCA upto 50%
can be allowed as the results shows the strength is almost same when compared with
conventional mix, hence this replacement can be done in the construction industry this
makes the construction more economical and feasible to the mankind.

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 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

6.1 Summary

Concrete is a combination of Cement, Natural sand, and Aggregates. Cement is a binding

property and a mixture of several chemical compounds. Aggregates are granites which are
indigenous rocks which are excessively available. Natural sand is river sand which is

84
declining day by day and its utilization is increasing day by day. Because of this reason it
is very important to find an alternative for this problem.

Dismantled RCC structure produce heavy concrete waste is a waste. This is

abundantly available and usually dumped in the earth’s crust, due to which fertility of the
soil decrease and land becomes use less, to avoid this kind of problems concrete waste
can be reused in the concrete and can be used in construction.

Concrete waste can be partially replaced as coarse aggregate in construction.

Based upon the requirement we can change the % of CA replaced by RCA so that the
construction becomes economical, we can also use 100% RCA as CA for concrete walls
used as partisan walls as there will be no loads on the structure.

Demolished aggregate is collected from site and then this aggregate is broken into
20mm size coarse aggregate and then different parameters have to be evaluated such as
specific gravity, sieve analysis for natural sand as. Other parameters like water absorption
test, fineness of cement are evaluated for aggregates and cement. These all parameters are
required in order to obtain mix design of concrete moulds. When mix design is evaluated
as per IS code, concrete moulds are prepared and compressive strength of them is known
for every 3, 7, and 21days, tensile strength is found for 21 days.

With every 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% replacement of RCA with CA,
compressive strength has to be evolved, and comparative studies have to be made
between conventional concrete and partially replaced concrete.

85
6.2 Conclusion

1. Maximum Compressive strength of concrete increased by 55% at 40%

replacement of fine aggregate by copper slag, and up to 75% replacement, concrete gain
more strength than control mix concrete strength.

2. It is observed that for all percentage replacement of fine aggregate by Copper slag
the flexural strength of concrete is more than control mix.

3. It is observed that, the flexural strength of concrete at 28 days is higher than

design mix (Without replacement) for 20% replacement of fine aggregate by Copper slag,
the flexural strength of concrete is increased by 14%. This also indicates flexural strength
is more for all percentage replacements than design mix.

4. Compressive strength and flexural Strength is increased due to high toughness of

Copper slag.

Various tests conducted on RCA are compared with Indian code and the results are
satisfactory and hence these can be used as aggregates.

Due to use of RCA in construction energy, cost of transportation is saved.

Up to 50% replacing of RCA we get satisfactory strength.

Production cost decreases remarkably.

Due to lack of treatment of RCA adequate strength is not archived but by applying
some treatment processes we can further improve the strength of the RCA.

Tensile test shows concrete has good tensile strength when replaced 50%.

Water absorption of RCA is high when compared with conventional aggregate.

86
The results of compression & split-tensile test indicated that the strength of concrete
increases with respect to the percentage of slag added by weight of fine aggregate upto
40% of additions.
The recommended percentage replacement of sand by copper slag is 40%.
The leachant studies revealed that the addition of slag does not paves way for leaching of
harmful elements like Copper (Cu) and Iron (Fe) present in slag in concrete. Thus, It does
not pose any environmental problem.

6.3 Future Scope

Further we can still investigate whether the increase in the strength of concrete is
decreasing or increasing because as we are using RCA due to presents of some chemical
impurities there may be a chance of decrease in the strength suddenly so by further
investigation we can find the faults and hence we can find out some treatment for that in
the initial stage and hence this type of mix can be feasible in the future.

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