7

HYDROCARBON
TRANSPORT
AND GAS STORAGE

Transport by pipeline
7.1.1 General observations
on the hydrocarbon
transport
Introduction
Starting from the second half of the twentieth
century, the level of development in society has
been conditioned by and in correlation with the
availability of energy, which calls for a distribution
network particularly in those areas of the Western
world where population density is high. In this
context, liquid hydrocarbons and natural gas play a
prominent role, and their transport from the areas of
production to the market is a factor of strategic
relevance, and is sometimes considered to be the
cause of political instability in the regions traversed
(Rifkin, 2002).
The need to transport hydrocarbons over long
distances is usually resolved by means of two
solutions, i.e. transport by tanks, overland (on roads
or railways) and by sea (in tankers); and transport
through pipelines across the country, in accordance
with the market principles of supply and demand and
sometimes across the sea. The choice between the two
transport technologies depends on the investment and
operating costs and on the certainty of the continuity
of the energy supply, both in technical terms
(with particular emphasis on the reliability of the
infrastructure) and in strategic terms, in relation to the
political crises that arose at the beginning of the third
millennium in those parts of the earth richest in
hydrocarbons (the Middle East, Russia and other
ex-Soviet countries). The tank solution is flexible,
with moderate investment costs due, largely, to the
infrastructure available, such as sufficiently suitable
roads and railways, which are offset, however, by very
high operating costs (Kennedy, 1984). Flexibility, in
particular the freedom of the choice of market from
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7.1
which to obtain supplies of hydrocarbons and, to a
certain extent, the freedom of where to locate
reception and storage terminals for the product, is
certainly a relevant factor in the choice, but can be
outweighed by problems of security and
environmental impact that are sometimes highly
critical issues. The tank solution is often adopted for
transport of liquid hydrocarbons over medium/short
overland distances and, increasingly in recent years,
over long overseas distances for natural gas liquefied
by means of thermo-physical processes. The facilities
dedicated to transport by road or rail already being in
place, the tank solution is inevitably adopted for
overland transport of liquid products over long
distances, between remote continental regions and
coastal consumers. The pipeline solution is certainly
an inflexible option in comparison with the foregoing
and calls for very high initial investment, against
which, however, operating costs are not particularly
high. Due to the permanent nature of a pipeline’s
infrastructure, the political stability of the area to be
traversed is a decisive factor in the choice of this
option. In fact, even if buried or under sea (to a
lesser extent), a pipeline is always vulnerable, being
fixed, recognizable and of great length, making
active and effective protection across hostile
territory unfeasible.
Currently, technology is focussed primarily on
long-distance transport of hydrocarbons, in view of
the fact that new resources are nearly always found
far from the markets, for example, in arctic and sub-
arctic zones or in the innermost areas of the
continents. Long-distance transport becomes a
crucial factor in the exploration strategy of the
international oil companies, in terms of its technical
feasibility and the economic competitiveness of the
available transport solution. Special mention must be
made of the exploitation of natural gas, a topic much
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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
discussed in the various international forums on
energy at the start of the twenty-first century, as there
is a consensus that the energy policies is moving
away from the use of fuel oil towards an increasing
use of natural gas, both to meet the growing demand
for energy in the face of the simultaneous reduction
in liquid stocks, and also because the environmental
impact resulting from the combustion of natural gas
is held to be tenable.
The hydrocarbons exploration and production
industry has always considered long-distance transport
of natural gas uncompetitive because of the high
transport costs per unit of mass (and therefore of
energy) compared with liquid hydrocarbons, which for
the same volume have a significantly higher heat
capacity. This has led to a limiting of the exploration
in search of reservoirs of natural gas itself, as a result
of which, the gas availability figures currently
presented by the oil industry, by default, are
approximate. The energy crisis and the international
tensions in the traditional markets at the end of the
twentieth century have, however, led to a review of the
position by oil companies. Gas transport, particularly
in large quantities (for example 10-20 billion cubic
metres per year) over long distances, through pipelines
whose costs are optimised and which offer long-term
reliability, is becoming a central argument in the plans
for development of gas transport from remote regions,
such as the arctic regions and the innermost regions of
the Euro-Asiatic continent. Fig. 1 shows the best
options for bringing natural gas to the market, in
relation to distance and volume. It is a schedule used
by many oil companies, based on in-depth studies
carried out in various contexts (energy, finance,
politics) to select the most appropriate technologies
for the exploitation of gas fields located
in remote regions.
25
gas volume (109 Sm3/year)
natural gas
20 pipeline
15
10
gas to liquids
5 syndiesel, dimethyl ether, methanol
AC/DC current
0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000
distance (km)
Fig. 1. The industry’s options for transport
gas to market, based on distance
and volume.
772
The flexibility of the system of transport by tanker,
based on onshore liquefaction and regasification
plants, has to be evaluated against the economy of
long-distance natural gas transport by pipeline.
Transmission by pipeline uses no more than 10% of
the energy contained in the gas transported, compared
with the 30% used in the liquefied gas option.
Moreover, a comparative analysis of the costs
highlights that for long-distance pipelines the actual
cost of transport in the year 2000 varied between
US$1.40 and US$1.80 per unit of energy transported
(1 million BTU), while the transport cost of liquefied
natural gas was in the order of US$2.50-2.70 for the
same amount of energy transported.
Brief historical outline
The general public is not particularly aware of the
transport of hydrocarbons by pipeline because the
pipelines are generally buried or under sea and do not
interfere, or at least should not interfere, with human
activities. It comes to light only when an accident
occurs which causes damage to property or public
health. For those working in the hydrocarbons
industry, pipelines are an investment to be very
carefully managed, as they are support elements of a
State’s energy policies, both when they are a principle
means of importation from foreign markets, and when
they are part of a distribution network for a finished
product in the country.
The use of pipelines for the transport of fluids has
a long history. In Mesopotamia and in Egypt, 5,000
years before Christ, clay pipes were used for irrigation
and drainage purposes. In China, in the Fifth century
BC, bamboo pipes wrapped in cloth impregnated
with wax were used to transport natural gas to
Beijing, the capital of the empire, for the purpose of
illumination. The Romans, during the golden age of
the empire, when creating large infrastructure
components such as the aqueducts, used lead pipes in
the most important branches of the network. Up to the
Eighteenth century, particularly in the architecture
and urban development of the Renaissance era, many
technically interesting examples of the use of pipes
for hydraulic connections can be found, both for the
LNG transporting of water and for the transporting of
hydrocarbons used in public lighting, but using
technologies that were not different from those used
by the Romans. A significant advance was made, in
the Eighteenth century, with the introduction of pipes
in melted iron for aqueducts and sewers, and
5,000 6,000 sometimes for gas transport for lighting. In 1879,
following the discovery of an oil field in
Pennsylvania, a first pipeline was laid, with a
diameter of 15 cm, for the oil transport across the
state over a distance of about 180 km. In the same
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

area, nine years later, another line of 20 cm diameter
and about 120 km in length was laid for natural gas
transport from Pennsylvania to the state of New York.
It was the start of an industry that, in the years at the
end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the
twentieth centuries, adopted highly innovative
solutions principally in the United States, in
Venezuela and in the area to the west of the Caspian
Sea. In those years, the heavy engineering industry
started to produce high resistance steel pipes, that at
the time incorporated screw joints which were
complex and not very efficient for pipelines set up for
long distance transport of hydrocarbons. The
introduction of submerged arc welding, around the
year 1920, substantially changed the scenario and
from then began the production of large diameter
pipelines, which we can call modern.
The majority of the pipelines in operation today
were produced after the Second World War, often in
response to a country’s very particular needs. This is
what happened, for example, in the United States
where, during the Second World War, between 1942
and 1943, the Big Inch and the Little Big Inch were
constructed for the transport of fuel oil from Texas to
the ports on the North-East coast, so as to avoid the
danger of attacks on tankers by German submarines.
The Arab oil embargo of 1974, following the Middle
East crisis provoked by the Yom Kippur War,
accelerated the construction of the pipeline for
transport of fuel oil from the rich reservoirs of
Prudhoe Bay, in the part of Northern Alaska beside the
Beaufort Sea, to the terminal of Valdez, in the extreme
south of Alaska on the Pacific Ocean, to which tankers
could have access even in winter (Williams, 1999). At
present, given the political instability of the Middle
East, the oil companies are moving towards the
exploitation of offshore gas fields in the Canadian
arctic with transmission to the United States by
pipelines that traverse areas which are difficult and
particularly sensitive from an environmental point of
view. (Cope, 2004).
While, in the first instance, we see only the
acceleration of the development of an already-planned
facility, the second and third instances are projects
which present a challenge for the technology of the
day. In the case of the so-called Trans-Alaska Pipeline,
technology and engineering were heavily involved, for
the first time, in the construction of a pipeline in order
to overcome the difficulties presented by the project,
such as permafrost, mountainous and volcanic areas,
high seismic risk, a very vulnerable environment, etc.
The result has certainly been satisfying (30 years of
operation confirm that), beyond justifying the highest
costs ever incurred in the completion of such a
structure. It is commonly acknowledged that this
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TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
project initiated the challenge of laying sub sea
pipelines over deep seabeds, as shown by the
technological initiatives undertaken in the Seventies in
this sector of the oil industry (resulting in the
completion of three pipelines in the Mediterranean
that reached the depth of about 600 m, at that time
considered almost abyss-like for sub sea pipelines).
The development of the network of pipelines in
Europe (including Russia) has been much more
gradual than in the United States, and not necessarily
linked to important political events. A particular case
worthy of mention is Italy, which in the Seventies
became the first country in the Western world to move
towards an energy policy based on methane gas, with
the construction of the first gas transport lines across
the deep seabeds of the Mediterranean (the Sicilian
Channel and the Straits of Messina).
When speaking of sub sea pipelines, we are usually
referring to:
• Lines dedicated to the transport of the product
(generally multiphase or oil), from a platform to a
marine terminal for treatment and subsequent
exportation, or from a platform to an onshore
terminal (oil and gas, sometimes multiphase). The
lengths are less than 100 km, for diameters ranging
from 12'' to 18'' (ca. 30.5-45.7 cm).
• Lines crossing the great marine basins, such as the
Mediterranean and the North Sea, from one shore
to another (for example, between North Africa and
Sicily, between Norway and the rest of northern
Europe); these are long lines for gas transport, over
distances between 100 and 1,000 km, and of large
diameter, between 20'' and 44'' (ca. 50.8-112 cm).
There are also subsea pipelines linking the
different areas into which a very large field is
subdivided for extraction; they transport oil and/or gas
(sometimes a multiphase product), are of small
diameter, between 4'' (ca. 10.2 cm) and 16'' (ca. 40.6
cm), and are less than 10 km long.
The oldest sub sea pipelines were for discharges
into the sea, the first of which were set up in the
nineteenth century. The first usages in the
hydrocarbons industry were short lines for loading and
unloading, that were built onshore and then towed into
position and lowered onto the seabed with the help of
barges and using not particularly sophisticated
equipment. This is a technology still in use for such
purposes, obviously enhanced by more sophisticated
and powerful equipment. The industry for the
exploitation of offshore oil and gas fields is, however,
relatively recent. The first sub sea pipelines were
installed in the immediate post-war period, in the Gulf
of Maracaibo (Venezuela) and in the Caspian Sea.
They were short, of small diameter and laid in
relatively shallow waters. The need for hydrocarbon
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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
transport over longer distances and deeper waters
came immediately afterwards. On this topic, what was
done during the Second World War in connection with
the landing of Anglo-American troops in Normandy, is
relevant. The military asked a British oil company, that
would later become British Petroleum, to install a
pipeline between Great Britain and France across the
English Channel. During the study for the project,
code-named PLUTO (Pipe Line Under The Ocean),
two types of pipeline were considered: one similar to a
sub sea was a lead pipe, reinforced on the outer side by
layers of steel wire covered with a resinous matrix; the
other consisting of normal steel pipe with butt welds
and without any anticorrosion protection (Searle,
1995). The choice fell on the former and the tests were
carried out rapidly in just a few weeks. The reinforced
lead pipe was constructed onshore and coiled onto
floating spools which were towed by tugboats and
from which it was uncoiled and laid onto the seabed.
The pipeline connected England’s Isle of Wight to the
Cotentin peninsular in France. The whole laying
operation took just 10 hours (an excellent performance
even by current standards), and even today there is talk
about the effectiveness of the PLUTO solution
compared with transport through tankers, in the ports
brought back into operation immediately after the
landings, by the military engineers of the Allies.
Today, when talking about transport of
hydrocarbons in sub sea pipelines in deep waters over
long distances, it is usually with reference to gas,
which is transmitted at high pressure, always above
10 MPa, so as to guarantee high flow rates, using
diameters which are not particularly big and
therefore not difficult to install with the equipment
available (Bruschi, 2002). Even if suitable treated to
avoid problems of corrosion, the transport of oil over
long distances sub sea is limited by pumping issues,
which require the use of intermediate pumping
stations, and therefore costs that make such transport
uncompetitive compared with traditional transport by
tankers. The problem of thrust becomes almost
insurmountable when the seabed to be crossed is
particularly irregular, with repeated steep slopes
(typical examples being the profiles of the pipelines
that cross the Mediterranean); for this reason the only
examples of sub sea oil pipelines of any significant
length are found in the North Sea, on routes that
feature a particularly even ascent between
the 70 m of the Ekofisk production basin in the
Norwegian sector of the North Sea, and the terminal
in Great Britain.
Types and classifications of pipelines
A pipeline is a system that calls for a variety of
components such as valves, junction elements,
774
pumps (liquids) and compressors (gas), flow metres,
inspection devices, transducers, cathodic protection,
control systems, etc. Fig. 2 shows an outline of a
pipeline transport system with the various
components highlighted. Figs. 3 and 4 show the flow
chart of the decision-making process that leads to
the construction of a pipeline for transport of the
product from a field in production: the former shows
the development of the various engineering phases
that lead to the construction of an exportation
pipeline; the latter shows the interaction between the
various disciplines that participate in the
development of an exportation pipeline project.
The exportation pipelines that start at a pumping
station can be classified on the basis of:
• Environment to be crossed, for example, overland
pipelines or sub sea pipelines, with sub-categories
that further qualify the principal characteristics
such as the elevation profile, the nature of the
terrain, etc.
• Product transported, whether liquid, gas or
multiphase, with sub-categories that qualify the
fluidodynamics of the transport such as pressure,
temperature, velocity, etc.
• The materials with which they will be constructed,
the typical carbon-manganese steel or special
wells compression stations
gathering and injection
flow lines
terminal
users users
oil and gas
treatment
distribution
plant piping
exportation
(transportation)
pipelines
distribution
users users
Fig. 2. Schematic of the elements of a transport
system, showing the various components.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE

definition phase execution phase

basic design
detail engineering

development plans

conceptual design
material supply

project budget

project timing
construction
data for basic design

project specifications
installation

risk analysis
tests

development of bidding process

contractual strategy

technical strategy

pre-qualifications
commercial strategy
bid contents
and structure
timing strategy
bid evaluation
interface strategy

Fig. 3. The phases of the development of a pipeline project.

corrosion resistant alloys, and the weldings with route safety availability
which they will be assembled.
• The technologies used in the construction, in
particular those relating to the laying operation and hydraulics
the work needed for burial, both for overland and
for sub sea pipelines. environment
The factors that differentiate a pipeline in
comparison with other transport systems are: mechanics
• Its operation, in relation to the transport cost of
materials corrosion
the units of energy and of the transport capacity and protection
across environments that may be particularly
hostile.
crossings terminals tests instrumental
• The environment which does not have any impact and stations control
during operation, once the operations relating to
the construction phase of a pipeline are completed project
solution
(and which call for particular care, especially in the
most vulnerable environments). management
solution
• Safety, highlighted by satisfactory breakdown rates
both as far as transport of liquid products is Fig. 4. The disciplines involved
concerned and that of gas; the transmission of gas in the creation of an oil
at high pressure can, however, present problems in and gas pipeline.

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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
densely populated areas, and can only be overcome
by the use of high quality materials, careful
construction planning in terms of timing and
taking respect for the area, and by careful
management of the transport to guarantee the
safety of the environment, of property and of
health.
The engineering involved in the construction of
pipelines relates to:
• Optimization of the pumping system, taking into
account the elevation profile of the route, the
diameters that can be installed, the distance to be
covered, the flow rate to be guaranteed.
• Analysis of the environment, as far as the
hydrology, morphology and geoseismology is
concerned, the ground crossed and its stability, and
the environmental conditions close to the
foundation.
• A preliminary sizing and choice of materials, in
relation to the product to be transported and the
mechanical performances required for the
operation and the environment.
• Planning of the installation, taking into account
both the ability to follow a planned trench and the
integrity of the pipeline during the laydown
operations, particularly for sub sea pipelines on
which the installation process foresee high stresses
in terms of external pressure; planning must take
into account uneven seabeds where the pipeline has
to be laid, thus avoiding having it suspended for
long stretches.
• The planning of its operation which, on the basis of
the foreseeable pressure and temperature profiles
of the fluid transported, establishes the pipeline’s
capacity to support the operating loads and the
additional environmental loads.
• Design of the control system for the transport
process and the functional planning of the
procedures and of the equipment for inspection and
the ordinary and extraordinary maintenance of the
pipeline.
The level of the planning is always correlated to
the level of knowledge of the environmental
conditions and is dependent on the vulnerability
of the environment to be traversed, on the peculiarities
of the optimal route, the difficulties of
the operating conditions, and the strategic importance.
Safety, consequences of fluid losses and risk
The safety of the hydrocarbons transport in
pipelines is measured on the basis of the probability of
the occurrence of damage that can cause leakage of
the contents, by partial cracks that appear on the walls
(immediately noticeable during construction or during
the hydraulic test, during operation following normal
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instrumental measurements for checking the flow in
the pumping station and at the reception terminal, at
the conclusion of a routine inspection or an
extraordinary inspection carried out because of
exceptional environmental events or of human
activity), or even by large scale evidence of breakage
and/or bursting.
The consequences of the loss of a product have
to do with the environment; those connected with
the loss of liquid products are particularly serious
(pollution of the landscape and water table, impact
on flora and fauna, disruption of human activities
locally as a result of the passage of the pipeline, or
globally, in connection with product availability,
injury or death of pipeline employees or of third
parties involved accidentally, etc.). In the case of
gas losses, the danger of explosion and fire
significantly increases the potential effect on nearby
human activities, and hence the consequences to the
health of employees and of whoever works in the
vicinity (incidents of gas leaks with explosion
and/or fire have occurred in the United States and
in Europe).
Pipeline transport risk is defined as the product of
the probability of leakage or bursting and the
magnitude of the consequences of the same:
• In the case of transmission of gas, the magnitude is
measured from the volume of gas that could be
released into the atmosphere; for this reason shut-
off valves are placed at regular intervals along the
pipeline depending on the environmental and
social characteristics of the areas traversed.
• In the case of transport of liquid, the magnitude of
the consequences is tied to the volume released in
a unit of time, to the atmospheric and hydraulic
conditions of the locality where the leakage takes
place (such as the distance from the coast for sub
sea pipelines), to the time required and the
technology available for stopping the leak and for
environmental recovery, again in relation to the
natural and social characteristics of the area
traversed.
Also to be taken into consideration, are the
consequences that an incident can have for the
reputation of the company responsible for the
transport, which can translate into a financial
impact equal to the cost of the incident itself and
that can become a primary element in the risk
analysis carried out by the pipeline operator. In the
1990s, the quantitative risk analyses (defined, as
already stated, as the product of the probability of
the occurrence of an incident and the magnitude of
the consequences resulting from it) became a
necessary step in pipeline planning involving
multidisciplinary expertise, such as:
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

• Expertise in environmental fluidodynamics, in the
chemistry and thermodynamics of reactions.
• Expertise in product diffusion physics for the study
of consequences, in the mechanics of the processes
of interference and damage, in geotechnics and the
physics/chemistry of the environment where
damage occurs, in analysis of structural integrity,
in metallurgy and in susceptibility to the
environment of the materials, in active and passive
protection etc., for the study of safety and hence of
structural integrity.
The safety of hydrocarbon transport by pipeline
falls within the competence of the planners, and is
evaluated in two ways:
• Analytically, when the quantitative safety
requirements to be followed in a project are
identified (in the functional tests, expressed with
specific equations, the minimum requirements are
correlated, through a series of safety coefficients,
to the probability of the occurrence of a
malfunction that would lead to measurable damage
and/or breakage with associated leakage of the
product) in relation to the type of product being
transported, to the anticipated fabrication and
construction technologies, to the operating
conditions and monitoring of the relevant
parameters, and to the environmental and social
conditions of the region to be traversed.
• Consumptively, when the results of incidents that
have occurred during construction and operation
over the years in similar pipelines, and in the
various technological, operative and environmental
contexts, are collected and processed, by type and
frequency.
With reference to the analytical method, a design
based on standards that explicitly pursue quantitative
safety objectives, through a series of safety factors
based on the probability of not exceeding the
operating conditions, guarantees a nominal safety to
the project. Sometimes the request for specific checks
not covered by the standard, or the necessity to check
the safety level of a pipeline in operation, calls for a
complete probability analysis, where:
• The relevant operating conditions are identified,
and hence the functional relationships between the
project parameters, making it possible to interpret
the performances by means of models.
• For each of the functional relationships identified,
the uncertainties that influence the relevant
parameters in describing the transition from an
operational condition to a non-operational condition
are analysed, and the statistical distributions and
their relevant parameters are defined on the basis of
information such as experimental comparisons,
qualification tests and design.
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• The measurements of uncertainty are used both to
calculate the probability of exceeding the limit of
an operating condition, and to calibrate safety
factors to apply to the individual project
parameters, so that the probabilities of exceeding
the operating condition limit become less than a
certain target value.
The above matters were introduced in the 1990s, in
particular for sub sea pipelines, and have become
current in the development of frontier projects planned
in the first decade of the third millennium (the projects
in Sakhalin Island and in North America).
As regards checking the performance of pipelines
over time, based on the analyses of the data of
incidents that occurred during some 30 years of
operation of modern pipelines (1970-2000),
government and private bodies have worked for years
to gather such data and to rationalize them for critical
analysis. In Europe (Bruschi, 2002) and in the United
States, the data collected provides a complete picture
of the adequacy of the technology employed in the
industry in the sector under consideration, consistent
with what is considered acceptable in the industry. In
general, the unit of measurement for performance is
expressed as the number of incidents per year per
kilometre of pipeline. For example, in the database of
EGIG (European Gas pipeline Incident data Group;
Bruschi, 2002) there are about 1,060 incidents
documented for a total exposure of 2.4 million km per
year. In the database of CONCAWE (CONservation
of Clean Air and Water in Europe) a total of 394
incidents are documented, for a total exposure of
700,000 km per year. The DOT/OPS/RSPA
(Department of Transport, Office of Pipeline Safety,
Research and Special Program Administration)
database of the United States covers incidents on
pipelines for transport of oil and gas, both undersea
and overland, including pumping and measurement
stations. For overland pipelines, external interference
from human activities (excavations for work on civil
utilities, ploughing and water wells in agricultural
activity) is, by far, the most frequent cause of
incidents, especially in the case of small diameter
pipelines. The covering is a critical factor, together
with the thickness of the pipeline and its location,
rural, suburban or urban. Other relevant causes are
corrosion, mechanical causes (principally during the
construction phase), operational errors and events of
nature.
It is difficult to make comparative analyses
between the various databases, both because often the
definition of an incident is not consistent and the
data on the incidents is not available at the same level
of detail, and because of the diversity of each
pipeline in terms of technology, project criteria,
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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
equipment for construction and management, and
operating and environmental conditions. A weighted
average of the transport performances, extracted from
the statistics of the various databases, gives the
following indications in terms of incidents per year
per km of pipeline during the period 1970-2000: in
the case of gas pipelines, the rate of breakdowns has
gone down from 0.8-1.5 to 0.15-0.21 per 1,000 km of
pipeline; in the case of oil pipelines, the rate of
breakdowns has gone down from 1.2-1.8 to 0.3-0.6
per 1,000 km of pipeline. These values, when
compared with those derived from the chemical and
energy industries, prove very satisfactory and bear
witness to the role played over the years by the
technological innovation of the petroleum products
transport industry.
For sub sea pipelines, the database set up by the
British government body HSE (Health, Safety and
Environment) relating to sub sea pipelines in the North
Sea is very detailed, especially regarding incidents
occurring from the 1990s onward. A total of 542
incidents are documented: 396 relate to pipelines in
operation (of which 209 were in rigid steel pipelines
and the others in flexible pipelines, constructed in
plastic with metal reinforced casing and break points
such as valves and flanges); 65 of these incidents led
to a leakage of the product. As in the case of overland
pipelines, a large number of the incidents was caused
by corrosion (40%) and external interference
(39%), while only 6% resulted from environmental
causes, notwithstanding the severe climatic conditions
in the North Sea. These statistics refer to an exposure
of about 100,000-1,000,000 km per year and, although
they are much more detailed than the corresponding
ones for overland pipelines, they are nevertheless
inadequate for defining an objective breakdown rate
for general application to risk analyses, because they
are limited by:
• Lack of consistency of the sample in terms of
technology, materials and construction equipment,
of project criteria, of operating conditions and
environmental conditions (shallow waters, deep
waters, etc.).
• Definition of breakage (leakage or interruption of
transmission) and/or availability of transport
following the incident.
However, a very strong signal can be picked up
from these data, noticeable also in those relating to
overland pipelines, regarding the role of the thickness
of the pipe in the pipeline’s ability to withstand the
most frequent incidents: large diameter, high pressure
and extra thick pipes, provide greater safety, but an
increase in thickness, usually adopted nearby safety
zones or where activities by employees are carried out,
does not, in itself, guarantee safety. This means that
778
along a great part of the route, an increased thickness
of steel avoids loss of product caused by incidents, but
is not sufficient to avoid incidents where high levels of
human activity are lacking in adequate procedures.
7.1.2 Routes across
the environments
Route selection for overland pipelines
The execution of a pipeline for the transport of
hydrocarbons is influenced by the characteristics of
the terrain which it has to traverse and by the need to
minimize the impact on the environment, especially
during construction. The environmental considerations
concerning the area in question relate to
hydrogeomorphological issues, vegetation and the
landscape, but also include statutory restrictions in
force in the region. The choice of the best route must
reconcile the technical-economic requirements with
the need to protect the places through which it passes,
within the limits of the variations of the parameters
which determine its technical-economic feasibility.
The process of optimization is carried out through
a series of phases involving proposals, checks and
verifications (Mohitpour et al., 2000), which include
the preliminary selection of the shortest route based on
the study of maps and aerial photographs, the critical
evaluation and fine-tuning of the proposed path, the
defining of the most promising route, the visual and
instrumental inspection of the same, and the
engineering analysis and the legal processes necessary
to obtain the various permits. A critical aspect of the
selection process concerns the constraints in force in
the area which rule out certain stretches of the route
and impose a less than optimal solution from an
economic and technical point of view, while still
falling within the limits of acceptability. Gathering of
available maps of the area under examination, possibly
at a scale of 1:50,000, as well as aerial photographs is
very important. The latest technology has made
extremely sophisticated satellite imagery available
with varying degrees of detail, which make the map-
based engineering phase much more effective than was
previously possible. In addition to geographical maps,
thematic maps are also available (Champlin, 1973)
which make it possible to define the overall nature of
the area being traversed from a variety of points of
view, highlighting the existence of limiting factors.
The preliminary selection generally leads to tracing of
various possible routes, which avoid the critical areas
and take full advantage of the routes which feature
conditions favourable to the realization and operation
of the pipeline.
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 TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE

the presence of water courses and the vegetation. In

rural areas any agricultural zones are identified,
specifying the type of agriculture. Moreover,
identification is made of any areas which are sensitive
from an environmental point of view or of particular
historical and archaeological interest, the presence of
structures, buildings or services, the availability of
existing corridors and the possibility of access by
work-site vehicles, also taking account of seasonally-
related construction problems. Based on this, all the
alignments of the course and the safe distances from
roads and services are established. Today, the visual
survey and the preparation for the final design phase
Fig. 5. Example of a digital image of the territory are supported by the use of a Geographic Information
from a satellite map (courtesy of R. Bruschi). System (GIS), which makes it possible to identify a
position and analyse objects and events present on the
Earth’s surface (Fig. 5). This technology brings
The elements which influence the choice are together the capability of recording and storing data
manifold and varied in nature, of both legally- with the ability to process them through statistical
restrictive and technological character. In the case of analysis, and makes it possible to report the results in
rivers, torrents, lakes and marshes for example, it is the form of thematic maps or tables which can be
imperative to avoid construction across areas which
could be affected by erosion or in areas in which
natural evolution could, over time, impact on the
pipeline. From the morphological and physiographical
point of view, routes across steep slopes are to be
avoided as is terrain which might be eroded or is too
tight for normal digging operations for the trench in
which the pipeline is to be laid. The area’s seismicity
and the presence of any faults (Champlin, 1973) can be
limiting factors. As far as environmental considerations
are concerned, areas of faunal reproduction and the
habitats of protected species are to be avoided, as are
areas and sites of historical and archaeological interest
and of outstanding natural beauty. Critical factors
affecting the choice of a pipeline’s route are not only
the crossing of roads, railways or pipelines, and of
areas which are densely populated or subject to
restrictions (national parks, nature reserves, important
woodlands and areas of replanting), but also the ease of
temporary and permanent access for construction and
operation (Passey and Wooley, 1980). Each preliminary
route is analysed in detail through an iterative
engineering process of successive checks and
modifications, based on assessment of the various
aspects, both restrictive and favourable, until a new
revised and corrected version is obtained.
The engineering activity is followed by a visual
inspection of the site, and the critical areas are
specified by appropriate surveys which include a
detailed topographical survey, analysis of slopes and
drainage channels, identification of any geotechnical Fig. 6. Pipeline building on a slope:
implications concerning stability of the ground, the axis of the pipeline is parallel
analysis of the surface conditions such as the to the steepest incline on the slope
morphology, the type of terrain, the location of rock, (courtesy of R. Bruschi).

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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
overlaid onto maps. Once the critical areas of a site
have been established, the next step is the detailed
engineering analysis such as the geotechnical analysis
of river crossings, the crossing of slopes and
evaluation of the environmental impact (Fig. 6). In the
event of having to cross areas of hydrogeological
instability, slopes which show signs of active
instability can be identified by the observation of
some superficial evidence during the inspection phase:
any potential problems of interaction with the pipeline
must be resolved in detail in order to make provision
for the necessary preventive measures. In a situation
where there are signs of recent instability, the nature of
the activity must be analysed and understood. In the
event of deep-seated movements, it often becomes
necessary to seek an alternative route, as the
stabilisation work required could prove to be too costly
or unfeasible. Occasionally, instead, where the
movement is not too deep, the stabilisation work may
turn out to be relatively simple and it may be possible
to remedy the situation in order to make it conform to
the requirements of the project.
Instances of river crossings have a significant
effect on both the costs and the overall length of the
pipeline, since it is essential to find the stretch where
the riverbed is the most suitable. The presence of
particularly tight rock carries high shaping costs, while
sandy beds can involve a large amount of excavation.
It is preferable to carry out the crossing at right angles
to minimize the length, and to avoid having an incline
at the point of landing. Erosion of the banks can lead
to damage to the pipeline and to its being exposed to
the effects of the external environment. Stretches with
a high-flowing current are to be avoided because they
make construction difficult, whereas it is preferable to
cross at a stretch where the river is straight as this
reduces the probability of erosion of the banks.
The various detailed analyses make it possible to
adopt the best approach through a thorough evaluation
of the costs and benefits. The costs of any stabilization
work, of excavation and controlling of drainage (both
surface and underground) must be compared with the
cost of selecting an alternative route which crosses a
stable area or which does not require such remedial
work. The construction work provides for the creation
of a strip of land which makes it easy to carry out the
work well and facilitates access by service and
emergency vehicles. Morphologically irregular areas
and those where there are very steep slopes, call for
the carrying-out of excavation of the incline and
therefore, during the phase when the route is being
defined, effort should be made to minimize these
operations restricting as much as possible the extent of
the modifications made to the original profiles.
Preparation of the technical drawings needed for
780
construction call for definition of the profile of the
land, specifying the dimensions and the length of the
trench needed, and the existence of roads, railways and
places where services cross. This operation is carried
out through the sub-division of the course into even
segments and the indication of all the unusual
situations, providing all the elevations and linear
measurements and angles needed to define completely,
and in detail, the geometry of the pipeline’s axis. A
detailed profile of each crossing point and of every
unusual situation which calls for a separate study at
the design stage must be produced. The engineering
survey can be carried out at the same time as the legal
searches and has the objective to produce the
supporting documentation for the possible purchasing
activities or for obtaining the concessions necessary
for use of the land for the construction of the pipeline
and its future operation.
Geo-risks for onshore pipelines
A pipeline for the transport of hydrocarbons is a
structure with a linear extension which covers
distances in the order of several hundred kilometres.
Its construction involves the traversing of entire
regions with environmental and territorial conditions
which differ totally from zone to zone and which must
be addressed within the scope of the project. In
particular, as it deals with a structure in direct contact
with the ground, the geomorphological, geotechnical,
hydraulic and seismic aspects are of fundamental
importance and have a major influence on the project.
Landslides and hydrogeological instabilities
A landslide is a downward movement of a mass of
earth on an slope and subject to the force of gravity.
The movement is caused by a variation of any
condition which is capable of disturbing the temporary
balance of the system, such as a variation in the level
of the water table, the presence of materials which lose
their own properties of resistance in the presence of
water, the structure of the material, the topography,
seismic activity, etc. (Abramson et al., 1996).
During the phase in which the route is being
selected, it is of fundamental importance to identify all
the unstable or potentially unstable slopes in order to
avoid crossing them. The type and distribution of
natural landslides are very varied and are dependent
on the morphology of the terrain and its local
characteristics, in addition to the sub-soil hydraulic
conditions. Even if an aerial photograph might be of
value in identifying the areas at risk of landslides,
many instabilities are too small or, in any case, too
difficult to identify using this technique. A visual
inspection is always necessary and has the objective of
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

identifying all the signs typically associated with
active movement of the ground or with landslides
which occurred in the past and which could recur with
the installation of a pipeline (Abramson et al., 1996).
Typical signs of hydrogeological instability are the
presence of steep escarpments, crevices and fissures
upstream of a slope, swellings and accumulations at
the foot of a slope; the presence of bent trees; damage
or changes to the alignment of structures (roads,
telegraph or electrical poles, pipelines). These and
other signs may also contribute to the identification of
the boundaries of the area subject to landslide.
The most dangerous type of landslide for a
pipeline project is when it is deep, in which the failure
plane is situated a long way below the trench bottom.
This situation should be avoided, even though,
technically, it is possible to design and build a pipeline
which crosses a potentially unstable area without
causing new movements. In this case, a stability study
of the incline in question is fundamentally important
and presupposes a meticulous analysis of the area in
morphological, geological and geotechnical, physical
and hydraulic terms, with the objective of
understanding the forces which control the movement.
Once the forces involved and the processes which act
to improve or disturb the existing conditions of
equilibrium have been identified, it is possible to begin
the design of the pipeline and of any work needed to
stabilize the slope. Identifying the existence of
potential hydrogeological instabilities also has a
determining influence during the operation stage of
the pipeline, affecting the management and
maintenance activities which often have to be
supported by an appropriate and careful monitoring
programme which controls the geotechnical and
physical conditions that underlie the forces of
instability (Fig. 7). In particular, an inclinometer for
the direct measurement of the shifting of the terrain
and a piezometer for measuring the variations of the
underground water table are used, in conjunction with
a pluviometer for measuring the amount of rainfall in
the area under examination. The study of a landslide
often involves the use of numerical modelling which,
through a series of simulations based on different
values of the model’s basic parameters, contributes to
finding the most probable values of the parameters
Fig. 7. Interaction between
hydrogeological
instability and a pipeline
crossing a slope.
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involved and to the understanding of the
phenomenology which characterizes the movement of
the ground. Numerical modelling is also finding
significant use in the pipeline’s operating phase:
combined with the monitoring activity, it can
contribute to the prevention of damage resulting from
catastrophic events, enabling creation of a forecast
analysis of the pipeline’s possible structural response
to the induced stresses.
There is an international nomenclature which
classifies the landslides on the basis of type in a manner
which is consistent throughout the world (Abramson et
al., 1996). As far as the behaviour of a landslide is
concerned, the principal factors which govern the
equilibrium of the system are: a) the destabilizing
forces which cause the movement, e.g. the weight of the
material; b) the forces due to the movement of water in
the pores within a slope; c) the dip of the failure plane;
d) the resistance of the terrain along the failure plane;
e) the reduction of resistance along the failure plane due
to interstitial pressure. The first three factors contribute
to destabilization, while the final two (resistance forces)
tend to maintain the equilibrium. As far as the
destabilizing forces are concerned, the weight of the
material involved is generally known or can, in any
case, be calculated with sufficient accuracy. The forces
produced by the flow of underground water or caused
by an earthquake are more difficult to quantify. A good
database of previous seismic events, if available, makes
it possible to formulate a forecast of expected events
and to estimate the level of risk associated with them.
The most important variable in defining the
destabilising forces is the dip of the potential sliding
surface. The greater the dip, the greater the probability
that a landslide might occur. The resistance forces are
linked to the shear resistance of the material in the
fracture zone and, in particular, to the effective angle
of friction of the terrain along the sliding surface.
The material’s shear resistance is reduced by the effect
of the interstitial water pressure present on the slip
surface, since it causes a reduction in the effective
tensional state of the ground and therefore of the
mechanical resistance capacity (principle of effective
tensions; Terzaghi, 1925).
The causes of geological instabilities are therefore
varied and diverse. Natural events can act in such a
way as to increase the destabilizing forces (e.g.
accumulated deposits, seismic forces) or of reducing
the forces of resistance (for example, erosion at the
foot of a slope, increase of interstitial pressure, etc.).
In particular, instances of heavy rainfall can cause a
massive infiltration of water into the sub-soil,
increasing the interstitial pressure in the ground and
reducing its resistance characteristics, create serious
erosion as a result of the run-off of surface water and
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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
Fig. 8. Interaction between
a fault and the pipeline
which crosses it.
the increase of the flow-rate of the water courses, and
constitute a potential overload, saturating the ground
itself. The activities connected with the construction of
the pipeline can also disturb the balance of a slope.
Opening a site road for the normal construction
activities often involves excavating a stretch of sloping
ground and therefore presupposes a careful selection
of the sites for the dumping or storing of excavated
material, which could constitute an overload for the
ground, sufficient to reactivate a dormant movement.
The operations to restore the profile of the terrain to
what it was before installation of the pipeline, to
reduce the visual impact on the environment, can have
a further destabilizing effect when new material is
substituted or the original material is returned having
been previously taken away and, therefore, altered.
A crucial element in the design of an onshore
pipeline is that of checking the surface and
underground drainage in the area which falls within
the strip of land along which the pipeline itself will
run and the erosive effects associated with the flow of
water. Careful planning of specific works capable of
controlling the hydraulic regime is generally effective
in avoiding the appearance of serious erosive
phenomena which could expose the pipeline to the
external environment or initiate processes of
instability. Works of this type consist of diversion
channels, gabions, dykes and drains.
Faults
Faults are fractures in the rock-mass associated
with the different movements of the two parts in
contact with each other. Deforming movements are not
restricted merely to sliding along one or more fracture
surfaces but can also be accompanied by distortion,
breakage and fragmentation of the rock at the contact
surfaces generating fault breccias called mylonites.
The movements can occur suddenly, following to an
earthquake, or build-up gradually over time and
constitute a serious threat to the integrity of a pipeline
which crosses a fault. The length of the fracture and
the extent of the movement depend on the magnitude
of the seismic event and the depth at which it takes
place, while the classification of the various types of
faults is based on the geometric characteristics of the
782
sliding (Bonilla, 1970). From the point of view of the
interaction with a pipeline, crossing a fault should be
avoided inasmuch as it can cause intolerable
conditions of stress for the structural integrity and the
efficient operation of the pipeline itself (Fig. 8). To
create an effective design for a pipeline which will be
capable of resisting the deformation to which it might
be subjected in crossing a fault, it is necessary to know
the geometry and typology of the fault, and the size of
the area in question, to know if it involves a movement
caused by an earthquake or by a stress build-up over
time (creep) and, obviously, to examine the
characteristics of the terrain. Certainly, the most
important factor, is represented by the type and extent
of the sliding which can be assessed on the basis of the
characteristics of the associated seismic event.
Seismic activity
One of the consequences of a seismic event is
instability of inclines and slopes. During an
earthquake, a system of acceleration waves passes
through the ground, propagating from the point of
origin in the sub-soil towards the surface. The transient
dynamic load which instantly follows alters the
tensional regime which establishes the nature of the
balance of a slope, simultaneously causing an increase
in the acting shear force and a diminution of the
resistance capacity of the ground, as a result of the
sudden increase of interstitial pressures. Other factors
which influence the response of a slope during a
seismic event are the magnitude of the event, its
duration, the resistance characteristics under
conditions of dynamic stress of the material of which
it is composed, and the dimensions of the slope. There
are a variety of methods for analysing the stability of a
slope under seismic conditions. The most common are
the pseudostatic limit-equilibrium method and the
sliding block analysis method perfected by Nathan M.
Newmark (Kramer, 1996). The first involves
modifying the conventional limit-equilibrium analysis
adding to the forces involved, a component derived
from the seismic activity which is assumed to be
a fraction of the weight of the potential landmass
involved in the landslide multiplied by
the acceleration. Newmark’s method is based
on the movements of an embankment during
seismic activity. It consists of a combination of
conventional pseudostatic procedures with
a background of dynamic considerations on
the movement of the ground.
Seismic activity does not affect only the stability of
slopes. The reduction of the shear resistance of a
terrain combined with the increase in interstitial
pressures can cause fluidization of the soil, especially
in the case of loose, saturated sands, and the
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

development of large and permanent deformations
capable of causing serious damage to any type of
structure resting on the affected terrain. It is possible to
identify three types of movement or breakage of the
terrain associated with the process of fluidization
(Youd, 1978): widespread lateral deformation,
gravitational flow and reduction in the ground’s bearing
capacity. Other effects are subsidence, and above all the
raising of an originally buried pipeline caused by its
floating in the temporarily fluidized groundmass.
Widespread lateral deformation relates to the
horizontal shifting of the upper beds of the terrain
resulting from fluidization of the underlying ground. It
is a phenomenon that occurs in areas with gentle
slopes, and the associated sliding are measured in tens
of centimetres. Such movements can have a very
destructive effect on pipelines, even if the level of
damage depends on the extent of the movement and on
the characteristics of the pipeline itself. From the point
of view of planning analyses, the study of the pipeline,
with respect to widespread superficial deformations,
presents similar problems to those resulting from
faults. The deformations are concentrated in the sliding
area, as happens with the movements of a normal fault.
At the base of the mass, instead, a compression takes
place similar to that of a reverse fault.
Gravitational flows relate to the movement of
fluidized masses, occasionally containing rocks
boulders which slide down steep slopes. However,
many of these occurrences are more frequent in a sub
sea environment. The reduction of the ground’s
bearing capacity can cause serious sinking in a
structure built on it, such as, for example, an
embankment, and therefore, can induce tractive forces
of traction on a pipeline which crosses it or
compressive forces in the adjoining areas. To prevent
the buried pipeline from floating in the fluidized
groundmass, systems for anchoring and weighting the
pipeline are used.
Fig. 9. Image of the profile of the sea floor
from geophysical surveys (courtesy of R. Bruschi).
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
Sub sea pipelines
The seabed can be very morphologically irregular
and laying a pipeline across it involves significant
technological effort. Deciding on the route cannot be
carried-out using direct vision from the air, nor from
examining aerial photographs or visual inspection as is
possible with onshore pipelines. The reconnaissance
phase is totally instrumental, and entrusted to the use
of highly sophisticated technology. For example, the
collection of samples for characterizing the
stratigraphic profile of the sea floor is always difficult,
and often altogether impossible (very deep water, very
steep sub sea slopes). Therefore, the morphological,
geotechnical and physical characterization of the sub
sea area is usually derived from the interpretation of
geophysical measurements (Fig. 9) and from
measurements of the ground’s resistance to the
penetration of tools designed for this purpose
(penetrometric tests). The environmental difficulties
and the need to use sophisticated technology to obtain
the project data make route selection a very important
and critical phase of a sub sea pipeline project, and the
basis for a realistic technical-economic analysis for
carrying out the work (Palmer and King, 2004). A less
than careful initial choice can cause a series of
unforeseen problems during the construction phase,
the solutions for which will always have considerable
financial implications. For example, crossing irregular
sea floors is not always possible from a technical and
economic point of view; therefore it is important to
identify a route which avoids them.
The salient phases of sub sea route selection can be
summarized as follows:
• Optimization of the pipeline route with definition
of the alignments which represent the best
compromise between the shortest distance, the
slightest stimulus acting on the pipeline during the
installation phase or when active, and the smallest
number of pipeline lengths which are suspended
above the seabed because of its irregularities.
• Identification of the extent and type of remedial
and preparatory work needed on the seabed to
resolve the problems relating to overstressing of
the pipeline and the formation of unsupported
spans in the areas of irregular seafloors.
• Definition of the construction methods and sizing
of the work-site for the associated cost and
planning of the work.
The experience garnered over the years on sub sea
pipeline construction has led to some fundamental
considerations. As far as the preparation of the seabed
is concerned, with the exception of the minimum
requirements necessary for making landfall,
excavating is not an appropriate solution from an
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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
250
300
350
depth (m)
400
450
500
550
54,400 56,400 58,400
Fig. 10. Depiction of a route typical of an undersea pipeline.
economical point of view; in fact this would have to be
very extensive given the level of precision achievable
during laying operations, which it occasionally slows
down. The laying schedule is dependent on the seabed
preparation and the route selected for the pipeline
must be such as not to induce stresses which might
compromise its structural integrity. The layout of the
pipeline across irregular seabeds can be either retained
or modified as required using appropriate
methodologies, in such a way as to guarantee meeting
the design criteria during the hydraulic and functional
tests. In deep water, correction of the spans is a more
reliable approach than preparation of the seabed. In
every case, the selection of the project solution best
able to resolve the various problems of the pipeline
and its interaction with the marine floor is made on the
basis of simulation models calibrated on the basis of
the experience from various projects.
From an operational point of view, the first phase
consists of gathering and processing the data relating
to the area under consideration. As already stated, the
choice of a route for the sealine requires a profound
and detailed knowledge of the morphology and
lithology of the seafloor. Acquisition of the data is
achieved through a programme of geomorphological
and geologico-geotechnical research which leads to
the definition of the characteristics of the seabed. The
first approach is based on a study of conventional
784
bathymetric chart
A
seabed profile
60,400 62,400 64,400 66,400
distance (m)
B
bathymetric charts which become more and more
detailed with the increase in volume of the results of
research conducted with surface and submarine
vessels (Fig. 10). The more accurate the survey of the
seafloor’s characteristics, the more reliable the results
of the route analysis and of its subsequent simulations.
To ensure the necessary level of detail in the survey of
areas of highly irregular morphology, mini-submarines
are used. The data are gathered, processed and
recorded on appropriate peripheral support units
located on board the surface vessels and the
submarines, and contribute to the construction of a
preliminary survey database. When interpreting the
gathered data, use is also made of visual images
relayed from the sea floor. The output from this phase
is specific bathometric charts which constitute the
point of reference for the subsequent analysis of the
path and the process of selecting the route. With the
help of integrated software-hardware systems capable
of handling the data in real-time, engineers can
analyse alternative routes and, on the basis of
technical-economic evaluations, make a choice of the
preliminary corridor. The morphological profile of the
selected corridor is then developed along its own axis
(see again Fig. 10) and parallel profiles are also
examined, in order to characterize the area of the
corridor, and also to highlight the lateral variations in
the marine profile in the event that the pipeline’s axis
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

is shifted from that of the corridor. The profile of the
sea floor is the point of reference for the route
selection process, since the structural reliability of the
pipeline, the number of open spans and the extent of
the remedial work are all correlated to it.
The following phase involves the use of
mathematical models for an evaluation of the quality
of the route. The selected route defines the
characteristics of the best profile for the elastic
equilibrium of the pipeline laid on an irregular seabed,
so as to reduce to a minimum the preparatory work on
the sea floor and the adjustment of the configuration
necessary to guarantee stable and safe conditions for
the pipeline during the course of its working life. In
general, the key factors influencing the choice of route
for a sealine and its design are linked to political
considerations and environmental problems, but also
to specific factors such as connection to platforms and
risers (vertical collectors for floating platforms) or the
crossing of existing pipelines or cables. Areas with
anchorage points for ships and those where there is a
high risk of objects falling from ships should be
avoided as should minefields and areas where
dredging is carried out or where there are wrecks.
Specialized studies are carried out to analyse the
effect on fishing operations and to assess the risks for
the pipeline’s integrity in the event of any impact.
From a geotechnical point of view, the elements
having the greatest influence on a sealine project are
the crossing of rocky areas or zones in which the
terrain is too soft and where there are boulders,
Fig. 11. Image of a pipeline laid
on an uneven sea floor
with resulting free spans
and construction
of support work
(courtesy of R. Bruschi).
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
depressions caused by leakage of subterranean gas
and of furrows created by drifting icebergs. The
coastal landing is, without doubt, a critical aspect of
the project: an incorrect choice of landing area can
result in excessive costs and legal disputes. In addition
to the geology of the seabed, the designer must know
and understand the geomorphological factors which
characterize the coast and foresee the environmental
implications associated with installation of the
pipeline, such as the refraction and breaking of the
waves and the movement of sediment along the coast.
Marine geotechnology is a very complex science and
the geomorphological and topographical profiles are
as varied as those found on land. The ideal situation
for sealine laying is, obviously, a flat sea floor (so that
open spans do not form) composed of fairly firm clay;
laying onto this type of sea floor gives the pipeline
greater stability. If the sea floor is irregular and rocky,
many open spans can form and the pipeline crosses
the depressed areas like a bridge. Often, the length of
the span is such as to require a support, while the
stress is concentrated on the pipeline at the support
points with the potential for damage to the external
covering (Fig. 11). Hard ground is difficult and
expensive to excavate, while with a surface that is
too soft, the pipeline can sink completely making
it very difficult to carry-out subsequent operations
such as joining to the next section of pipeline,
inspection or repair.
Some seabeds present problems of mobility
because they are in a state of constant evolution from
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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
the action of waves and currents which cause rippled
and undulating surfaces (Komar, 1976; Sleath, 1984).
Sandbars on the seabed are constantly moving during
the working life of a pipeline, so that a pipeline that
was resting on a ridge of accumulated sand at the time
when it was laid, can end up suspended when the
accumulation shifts. The movements are irregular and
difficult to predict with sufficient certainty: for this
reason, it is preferable to avoid crossing areas where
the seabed gives evidence of constantly changing
undulations. When this is not possible, provision
should be made to excavate a trench which lies below
the level of the troughs of the sandy undulations. This
solution has often been adopted for pipelines laid in
the North Sea, where shallow water, strong currents,
wave action and loose sands which move easily create
complex and constantly changing conditions on the
seabed. In areas where there is a high rate of
sedimentation, the accumulation of deposited material
can overload the subsoil and cause submarine
landslides on slopes that are not particularly steep. A
seismic event can also cause a landslide on a partially
stable slope. When a pipeline is struck sideways by a
landslide, it can be shifted enough to create a force of
traction sufficient to break it. If the landslide strikes
the pipeline longitudinally, the situation is less serious
as the stresses induced are of a minor level.
Some areas (such as the Norwegian sector of the
North Sea) are characterized by the presence of large
boulders on the sea floor, which can also be partially
(or completely) buried in the clay of the seabed. These
boulders were transported by icebergs and fell onto the
sea floor as it melted; they can be a metre or more in
length and present serious obstacles for trench-digging
equipment. In the same marine areas, the leakage of
underground gas creates typical depressions in the sea
floor. In tropical zones, coral formations can have
peaks which may even reach as high as 15 metres.
Coral is very hard and difficult to cut; in addition it is
an element of nature of great ecological interest and its
conservation must be guaranteed and protected.
Tropical areas are generally characterized by carbonate
sediments which, as a result of the diagenetic
processes which take place over a period of time, tend
to become harder and therefore make trench digging
more difficult.
In arctic regions, the planning of a sub sea pipeline
faces additional problems. During the spring season,
the thawing of water courses which reach the still
frozen sea, create streams of fluvial water which flow
across the marine ice. When there are cavities or
fissures in the ice, the fluvial water seeps in creating
vortices and jets towards the bottom that can dig deep
holes in the sea floor (Palmer, 2000). Large icebergs
move through shallow water blown by the wind and
786
pushed by other icebergs, ploughing up the seabed and
making ditches as much as 10 metres deep and
100 metres long. Avoiding the risk of damage from the
action of moving icebergs is one of the primary
objectives in planning a sealine in arctic zones
(Woodworth-Lynas et al., 1996; Palmer, 2000).
Hydrodynamic factors also influence the choice of
the route. It is preferable to avoid areas in which there
are a very strong current capable of moving the
pipeline laterally and complicating the laying. Strong
sea currents can occur in shallow water, and near
estuaries and straits. It is often preferable to choose a
longer route with weaker currents rather than crossing
a strait just because it is shorter. Areas where wave
action is particularly strong should be avoided both
because of problems of stability of the pipeline and
because of the difficulties that they create in the laying
operations (Komar, 1976). Since the effects of wave
action are greater in shallow water, it is best to keep
these stretches of the route as short as possible, in
favour of laying in deeper water. However, the
difference in the specific gravity of the various depths
of a column of water can cause strong bottom currents.
Marine meteorological environment
Marine meteorological conditions are highly
significant because of the implications they can have
on different aspects of a pipeline’s functionality such
as its ease of installation, stability and integrity over
time. The aspects of marine meteorology of direct
interest are the dynamics associated with the
movement of water masses: currents and wave action.
The distinction between these is justified both by their
different scales of space and time and by their different
current speed
profile
orbital speed
profile (wave) wave
shear stress current
shear stress
Fig. 12. Simultaneous wave and current action
on a sandy sea floor.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

physical characteristics. While the capacity of wave
action to transport material is modest and it is mainly
the energy of the wave action itself that is propagated
over long distances, it is especially in currents that the
movement of masses, that is of water, can be seen
(Fig. 12). However, other characteristics of the marine
weather environment cannot be overlooked, such as
wind and atmospheric pressure, the variations of sea
level (tide) and chemico-physical characteristics of the
water (Csanady, 1982).
In order to arrive at an adequate characterization of
the area in which the sealine is to be laid, a reliable
assessment of the project’s marine meteorological
parameters is needed. The analysis is carried out using a
methodological approach which makes use of
experimental data, of statistical processing procedures
and of mathematical simulations of the dynamic
processes; modified each time in line with the
conditions specific to the site being studied and the
nature of the project, such analyses consist of:
a) analyses of conditions with the aim of identifying the
marine meteorological characteristics relevant for the
project; b) gathering of available historic data;
c) carrying out of oceanographical meteorological
campaigns of supplementary measurements; d) data
analyses and determination of the statistical properties
of the parameters influencing the project;
e) reconstruction using mathematical models of the
physical events relevant to the project; f ) calculation of
the acceptable limits of the oceanographical
meteorological parameters affecting structural stability
and determining of the project parameters; g) analysis
of the effect that the work will have on the environment,
for the Environmental Impact Assessment.
Marine meteorological analysis provides
information on two categories of conditions: normal
and extreme marine meteorological conditions. The
information on the ‘normal’ marine meteorological
conditions, which is needed to confirm the pipeline’s
durability over time, for the choice of barges and of the
construction period, for the estimate of the functioning
of the pipeline, etc., is derived from the statistical
distribution of the oceanographical meteorological
parameters and their values. The information on
‘extreme’ marine meteorological conditions, which is
needed for sizing and confirming the stability of the
work, is based on the estimates of the maximum values;
in other words, values associated with rare events,
which the different oceanographical meteorological
parameters could reach during the lifetime of the work
and the risk of those values being exceeded. Starting
with this information, and on the basis of the project
criteria adopted, and which are generally set by
regulations in force, the project’s environmental
parameters are defined, and form the basis on which the
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
work will be planned (Herbich, 1990). Moreover, the
marine meteorological analysis provides a set of
information which is of assistance to the engineers in
selecting the type of project to adopt, or for
incorporating into the documentation to be presented to
the competent authorities for obtaining project approval,
such as, the evaluation of the dispersal of sediment put
into suspension during the digging operations for
burying of the pipeline at the coastal landing.
Wind and atmospheric pressure
Even though meteorological elements do not have a
direct bearing on the planning of the pipeline, other
than for such aspects as the ability to operate the lay
barges, an understanding of the wind and atmospheric
pressure conditions is of fundamental importance for
an accurate assessment of the waves and currents
which are generated by the wind itself. In fact, the
space-time scale and the intensity of marine
hydrodynamic activity are correlated to the scale and
the intensity of the meteorological activity which
brings them about, and therefore a deep understanding
of meteorological features makes it possible to
reconstruct the hydrodynamic activity using
mathematical or empirical models. This capability is of
particular importance when, as often happens, direct
measurements of wave action and currents are not
available, or when they do not reflect the variability in
space and/or time of the activity. The atmosphere, like
every other turbulent fluid, presents a variety of
motions on all the possible scales of time-dimension.
Some of these motions are repeated with characteristics
which are fairly similar, enough to be considered as
belonging to families of dynamic systems with well-
defined characteristics and space-time scales. Almost
all of the atmospheric space-time scales are of interest
in planning sub sea pipelines. Ignoring the small scale
activities (timescale of less than 1 hour, dimension of
less than 1 km), which are of marginal interest, real
interest lies in the range from medium scale activities
(timescale of less than 1 day, dimension less than
100 km) up to planetary scale activities (timescale over
1 month, dimension greater than 1,000 km).
Currents
Marine currents operate at various levels on the
integrity of a pipeline laid on the sea floor: they
operate as lateral and vertical forces, with implications
for the pipeline’s stability; they cause lateral and
vertical vibrations on sections of the pipeline not
resting on the seabed, with consequent problems of
fatigue; they cause complex phenomena of sediments
movement in the area around the pipeline itself, which
can cause erosion of the bed on which it is resting and
consequent fatigue and stability problems.
787
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
Consequently, the intensity and the direction of the
currents and their frequency of occurrence are among
the principal environmental factors to be borne in
mind when planning a sub sea pipeline.
Currents are brought about by various forces:
primary forces, which generate and maintain the
movement of a body of water, and secondary forces,
which merely alter already existing movements. The
primary forces are, in turn, divided into internal and
external forces. The internal forces are caused by
variations in internal pressure within the body of
water; typical examples are the force generated by the
accumulation of water near the coast, caused by the
dragging action of the wind, or the forces arising from
differences in the specific gravities of bodies of water.
Examples of external forces are the tangential forces
of the wind on the surface, the tidal forces, variations
in atmospheric pressure, etc. The principal force is the
tangential force of the wind. It produces drifting
currents on the surface of the sea and influences the
internal forces of pressure inasmuch as it causes the
accumulation of water near the coast. The tidal forces
generate periodic movements and do not cause large-
scale movements of the body of water. The secondary
forces do not generate any movement but modify
existing motions. The secondary forces are the force of
friction, which reduces the velocity of the current, and
the Coriolis force, caused by the Earth’s rotation,
which causes a variation in direction of the current.
The motion of the fluid in the sea is governed by
the physical laws of conservation and by the equation
of state (Neumann and Pierson, 1966). These physical
laws are translated mathematically into a system of
equations with unknowns comprising the components
of velocity, pressure, specific gravity, salinity and
temperature. The equations of motion are resolved
numerically by means of the application of numerical
models which reproduce, with any necessary
simplifications and approximations, the bathymetric
and marine meteorological conditions of the
environment which it is desired to examine. The
application of numerical models, calibrated previously
by means of measurements carried out in the sea,
makes it possible to extend the normal range obtained
from the measurements themselves, which must be
limited by cost and time, and therefore to calculate the
most extreme conditions of the current from which the
‘project current’ for the sealine is derived.
Waves
The sea’s wave motion is made up of the
oscillations (waves) generated by the action of the
wind on the surface of the sea, which can maintain and
propagate themselves even when the wind has
stopped. Apart from the force of friction (of the wind
788
a
z0
aekz0
l/2 shallow water
intermediate water
deep water
Fig. 13. Circular wave motions in relation to depth.
on the surface of the sea, of the seabed on the motion
of the wave itself), the only force acting on the wave is
gravity, which is the derivation of the name ‘gravity
wave’. In the generation phase when the wind transfers
energy to the surface of the sea and makes it grow in
size, the waves have complex and unstable forms,
characterized by fragmentation and non-linear
processes. In the absence of wind, the waves tend to
become more regular and more easily described with
mathematical models (Goda, 1985). Marine waves
have identifiable crests and troughs; the height of the
wave is taken as the vertical distance between the
trough and the crest, the length of the wave (l) as the
distance between two successive crests, the period of
the wave as the interval of time which passes between
the passage of two crests at a fixed point. Other
parameters of interest in wave motion are the
propagation velocity of the wave and the speed of the
particles of water during the wave’s passage. The
former is generally greater than the latter; only in the
breaking phase does the velocity of the particles of the
water exceed that of propagation and the wave
collapses. The velocity of the water particles is the
parameter of greatest interest in planning a pipeline
because it defines the dynamic load conditions as the
wave passes. On the surface, over a wave period, the
particles of water follow an almost circular orbit, the
diameter of which is equal to the height of the wave
(z0), so that the orbital velocity is greater in a short but
high wave compared to one that is long but low. As the
depth increases, the orbits of the particles decrease on
an exponential basis (aekz0, where a and k are two
constants) ruling the corresponding radius, and flatten-
out as they near the sea floor where the orbital motion
becomes completely horizontal (Fig. 13).
There are two types of surface waves: waves
produced by the wind and residual waves. The waves
produced by wind have dimensions and periods which
are dependent on the strength of the wind, on its
duration and on the area of open sea on which it is
acting. They have a very irregular form and can be
considered the superimposition of a large number of
elementary waves (sinusoidal), each having its own
height, period and direction of propagation. These
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

elementary waves form the ‘wave spectrum’, the
bandwidth of which is an indication of the extent to
which the elementary components differ. The wave
motion remains even in the absence of wind and is
propagated by the area of generation in other areas of
the sea. In the process of propagation, the waves which
are the lowest and have the shortest periods weaken
more rapidly than the higher waves with longer
periods; a more regular wave motion develops with a
reduced spectral dimension and more focussed
directionally. A characteristic of wave motion is its
capability to propagate itself over long distances with
the minimum dissipation of energy. One thinks, for
example, that along the whole of the coast of west
Africa, an area in which the equatorial calm results in
low conditions for the generation of waves by the wind,
the waves are produced by the wave motion coming
from the area of the so-called roaring forties of the
south Atlantic, several thousand kilometres away.
The interaction between the seabed and wave
action is of particular importance in pipeline design
and it becomes significant when the water depth is
less than half the wave length. In fact, in shallow
waters the wave motion has a dynamic effect near the
seabed and acts directly as a load on the pipeline.
Such effects grow as the depth decreases and reach
their greatest intensity in the surf zone, the area of
what is called the shore approach, where it is usually
necessary to bury the pipeline in order to protect it
from hydrodynamic loads of excessive intensity
(Tucker, 1991). Among the principal effects of the
interaction between the marine floor and wave motion,
there are: refraction (rotation of the wave fronts which
tend to align themselves with the isobaths), shoaling
(variation of the concentration of energy or steepness
of the wave), diffraction (generation of semi-circular
wave fronts corresponding to submerged obstacles),
reflection of the wave, absorption (loss of energy
resulting from action from the seabed or of an
obstacle) and finally, breaking. The last mentioned
occupies a role of primary importance in sub sea
pipeline planning, inasmuch as the surf zone is
certainly the most dynamic area along the course of a
pipeline. The surf zone is characterized by highly
turbulent conditions, intense coastal currents caused
by the breaking of the waves and violent impacts of
breaking bodies of water; such dynamic activity
causes extreme conditions in terms of both
hydrodynamic loads and movement of sediment. It
follows that, in the planning phase, the study of the
dynamic characteristics of the surf zone should be
focussed on determining the extent of the length of
pipeline to be buried and on the temporary load
conditions in the time interval between the laying of
the pipeline and its being buried.
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
Chemico-physical properties of marine water
The chemico-physical properties of marine water
of greatest interest in the planning of a sub sea
pipeline are its composition (essentially its salinity, the
dissolved oxygen content and the pH factor) which
affects its corrosive action, the temperature which
regulates the thermal exchange between the pipeline
and the marine environment, with implications for its
corrosive action, the hydraulic characteristics of the
fluid within the pipeline and the specific gravity which
influences all the dynamic forces of interaction
between the marine environment and the pipeline itself
(Neumann and Pierson, 1966).
Almost all known substances are present in sea
water, at least in traces; the elements present in the
greatest quantities are chlorine and sodium. Sea water
is slightly alkaline (pH8.1-8.2) and it behaves like a
buffer solution, maintaining its pH unaltered
independently of the substances poured into it.
Moreover, because of the significant quantity of ions
present, sea water is an electrolyte with a fairly high
conductance which increases in direct proportion to
the salinity. Another characteristic of sea water is the
constant ratios between the concentrations of the
principal substances dissolved in it. Thanks to this
peculiarity, it is possible to express the total salinity,
that is the percentage by weight of the salts dissolved
in the sea water, as a function of the concentration of
the chlorine or chlorinity. While the proportions of the
principal substances are practically constant, the
absolute concentrations vary both in space and time,
following the variations in salinity. In the open oceans
salinity varies from 34‰ to 38‰; the average is close
to 35‰. The water of enclosed seas, having a limited
exchange of water with the open ocean, have a lower
salinity in regions where there is heavy rainfall and
significant fluvial influxes. Typical examples are the
internal parts of the Baltic Sea and certain fjords,
where the salinity can fall to values in the order of 0.5-
1‰. In regions where evaporation exceeds the rainfall,
the water of internal seas exhibits values of salinity
which are much higher, such as in the Red Sea where
salinity reaches 43-45‰. Since the variations in
salinity are essentially linked to the variations in the
difference between rainfall and evaporation, there is a
variability in salinity which is linked to both the
latitude and the season. The seasonal variability is
greater in the internal seas because of the limited
exchange and the contribution of the fluvial influxes.
The temperature of the water has a powerful effect
on the majority of the physical, chemical and biological
processes which take place in the sea. In the oceans, the
temperature varies from about 2°C to about 30°C.
The lower limit is determined by the formation of ice,
while the upper limit is regulated by the processes of
789
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
Fig. 14. Three-dimensional image of the sea bed:
very irregular escarpments and continental shelves
with the presence of steep slopes and canyons
favourable for the development of gravitational flows
(courtesy of R. Bruschi).
radiation and thermal exchange with the atmosphere. In
internal seas with limited exchange the temperature can
be higher, but rarely is so in the open ocean. The
temperature of the water at the bottom of the oceans is
always relatively low, varying between about 1°C and
about 4°C. The temperature’s variation in space and
time is influenced by different factors, even though
certain general characteristics can be identified. As far
as geographical distribution is concerned, the highest
temperature values are recorded slightly north of the
equator; in addition the surface temperatures of the
southern hemisphere are slightly lower, at
corresponding latitudes, than those of the northern
Fig. 15. Diagram
of the various types
of geo-morphological-
seismic risk
that characterise the
undersea environment.
debris
flow
seismic
action
790
hemisphere. This can be attributed to differences in the
characteristics of the atmospheric circulation in the two
hemispheres, to the effect of the smaller area of lands
above sea level in the northern hemisphere and the
presence of the continent of Antarctica. The temperature
of the water also exhibits an annual variability which is
dependent on a number of factors, mainly on the
variations in incident solar radiation and on the regime
of the currents and winds. The periodic oscillations in
temperature are also present in the deepest layers, even
though they tend to lessen rapidly with depth.
The specific gravity of sea water is dependent on
temperature and salinity and also, because of the low
compressibility of water, on pressure. However, this
last effect is very weak and becomes significant only
at great depths. The specific gravity increases as the
salinity increases and as the temperature falls. The
specific gravity of sea water ranges from 1,005 kg/m3
to 1,030 kg/m3. The geographical distribution of the
specific gravity of ocean water exhibits two principal
characteristics: vertically the density stratification is
generally stable; horizontally differences in relatively
stable stratification of specific gravities are possible
when there are currents.
Geo-risks for sub sea pipelines
As already indicated the seabeds are as
morphologically varied and complex as dry land
surfaces (Fig. 14) and the physical processes which
affect them are often complicated by wave action and
currents as well as the impossibility of studying them
directly (Poulos, 1988). In particular, if the coastal
environment is in a state of constant and rapid
evolution, being subjected to wave action and currents
(Sumer and Fredsoe, 2002), in deep waters slopes and
continental margins are characterized by very complex
geological conditions and present problems of
wave tsunami
generation
mud
volcano
potential
failure
retrogressive
sliding line
gas
chimney
dome/
diapir
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

instability of various kinds, the nature of which, at
times, is very difficult to identify.
Some of the geomorphoseismic problems which
regulate the stability of seabeds are very similar to
those typical of the terrestrial environment, both in
their type and their analytical treatment. These types of
issues are handled in the same way as comparable
problems relating to onland pipelines. Specific
features of the marine environment are submarine
landslides, certain aspects of seismic activity and wave
action (Fig. 15).
Submarine landslides
A submarine slope, as in the case of terrestrial
conditions, is subject to the force of gravity whose
effect is to pull bodies downwards. Therefore, its
stability is closely linked to the gradient, to the weight
and to the resistance of the ground. A study of the
stability of an area is based on a knowledge of its
bathymetry (in particular of all the forms of features
such as canyons, depressions, etc.), its stratigraphy and
the mechanical properties of the sediments. Submarine
landslides represent one of the principal risks
associated with the sub-aquaeous environment. The
causes which generate them can be manifold and are
divided into two fundamental types: causes whose
effect is to increase the forces acting on the system
being studied, and causes whose effect is to reduce the
ground’s capacity of resistance.
Among the causes increasing the forces in the
terrain are the deposits and accumulations upstream
(or erosion at the foot) of a slope. On a large scale, in
general, the factors involved take place gradually and
therefore do not interfere with the operational life of a
hydrocarbon transport pipeline. Nevertheless, they can
have a significant influence on the general stability of
the area and should be taken into consideration
especially in the case of a rapid increase in dip or the
formation of channels caused by erosion.
Leakages of underground gas and fluids cause
depressions in the sea floor which often are associated
with presence of faults. The deep of these depressions
can be very steep giving rise to moderate instabilities.
The intrusive actions of salt or mud, as also the
presence of little volcanoes of mud, exercise a strong
lateral pressure in the surrounding terrain which, if
located upstream of a slope, can induce serious
deformations with the ejection of material which could
spread over any pipeline situated downstream,
damaging or covering it.
Earthquakes affect the stability of sub sea slopes in
the same way as those on land. The action of glaciers
and icebergs can, instead, be very significant for the
seabed and can be seen in the existence of highly
consolidated ground and deep furrows. The objectives
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
of a study of the stability of an area should include a
consideration of the effects of the installation of the
pipeline and possible subsidence following the
exploitation of sub sea reservoirs causing compaction
associated with the depletion of pore spaces.
Among the causes capable of reducing the
resistance capacity of the terrain, should be included
all those factors which cause variations in the overall
state of tension in a non-drained or only partially-
drained terrain, that is to say all those very rapidly
occurring variations of load relating to the
permeability of the terrain, so as not to allow the
simultaneous escape of the water in the pores and
therefore cause an increase in interstitial pressures. An
excessively rapid depositing of sediment (a typical
occurrence at the mouths of rivers) causes the
formation of poorly-consolidated material, the
behaviour of which, in terms of stability, should be
analysed from time to time using suitable models.
Some terrains display a fragile or contracting form of
behaviour (Poulos, 1988), that is, they undergo a
strong compaction when they are subjected to shearing
actions greater than the limit (or peak) of the material.
The load due to a seismic shock subjects the ground to
a series of cyclical variations of force (Kramer, 1996)
which can cause compaction of normally consolidated
or mildly over-consolidated material, with an increase
in the interstitial pressure and a reduction in
resistance. Soft and normally consolidated clays are
particularly sensitive to this action and can undergo a
notable reworking with serious consequences for their
mechanical behaviour, something which it is
fundamentally important that those carrying out
studies or modelling should take into account. The
reduction in effective tension, and therefore of
resistance, can also be due to the dissolution or the
expansion of gas contained in the pores. Ground
containing gas represents one of the most important
themes in the study of marine floor stability. The
presence of hydrates in the ground is another aspect of
the same problem. In certain conditions of pressure
and temperature crystalline formations tend to
dissolve releasing large quantities of gas and inducing
an increase in interstitial pressure.
Earthquakes and seismic activities
Earthquakes are one of the most important factors
among the natural causes capable of causing powerful
phenomena of instability. Specialized literature reports
numerous catastrophic occurrences of sub sea
landslides (Poulos, 1988). One of the effects
associated with a seismic event capable of causing
powerful phenomena of instability is fluidization of
the terrain. During a seismic event the loose sand and
the mud tend to compact transferring the load to the
791
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
water that fills the pores, with a consequent increase in
interstitial pressure and the creation of upward flows.
This leads to the reduction of the effective tensions
while the gradient of the upward flow can reach a
value such as to cause fluidization of the uppermost
layers. In very deep waters, the seabed is generally
composed of clay or clay-based sediments. The
majority of cohesive terrain is not subject to
fluidization, nevertheless some types of sediments
(sensitive clay), characterized by low clay content, low
plasticity and high water content, can undergo a great
loss of resistance (Seed et al., 2003). Many marine
clays can also undergo this loss of resistance because
of chemical changes caused by washing out of saline
substances and the loss of intergranular contacts.
Where there is material at risk of fluidization it is
necessary to carry out a detailed analysis of the
problem, estimating the risk of the events occurring,
and if necessary arranging for appropriate counter-
measures (Kramer, 1996).
Even if the material deposited in deep water is
generally not subject to fluidization, a seismic event
could, however, cause conditions of instability through
the accumulated downward movement resulting from a
cyclic reduction of resistance. The evaluation of the
stability of slopes in seismic conditions is similar to
the solution of the analogous problem on land. To
understand the phenomena in order to design a sub sea
pipeline on a clay seabed, it is important to establish if
the deformations which are generated in the
groundmass are elastic (and therefore will recover
after the seismic event) or plastic (i.e. consisting of a
permanent residual deformation). In the latter case, it
is important to establish the extent of such a
deformation and if the terrain is able to retain its own
mechanical properties after the seismic event or will
undergo some degradation.
In specific morphological conditions (steep slopes,
availability of material, existence of canyons or
transport channels) gravitational flows and turbidity
currents can follow conditions of instability (Bughi and
Venturi, 2001). The generic cases of gravitational flows
involve a flow of fairly lumpy material carried by a
finer matrix which, from a mechanical point of view,
behaves like a visco-plastic material which moves
down fairly steep slopes. The velocity of gravitational
flows are approximately of the order of tens of metres
per second and the distances covered in the order of
several kilometres. It is relatively easy to detect the
signs of a gravitational flow that has taken place on the
marine floor through a geophysical survey, but no
means of direct measurement of movement exist.
Given the mass of the material, the volume involved
and, above all, the velocity of gravitational flows
represent a serious threat to the safety of the sub sea
792
pipeline. Turbidity currents refer to a mixture of fine
material and water which, once in motion, is capable of
developing and self-generating even on seabeds with
very low dips. The specific gravity of the material in
this case is little higher than that of water and the
average velocity is around 10 m/s. The distances
covered can be over several tens or hundreds of
kilometres. Turbidity currents can also affect the
stability of a pipeline on the seafloor and given the
distances that they cover, as also is true of generic
gravitational flows, it is understandable that the
environmental study for the planning of a sub sea
pipeline must necessarily cover a very wide area and
cannot be limited to the corridor formed by its route
(Bughi and Venturi, 2001). In contrast with the land
environment, exploration and gathering of
morphological and especially of geotechnical data for
modelling and analysis of the conditions which develop
on the seafloor is very difficult and often impossible.
The greater the uncertainties surrounding the measured
parameters, the higher will be the degree of
interpolation of the information applicable to the area.
Fluidization caused by wave motion
The fluidization effect can also be caused by a load
other than that due to an earthquake. In particular, in
coastal areas and where the depth of water is
sufficiently shallow for the effect of wave motion to be
transmitted to the bottom, the cyclical action which it
creates can cause fluidization of the ground if its
characteristics are such as to make it sensitive to such
an effect (Rahman and Jaber, 1986; Madsen, 1989). In
a similar way to that caused by seismic activity,
fluidization resulting from wave action reduces the
resistance of the material and creates ideal conditions
for causing phenomena of instability. Especially when,
due to construction or natural reasons, a pipeline is
buried or partially buried in the ground, fluidization of
the seabed can lead to it floating, creating geometrical
configurations such as to induce unusual states of
tension on the pipeline which can seriously
compromise its integrity.
7.1.3 Transport
fluid dynamics
Correct hydraulic design of a pipeline and its
components calls for the use of fluid dynamic models
to predict the properties of the fluid and how they may
change with variations in temperature and pressure.
Depending on the type of pipeline under consideration,
land or marine, and the typology of the fluid
transported, liquid or gaseous, etc., the fluid dynamic
analyses can be carried out with various objectives in
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

mind (Mohitpour et al., 2000; Palmer and King, 2004).
For example, they may be carried out to determine: the
maximum flow-rate, once the length of the pipeline,
the route followed, the delivery pressure, the outlet
pressure, the properties of the fluid and the diameter of
the pipeline have been determined; or, the diameter of
the pipeline, once the maximum flow-rate, the delivery
pressure, the outlet pressure, the properties of the
product being transported, the length of the pipeline
and the route have been defined; or the delivery or
outlet pressure, once the other variables in play have
been defined, but with other variables to be optimized.
The first example is typical of marine pipelines,
the second of both onshore and marine pipelines, and
the third of onshore pipelines. These objectives must
be pursued making sure of two things. The first is that
the pipeline has been correctly designed in order to
optimize the construction costs (which increase with
the diameter of the pipeline) and the operating costs
(which decrease as the diameter of the pipeline
increases, because of the reduction in the loss of
pressure and of the consequent reduction in
performance called for at the pumping/compression
station). The second is that the necessary safety
requirements with regards to the surrounding
environment are respected.
Physical properties of the fluid
The fluid transmitted through a pipeline may be in
single phase or multiphase. A single phase flow can be
gaseous or liquid, without any solid particles and
without any other type of liquid or insoluble gas.
Flows of natural gas and of treated oil are examples of
a single phase flow. A multiphase flow contains at
least two separate phases, for example: a) a liquid and
a solid phase; b) a gaseous and a solid phase; c) a
liquid and a gaseous phase; d) two immiscible liquid
phases. Multiphase flows are often present in pipelines
that connect the hydrocarbon field with the treatment
centre close to the field, where the produced
hydrocarbons are processed before being transported
to the refinery. A multiphase fluid in general consists
of a gaseous phase, one or more liquid phases (oil and
water) and sometimes a solid phase (sand); it is
incompressible if the specific gravity of each particle
in the flow, be it fluid or solid, remains constant, and it
is homogeneous if the specific gravity is constant
along the flow itself.
The physical properties needed for an engineering
analysis are: a) phases present and their percentages;
b) molecular weight; c) density; d) compressibility;
e) viscosity; f ) heat capacity; g) thermal conductivity;
h) surface tension (for multiphase flows). In the literature
of the sector there are several correlation available that
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
make it possible to link together the above-mentioned
physical properties. To describe the behaviour of the
fluid system, equations of state are used, that link the
pressure, the volume and the temperature between
them. To describe the behaviour of real fluids, semi-
empirical relationships have been developed that link
the various parameters, using constants developed
experimentally. Such equations are generally called by
the name of the researchers that developed them, like
the Peng-Robinson equation, the Soave-Redlich-
Kwong equation, the Benidict-Web-Rubin-Starling
equation and the Chao-Seader-Grayson-Steed equation
(Katz et al., 1959; Mohitpour et al., 2000). The
fundamental parameters of a fluid are its specific
gravity, its viscosity and its compressibility (important
for gaseous fluids). In the Newtonian fluids, the
resistance to movement is directly proportional to the
velocity of the fluid across the dynamic viscosity
which is constant; in the non-Newtonian fluids, the
viscosity varies with the variation of the cutting force
and their behaviour is notably more complex. The
physical properties of a fluid system generally depend
on the pressure and the temperature. An increase in
temperature has a positive effect on pipelines that
transport liquid hydrocarbons because it reduces both
the viscosity and, as the specific gravity drops, the loss
of pressure (Mohitpour et al., 2000). On the contrary,
an increase in temperature has a negative effect on gas
pipelines since, as the transmissibility falls, there is a
greater loss of pressure. The absolute value of the
viscosity of gas increases with the increase in pressure
and in temperature; this increase causes an increase in
the friction along the pipeline and, therefore, a net
increase in the power needed to reach a given flow-rate
(Mohitpour et al., 2000).
Hydraulic analysis
The hydraulic analysis of a pipeline can be carried
out on the hypothesis of steady state or unsteady state
conditions. In the case of steady state flow, it is
assumed that the properties of the fluid such as
pressure, temperature and velocity within the pipeline,
do not vary with time or vary slowly (McAllister, 1988;
Kern, 1990). For an unsteady state flow (transient) the
behaviour of the system is analysed in a situation in
which some fundamental parameters vary in time such
as, for example, the delivery pressure, the velocity of
the fluid, etc. (Mohitpour, 1991).
Generally pipeline systems are designed assuming
steady state flow conditions, which are considered
sufficient to optimize the project parameters of a
pipeline. However, there are situations that call for
more sophisticated analyses than those conventionally
used in steady state flow conditions. These situations
793
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE

include very severe operating conditions (for example,
high pressure and temperature) and rapid variations of
flow-rate, such as those that precede and follow the
testing of the pipeline. In this and in other
circumstances, transient hydraulic analyses (also
called dynamic or unsteady flow) are needed to check
the capacity of the pumping/compression station, to
choose its auxiliary components and to ensure a given
degree of safety.
Since the beginning of the Nineteenth century a
great deal of work has been carried out to develop
interpretative models with a view to accurately
predicting the flow conditions of monophase fluids,
both liquid and gas (Mohitpour et al., 2000).
Excluding multiphase flows, the mathematical models
available have evolved to the point where, in the
majority of equations, the intrinsic errors are
negligible compared with the errors caused by the
uncertainty of the input data such as the surface
roughness of the walls, the operating temperature, etc.
For example, the hydraulic analysis of a gas pipeline in
steady state conditions can predict loss of pressure,
with an accuracy of less than 3%; the parameters used
as input in the flow equations, such as flow-rate,
temperature and operating pressure and roughness of
the inner walls have, instead, a much greater impact on
the total error. The hydraulic models that describe the
dynamics of transmission of fluids in pipelines are
generally based on three fundamental
equations/relationships relating to the conservation of
mass, the balance of forces and the conservation of
energy (Katz et al., 1959; Mohitpour et al., 2000).
Steady state flow conditions
Generally, the results of the hydraulic analyses
in steady state conditions are used in the designing
of a pipeline. In particular, an analysis is made
of the flow-rate and the drops in pressure to determine
the capacity, the diameter of the pipeline,
the lengths of the closed circuits and the power
needed at the compression/pumping station.
According to Bernoulli’s formula (Mohitpour et
al., 2000), the trinomial
p v2
z1313
rg 2g
assumes the same value in all the sections of a pipeline
transporting an incompressible fluid of density r in a
steady state flow, in which the effects of friction are
negligible. In connection with a given section, z is the
depth referred to a reference datum, p is the pressure
of the fluid, g is gravitational acceleration and v is the
velocity of the fluid.
In reality, there is friction in pipelines and
hence various modifications to the Bernoulli
formula have been proposed. In particular, the loss
of pressure per unit of length of pipeline due
to the friction exercised by the walls of the pipeline
on the fluid in it is given by
frv2
hf132
2D
In this formula D is the inner diameter of the
pipeline and f the friction factor, for which various
forms have been proposed (one of the most common

0.100
Fig. 16. Moody diagram. 0.090 laminar critical transition
0.080 . flow . zone . zone
. complete turbulence
.
0.070 0.05000
0.04000
0.060
0.03000
0.050 0.02000
lamin

0.01500
relative roughness (e/D)

0.040
0.01000
friction factor (f)

ar flo

0.00800
0.00600
w

0.030
0.00400
0.025
ro

gh
u

pi 0.00200
pe
0.020 s 0.00100
sm 0.00080
oo 0.00060
th 0.00040
pip
0.015 es
0.00020
0.00010
0.00005
0.010
0.009
0.008 0.00001
103 2 3 4 56 104 2 3 4 56 105 2 3 4 56 106 2 3 4 56 107 2 3 4 56 108
Reynolds number (Re = VD/n)

794 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS


being that of Darcy-Weisbach; the Fanning formula is
often used as an alternative). To calculate the friction
factor, it is necessary to assess the flow regime:
laminar or turbulent. This is determined by calculating
the Reynold’s number
rVD VD
Re132313
m v
which represents the ratio between the forces of inertia,
mV, where m
rV 2, and the viscose forces 13
D
is the dynamic viscosity and v m/D the kinematic
viscosity. For Reynold’s numbers below 2,000, the
flow is laminar and the friction factor is equal to
64
f13
Re
For Reynold’s numbers above 2,300, f can be
calculated using the empirical Colebrook-White
equation, in which the roughness e of the inner walls
of the pipeline comes into play:
 
1 2e 18.7
111 1.742log 1111 1
f D Re  f
For very high Reynold’s numbers, the second
term in the brackets becomes negligible, which
simplifies the calculation of f noticeably.
The Colebrook-White equation is used to
construct the Moody diagram (Fig.16), that
allows the friction factors to be evaluated graphically.
Typical roughness values of steel tubes are:
polished steel, maximum 0.005 mm; lightly corroded
steel, circa 0.01 mm; heavily corroded steel,
up to 1.0 mm. These values are indicative and
generally depend on the method of construction, the
cleaning processes that can be used and on the history
of the pipe from construction to use. During the
operational life changes can occur, for example an
increase in the friction factor due to corrosion or to
deposits of wax in offshore pipelines that transport
corrosive and partially treated fluids. The velocity of
the fluid inside a pipeline varies according to the phase
of its operational life. Typical velocities are:
hydrocarbons in liquid phase, from 1.0 to 4.5 m/s;
hydrocarbons in gas phase, less than 18.0 m/s
(up to the noise limit); two-phase hydrocarbons
(liquid and gas), greater than 3.0 m/s and less than
velocities at which consistent scouring effects appear,
equal to
122
ve111
1 overpressure induced by dynamic overpressure;
r
(Palmer and King, 2004).
Localized losses of pressure are associated with
reductions in the cross-section or a change of direction
of the flow in the pipeline. In transport over long
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
distances, this loss is not generally important, but in
the case of short pipelines, or those with many
connections, this loss can be significant. The loss of
pressure in the connections can be determined through
a combination of theoretical formulae and
experimental tests; they can be considered as loss of
pressure given by a coefficient of resistance, or an
equivalent length of straight pipeline. The thermal
energy of the transmitted fluid can be considered to be
part of the total energy of the pipeline system,
applying the first law of thermodynamics.
Nevertheless, the transformation of mechanical energy
into thermal energy is not significant in the hydraulic
calculation. On the other hand, the effect of
temperature on the physical and chemical properties of
the fluid transmitted is important: in fact it can
influence the viscosity, the stability of the liquid/gas
phase, corrosion or the formation of hydrates. In
gases, temperature is a fundamental variable in the
flow-rate calculation; therefore it is important to
predict the temperature profile along the pipeline.
Unsteady state flow conditions
To evaluate the difference between steady state and
transient flows, the basic behaviour of compressible
and incompressible flows must be analysed. In reality,
all fluids are compressible, but gases are much more
so than liquids, as reflected in the calculation of the
drops in pressure and flow-rate. To predict the drops in
pressure accurately, the properties of the fluid must be
determined as the pressure and temperature vary along
the pipeline. In the case of liquids, the properties vary
little with pressure and temperature, therefore there is
no need to calculate the properties of the fluid along
the pipeline. In the case of gases, the compressibility
of the fluid does not modify only its own properties. In
transient flow conditions, effects linked to the
variations in pressure and compressibility of the fluid
appear, such as packing of gas in the pipeline, with a
consequent slow build up of pressure, and dynamic
overpressure linked to rapid processes. These effects
must be taken into consideration when planning a
pipeline.
For pipelines that transport liquids, the objectives
of dynamic analysis can be: a) economic optimization
of a pipeline, which includes the use of a dynamic
overpressure control system in relation to a higher
thickness of steel; b) controlling of fluid knock and the
sizing and positioning of blowoff valves for
c) design and use of a control system, which takes
account of the planning of compression station control
valves to reduce the increase of pressure and to protect
the pipeline from excessive dynamic overpressure;
d) the effect of a rapid closure of the valves; e) the
795
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
effect of rapid fluctuations in the flow; f ) designing of
a dynamic overpressure release system; g) determining
of possible breaks and leaks along the pipeline
(Mohitpour et al., 2000).
For pipelines that transport gas, the objectives of
dynamic analysis can be: a) determining possible
leakages of gas along the pipeline; b) the response of
the pipeline to rapid changes in flow-rate or
compression; c) the opening and closing of valves;
d) determining the packing condition of the pipeline;
e) the pulsation generated by the internal flow;
f ) optimization of the location of compression stations
along the route of the pipeline; g) capacity planning of
the pipeline to guarantee the required volume of gas in
a complex/articulated pipeline system (Mohitpour et
al., 2000).
Transmission of gas
Inner walls
Pipelines are coated internally whenever the fluids
being transmitted have a corrosive or oxidizing effect
which must be countered or controlled. The choice of
the type of coating is made on the basis of the type of
fluid being transmitted (water, gas, oil, etc.), the
properties of the fluid (chemical, physical and
bacteriological composition, and operating
temperature and pressure) and the mode of operation
(temporary operation or otherwise, partially filled or
not, etc.). Often, a coating is applied to the inside of
the pipeline in order to reduce the roughness of the
inner surface and hence the loss of pressure of a few
percentage. The reduction in loss of pressure, due to
the compressibility of the gas, increases the amount of
gas transmitted as the transmission pressure increases
and hence has implications on the costs of
transmission of gas pipelines operating over long
distances (5,000-6,000 km).
The flow in a gas pipeline is generally turbulent,
that is, it is characterised by a high Reynolds number
(≈ 1.0·107) due to the low viscosity and high specific
gravity of the gas, which is subjected to operating
pressures varying from 10 to 30 MPa (the first value
represents the upper limit for sub sea pipelines, the
second that for underwater pipelines). At such high
Reynolds number values, the Colebrook-White
equation predicts a high friction factor even when
there is minimal roughness (≈ 1 mm). In recent years,
there has been a series of experimental and theoretical
research projects carried out to quantify more
accurately the resistance of pipes with and without
inner coatings that are used for gas transmission, and
to specify inner coatings able to reduce the loss of
pressure over the whole operational life of the
pipeline.
796
compressors
positive dynamics injectors
displacements
centrifugal
reciprocating rotary axial flow ejectors
(radial flow)
multi-stage
sliding lobe with fixed
single-stage straight lobe single-stage stator vanes single-stage
multi-stage helical lobe multi-stage and multi-stage
etc. variable
stator vanes
Fig. 17. Classification of compressors.
Compressors
Compression of the transmitted gas is necessary in
gas pipelines in order to overcome the loss of pressure
that occurs along the pipeline and to guarantee certain
conditions of flow-rate and pressure at the arrival point
(Pfleiderer and Petermann, 1985; Mukherjee, 1997).
Loss of pressure is caused by expansion of the gas,
friction against the inner walls of the pipeline,
variations in altitude or variations in temperature.
Compressors can be grouped into three different
categories: volumetric, dynamic and injection
compressors (Fig. 17).
Volumetric compressors trap a certain quantity of
gas within a closed volume: by reducing the volume,
they increase the pressure of the enclosed gas; the
compressed gas is then released at the compressor’s
point of discharge. These compressors can, in turn, be
divided into reciprocating and rotary compressors. In
the first, a piston reduces the volume of the gas within
the cylinder and valves are needed for the entry and
exit of the compressed gas and to prevent reversal of
the flow. In rotary compressors, the rotors have
cavities that trap the gas within a fixed or variable
volume between the cavities themselves and the fixed,
external casing of the compressor. The gas moves
from the entry point (also called the suction side) to
the discharge point. This type of compressor does not
need valves and generally is used for compressing air
in plants. Dynamic compressors, also called
continuous, are in turn divided into two main
categories: centrifugal (or radial) and axial. In the
first, the rotor blades increase the kinetic energy of
the incoming gas: when the blades rotate, the
centrifugal force pushes the gas outwards and so
increases the tangential velocity of the gas. The gas
compression comes about in part in the impeller and
in part in the radial diffuser that surrounds the rotor,
or in the compressor’s discharge diffuser. Instead, in
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

axial compressors a rotor transfers its energy to the
gas that passes through it during compression. In this
type of compressor, the flow of the gas is parallel to
the shaft of the motor. Injection compressors use the
kinetic energy of one flow of fluid to compress
another fluid. This type of compressor is not used in
gas transmission systems.
At times, to obtain the discharge pressure required
to transmit the gas, a number of compressors may be
used in series (where the discharge of each compressor
is connected to the suction side of the next one) to
overcome the compression ratio limitation of an
individual gas compressor. The main limitations are:
• The compression ratio; for safety reasons, the
compression ratio is generally less than 6 for gas
compressors. High compression ratios significantly
increase the forces applied to the shaft and other
mechanical elements of the compressor, making its
design complicated and expensive and in certain
conditions the compressor’s operation may be
unsafe. Especially at high pressures and flow-rates,
typical of long pipelines with large diameters, the
compression ratios range from 1.2 to 2.0.
• Temperature; compressor manufacturers
recommend a maximum discharge temperature of
about 100°C.
Cooling systems
Systems for cooling are widely used in the gas
transport industry and can be employed as pre-cooling
(at the suction side/intake of a compression station) or
as inter-cooling (between compressors in series)
systems in order to protect the system from excessive
heating. They can also be used as post-cooling systems
(at the discharge of a compressor station) to protect the
pipeline’s external anti-corrosion coating from being
damaged by high temperatures. Cooling the gas at the
discharge of compressor stations also reduces the drop
in pressure along the pipeline, as the gas is transmitted
at a lower temperature. Post-cooling systems also
reduce the power needed at the next compression
station, which receives the gas at a lower inlet
temperature.
There are two types of gas cooling systems: air-
cooled heat exchangers and water-cooled heat
exchangers. Depending on the climatic and
geographical conditions, either type (or a combination
of both) can be used to achieve the cooling required.
Operating costs of water-cooled heat exchangers are
much higher than those of air-cooled heat exchangers.
If the environmental conditions permit, especially in
remote areas, air-cooled heat exchangers are used on
gas pipeline transmission systems. The principal
components of this type of exchanger are: a) the
cooling fans; b) the motors connected to the cooling
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
fans; c) the fan speed control system; d) the support
structure; e) collectors for the gas to be cooled.
Mechanical drivers
Compressors are generally used in conjunction
with mechanical drivers connected to the compressor
shaft, such as gas turbines, electric motors and steam
turbines (Pfleiderer and Petermann, 1985; Wilson,
1991; Mohitpour et al., 2000; Palmer and King, 2004).
Gas turbines are the most commonly used drivers
in remote areas, especially for gas transmission
systems, and they are generally coupled to centrifugal
gas compressors. In these, the turbine is connected
directly to the shaft of the pipeline compressor. Gas
turbines are relatively compact, have a high
power/weight ratio and are well suited to the high
speeds required by centrifugal compressors. Generally,
they are very flexible and adapt well to the operating
conditions of the compressors.
Transport of liquids
Drag reducers
A principal requirement for the transport of
hydrocarbons in liquid phase is that the pressure at the
pumping station should be sufficient to guarantee the
required arrival pressure and fluid flow-rate. Another
important factor is that there should not be any points
along the pipeline in which the inside pressure drops
below the vapour pressure of the liquid. The behaviour
of a liquid is totally dependent on specific gravity and
viscosity. The viscosity of all liquids varies with
temperature; for example, in short lines the inlet
temperature is high and can have a powerful influence
on loss of pressure.
To increase the capacity of a pipeline system for
transporting liquids, it is possible to add parallel
sections beside those sections where there is a bottle
neck and/or to increase the power of the pumping
system. At times, a good alternative could be to inject
an additive, called a drag reducer, which reduces the
friction. The additive is a polymer with a high
molecular weight and a long molecular chain. The
effect of a drag reducer is to suppress the vortices
which can form in proximity to the walls of the
pipeline and which dissipate energy; hence drag
reducers are effective only in fully developed turbulent
flow conditions. The drag reducer’s effect diminishes
in the direction of the flow because of the gradual
breaking of the molecular bonds of the polymer’s long
chains. The polymer is destroyed in auxiliary stations
with centrifugal pumps, and therefore it is necessary to
inject new additive to maintain the effect downstream
of the station (volumetric pumps are less damaging to
the additive). Drag reducers by their nature are very
797
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
Fig. 18. Classification
of pumps.
positive
displacement
reciprocating
piston
diaphragm
plunger
impeller
single action
double action
single body
multi-body
single body
double body
triple body
multi-body
viscous liquids and must be injected downstream of
the pumps by means of a small volumetric pump.
Their effectiveness and the quantity required can be
calculated once the characteristics of the polymer and
the liquid hydrocarbon being transported are known,
but current predictions are not always reliable. An
initial indication (Palmer and King, 2004) of the
required quantity is: 4-10 g/m3 for an increase in flow-
rate of 5%; 8-25 g/m3 for an increase in flow-rate of
10%; 13-40 g/m3 for an increase in flow-rate of 15%.
Drag reducers are generally more effective at high
velocities (1.8 m/s) and low kinematic viscosity
(10 cSt) and along short stretches of pipeline
(75 km). The effectiveness diminishes as the water
content percentage increases, since drag reducers are
soluble only in the oil phase. Drag reducers are
effective with hydrocarbon liquids containing wax at a
temperature below its pour point.
Pumps
A compression phase is needed in pipelines
transporting liquid hydrocarbons, in order to overcome
the loss of pressure that takes place along the pipeline
and to guarantee certain conditions of flow-rate and
pressure at the arrival point. Loss of pressure is due to
the friction on the inner walls of the pipeline and to the
variations in altitude.
Pumps can be grouped into two different categories:
volumetric pumps and kinetic pumps (Fig. 18).
Volumetric pumps are, in their turn, classified as
rotary pumps and reciprocating pumps (Karassik,
1976). Rotary pumps consist of a fixed casing
containing gears, screws, pistons, vanes or similar
798
pumps
kinetic
rotary centrifugal special
cams
gears radial mixed axial jet
electromagnetic
screw flow flow flow
etc.
single intake single
and double intake intake
self-fanging one stage one stage
non self-fanging multi-stage multi-stage
elements driven by the rotation of the motor shaft;
reciprocating pumps in their turn are divided into
direct action pumps and pumps which are driven by a
crank, both driven by steam turbines.
The primary kinetic pumps are the centrifugal type
which, in turn, are divided into radial, mixed and axial
flow pumps (Pfleiderer and Petermann, 1985;
Lobanoff and Ross, 1987). In radial flow pumps, the
pressure is developed principally from the action of
centrifugal force: the liquid enters the impeller close to
the hub and is moved radially towards the outside of
the pump; in mixed flow pumps the pressure is
developed partially from centrifugal force and partially
from the force of the vanes on the liquid; the liquid
enters the impeller close to the hub and is discharged
both along the axis and radially; axial flow pumps,
sometimes also called helical pumps, develop the
majority of their pressure through the rotation and
thrust of the vanes on the liquid: the liquid enters the
impeller axially and is discharged axially.
Centrifugal pumps can have a single stage, where
the total pressure is developed in a single impeller, or
they may be multi-stage, having two or more impellers
which operate in series within the casing of the
diffuser. The pumps most commonly used in
compression stations for pipelines transporting liquid
hydrocarbons are the centrifugal and the volumetric.
Centrifugal pumps operate at high revolutions,
connected through speed multipliers to an internal
combustion engine or an electric motor. In large
pumping stations they are connected in series, so that
each pump handles the entire flow, increasing the
pressure of the liquid to be transmitted.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

Centrifugal pumps offer a number of advantages:
first of all the fact that there is no significant
pulsation in the flow of liquid coming out of the
pump; if they are installed and operated correctly,
they are not subjected to any significant vibration;
they can operate in the open air or in small buildings;
they require only light foundations and can be easily
cleaned. Moreover, they are inexpensive and simple
both to construct and to operate, as well as requiring
relatively little space.
Multiphase transport
Regimes
In a single-phase flow, the average velocity is the
ratio between the volumetric flow-rate and the area of
the inner cross-section of the pipeline. If there are
more phases present, the velocity of each of them is
expressed as the velocity corresponding to the
separation surfaces between the phases, which
represents the velocity which each phase would have if
it were the only one being transported inside the
pipeline. It should be noted that this velocity does not
express the velocity at which the phase moves within
the pipeline, but rather represents the volumetric flow-
rate relating to that phase.
The hydrodynamics of a multiphase flow are much
more complicated than those of a single-phase flow,
because the different phases have very different
specific gravities and mechanical properties and
because different flow regimes can be generated inside
the pipeline. The multiphase flow has been, and still is,
the subject of specialised studies. Fig. 19 shows the
different regimes for a twophase flow of gas and
liquid, where the x-axis represents the velocity in
relation to the surface of the gas phase and the y-axis
represents that of the liquid phase. The extreme lower
bubble
superficial fluid velocity
slug annular-mist
fluctuating
stratified mist
superficial gas velocity
Fig. 19. Flow regimes for biphase systems.
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
left corresponds to transmission of both phases at low
velocity; the extreme lower right corresponds with a
gas which is moving quickly or in high volumes and to
a liquid which is moving very slowly or in small
quantities. The illustration in the middle of the graph
shows a short section of the pipeline and of the flow
regime that has developed inside it.
To better understand the different regimes present
in the case of a twophase transport it is sufficient to
consider the example of a twophase flow that we see
very frequently, for example water which flows slowly
through the neck of a bottle. In this case, the water
represents the liquid phase and the air the gas phase;
the specific weight of the water is some eighty times
greater than that of the air and the flow is stratified
because, as the velocity of both flows relative to the
surface of the two phases is slow, the heavier phase,
the water, occupies the lower part of the bottle neck
and the lighter fluid, the air, occupies the upper part
(see again Fig. 19). If the surface velocity of the gas
increases, the gas will move more quickly than the
water. That happens when the wind blows across the
surface of the sea: unless the relative velocity is very
low, waves form on the surface and the stratified flow
becomes undulated. When the velocity of the gas
increases further, the effect can be compared to a very
strong wind blowing across the surface of the sea: the
wind catches the water and nebulizes it. This is a
mixed regime in which the gas phase is continuous and
the liquid is transported in the form of drops: if the
quantity of the liquid increases, the walls of the pipe
can become completely covered with the liquid being
transported through the gas pipeline and a mixed
annular flow takes place. Another significant situation
arises when the surface velocity of the liquid is high
while that of the gas is low. The gas forms individual
bubbles in a continuous liquid flow. The bubbles tend
to move along the upper part of the pipe, since they are
lighter than the liquid.
The final situation to consider consists of a flow
that starts as an undulated, stratified flow; however,
when the surface velocities increase and the waves
grow in height until they completely fill the cross
section of the pipeline, the flow becomes an
intermittent flow (slug flow) in which pockets of liquid
(slugs) form along the pipeline, separated by stretches
of gas. Slug flows can be very dangerous since the
treatment process at the point of the flow’s arrival must
be able to handle this irregular arrival of high volumes
of liquid with little gas and of high volumes of gas
with little liquid. The existence of slug flows generally
requires the presence of special devices at the end of
the flow up stream of the arrival station.
Currently there are several models available
which are theoretical semi-empirical, or based on
799
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
equations in which coefficients have been calibrated
through reduced scale experimental tests and with
prototypes of pipelines that transport biphase flows.
Hydraulic analysis of multiphase flows is
complicated by a number of factors whose
significance is much greater than it is in the analysis
of single phase flows. For example, the variations in
altitude have a small effect in single-phase flows,
whereas they have much greater consequences in
stratified flows (with the denser liquid on the bottom
of the pipe and the lighter gas above the liquid). The
flow regime in a stretch of pipeline on a downward
slope with a fall of 2m/km, can be completely
different from the flow of a stretch on an upward
slope at the same angle. In the former, the force of
gravity will tend to favour the flow of the liquid and,
when the pumps at the pumping station which are
driving the fluid are stopped, the liquid will continue
to flow for a certain period of time. In the latter case
of a rising pipeline, gravity tends to slow the liquid
down and the liquid may be pulled onward solely by
the dragging effect of the gas flow that is moving
more quickly than the liquid. The liquid, which is
moving more slowly, tends to accumulate and form
slugs which fill the entire cross section of the pipe.
The dynamic pressure that is generated when the gas
is isolated from the slugs pushes the slugs forward
powerfully. Another complication arises from the fact
that, as the pressure and temperature vary, so the
composition of the phases varies. In conditions in
which variations in the flow take place very rapidly,
the different phases present may not reach a state of
equilibrium.
Devices
When a twophase flow reaches the treatment
station, it must pass through a separator (called a slug
catcher, see Chapter 5.4), which must have a volume
greater than that of the biggest slug that might form in
the pipeline during the transport. The separator is
designed in such a way that the gas continues to flow,
while the liquid is trapped and drained towards a
special discharge system before the next slug arrives;
otherwise consideration would have to be given to use
of a larger trap.
Generally, there are two types of separators in use:
vessel and tube. The first are pressurised vessels
capable of withstanding the same pressures as the
pipeline; hence the walls may need to be very thick.
For this reason, tube separators are often used, made
up of short and long lengths of tube with a negative
slope (that is, opposite to the slope of the flow), with a
single inlet and two outlets: one for gas and one for the
liquid. Tube separators generally take up more space
than a vessel separator.
800
7.1.4 Materials
Selecting materials
The choice of materials for the pipes used for
transport of hydrocarbons passes through a decision-
making process that involves several types of
analyses.
Analysis of the chemical composition
of the transported product
The requirements that lead to the selection of the
material best suited to the transmission of the specific
product, are defined right from the preliminary phases
of a project, in relation to the project parameters
foreseeable at the time. The experience gained over the
last two decades, taken as a whole from the point of
view of the technological development of materials,
makes it possible to classify pipelines on the basis of
the materials used.
Carbon steels. Carbon steels are used for the
transport of treated gas, acidic gases and oil. For the last
two, specifications have been developed for the
properties of chemical reactivity, and also corrosion
forecasting techniques for defining the extra thickness
of steel required for the predicted working life at the
stated operational pressure (Palmer and King, 2004).
High resistance carbon steels. Steels of this type are
obtained through strictly controlled thermo-mechanical
processes of lamination and cooling. The use of these
materials is born of the need to reduce the investment
costs associated with the choice of wall thickness of the
pipeline, both for transmission at very high operational
pressures, and for very difficult installation conditions
(pipelines on very deep seabeds).
Special steels. Such materials (stainless steel,
duplex, super duplex, 13% chrome) are used for the
transport of corrosive products (Corrosion Resistant
Alloys, CRAs) and in particularly severe operating
conditions. In some cases specific claddings have been
developed, along with associated manufacturing and
welding techniques, in which a thin layer of corrosion
resistant steel is used in contact with the product being
transported, to line a pipe in traditional steel, whose
walls are sized according to the mechanical resistance
needed for the operating and environmental
conditions.
Flexible pipes. Flexible pipes are often used for
transporting particularly caustic fluids in small
diameter pipes over short distances (Fig. 20). From a
structural point of view, flexible pipes are made using
a concentric sequence of metal sheets and
thermoplastic polymers applied from the inside
towards the outside of the pipe, according to the
specific use of the final product and the product
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

transported. The flexible pipes are then rolled onto
reels ready for installation. These types of pipes costs
about 5 or 6 times more than a normal steel pipe,
although this cost is partially offset by reduced
installation times and cost, as well as by greater
operational flexibility. The equipment generally used
for installing flexible pipes is less sophisticated, and
therefore less costly than that used for installing a
traditional pipeline. In some cases, speeds of
installation can be achieved (500 m/h) which are
unimaginable in the case of rigid pipes, a point
certainly not to be ignored when one considers that in
the majority of operational projects the costs related to
installation of the pipeline are comparable to those
incurred in the purchasing of the materials. To this
should be added the possibility of recovering the
pipeline for inspection, maintenance or even for re-use
in the future. The design and installation of flexible
pipes are generally carried out differently from a
traditional pipeline (Palmer and King, 2004), in that
the manufacturer takes care of the detailed design of
the pipe and is often even responsible for its
installation. Instead, in the case of steel pipes, the
future operator generally takes care of the design
phase and the manufacturer is rarely involved in the
installation.
outer protective sheath
longitudinal stress retaining layers
hoop stress
retaining layer
thermoplastic pipe liner
carcass
rough bore flexible pipe
outer protective sheath
longitudinal stress retaining layers
Fig. 20. Flexible pipes
for the transmission
of fluids at high pressure.
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
Analysis of pipeline use
The growing demand for hydrocarbons on the
part of industry and the general conviction that the
use of pipelines for transport is an economical and, at
the same time, strategic solution, have given impetus
to new projects in which the environments traversed
are increasingly difficult, often being extremely
vulnerable to any incidents that could result in the
loss of the product into the environment. These
scenarios are made all the more critical since they
often feature complex solutions that require extreme
conditions of usage of the materials. Added to this, is
the need to minimize the quantity of steel and the
number of interventions and, therefore, the
investment costs.
Market research indicates that there is a high
incidence of both the transmission of gas at high
pressure over long distances, and the crossing of water
basins having depths that had never been reached
before (over 2,000 m). Industry is, however, making
progress in developing on the one hand, the
technologies and methodologies that will make it
possible to transmit gas at much higher pressures than
those used at present (100 bar), for example 200 bar
which is standard in seb sea transmission and, on the
other hand, the technologies that enable the
outer protective sheath
longitudinal stress retaining layers
hoop stress
retaining layer
thermoplastic pipe liner
smooth bore flexible pipe
secondary thermoplastic liner
hoop stress retaining layer
thermoplastic pipe liner
carcass
rough bore flexible riser
801
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
manufacture of high-quality pipelines with high
thicknesses for installation on very deep seabeds, e.g.
in the Black Sea (more than 2,000 m) or in the Atlantic
Ocean (up to 3,000 m).
Analysis of manufacturing processes
In recent years, because of the number of projects
in progress, but also because of the need for large
diameter thick-walled pipelines with mechanical and
geometric properties defined on the basis of very
restrictive specifications, attention has been turned
towards what is attainable in terms of mechanical
properties and geometric tolerances in relation to the
design criteria and the sizing of the lines. In particular
discussion has centred on: a) how much can be
obtained in the light of a manufacturing process that
foresees (usually for diameters above 16-18 inches) or
otherwise (usually for diameters below 16-18 inches)
longitudinal welding (see below); b) the geometric
tolerances specifiable and obtainable in the two cases;
c) the uniformity of the mechanical properties inside
both an individual pipe, and the various pipes
produced; d) the necessity, in the two cases, of
hydraulic testing (see Section 7.1.6) in the
manufacturing phase and the subsequent conditioning
of the statistical distribution of the mechanical
properties used in the design stage; e) the possibility
of using pipes that have been welded helicoidally in
traditional operating conditions (reduction in material
costs) or for special applications, e.g. the external
casing of insulated pipes.
Particular attention has, moreover, been paid to the
problems associated with checking of the chemical
composition and the production of blooms/billets to
obtain products with particular performance
characteristics (for example, to reduce the fall in
mechanical resistance at high temperatures, something
that is particularly critical in later construction
processes, which can generally produce a fall in
resistance in temperatures below 100°C). Significant
emphasis has also been placed on the study of how
much the construction process can affect the
mechanical resistance of the pipe in specific
conditions. A typical example, in the case of seb sea
pipelines at great depths, is found in UOE technology
(U press, O press and cold Expansion), normally used
to produce large diameter (20-30 inches) and high
thickness (30-40 mm) pipes, where there is no
provision for heat treatment after the expansion phase.
In particular, the levels of deformation of the
circumference reached during the expansion phase
(circa 1-2%) cause a loss in circumferential pressure
resistance, because of the Bauschinger effect, which is
sufficient to jeopardize its resistance to collapse under
external pressure.
802
Analysis of types of breakage attributable
to the material
The attention given by society to the consequences
of industrial accidents has generated the need to
analyse the principal causes that can lead to the failure
of a pipeline and, in particular, what level of safety can
be attained by an appropriate and specific choice of
materials. In particular, it has been possible to verify
the extent to which accident statistics have been
affected by events resulting from:
• External interaction with mechanical equipment
working in the vicinity of the pipeline (excavators
in the case of onshore pipelines, and fishing
equipment in the case of sub sea pipelines).
• Internal and external corrosion (for example, from
cathodic protection, damage to the passive
protection and the usage factor, or where there is
synergy between the external environment,
material and usage factor).
• Material defects or welding defects (in fact such
events have become very rare following the use of
new materials, or rather the use of modern testing
techniques that do not destroy the welds).
• Extreme environmental conditions such as storms,
in the case of sub sea pipelines and, in the case of
onshore pipelines, earthquakes or rainfall
conditions severe enough to cause hydrogeological
instability and as a consequence, landslides and
subsidence.
Consequently, because of the interaction of the
pipeline with environments that are increasingly
subjected to human activity, and therefore to
potential causes of external interference, particular
attention has been given to the study of the modes of
failure relating to superficial defects, that is dents
with or without the presence of defects, with a view
to defining those specifications of resistance and
ductility of the material that allow it to handle such
situations successfully. The propagation of
ductile/fragile breakage has been investigated
thoroughly, in particular for those applications
where loss of the product and bursting of the
pipeline have a major impact on the external
environment concerned, because they interrupt the
supply of the product, which is indispensable to the
community.
Analysis of the mechanical properties
of the chosen material
At present, the industry is proposing design criteria
based on a limit states approach (see Section 7.1.5) as
an alternative to the traditional sizing based on
allowable stress. This is highlighted in recent standards
(Germanischer Lloyd, 1995, and DNV, 2000, for sub
sea pipelines and CSA, 2002, for onshore pipelines).
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

In this approach, an attempt is made to correlate the
sizing of the pipeline with the actual ways that it might
break, the whole expressed in a ratio that links the
effects of the load with the pipeline’s resistance to the
failure mode being analysed (this ratio is the so-called
function of limit state), and to associate the effects of
the load and the resistance to partial safety factors,
that enable a predetermined level of safety, associated
with the consequences of exceeding that limit state, to
be respected. In this analysis it is very important to be
able to establish, with a degree of certainty, how much
the material is capable of resisting within a specified
field of variation and in relation to the manufacturing
technology, but also how much the manufacturing
technology is able to guarantee in terms of geometric
tolerances.
By way of example, the DNV (2000) standards for
sub sea pipelines propose inside pressure related to
circumferential usage factors which vary according to
the availability of information on the mechanical
characteristics of the chosen material. It is also worthy
of note that developments in recent years have been
principally concerned with sub sea pipelines, for which
transmission at high pressure and great thickness of
steel are often implicit; a refining of the project
approach could, therefore, have significant financial
implications. Consequently, the limit states investigated
have been those typical of sub sea applications and the
effects of the loads imposed have been analysed in the
context of high thicknesses and the submarine
environment. Extension to onland pipelines must surely
involve specific studies, in which their typical
thicknesses and the environments they traverse can
establish totally new situations compared with those
faced previously. In particular the use of new materials
and of high resistance steel brings with it fairly
important implications in the development of a limit
states approach, in relation to the difference of the
curve that links stress to deformation for extreme uses
and therefore to its substantial involvement in the way
of initiation of the failure. For example, in the field of
steels for traditional usages or even in the field of high
resistance steels, attention is focused on the ratio
between yield stress and breakage stress, so that, at
present, some project guidelines limit the application
of the proposed criteria to materials for which such
ratios do not exceed certain values (0.85 in the Dutch
and European standards, 0.80 in the German
standards).
Analysis of problems related to tests
The above leads to a reconsideration of the choice
and the specification of the material in relation to the
manufacturing process, and of the design and sizing
on the basis of criteria that permit an adequate safety
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
level to be guaranteed and, finally, of the construction
and the subsequent tests carried out to guarantee
acceptable product quality. On the other hand, faced
with the need to reduce the costs imposed by testing,
the effectiveness of which is often not demonstrable,
the industry is fighting, from one side, the problem of
better qualification of resistance of the materials and
products and, from the other, ways of testing the
products traditionally carried out on all pipelines. In
particular, it is trying to quantify the influence that
testing has on design and particularly on the processes
used to qualify the structural integrity of a pipeline. In
summary, testing permits the statistical distribution of
the characteristic resistance to be restricted, insofar as
the passing of the test would allow it to be said that,
up to the level provided for in the test, the pipeline
has met the specifications. But it is also evident that
the introduction of new materials focuses a certain
degree of attention on this theme, which goes beyond
what might have been thought in the light of
experience gained on traditional materials and
applications.
Traditional materials
In the majority of the countries of the world, the
specifications of materials for construction of
pipelines for the transport of hydrocarbons refer to the
API 5L standard (American Petroleum Institute;
Palmer and King, 2004). In its original formulation,
the API 5L standard identified the grade of a steel, i.e.
its mechanical resistance by means of its yield
strength, for example X52 or X60, where the number
identified the yield strength of the material expressed
in thousands of pounds per square inch (kpsi). This
means that the symbol X52 identifies a material with a
yield strength of 52,000 pounds per square inch, equal
to 358 MPa. The most recent up-date of the API 5L
standard conforms to the ISO standard adopting the
measurement units of the International System, even
though in reality it is still common practice to use the
old denomination. Although the first version of the
API 5L goes back to 1920, that document was adopted
as a reference specification only from 1948 onwards.
At that time, the highest grade material included in the
specification was an X42, while today the standard
includes steels up to grade X80. In 1999 the API 5L
was converted to the international specification ISO
3183 that deals with the choice and use of materials
for pipeline construction with and without longitudinal
welding and spiral tubes.
Evolution of the API 5L over time towards ever
higher grades of material has gone hand-in-hand with
the technological development of metallurgical and
thermo-mechanical processes aimed at improving the
803
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
performance of the materials. At the beginning of the
second half of the twentieth century, pipes for oil and
gas transport were produced with the UOE and SAW
(Submerged Arc Weld) processes starting with low
alloyed steel sheets, which were hot laminated and
then subjected to a thermic normalization treatment.
The resulting microstructure consisted of polygonal
ferrite and perlite, often arranged in bands. The
mechanical characteristics could reach the grade API
X60 and the low temperature tenacity was not always
satisfactory. In time, the growing demands of the
market generated the need to investigate the possibility
of increasing the mechanical resistance without
increasing the content of alloying elements, in order to
avoid the negative effects on tenacity, weldability and
on costs in general. Also taking into consideration the
specification of the products to be transported, to these
requirements was added the need to guarantee an
effective resistance to attack by hydrogen (hydrogen
damage). A certain number of hydrogen atoms can, in
fact, be present in the fluid inside the pipes (acid
ambient), but also result from chemical reactions in
the pipeline’s external environment or from errors in
design of the pipeline’s cathodic protection of buried
or sub sea pipelines (cathodic overprotection). These
hydrogen atoms change into molecular hydrogen
within the micropores of the material, particularly in
the presence of manganese sulphide. The
transformation into molecular hydrogen inside the
intergranular spaces generates high interstitial
overpressures that lead to cracking of the material to
such an extent as to jeopardise its mechanical
performance (Nicodemi, 1986).
It is therefore easy to see how, faced with all these
requirements, it has become necessary to lay down a
technological process that combines a precise
chemical composition with a specific lamination
process. The main objective was to produce steels of
low carbon content with a mixed ferritic-bainitic
microstructure, or even completely bainitic, that would
allow the problem of hydrogen damage to be
overcome. In the latter case it was imperative to reduce
the sulphur content to very low levels, to eliminate
possible reactions caused by the formation of
manganese sulphide, which is extremely deformable,
to control the form of the inclusions through treatment
with calcium (CAB), zirconium or rare earths and to
reduce the level of carbon and of manganese.
Later on, the introduction of the process of thermo-
mechanical lamination and accelerated cooling
(TMCP, Thermo-Mechanical Control Process)
facilitated the production of ferritic-bainitic steels,
without the need for substantial additions of alloying
elements, with beneficial effects both on costs and
weldability. At the end of the production cycle a mixed
804
ferritic-bainitic, or totally bainitic microstructure is
obtained with variable micro-structural characteristics
(dislocation bands within the ferrite grains,
substructures, precipitates) according to the chemical
composition and the TMCP parameters adopted. The
effectiveness of the TMCP process depends on the
careful choice of the micro-alloying elements in
relation to the variables related to the lamination
process and on the significant reduction of the central
liquation process. Since steels produced with the
TMCP process require an alloying elements content
less than, or at the most equal to, that of first
generation thermo-mechanically laminated steels,
particularly as far as carbon content is concerned, they
have the same carbon values (CE0.42%) which
guarantee good weldability and acceptable values of
hardness in the zones affected by heat (HAZs, Heat
Affected Zones) in the circumferential welds.
The development of steels with high mechanical
characteristics (API grades X70, X80, X100) for the
construction of pipelines has, therefore, undergone a
notable acceleration since the 1970s with the
introduction of the controlled lamination process and
of accelerated in line cooling. Numerous manifacturers
have carried out intense research activity on the
formulation of a suitable chemical composition that,
combined with the definition of the variables in the
controlled lamination process, has made the production
of pipes in low carbon content steel (0.07-0.09%)
possible, with three fundamental requisites: high
mechanical characteristics, fundamental for coping
with the high levels of stress imposed, above all, in the
case of pipelines for transmission at very high
pressures; excellent low temperature tenacity, an
indispensable property for controlling the propagation
of fragile fractures; and good weldability in the field.
Today, pipes in API X70 grade steel are an established
product for which qualification and installation criteria
are available: in European countries there are many
installations in this type of steel. The production of API
X80 grade pipe steel has undergone a significant
acceleration since 1980. In that connection there are a
number of publications that contain the results
achieved in the refinement of experimental products
(Dillinger Huttenwerke SG, Hoesch, Sumitomo Metal
Industries, Nippon Steel Corporation, Stelco, ILVA
ILP) and in the construction of the first transport
pipelines with this material.
The requirements for high resistance steels are
specified in several existing standards up to grade
X80. At present there are no specifications relative to
grade API X100 and, therefore, the requirements for
pipeline material in this type of steel have to be agreed
with the manufacturer in the product definition phase.
Even though pipes in API X100 grade steel are not yet
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

available commercially, many international
manufacturers (Nippon Steel, NKK, Kawasaki,
Europipe) have produced experimental pipeline
products, with characteristics that seem to satisfy the
requirements for high pressure natural gas
transmission. The production of pipes in API X100
grade steel is an evolution from the API X80 grade:
the mechanical resistance characteristics of the
API X100 grade are obtained starting from the
chemical composition of grade X80 with targeted
additives of micro alloying elements (manganese,
niobium, titanium) and by a process of controlled
lamination and accelerated in line cooling to the
utmost limit of the most modern laminating plants’
capabilities. The velocity of accelerated cooling
employed in the production of API X100 grade plate is
greater than 20-25°C/s, compared with the 15°C/s
characteristic of the production of API X80 and with
the 5-10°C/s typical of medium-low grades. The pipes
produced on an experimental scale display
characteristics in line with grade API X100, measured
on cylindrical test-pieces because of the high
Bauschinger effect. The tenacity values of the base
material appear satisfactory, both from the point of
view of the CharpyV energy (200-300 J) and from that
of the ductile/fragile transition. It is held that a
CharpyV energy value of 300 J constitutes an upper
limit for thermo-mechanically laminated steels. On the
basis of the experimental production of pipes in
API X100 grade steel it can be assumed that these can
be produced with a chemical composition that satisfies
the 0.45% maximum equivalent carbon requirement.
The process of lamination adopted (very low
temperature at the end of lamination and at the end
of cooling) ensures that the pipes in API X100 grade
steel display very high values of the yield/failure
ratio (>0.90).
Fig. 21. Coupling of two pipes by means of an internal mandrel before the welding phase (courtesy of R. Bruschi).
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
The welds
The construction of gas pipelines and oil pipelines
takes place through the welding together of individual
pipes, about 12 m long, that go to make up the
pipeline, carried out by welding the pipes one after the
other and advancing progressively along the route
designated in the design phase (Fig. 21). Today’s
technology makes many welding techniques available,
so it is necessary to make a choice to select the most
suitable: the parameters that guide such a choice are
generally the diameter and the thickness of the pipe,
but also the characteristics of the place chosen for the
laydown and the working conditions. The speed of
progress during the laydown is governed by the
circumferential welding between one pipe
and the next; consequently, the greater the time
needed to do this welding the longer will be the time
needed to complete the pipeline. For these reasons
technological research tends to concentrate on the
development of new methods of welding that help
speed up the installation and reduce the overall
costs of completing the projects.
Classification of weldings
Welding is used to join the edges of separate bodies
that, at the end the process, become integral parts of a
single structure. There are many welding techniques,
but the ones most often used in the pipeline field are
forms of arc welding. The common characteristic of this
type of technique is that the two edges are joined
together by fusing the material of which they are made
up, through heating up to an adequate temperature. The
heat needed for this purpose is generated by making an
electrical arc jump between the base material of the two
edges and an electrode. Depending on the welding
technique employed, the electrode can act as a filling
805
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
material, since by melting it is mixed in the molten
pool, otherwise the filler is introduced separately in the
form of wires. At times, however, the process can be
such as not to need the addition of filler material into
the pool. Another fundamental aspect of the welding
process is the need to protect the molten material from
the gases present in the air, e.g. oxygen and nitrogen,
which are harmful to the mechanical characteristics of
the join.
In welding technology, weldings are often
classified on the basis of acronyms. The most
frequently used acronyms are listed below.
SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding). Arc welding
with coated electrodes was among the first to be
employed in the field of welding and it is carried out
manually. It provides for the use of electrodes in the
form of metallic rods coated with a cellulose-based
material. During the welding process, the
decomposition of the electrode on the one hand
generates a large amount of gas that protects the
affected area, while on the other hand it also causes
the melting of the metallic material of the rod which
ends up in the molten pool.
SAW (Submerged Arc Welding). Submerged arc
welding is generally used for the longitudinal welding
of pipes that are created by bending a sheet of steel
until it takes on a circular form, bringing together its
two edges. In this case, the uncoated electrode also
becomes the filler material; the protection of the arc
and the molten pool is entrusted to a blanket of
granular material that covers the join, separating it
from the air. This procedure is completely automated.
GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding). In continuous wire
arc welding in a protective atmosphere, the arc jumps
between a metallic wire wrapped around a spool and the
base material. The protection of the molten pool is
entrusted to a gas mixture introduced externally which
continuously fills the affected zone. The sequence of the
different operations has been embodied in a single
appliance called a torch, which gives the process great
flexibility of usage without the need for repeated
interruptions to renew the filler material.
GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding). In welding
with a tungsten electrode, the heat needed to bring the
material to fusion is produced by a tungsten electrode
which, because of its own high melting temperature, is
not consumed during the welding process. The
protection of the molten pool is entrusted to a gas
mixture, while the filler material can be introduced
externally.
The welding process
The pipes used in the construction of pipelines
have thicknesses that seldom allow the welding to be
completed in a single run; consequently it is necessary
806
to make a series of runs until a complete join along its
whole length is obtained. Before welding, the two ends
of the pipes to be joined must be prepared. This
operation requires the cleaning up of all impurities or
residues of any previous work and a subsequent
inspection to check for the presence of any defects. At
this point, the two ends undergo a mechanical
operation called chamfering, which consists of
removing material around the whole circumference of
the pipe until the thickness takes on the right shape.
Note that the angle of inclination of the chamfer
depends on the type of process used, and in particular
on the thickness of the electrode used during the
welding. In fact, for the fusion to reach right to the
base of the chamfer, for manual welding carried out
with coated electrodes, an angle of about 30° is
adopted, while the angle is reduced down to 20° or
even 10° approximately if the welding is of semi-
automatic or automatic type, in which the electrode is
a wire of only a few millimetres thickness.
This geometry is ideal for guaranteeing the complete
penetration of the molten pool as far as the internal
surface of the pipes, whereas, the greater
the angle of opening of the chamfer, the greater the
quantity of material that needs to be deposited,
with corresponding consequences in terms
of time and costs.
After chamfering, the two pipes have to be placed
close to each other and aligned. This operation is
carried out with the help of coupling tools which,
depending on the dimensions of the pipes, can be
internal or external. Typical values of maximum
deviation allowed in the alignment of the pipes cannot
be more than one millimetre.
Before being welded, the two edges are preheated up
so as to prevent the first seam laid down from cooling
off too quickly, otherwise it could be damaged. The
preheating, from this point of view, leaves a greater time
span for the operator to carry out the subsequent
welding runs. Finally, the preheating dries out the two
edges thereby preventing the formation of hydrogen
during the welding which, as already mentioned, can
cause cold fracturing of the join. The completion of the
first welding run is the most critical phase of the
process. Conventionally it is carried out starting at the
top of the pipe and finishing at the bottom, with two
welders working together. In the case of semi-automatic
welding on large diameter pipes, three or even four
torches can be used working simultaneously around the
circumference, thus drastically reducing the time
required for completing the join. The second welding
run has to be carried out as soon as possible, because
every uncontrolled movement, however small, could
stress the first weld just completed and cause it to
break. The process ends by carrying out the filling
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

welds that completely cover the space that separated the
ends of the two pipes. To do this, the torch must be
moved in an oscillating manner, moving it from one
side of the join to the other, at the same time cleaning
away the slag from the welds as the work proceeds. The
final welding run forms a cap on the weld, which is
thick enough to rise above the external surface of the
pipe by some millimetres.
Metallurgy of the weld
During welding, the electric arc causes the base
metal to melt, in this way joining the two ends to be
united. In this zone, the temperature is very high
(about 1,600°C), while the adjacent part of the pipe is
at a much lower temperature. This very high variation
of temperature causes the formation of several
metallurgical components in a limited zone close to
the weld: the HAZ. In particular, in those points where
the heat has been sufficiently high to allow the base
metal to crystallize, the grains of the metallic matrix
undergo a change, forming finer grains, which
improves the mechanical characteristics of the
material; in contrast, where the heat has not been so
high, the grains of the metallic matrix increase in size,
causing a worsening of the mechanical characteristics
of the material. This zone proves to be particularly
sensitive to corrosion and characterized by poor
tenacity. Its dimensions depend on the thickness of the
pipe, on the preheating carried out, and on the quantity
of material deposited during the welding, in proportion
to the amount of heat that develops during the process
(Lancaster, 1993).
Another problem related to the welding is
associated with the porosity that is created if the
molecules of gas dissolved within the weld just
completed remain entrapped there. In fact, while the
metal is still in a molten state, the gases can dissolve
in the liquid phase but also escape from it, whereas
when it solidifies it is unlikely that these gases will be
able to get out from the solid phase. This problem
must not be underestimated, because about one half of
the failure of weldings is connected with the effects of
porosity. Hydrogen is certainly the most dangerous gas
from this point of view, because its high degree of
solubility in the molten pool can allow it to penetrate
up to the HAZ and induce stresses in a zone made
fragile by its thermically altered microstructure.
Finally, particular attention must be given to the
welding of steels with a high sulphur content. These
metals, in fact, can give rise to the production of
sulphides which, at the end of the welding, are the last
to solidify, remaining at the centre of the grains of the
metal. These sulphur-based compounds are much
weaker than the base metal and therefore contribute, to
a reduction in the mechanical resistance of the join.
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Definition of weldability
The term weldability indicates the ease with which
the metal can be welded in such a way as to satisfy the
quality standards expected of the welding. Low carbon
content steels, for example, have a good weldability,
while stainless steels have a significantly lower
weldability. The carbon content of steels is one of the
parameters typically used to classify this characteristic; it
also depends, however, on the micro-alloying elements
contained which are to be found dispersed in the
metallic matrix. Consequently, to unequivocally define
the metal under examination, recourse is made to a
fictitious quantity of carbon called Carbon Equivalent
(CE). The formulae used to calculate the CE are all
based on the same principle: to the percentage of
carbon contained are added the quantities of the other
alloy components on the basis of different weights
depending on the type of component. The higher the
CE value, the less weldable the material.
Inspection techniques for welds
All the welds in high pressure pipelines are
subjected to several types of inspection, with a view to
ensuring that the results obtained in the welding
process satisfy the standards required. The most
common type of inspection technique is radiography.
Some portable instruments have been developed such
that, once the welding is finished, they are installed on
the pipe and make X-ray photographs of the weldings:
any defects present on it are easily identifiable in the
images recorded on film. This technique is very
speedy and enables good results to be obtained in
terms of reliable identification of defects; against this,
it requires large amounts of energy for its operation
and the operators have to be protected carefully from
the source of the radiation.
Another technique, the use of which in recent years
has seen an overall increase, is ultrasonic examination.
This is based on the propagation through the thickness
of the pipe of an ultrasonic wave, which is reflected
when it encounters a sharp variation in density on its
path such as, for example, the internal surface of the
pipe or a defect. The advantage of this technique lies
in the fact that it provides information on the three
dimensions of the defect, defining both its complete
geometry and its orientation within the weld.
Radiography, instead, provides only a two-dimensional
image of the defect, but it is definitely more accurate
than the ultrasonic technique. For revealing superficial
defects, the inspection technique using ferromagnetic
powders is very effective. These powders, mixed in a
liquid, are spread over the external surface of the weld,
and then immersed into a magnetic field. In normal
conditions, the particles tend to position themselves
along the lines of flow of the magnetic field, while any
807
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
irregularities present on the surface, in other words,
the defects, create an irregularity in the magnetic field,
which is made visible by the orientation assumed by
the iron particles.
Another technique used both on magnetic
materials and on non-magnetic, is one which uses
penetrating fluids. These fluids are generally
fluorescent, so as to be easily seen under ultraviolet
light. They are spread over the surface of the weld and
allowed to penetrate by capillarity into any defects
present. The surface is then cleaned and sprinkled with
an absorbent powder that takes up the liquid that has
penetrated into the defects, making their position
visible. This technique is easy to apply and usable
wherever the inspection takes place; it is definitely
economical, but takes a rather long time.
Once the presence of the defects has been
established, it can be decided whether to leave them or
to remove them by repairing the weld. There are two
types of criteria adopted for this purpose: the first
define the limits of acceptability of the degree of the
defects, on the basis of what can be expected to be
found in a weld correctly performed by a good welder.
These criteria are purely empirical and are identified
by the acronym WMS (WorkManship Standard). The
second type of acceptability criteria is based on the
fracture mechanics, which enables it to be established
whether or not a structure containing a defect can still
be safety used. Every repair made to a weld takes a
long time to carry out and consequently imposes high
costs, but most importantly, it is still not possible to
guarantee that the result of the repair will be better
than the initial defective weld.
7.1.5 Mechanical resistance
A pipeline is made up of various components: a) a
steel pipe capable of withstanding all the mechanical
stresses to which the pipeline is subjected; b) an anti-
corrosion system usually consisting of a covering,
made of asphalt, polyethylene, polypropylene or epoxy
resin (passive protection), and of sacrificial anodes of
zinc or aluminium (cathodic protection); c) an internal
lining, generally of epoxy resin, which has the task of
reducing the friction between the fluid being
transmitted and the steel walls; d) an external covering
of cement (reinforced by a steel mesh) which gives the
pipeline the weight needed for its stability in the laying
bed, as well as being a mechanical protection against
external interference.
The primary objective of the designer is to define
the diameter of the pipe necessary to transmit a given
flow (or quantity) of product (principally oil or gas or
a mix of the two) from one location to another in a
808
certain unit of time. During this phase, in considering
various engineering parameters, such as losses of load
along the pipeline, the inside pressure necessary for
the transport is also defined. Once the diameter and
pressure have been defined, it is necessary to decide
on the type of material to use, and this will depend
primarily on the fluid to be transported (gas or liquid,
corrosive or not, etc.). It is therefore necessary to
define the mechanical resistance required of the pipe
in relation to the loads to be applied. Pipeline for the
transport of petroleum products, such as oil and
natural gas, must be strong enough to withstand the
stresses resulting from the loads which will be applied
to it both during the construction phase and during its
working life (Bruschi et al., 1982a).
During construction, depending on the method
adopted, the pipe will be subjected to bending, axial and
torsional loads (the latter is generally negligible
compared with the first two). These loads are relevant
for both onshore and offshore pipes. In the case of sub
sea pipelines another relevant construction load is
hydrostatic pressure generated by the column of water
determined by the chosen site: based on the depth of the
marine site the external pressure can reach very high
values (Torselletti et al., 2003b). A major difference
between onshore and sub sea pipelines is that the
external loads applied during the construction phase are
generally much greater for sub sea pipelines. On the
other hand, when onshore pipeline has to cross terrain
which is particularly undulating, in order to adapt the
pipe to the ground profile, bended sections of pipes are
constructed in the field by applying a high level of cold
plastic bending strain (Bruschi et al., 1995).
During the operating phase, the pipe is subjected to
loads which result from the action caused by internal
pressure and axial forces caused by a constranting
thermal expansion. These are both linked to
transmission of the internal fluid (gas or oil). Further
design criteria, which take account of the other loads on
the pipeline such as its own weight, thermal loads,
traffic, ground movement, wind, waves, external
interference, etc., generally have little influence on the
choice of wall-thickness, but define the measures taken
to deal with these load conditions, which are generally
considered secondary, other than in exceptional cases.
Among such cases, it is worth mentioning the tests
which are peculiar to sub sea pipelines, where the
external pressure or the installation conditions can
change a sizing of the steel wall which had been based
exclusively on containing internal pressure.
Sizing on internal pressure
The thickness of a pipeline’s steel wall is the most
important factor regarding the pipeline’s capacity to
withstand the loads imposed by installation and the
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

operating conditions. Given that the wall’s thickness
has a considerable impact on project costs, it is very
important to use optimized design criteria which
balance the requirements of both safety and costs
(Bruschi et al., 1997). The traditional design criteria,
codified in all the industrial regulations and practices,
are generally based on the capacity of the pipeline
required to contain the internal pressure under
operating conditions. In considering the internal
pressure load, the stress it induces has to be less than
the material’s characteristic resistance reduced by a
utilization factor, often generically called the safety
factor. Obviously this utilization factor is intended to
cover the uncertainties of both the applied loadings
and the resistance of the pipe. The formulae proposed
in the regulations for calculating the stress at the
circumference, sh, acting in a pipeline with an internal
pressure of Dp, are derived from Mariotte’s formula
for pipes with thin walls (i.e. pipes with a
diameter/thickness ratio, D/t, greater than 10):
DpD
sapplied sh1112
2t
The values attributed to the diameter D and to the
thickness t to be used in the calculation change from
regulation to regulation (Fig. 22). In the case of
thickpipes D/t10, more sophisticated formulae need
to be used.
The applied stress must be within the so-called
allowable stress. The allowable stress is defined in
relation to the possible types of failure or
malfunctioning to be avoided. The ‘limit states’ method
is derived from the analysis of failures which have taken
place in existing pipelines, or which can occur in
different project scenarios and under different operating
conditions. A ‘limit state’ constitutes the limit between
an acceptable condition and an unacceptable condition,
expressed by a functional link between the parameters
of the pipeline’s resistance and the loading effects, for
each mode of failure. In this way the resistance capacity
is characterized through its resistance in the face of each
effective failure mechanism (Bruschi et al., 1997). The
type of failure or malfunction can be classified in
accordance with two categories.
Serviceability Limit State (SLS). Serviceability
Limit States denote the inability to carry out the
required function; as such they do not involve the loss
of the transmitted product and generally require less
severe safety coefficients. Reaching the yield point,
excessive ovalization of a section of pipe, and Eulerian
instability (provided that it does not burst, collapse, or
cause a breakage, which would classify it as a ULS)
are typical of an SLS.
Ultimate Limit State (ULS). Ultimate Limit States
denote a break in the wall and consequent loss of the
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TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
t
sh sh
Dp
Dp
D
Fig. 22. Illustrative diagram of the tensions developed
in a pipe subjected to internal pressure.
product; for this reason they generally require a higher
safety factor. ULS relate to the pipeline’s ability to
withstand both the loads created by containing the
pressure, and secondary loads (breakage, local
collapse, fatigue).
The stress at the circumference generated by the
inside pressure, as the pressure increases, reaches the
so-called limit of elasticity (yield stress). If this limit is
exceeded, residual plastic deformations develop. These
plastic deformations are such that they increase the
diameter of the pipeline and consequently reduce the
thickness of the walls, as well as increasing the applied
stress. As the internal pressure continues to increase,
the wall-thickness will be reduced to a level at which
its resistance capacities are no longer strong enough,
leading to the bursting of the pipe itself. The allowable
stress is linked to the resistance characteristics of the
material through the safety coefficients defined on the
basis of a precise safety objective.
Safety criteria
In rationalizing the project criteria a quantitative
definition of the safety level to be pursued is required.
To define this, the concepts of structural reliability and
probability of failure have been introduced. The
required safety level is defined as the maximum
annual probability that the effects of the load will
exceed the resistance capacity of the pipeline, in
relation to the mode of failure generated in the
specific scenario, and by the loads in action. The
certifying bodies, having to define the safety
objectives in non-traditional circumstances, usually
carry out a series of preliminary activities. The aim of
these activities is to analyse what has already been
defined in comparable circumstances, and to
determine the safety level implicit in the generally
recognized regulations, giving due consideration to the
levels of uncertainty relating to the period in which the
809
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
regulation was issued. The final definition of the
annual probability of failure usually aims to ensure an
acceptable level of risk taking into account both the
type of failure and the consequences, considered in
terms of risk to personal health and safety, damage to
the environment and economic loss. The risk is derived
from the product of the probability that an event will
occur and its consequences. Therefore, once an
acceptable level of risk is known, it is possible to
identify the required level of safety based on the
consequences associated with a potential accident.
The parameters generally used to evaluate the
consequences of a failure are: a) the phase in the life of
the pipeline (the construction phase, temporary or
operational); b) the type of fluid being transported;
c) the characteristics of the zone being traversed; d) the
type of failure. Other, generally negligible, parameters
which can have an impact on the consequences of a
failure, are the diameter and the pressure of the
pipeline under consideration. This is a problem which
becomes relevant when there is the possibility of
carrying out high pressure gas transmission through an
onshore pipeline. This application can be of strategic
importance in a situation where production is remote
from the users. The type of fluid transported is
classified on the basis of how dangerous it is; the zone
is generally classified according to the population
density; both, through a matrix chart, enable the
definition of the grades of safety which can be
associated with a given transported fluid and the zone
traversed. A maximum allowed probability of failure
(exceeding of the limit state) is associated with each
grade of safety (ISO 2004). It is generally believed that
an annual probability of 104 per km is acceptable for
stretches of pipeline in operational conditions through
remote areas. This value can fall by several orders of
magnitude when the potential consequences to persons,
property and the environment, associated with a given
mode of failure, rise significantly, for example when
the population density of the zone traversed increases
and/or the type of gas transported is particularly
dangerous. In general, an acceptable range for the
maximum annual probability of failure per kilometre is
103 to 107, according to the population levels of the
zone traversed and the type of fluid being transported
(gas, oil, water, etc.). The most suitable safety value
and the related documentation have been a subject of
heated debate in many countries. For some years in
Europe new legislation has been in the process of
development, which requires documentation that a
pipeline has been adequately designed for its purpose
for the whole of its operating life, and that the
consequences of potential failures, in terms of threat to
human life, to the environment and to property have
been reduced to the lowest reasonably practicable
810
value. Leaving aside at this point any elaboration on
what is meant by ‘lowest reasonably practicable’, it is
important to underline the extent to which this has
forced, first those companies operating in the North
Sea, and now also those operating in the Mediterranean
Sea, to update and revise their approach to safety. With
this regulation it has now become the responsibility of
the company operating the pipeline to define the
practicable level of risk, and to document how this risk
has been reduced to the minimum practicable. Even
though it is possible to refer to the planning practices
codified in the regulations regarding well-known
aspects, the level of reliability implicit in the
regulations traditionally is not quantified. To define
and document a probability of failure which is
consistent and uniform for all modes of failure has,
therefore, become a primary objective. A due
consideration regards the difficulty of quantifying and
rationalizing the phenomena of failure linked to human
activities such as excavations and onshore well-drilling,
or the anchoring of ships in areas of the sea lacking the
facilities. Even though these activities can be included
among the loads that can cause pipeline to fail, it seems
much more appropriate and rational, where analysis of
the frequency of occurrence demands it, to identify
protective measures and/or warning and surveillance
procedures which prevent such activities taking place
in the vicinity of a pipeline (ISO 1999).
To complete the process of establishing the
thickness of the pipeline necessary to contain the
internal pressure, the limit state method allows, for
example, the definition of a project format which
guarantees a safety objective with respect to both
bursting and yielding. This is:
gasappliedsallowablemin{hgsy; husu}
where hg is the partial safety factor associated with the
SLS relating to exceeding the yield tension, hu is the
partial safety factor associated with the ULS relating to
exceeding the ultimate tension, ga is the partial safety
factor associated with the intrinsic uncertainty in the
calculation of the applied tension and the parameters
which are involved in the formulation used. The
material’s yield tension, sy, is generally defined as the
tension at which the structure shows no significant
residual deformations, i.e. those present once the
structure itself has been emptied. The material’s
ultimate breaking tension, su, represents the value of the
stress beyond which there is no longer any capacity of
resistance (in the case of containing internal pressure,
exceeding it will cause the pipeline to burst).
The behaviour of the material just described is also
highlighted in the preceding planning equation. In
fact, the closer that its ultimate breaking tension, su, is
to the yield tension, sy the closer the material will be
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 TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE

international regulations, and reported in Table 1, it can

Table 1. Regulations for design of sub sea be seen that, among those most commonly used today
or overland pipelines in pipeline engineering, the same concept of containing
the tension at the circumference is expressed in different
Regulation Country Format ways. In fact, in the Mariotte’s formula reported above,
DNV OS-F101 Norway limit state each regulation assigns a precise and specific meaning
to the various terms it contains. These differences can
ASME B31.4 USA allowable tension
and B31.8 result in variations of as much as 10% in the wall-
BS 8010 United Kingdom allowable tension thickness necessary for a given internal pressure and a
NEN 3650 Holland allowable tension
given nominal diameter. The maximum operating
limit state pressure is defined directly by the ASME B31
C.S.a.R. 2.06.05.85 Former USSR allowable tension regulation of 1958 as the pressure at which the
CSA Z662 Canada allowable tension
corresponding tension at the circumference is not
limit state greater than 72% of the material’s yield tension. In other
ISO Europe allowable tension words it defines a safety coefficient, h, equal to 0.72.
limit state The safety coefficient has been revised during recent
DM 24-11-84 Italy allowable tension years for the different regulations, and is currently as
of the Ministry high as 0.87 under operating conditions.
of the Interior
Onshore pipeline feature relatively low internal
pressures (in Italy and Europe the maximum pressure
to bursting: the closer the ratio of the yield tension to generally used is around 70-90 bar, that is 7-9 MPa)
the breakage tension (indicated as Y/T) is to one, the when compared with sub sea pipelines where, for
more likely the pipeline is to burst. The preceding operational reasons, the pressures used fluctuate
planning equation can be simplified by reducing the between 200 and 300 bar (20-30 MPa). Considering
safety coefficients down to just one: that the safety coefficients used are similar, the onshore
pipes have relatively low thicknesses (they vary from
sappliedsallowablehs
12 mm to 20 mm depending on the diameter) when
This format is the most common among the compared with undersea pipework, in which the
regulations in force internationally (Table 1). In this thicknesses vary between 15 mm and 35 mm depending
regard, it is possible to see how, from the point of view on the internal pressure and the diameter.
of current regulations, different interpretations of the It should be remembered that, in defining the
same structural problem (that of a pipe’s containment of criteria for the project and hence for the safety
internal pressure) have led to different project criteria, coefficients, a certain margin, generally around 10% of
which also have widely differing results. If we consider, the thickness, is allowed to cover the possibility of local
for example, the sizing criteria proposed in some defects (such as defects caused by corrosion, jags or

Fig. 23. Effect of the longitudinal propagation of a fracture following a local burst (courtesy of R. Bruschi).

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HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
ovalization) which could reduce the pipe’s resistance
capacity. Onshore pipelines for the transport of oil
feature lower pressures and higher temperatures than
those for gas. In fact, in order to prevent the
condensation of waxes which could cause blockages,
pipelines that transport oil operate at relatively high
temperatures (even exceeding 100°C). This means that,
in defining the thickness of the pipe, account must be
taken of the reduction in the material’s resistance
capacity caused by high temperatures. In offshore
pipelines for gas transmission, the high pressures
needed to effect the transmission are often accompanied
by high temperatures resulting from the process of
compressing the gas itself. In onshore pipelines for gas
transmission, a very dangerous type of failure consists
in a burst caused by an accidental event, which is then
followed by the propagation of a split along the length
of the pipe. This can have extreme consequences both
for human life and the environment, and also in terms of
costs (Fig. 23). This effect does not occur in pipelines for
oil transport because of the practically instant drop in
internal pressure in the event of a breakage.
Secondary effects
In many situations, along with the internal pressure
there are other loads involved, generally called
secondary, which can have significant effects (Bruschi
et al., 1982a). These are: bending actions due to
differential subsidence or where there are ondulations in
the ground’s profile where the pipeline is lying; axial
actions, generally due to an obstructed thermal
expansion or to ground sliding (in some cases these
movements can cause instances of Eulerian instability
which lead to the development of uncontrolled bending
actions); local actions, due to impacts or to outcrops of
hard matter on which by chance the pipeline comes to
rest, which generate very localized deformations of the
pipe wall (dents, gouging, etc.). These secondary
actions can cause malfunctions or failures.
Local pipeline collapse. This can be associated
with local conditions of instability, caused by the
exceeding of the resistance capacity of a section of
pipe where there are longitudinal compression stresses
(both axial and circumferential).
Opening of a defect in a circumferential weld. This
is due to having reached the resistance capacity in a
section of pipe where there are very high or fluctuating
longitudinal tensile strains (Bruschi et al., 1984) with
consequent problems of structural fatigue (Celant et
al., 1982). These openings can cause a burst, or may
be limited to causing a gas leakage. This mode of
failure is relevant for all phases of a pipeline’s life
(from installation to operation), and there are specific
resistance criteria for defining the acceptable levels of
welding defects on the basis of the applied loads or,
812
for given defects, for determining allowable loads to
avoid the defects themselves opening up and loosing
the internal fluid. A specific regulation applied
internationally is BS7910-1999 of the British
Standards Institution.
Instant failure from local or incipient damage. This
is linked to the propagation of initially local damage
through the entire thickness of the wall, due to fatigue
or corrosion associated with a combination of load and
environment.
To prevent each mode of failure linked to secondary
actions there are specific design criteria, like those
discussed for the sizing of the pipe walls (see again
Table 1). The objective is to keep the applied stress
below a carefully determined allowable stress level. It is
evident that the design must seek to prevent such
failures being generated, by identifying the necessary
precautions. These often involve measures to protect the
pipe by reducing the extent of the external loads rather
than by changing the thickness of the pipe itself.
However, in environments characterized by changing
hydrogeological features (terrain prone to landslides), or
that might be subject to significant seismic activity, the
secondary actions can become critical. During the
planning phase, the engineer has little in the way of
tools for determining the nature and extent of the
secondary actions which might develop. In these cases,
the company operating the pipeline generally makes use
of a series of instrument-based surveillance and
checking activities to keep the potentially critical areas
under observation, and to initiate any suitable mitigation
operations to prevent the development of conditions
which could lead to failure of the pipeline (Bruschi et
al., 1995). The scarce attention paid to secondary load
conditions, in practice limited to checks at an equivalent
stress level which does not really correlate to actual
failure conditions, is a short-coming in current
regulations. Only a few regulations, in force in countries
which have particularly difficult environments, for
example Japan, where the ground is subjected to very
severe thermal and seismic conditions, provide for
checks formulated specifically for secondary loads.
Among the secondary effects not specifically linked to
external loads, can be included the possible corrosion of
the pipe’s steel walls, resulting from two causes:
• The external environment (currents induced by the
pipeline on land, corrosive terrain, sea water with
high levels of chlorine, etc.); for this type of
damage, as already mentioned, the design provides
for total coating of the pipe with insulating plastic
material such as polyethylene or polypropylene
(passive protection), and the installation of anodes
(for example of zinc or manganese) on which to
produce any corrosive activity in place of the pipe’s
steel walls which might accidentally be in contact
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

Fig. 24. Landslide parallel to the axis of the pipe.
Fig. 25. Landslide across the axis of the pipe.
with the external corrosive environment (active
protection).
• Transported fluid which might be corrosive; for
this type of corrosion, material which is resistant to
corrosion (stainless steel) is generally used, or the
fluid to be transported is pre-treated before being
pumped into the pipeline to minimize the presence
of corrosive agents such as carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrogen sulphide (H2S), etc.
Onshore pipelines are generally buried so as to
avoid any possible interference from other human
activities, such as agriculture or road-building.
Nevertheless, some types of secondary loads are
possible (Bruschi et al., 1995). For example: static and
dynamic loads in buried pipeline due to movement of
the ground (landslides, soil creeps and earthquakes),
types of load which generate both bending of the
pipeline and axial traction and compression (Figs. 24
and 25); accidental loads linked to interference from
human activity, of the sort that cause local damage such
as surface dents and gouging on the pipe wall made by
the impact from the bucket of a mechanical excavator,
typical of construction activity, or from a plough during
agricultural activity.
Sub sea pipelines, unlike those on land, are
subjected to significant loads during construction. This
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
means that wall-thickness can be defined in view of
the fact that the pipeline must withstand the loads
caused by construction (Torselletti et al., 2003b).
Moreover, because of the high costs of burial resulting
from having to work at great depths (500 m), the
pipeline is often laid on the seabed. This means that
the pipe will remain exposed to the unevenness of the
seabed, to interference from human activity, to
hydrodynamic actions linked to currents and sea
waves, and to accidental loads caused by earthquakes
(landslides, turbidity currents, etc.). Sub sea pipelines
are subjected to the following secondary loads:
a) loads caused by the hydrostatic pressure of the
surrounding water, a particularly important type of
load for pipeline constructed at great (1,000 m) and
very great (2,000 m) depths, for which the thickness
of the pipe walls is defined; b) loads which combine
pressure (internal or external), bending (linked to
functional loads such as the weight of the pipeline
itself and of the fluid being transported, and to the
unevenness of the sea floor, etc.), and axial loads
(linked to functional loads such as the operating
temperature which has the effect of expanding the
pipe); c) dynamic loads caused by surface waves and
marine currents which can cause lateral instabilities
and the vibration of the pipeline when it is in a
suspended state, spanning two support points (Bruschi
et al., 1982b); d) static and dynamic loads in buried
pipelines caused by movements of the ground (such as
landslides, soil creeps and earthquakes; Bruschi et al.,
1995), loads of the sort that generate both bending of
the pipeline and axial traction and compression;
e) accidental loads linked to interference from human
activity, of the sort that cause local damage such as
superficial dents and gouging on the pipe wall from
the impact of fishermen’s dragnets and ships’ anchors.
The loads on onshore pipelines caused by
installation are relatively low because the technology
used makes it possible to prepare an ideal path for the
pipeline. The opposite is true for the installation of sub
sea pipelines, which calls for very sophisticated
analyses to predict the applied loads and the structural
response of the pipe. Thereafter the design criteria,
which are used to guarantee the integrity of the pipeline
during the installation phase, are drawn up.
Resistance of sub sea pipelines to external pressure
The installation of sub sea pipelines often foresees
the presence of air at atmospheric pressure inside the
pipe (Torselletti et al., 2003b). The high external
hydrostatic pressure which is frequently present during
the installation of sub sea pipes, tends to ovalize the
cross-section of the pipe (not perfectly circular even
when produced in the steelworks) until it reaches the
ultimate limit state of collapse (complete flattening).
813
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE

Fig. 26. Formation of a localised dent caused by a concentrated external force and collapse of the cross
section of the pipe (courtesy of R. Bruschi).

The instability of the cross-section of the pipe pipeline of the adjacent sections to be collapsed
subjected to external pressure is reached when this (Torselletti et al., 2003a). This knock-on-effect can only
pressure is equal to the pressure of collapse, pcollapse, be stopped if the external pressure is lower than a
defined in the following formula: maximum value capable of providing the necessary
force to sustain the propogation, or if the section of pipe
    
pcollapse pcollapse 2 pcollapse 13
D0
pel, d 1 py, d 1 f0 py, d
111 111 111 is strong enough to withstand the external pressure, in
t
other words the thickness is greater than that at which a
where pipe without local defects would collapse.
DmaxDmin The first instance should be avoided in order not to
f0111123 risk the collapse of long stretches of pipework. The
D0
second instance is achieved by increasing the thickness
of all the pipes (a very costly solution), or by inserting
 
3
2E t t
pel, d112 13 py, d2sy 13 thicker sections of pipe (4-12 m in length) at regular
1v D0 D0
intervals to block any propagation of the flattening.
D0 is the outer diameter, t the thickness of the steel, f0 Sub sea pipelines are subjected to fairly high loads
the initial ovalization of the cross-section, and Dmax during construction in comparison with onshore
and Dmin are the maximum and minimum outer pipelines. In fact the pipe is subjected simultaneously to
diameters respectively. In the case of pipes being bending, axial, and external pressure loads. In addition,
installed at great depths (1,200 m), the external during pipeline construction at sea, because of the need
pressure load can also have a significant bearing on to support the weight of the span being installed, the pipe
the specification of the pipe’s thickness in place of the rests on supports at intervals (rollers) which can apply
criteria for the containment of inside pressure. The fairly high transverse forces. In onshore pipeline
safety criteria is similar to that used for internal construction all four of the above-mentioned stresses are
pressure, and is expressed as: absent. In particular cases it is necessary to install curves
cold-formed on site, in order to obtain a curve with a
Pexternal  hppcollapse well-defined radius. In any case, these types of load are
applied sporadically in a very controlled way, so as to
where hp is a coefficient which establishes the level of avoid any possible failures of or damage to sections
safety, that is the improbability of the pipe’s cross- during the operational phase.
section being collapsed. In the case of the installation of offshore pipes, the
A local collapse can spread along the pipeline if the combined loads can cause a mode of failure linked to
external pressure exceeds a certain critical value (which the instability of the cross-section and its eventual
can be the collapse pressure or a lower value depending collapse (Fig. 26). To express this failure mode
on local defects such as dents, or on a combination of analytically the various regulations use different
loads which amplify the effects of the external pressure). equations (Torselletti et al., 2003b). There are two
In this case the collapsed section of pipe can cause the equations which are used most frequently. The first

814 ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS


Fig. 27. Equilibrium 2
configuration of a pipeline m
1
laid down on an uneven
seabed. 0
⫺1
⫺2
configuration after works
local weightings
uses the external loads applied to the pipe’s steel walls
directly through the following inequality:
     
Mapplied a Napplied b pexternal g
111 g
Mcritical  Ncritical  pcollapse
11123 11123
where M is the bending moment, N is the axial force
and pexternal is the external pressure. The denominators
are the critical values of failure/instability of the
individual loads taken separately, and g is the safety
coefficient with a value less than one. The collapse
pressure, pcollapse, is a function of the pipe’s geometry
(which includes imperfections such as a cross-section
that is not perfectly circular, in other words
ovalization, or the presence of localized dents), and of
the material’s characteristics.
In the second equation the tensions resulting from
the external loads are used and applied through the
definition of the so-called equivalent tensions. The
equivalent tension applied for a allowable state,
which can be defined both in relation to the yield (sy)
and in relation to the failure (su), is defined from one
or more safety coefficients (Bruschi et al., 1982a;
DNV, 2000).
The objective of the criteria described above is that
of installing a pipeline capable of withstanding the
operating and environmental loads which will assail it
during its working life. With reference to these criteria,
the irregularity of the seabed is particularly prone to
induce unacceptable external bending loads on a
pipeline laid on it. In this situation either the seabed
must be modified through appropriate interventions, or,
if this is too costly, the route followed by the pipe must
be changed so as to reduce the effect of the applied
loads (equivalent tension and sectional instability
criteria) below the allowable tension. Some types of
offshore pipe installations enable very careful
monitoring of the level of deformation induced in the
pipe walls. In these instances the design criteria permit
the use of less restrictive safety coefficients or,
alternatively, introduce the concept of allowable
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
nominal bending / bending limit
configuration before works: not acceptable
fillings with gravel
artificial supports
deformation for defining the limit of instability/collapse
of the pipe’s cross-section. The criteria is similar to that
based on the external loads mentioned above, but the
moment M and the axial force N are substituted by the
corresponding longitudinal deformation.
For all the criteria described above there are design
equations based on limit states, as for the containment
of internal pressure. In the case of installation loads of
offshore pipes the greatest uncertainties are linked to
external loads generated by the environment. In
particular, during construction of the pipeline, the
work barge can be subjected to sea storms with very
high waves which can have catastrophic effects on the
structural integrity of the span being installed and lead
to the pipe being lost in the sea. It is clear, therefore,
that compared with the operating conditions, the safety
coefficients adopted for the construction phase are
generally lower.
Resistance to environmental loads
and external interference
Inside pressure is not the only load acting on
offshore and onshore pipelines. The preceding
paragraphs described some typical situations involving
the interaction of several loads on a pipeline (Bruschi
et al., 1982a). An analysis of the pipeline’s resistance
to operational loads (its own weight, pressure,
temperature, etc.) and environmental loads (waves and
marine currents, landslides, etc.) can be sub-divided
into two phases: the analysis of the pipe’s response,
that is the calculation of the applied stresses, and the
comparison of these applied stresses with a tension
limit through a resistance criterion.
The balance configuration of a pipeline laid on an
irregular seabed generally results in a series of
suspended pipeline sections, separated by stretches of
different lengths along which the pipe lies on the
seabed (Fig. 27). This situation is typical of sub sea
pipelines. Onshore pipelines, however, are generally
laid in a trench that follows fairly regular ground
815
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
Fig. 28. Determination of the flexing moment limit by means
of experimental trials (courtesy of R. Bruschi).
Fig. 29. Determination of the flexing moment limit
by means of numerical finite elements analyses
(courtesy of R. Bruschi).
chosen specifically to avoid excessive bending loads.
The discontinuity of the points of support induces
bending moments which can be unacceptable from a
static (i.e. under operating loads) and a dynamic (i.e.
under operating and environmental loads) point of
view. In particular, the unevenness of the seabed must
be within limits which allow the pipe to be laid
without jeopardizing its resistance.
Once the pipeline has been laid, it should be
considered that: the balance configuration under static
actions may not be acceptable, for example during the
hydraulic testing phase (see Section 7.1.6) or in the
subsequent operational phase, if the overall weight of
the pipeline and the fluid within it, the inside pressure
and the external pressure, put a stress on the pipeline’s
support points causing bending moments that exceed
the allowable values; the balance configuration could be
inadmissible from a dynamic point of view, if the
bottom marine currents, acting transversally to the
pipeline, are such as to induce self-enhancing hydro-
elastic oscillations of an amplitude which prejudices the
fatigue resistance of the pipeline during its operating
life (Bruschi et al., 1982b; Celant et al., 1982).
The two load-based situations described above
must be compared with the structural criteria able to
guarantee the pipe’s integrity for the whole of its
working life (Vitali et al., 2003). In particular, the
bending moment limit combined with the action of the
inside pressure and axial forces, above which the
pipeline loses all capacity of resistance (this involves
816
criteria similar to those described earlier, when
discussing installation loads); exceeding of the fatigue
resistance under cyclical loads linked both to the
fluctuations of inside pressure and to dynamic loads
caused by the external environment (resistance criteria
specific to this limit state are described in the
regulations in Table 1).
When tension or bending moment values are above
the allowable levels it is necessary to carry out
remedial work to modify the balance configuration of
the pipeline. This can involve, for example, levelling
any unevenness along the route of the pipeline (by
excavating trenches or using rocks and excavated
material to fill in depressions), as shown in Fig. 27.
The introduction of the limit states method has
necessitated detailed analyses of the pipe’s structural
response under the combined action of bending
moment, inside pressure and axial force. The existing
regulations often make reference to design criteria
based on experimental tests on a 1:1 scale, and on the
application of numerical models (FEA, Finite
Elements Analysis), as shown in Figs. 28 and 29.
Pipelines for the transport of fluids which are
dangerous for people or for the environment (such as
oil or natural gas which could catch fire or explode,
either way causing pollution), must also be designed to
withstand accidental loads; loads whose probability of
occurrence is remote but not insignificant considering
the risks involved. In fact the objective is to design a
structure that will be safe even in the event of
accidental loads, which although highly unlikely, could
have serious consequences from the point of view of
the environment and loss of human life, as well as
financially (see above).
Onshore pipelines, passing through areas of
considerable human activity (housing, industry,
farming, etc.), must be capable of withstanding even
significant accidental loads. It should be remembered
that typical accidental loads are those associated with
the environment (earthquakes, landslides, etc.) or with
human activity, which would call for very thick steel
pipelines. As already mentioned, to restrict the thickness
to what would be acceptable economically, protective
measures are adopted, such as burying the pipe in
trenches of a suitable depth. However, there are human
activities which can still interfere with the pipeline (as
already mentioned, interference from the bucket of an
excavator, the blade of a plough, etc.). This means that
the steel pipe must be thick enough to withstand certain
accidental loads which occur frequently or have serious
consequences. Nevertheless, this thickness may still not
be sufficient. In fact some instances of damage can
become very dangerous over a period of time, even if
they are not immediately so. It is therefore of
fundamental importance to plan inspection and
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

subsequent monitoring, and/or the repair of any damage
found in the pipeline (local dents and/or gouging on the
steel wall, and local or general corrosion). One of the
main monitoring activities consists in checking for any
corroding of the steel wall due to deterioration/damage
to the passive protection (anti-corrosion coating), and in
the consequent activation of the active protection
(cathodic protection).
Another problem, generally caused by accidental
external loads which over time reduce the mechanical
resistance of the pipe wall, is the so-called ductile
propagation of a longitudinal fracture which often has
disastrous consequences (loss of human life and
substantial economic damage); this problem is typical
of pipeline for gas transmission. Generally the design
criterion is linked to the choice of a material which is
tough enough to prevent such propagation. Even if the
trigger may be linked to local interference from human
activity, the monitoring activity to prevent local
damage remains of fundamental importance.
7.1.6 Construction
The construction of a pipeline is carried out by
welding together pipes which have been properly
prepared and laying them along a predefined route.
Depending on the terrain traversed, the pipelines can
either be onshore or offshore; this is the first and most
important distinction in constructing the pipelines,
given that the two different environments require
different planning and construction technologies. In
general, sub sea pipelines require a high level of
technology both during construction, in terms of the
means employed, and thereafter, in the management
and maintenance of the lines.
Onshore pipelines
The current trend in onshore pipeline construction
(Institution of Gas Engineers, 1984) is to bury the
pipelines, with very few exceptions in special
circumstances; this both increases safety and reduces
impact on the environment. The activities for
constructing an onshore pipeline can be outlined as
follows: logistics and work route; trenching and
crossing of particular points; mechanical assembly;
restoration and commissioning.
Logistics
The logistic activities include:
• Transfer of personnel, machinery and tools to the
work-sites located along the pipeline, for a distance
which depends on the characteristics of the area in
question and the presence of infrastructure and
services (transport, water, electricity, etc.).
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
• Preparation of the route (Gray, 2004); a track is
prepared along the entire course of the pipeline to
allow the movement of mechanized equipment for
carrying and laying the pipeline. Generally, as the
diameter of the pipe increases, the size of the
mechanized equipment and the width of the trench
also increase. Hence a track is prepared which
increases in width in proportion to the diameter of
the pipeline, up to a width of about 30 m for a pipe
diameter of 1.2 m. In difficult situations or to reduce
the environmental impact to a minimum, it is
possible to restrict the width of the track, however
this increases the complexity of the assembly work.
After clearing the vegetation and removing the layer
of humus from the area along the route, the ground
is levelled to facilitate the excavation work and the
laying of the pipeline. The humus is normally stored
so that later it can be put back in place.
• Transport and storage of the pipes; the pipes for
the pipeline (which vary in length from 10 to 17 m)
are often produced in steelworks a long way from
where they are used and, for major operations, by
more than one supplier. The first part of the
journey from the steelworks is usually made by
ship or train; thereafter lorries are used to reach
the gathering area near the work-site. Sometimes
it is therefore necessary to construct access roads.
The costs associated with overland transport are
very significant, and are generally determined by
balancing the advantages and disadvantages
offered by long pipes (produced up to a length of
17 m), which reduce the number of welds and
also the cost of construction, but involve higher
transport costs (generally for lengths above 13 m
it is necessary to organize escorted transport). A
widely employed compromise is to foresee the
use of pipes of approximately 12 m which are
welded in pairs on work site, thereafter
transporting the length of pipe produced (double
joint) along the track to the last weld point along
the pipeline. In this way, doubling up the welding
phases enables a major increase in productivity.
During the phases of moving, transporting and
storing the pipes, it is important not to damage
either the pipe or the anti-corrosive coating
applied to the exterior of the steel. Although the
coating can be repaired without difficulty,
damage to the steel pipe can be repaired only in
some less serious instances.
• Careful movement of the pipe until its installation in
the trench; in fact it is important not to bring metal
tools into direct contact with the pipe’s coating, to
avoid laying the pipes being transported along the
line directly onto the ground, and to handle the
pipeline (especially when assembled) in such a way
817
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
as to avoid plastic deformation, ovalization and
denting.
• Deployment of the pipes along the route; this is the
final part of the transport: the pipes are lined up
along the route beside the trench so as to be ready
for connecting. The sections where there are curves
are identified in the planning phase and the
appropriate curved sections are prepared in
advance at the steelworks and transported to the
site. Other curves are made in the field as part of
the mechanical assembly.
Excavations and crossings
Pipelines are generally buried, with a covering
layer thick enough to prevent interference from surface
activities, especially agricultural, and to ensure
protection from the passage of mechanized equipment;
the covering must also be able to cope with erosion
over time resulting either from natural events or from
human activity.
The excavating activity involves preparing a trench
of a shape, depth and width suitable for the pipeline
and for the various problems associated with the types
of ground traversed. The trench is dug using various
types of excavators, in conjunction with explosives
where there is tight rock.
The bottom of the trench is formed in such a way
that the whole length of the pipeline rests on it.
Moreover, the bottom and the sides of the trench are
finished in such a way as to avoid unevenness that
could damage the pipeline or its coating. For the same
reason, the bottom of the trench is checked to ensure
that there are no foreign bodies, boulders orprotection
of rock. When necessary, a safe laying bed is created,
the area around the pipeline being covered with
selected material (sand), often taken from the
excavation itself.
In the field of pipeline construction, crossing
obstacles, whether natural (water courses, ridges and
rocky slopes) or artificial (railways, roads and
motorways), has always represented a peculiarity in
terms of both design and construction. There is a wide
variation in the scale of the operations required
depending on the difficulties presented by the
crossing. Water courses and their infrastructures are
crossed using small work units, which operate in
advance of the line. In this context, it should be
remembered that in certain instances, such as in very
mountainous areas, tunnels may also be built.
The available construction methods can be
classified in numerous ways, based on the drilling
criteria, the type of excavation or the type of
machinery being used; the two principal methods are
the open air type and the underground technology
type, also called trenchless (Vescovo and Lazzarini,
818
2002). The requirement for a more careful protection
of the environment in the area of the pipeline and the
significant technological developments of recent
years, have led to the increasing adoption of trenchless
technologies as alternatives to open air excavations.
The most often used trenchless methods are the
micro-tunnel and Horizontal Directional Drilling
(HDD). Micro-tunnel technology consists in the
progressive advancement of a cylindrical cutting head
positioned in front of a string of lining pipes. The
simultaneous advancement of the head and the trailing
pipes is achieved using of hydraulic jacks positioned at
the rear, at the drive station. The micro-tunnel is
carried out using sophisticated control systems,
sometimes remote controlled, which make it possible
to follow an irregular course with great precision and
safety. Once the micro-tunnel is completed, the
pipeline is installed inside it using winches and cables.
The dimensions of micro-tunnels vary depending on
the pipeline to be laid; their diameter may be from 1 to
3.5 m, except in special cases.
HDD is a system of boring derived from the
directional drilling methods used in oil wells. During
an initial phase a pilot borehole of small diameter is
drilled along the predetermined project profile,
generally curved, using a high-pressure jet cutting
head – or alternatively a mud drive – connected to the
front of drill pipes. The cutting head carries out both
the mechanical action of cutting the ground and the
changes of direction needed to follow the course of the
project. The second phase is that of reaming the pilot
bore up to the diameter required for installing the
pipeline. The number of reaming runs depends on
various factors (the nature of the terrain, the diameter
of the pipeline, the available pulling force, etc.).
Finally, the pipeline is ‘pulled’ using the drill pipes,
on the end of which a length of the pipeline itself, with
its joints already welded on the surface, is attached
with an appropriate connection.
Mechanical assembly
Qualification of the construction procedures. The
principal construction procedures are welding, anti-
corrosive coating of the welded joints, non-destructive
checks and repairing of the welds. All these operations
are carried out in the field. These procedures are also
tested to ensure that the personnel, the equipment and
the materials used guarantee the success of the work in
accordance with the specifications. The qualification is
carried out directly on-site at the start of the work, if no
unusual difficulties arise. The welding procedures are
qualified some time in advance of the start of
construction, to allow for the carrying out of the
prescribed destructive tests and the adoption of any
corrective measures needed in the event that the
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

requirements are not satisfied. If non-destructive checks
using automated ultrasound systems are foreseen, once
the welding proceedures have been qualified,
construction of the calibration blocks follows.
Connecting the pipes through welding the joints
and non-destructive checks. Welding the joints is the
principal construction activity on a pipeline. Manual,
semi-automatic and automatic techniques are
employed. For major pipelines semi-automatic
techniques, which guarantee the greatest productivity,
are the most frequently used, although a great deal of
effort is being focused on the development of
automatic machines which will deliver even higher
productivity. However, manual weldings are still always
made for the off-line connections of pipeline strings
(tie-in). Manual welding is also used for connecting
specialized items (valves, branches, prefabricated
curves and traps), or for pipes with walls of different
thicknesses; on minor pipelines manual welding is still
preferred because of its greater simplicity.
There are various technologies, but generally
electric arc welding techniques are used (see Section
7.1.4) and they are differentiated by the type of
shielding of the molten pool: submerged arc welding
(with a continuous wire, of both automatic and semi-
automatic types, often used on double joins), and gas
protection welding (with a continuous wire, generally
of the semi-automatic type, used on pipeline joins).
The completion of the welding is carried out through
successive runs, also using different methods for
individual runs.
As already mentioned, the typical procedure
foresees mechanical coupling of the joints to be
welded using an appropriate clamping device which
travels along the inside of the pipeline (see again
Fig. 21; in some cases an external coupling system is
also used), which has the task of holding the two edges
securely. A check is then carried out to see if there is
any misalignment, the edges to be joined are pre-
heated and the welding work is carried out with
intermediate temperature checks between the runs.
All the welds are checked to identify any defects
which might compromise the integrity of the pipeline.
In past years, as already pointed out, radiographic
equipment supported by manual ultrasonic equipment
was used. Currently the tendency is to use automated
ultrasonic systems which guarantee a better
identification of the most hazardous defects, and
supply more accurate information on the dimensions
of the defects.
Coating welded joints with protective material and
checking the integrity of the external coating.
Normally the pipes arrive on-site already coated,
whereas coating of the welded joints is of necessity
carried out on the line. To this end, the welded joint is
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
prepared through cleaning, sandblasting and heating,
followed by the application of the protective material,
which is generally of the same type as that used to
protect the rest of the pipework (layers of polyethylene
or polypropylene on epoxy resin). The electrical
insulation of the joint and the rest of the pipeline is
checked using high voltage instruments (5-25 kV)
called leak-detectors.
Laying the pipe strings in the trench and
connecting them. After the pipes have been welded
together on the track (rarely in the trench), strings
hundreds of metres long are laid in the trench. This is
achieved using a series of lifting and laying machines
with lateral arms and counterweights (sidebooms),
which operate in unison to lower the pipeline into the
trench avoiding excessive stresses and bending
(S-bends), (Fig. 30). Once laid, the strings are welded
together manually inside the trench (tie-in). Once the
laydown phase is complete, on major pipelines a fibre-
optic cable is laid in the same trench for the
transmission of working data and commands to the
valves and other equipment operating on the pipeline.
Equipment for completing the pipeline. Completing
the pipeline consists in the installation of section points;
stations (‘traps’) for launching and recovering
equipment (‘pigs’) able to travel through the whole
length of the pipeline. These ‘line’ stations are equipped
with valves, by-pass systems, systems for emptying and
blowdown of sectioned lengths of the pipeline, and
instruments for checking the transmission of data on the
working of the pipeline. They are generally built in
small enclosed areas with a cabin, inside which are
located panels with the control functions.
Some of these stations are also equipped with
power supplies for the cathodic protection, the control
and monitoring equipment and the data transmission
systems. These stations are made accessible from the
existing roadways and are sometimes equipped with
independent electricity generators.
Installation of electrical (cathodic) protection. In
addition to the external coating, the pipeline is also
protected against corrosion by an active (cathodic)
protection system. This consists of a system of electric
currents generated by equipment located along the
line, which give the metal of the pipeline a negative
charge compared with the surrounding electrolyte
(ground, water, etc.). Monitoring points are installed
along the pipeline in order to confirm the effectiveness
of this system.
Restoration and start-up
The trench is re-filled and the landscape restored
after the mechanical assembly and laying work have
been completed. Refilling is carried out using the
original material removed from the escavation (except
819
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
Fig. 30. Example of the laydown of pipework. Both the trench and the equipment typically used for laydown (sidebooms)
which supports the pipework can be seen (courtesy of R. Bruschi).
in special cases where the geological conditions are
unsuitable): the pipeline is indicated by a marking strip
and at specific points protection slabs or sand-bag
barriers may be laid. Particular attention is paid to the
top layer of the refill in order to restore the
morphology and use of the ground prior to the work.
In some specific points when the work is finished,
restoration work carried out must target geotechnical
issues (stability of steep slapes, hydraulic check on
river crossings, mitigation of the morphology of the
landscape) and environmental issues, with operations
to reconstruct the original vegetational cover and to
regenerate the land’s original fertility.
For each stretch of the pipeline which has been
completely connected and laid, a hydraulic check is
carried out by filling the pipeline with water (in cases
of particular difficulty in obtaining sufficient water it
is possible to use air or gas), and pressurizing it to a
level above the operating pressure. The phases of the
hydraulic test which involve filling and draining water
are carried out using appropriate tools with hydraulic
seal, commonly known as ‘pigs’, which are also used
820
for pipeline cleaning and commissioning operations,
and for checking dimensions. For this purpose,
temporary pieces of equipment called ‘test plates’ are
installed, welded onto the end of the completed stretch.
Once the hydraulic test is complete, the water is
expelled mechanically using the pig, driven by
compressed air. All water remaining in the pipeline
must be eliminated, particularly at its lowest points.
When the residual water has been cleared, a certain
amount of water inevitably remains on the inner
surface of the pipeline in the form of a film. The
pipeline must then be washed and dried so that when
the fluid is transmitted it will not be contaminated by
water. The pipeline is dried using a variety of methods
(using nitrogen, dry air or vacuum).
Construction and maintenance of a pipeline are
usually legitimized by rights which apart from the
agricultural use of the surface traversed, limit
construction within the non-building strip (servitude)
or either side of the pipeline (non aedificandi
servitude). The construction limits are connected to
the category of work and the relative regulations.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS
 TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE

Once the construction and testing phases have

ended, the pipeline is put into operation. The function
of co-ordinating and monitoring the activity of oil and
gas transport through the pipelines is entrusted to
organizational units, which may be either centralized touchdown stinger
point
or spread across the territory. The activity consists of
travelling the length of the pipeline or monitoring it
from suitable positions in order to observe the burial mudline
conditions, the functionality and preservation of
pipeline construction and signposting, and any third Fig. 31. Laydown of undersea pipework in progress.
party actions that might affect the pipelines and the
respect area. Monitoring of the pipeline can also be
carried out with an aeroplane or a helicopter. diameter pipes, each around 350 km long, was
constructed between 2000 and 2002 using a marine
Sub sea pipelines construction barge (Fig. 32) which had been specially
In sub sea pipeline construction, the laydown modified and equipped with a tower for ‘J’-laying.
environment often requires the use of specialized
vessels – lay-barges – which are very big and Pipeline coiled around a reel
expensive. These are basically floating workshops There are many types of lay barges, each of which
which accommodate a hundred or more people, who varies according to the type of pipeline to be laid. For
typically work in shifts around the clock. pipelines of a modest diameter, up to 14-16 inches
The work follows the same functional programme (35.6-40.6 cm), it is possible to use pipes which have
as onshore pipelines. As many preparatory operations already been welded together and coiled onto a reel at
as possible are carried out onshore and the phases an onshore worksite. During the laydown these pipes
involving installation and any work on the sea floor are are uncoiled from the reel, straightened and lowered
of particular importance (Matteelli et al., 1976). The into the sea. On one reel it is possible to coil from 8-20
need to avoid stresses and excessive deformation km of pipeline, depending on the diameter of the pipe.
which might compromise the present and future This installation system requires pipes with thick
integrity of the pipeline has resulted in the walls, to withstand the deformation induced by the
development of increasingly powerful technologies coiling, uncoiling and straightening of the pipeline,
and laying barges. The various systems for installing a and can leave residual deformation on the pipeline.
sub sea pipeline are: a) the ‘S-lay’ and the ‘J-lay’
methods; b) pipeline coiled around a reel; c) on-line Pipeline welded on the line
welding; d) work on the sea floor; e) testing and Pipeline with a diameter greater than 400 mm is
preparation for putting into operation. never coiled onto a reel, but rather the lengths of pipe
are joined together by welding which is carried out on
‘S-lay’ and ‘J-lay’
The most commonly used laydown method is the
‘S-lay’ system, so-called because of the shape that the
pipeline typically assumes along the installation span
(Fig. 31). This method uses tensioners and sliding
clamps on the barge’s deck to apply a longitudinal force
to the pipeline, supporting it both where it leaves the
lay-ramp and where it makes contact with the sea floor.
For deep waters and high diameters, in order to
guarantee the integrity of the pipeline the longitudinal
forces to be applied become progressively greater; the
anchoring and positioning system for the barge based
on anchors becomes ineffective, and very powerful (and
reliable) motors are needed to support the pipeline.
For these reasons over recent years in very deep
waters the ‘J-lay’ method has started to be used, a
system which features an almost vertical lay-ramp. The Fig. 32. Marine construction ship adapted
first transport line lying at a depth of over 2,000 m in for pipeline laydown using a ‘J’ system
the Black Sea, and consisting of two 24 inch (610 mm) (courtesy of R. Bruschi).

VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT 821

HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
the installation line. Smaller diameter pipes can also
be installed using the same system.
Various working stations are set up on the deck of
the barge, each one specialized in one given activity.
On-line welding is divided into several parts, each of
which is assigned its own working station. In addition
there are one or two stations for non-destructive
testing and repairing of any defects detected in the
welding. The final station is generally dedicated to
coating the welded joints. In order to line up with the
working areas on the installation deck, the pipes are all
about the same length; approximately 12.5 m.
The welding techniques are substantially the same
as those used for onshore pipelines, with the one
difference that manual welding is carried out only to
connect lengths of the line that are installed at
different times, or for connecting special pieces. If the
space on the lay deck permits, and the lifting
equipment can handle them, double joints are used. In
certain instances, to improve productivity, even
quadruple joints are used.
Work on the seabed
Preparatory work on the seabed, including that for
maintaining the laydown tolerances within as wide a
corridor as possible, is very expensive and is generally
avoided. If in a certain area a pipeline has to be
installed in a narrow corridor, generally one or more
transponders are positioned near the area and on the
pipeline. Keeping within the limitations imposed by a
narrow corridor can be difficult and requires a very
slow pace of laydown; it is also affected by the depth
of the sea and the marine meteorological conditions
encountered.
Sub sea pipelines of a reasonable diameter, usually
starting from 16 inches (406 mm), are laid on the
seabed without any special work either preparatory to
or following the laydown, except localized action for
specific reasons. For smaller diameters, decisions on
whether or not to protect the pipeline (from
interference from fishing equipment) are taken on a
case by case basis. At the ‘landing places’ pipelines are
generally laid in trenches and covered, but in other
areas this is done only when the investigation reveal the
need. Occasionally it is necessary to carry out work on
a pipeline laid on the seabed. Basically the work is of
three types: support, weighting, or excavation and
covering (see again Fig. 27). Support work is carried
out on suspended lengths using various methods: a
support can be created with gravel or sandbags or with
mechanical devices. Alternatively, a mechanical device
can be installed which provides active support (i.e. it is
capable of supporting the pipeline by using hydraulic
devices to lift it from the position where it is laid
down). Weighting work can be continuous, effected by
822
dumping weighting material (gravel) onto the pipe, or
localized, effected with overweights (blanket of gravel)
or with loose material (gravel). Excavation and
covering work is carried out using specialized
equipment, depending on the nature of the seabed, the
depth of the sea, and the required depth of the trench.
The trench is excavated under the pipeline which is
lying on the seabed and which then gradually settles
down into it. Occasionally it is necessary to repeat the
operation several times to obtain the depth of
excavation desired. The subsequent covering is usually
carried out using the material removed from the trench
itself, or with gravel if there is a particular need. The
systems for carrying out this work on the seabed can be
very advanced, such as when it is necessary to dig a
trench under pipework at depths in excess of 1,000 m.
These operations, especially when dealing with pipes
already in place, are monitored very carefully, both to
be sure that they achieve the required results, and to
avoid causing damage to the pipeline.
Testing and preparation for putting into operation
After having been laid on the seabed, and once the
prescribed remedial work has been carried out with the
pipe full of air, the pipeline is filled with water. This
operation is also used to clean the pipe and to check
the dimensions of its internal cross-section, using
appropriate equipment (a pig), introduced into the
pipeline through traps located upstream and
downstream of the pipeline. A hydraulic test of the
pipeline itself is then carried out, subjecting it to an
inside pressure which at sea level ranges from 1.15 to
1.25 times the project pressure, and which in very
deep waters can be significantly higher than the
project pressure. Once the hydraulic seal is confirmed,
the pipeline is emptied, through a train of pigs and a
compressed air station with sufficient power, and then
air-dried (Haun, 1986a, 1986b). These operations
involve the entire length of the pipeline, while with
onshore pipes the same operation is carried out on
shorter stretches, the longest distance being that
between two sectioning valves.
7.1.7 Inspection, maintenance
and repair
Both onshore and sub sea pipelines operate in a
context that brings about deterioration over the course
of time, for reasons which are sometimes foreseeable
at the design stage and sometimes are unexpected. For
this reason, the design of a pipeline foresees for the
preparation both of equipment and of management
programmes based on inspections, seen as a guarantee
of the functionality of the pipeline over time.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

These periodic inspections have the objective of
checking the structural integrity of the pipeline, and
planning any maintenance operations needed to
guarantee continuity of operation and to manage any
anomalous situations that might arise during the
operational life of the pipeline. The high investment
costs demand that the degree of reliability of the
operation be kept at the highest level for the whole
foreseeable life of the system. Minimizing the risks of
damage does not end therefore with the design and
construction phases, but must also continue throughout
the operational life of the transport system. This is
achieved through a programme of periodic inspections
that make it possible to obtain all the data elements
needed to define both the current state of the system
and the trend that may be developing. It is clear that an
investigation into the maintenance of a pipeline is of
value only if it is compared with the results of a similar
investigation carried out previously, with a view to
highlighting any variations.
In general, inspections are carried out most
frequently in the initial period and in the final period of
the foreseen life of the pipeline. In the beginning the
inspections are very close together so as to follow the
adaptation of the pipeline to its environment, while
later they become more frequent only when there are as
many failures due to wear as there are due to accidents.
A relatively new approach (called RBI, Risk Based
Inspection), still in the course of development, is to
plan inspections based on the risk of a certain critical
situation occurring. This method permits a strategy of
pipeline inspection based on principles of risk, within
which the role played by inspection is principally
focused on reducing the danger of damage. The risk
associated with a component is the product of the
probability of its failure and the consequences of such
an event. The inspection plan based on the RBI
approach uses the evaluation of the risk connected to
injury to persons, to environmental damage and to
economic damage as a basis for deciding where to
inspect, what to inspect, how to inspect and when to
inspect (Bjørnøy et al., 2001).
The general approach typical of
inspection/maintenance programmes consists of the
following main points: a) an inspection programme
based on an efficient (in terms of inspection methods
and equipment) system of data acquisition; b) an
automated system of recording and processing these
data; c) a decision-making process for carrying out the
operations; d) a maintenance programme. For a
preliminary choice of inspection methods, it is
important to consider the available historical data on
the existing lines integrated with the statistical data
relative to the most probable causes of damage to the
pipelines. In fact, an adequate understanding of the
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
possible mechanisms of damage relative to a pipeline
and their possible consequences is fundamental in
establishing the correct form of inspection and
choosing the most suitable instruments.
An operating pipeline can deteriorate because of its
interaction with the fluid transmitted and with the
external environment, and the risk of failure increases
with age. Furthermore, statistics show that for pipelines
which transport gas and oil, the major causes of
incidents resulting in loss of fluid have been identified
as: a) damage caused by external forces; b) defects in
material and construction; c) corrosion/erosion owing to
the type of fluid transmitted or the external
environment; d) inefficiency of the cathodic protection;
e) land movement. In the case of pipelines laid a
long time ago, for which, however, adequate
documentation of the project does not exist, it is
necessary to carry out an evaluation of the present state
of the network. This evaluation must identify:
planimetric positions; the state and thickness of the
pipeline covering; the areas made dangerous by the
possibility of landslides; the effects of soil erosion and
the presence of foreign bodies.
During the setting up of a maintenance survey
programme, research is always conducted to acquire
qualitative data (visual data) and quantitative data
(instrumental data) on the elements of the system
considered to be fundamental. More precisely, the
general characteristics of the pipeline must be
evaluated in detail, together with special components,
stabilization operations, spans, any damage to the
pipeline, the presence of dangerous objects, and any
significant situations. Amongst the latter, instances of
crossing other pipelines, electricity and/or telephone
cables must certainly be cited.
These data must also be supplied to the company
that carries out the work. If the data are not available,
the surveys to carry out have the additional purpose of
paving the way for any future investigations, seeking
to collect all the information as accurately as possible,
and paying particular attention to any that is unlikely
to change with time. On the basis of the elements
available, the basic route will be defined by
interpolating the data between known reference points
or simply between the starting point and the ending
point of the pipeline. The more precise the route, the
easier it will be to check any critical aspects, for
example the length and height of the spans, with a
view to any possible maintenance actions.
External onshore inspection techniques
The pipeline is usually traced by means of
appropriate signs fixed in the earth, corresponding
with the longitudinal axis of the pipeline. In the event
that the signs should be lacking or unreliable, as a
823
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
radio link
cable link
scanner
modem computer
123 456
pipeline
1 2 3 4 5 6
extensimetric sections
Fig. 33. Support system for the management
and monitoring of pipelines in areas
at risk of landslides.
result of operations subsequent to the laying of the
pipeline, the pipeline must be re-located. The tracing
of the exact location of the pipeline is carried out by
topographical teams provided with instruments and
GPS (Global Positioning System) devices, or by
carrying out a campaign of traditional topographical
surveys. The planimetric position and the depth of the
pipeline are then defined using the above-mentioned
methods, and applying the survey data to a geodetic
network of appropriately defined settings.
During examination of the track, the areas of
geological risk are highlighted, for example areas
subject to landslide and soil erosion, that must
therefore be checked and included in a maintenance
and monitoring plan (Fig. 33). Any landslide
movements can in fact be a source of stress on the
pipeline, even to the point of causing a failure in some
instances. Consequently, if signs appear of the possible
formation of landslides, such as for example fissures
in the surface or swelling up of the earth, or if the
route crosses hilly areas part way up a hill, it is
essential to carry out periodic surveys aimed at
defining the extent of any earth movements and their
velocity of advancement.
Soil erosion, of various forms, can reduce the
thickness of the covering of the pipeline, or even cause
it to be uncovered, with all the accompanying risks. It
is therefore necessary to check the pipeline
periodically, above all following flooding through
rainfall, as well as checking the torrent-like water
courses that cross it. When evidence of surface erosion
activity appears, it is possible to carry out remedial
work by making palisades, faggot barriers, gathering
and diversion channels for the surface waters, etc.
When, instead, there is a need to limit the erosion of
water courses, it is possible to use gabionades,
embankments, bluffs, cement walls, etc.
824
No less important is the setting up of a census of
the inhabited areas using planimetric strips to a scale
of 1:25,000, showing the built-up zones or areas of
building expansion close to the pipeline. It is also
necessary to check the forecasts of building
development programme for an estimate of the
population anticipated over the next five years.
Examination of the 1:25,000 scale maps, the aerial
photographs available and the census data of the
inhabitants, can reveal that some tracts of the pipeline
do not conform, even if only potentially, to the legal
regulations. These tracts must be highlighted with a
view to deciding what operations are needed to bring
the situation back within the standards.
Surveying with pipe detectors can for example
indicate tracts of the pipeline with a burial depth of
less than the current standard. These cases are resolved
by refilling the tract with soil or resorting to
mechanical protection of the pipeline. Generally,
however, it is good practice to keep the intervention
activities close to the pipeline to a minimum. In fact,
excavation or earth movement, in particular any
agricultural activity going on in the area in question, is
potentially very dangerous; depending on the form of
agriculture being engaged in, earth can be ploughed to
depths in the order of 60-80 cm and, in exceptional
cases, 90-100 cm. The only solution to this source of
danger is close surveillance so that work of potential
danger to the pipeline is not carried out or is
performed under supervision.
Techniques for external inspection
of sub sea pipelines
In setting up a maintenance survey activity at sea
the principal elements to consider are the depth of the
water and the distance from the coast. Consequently
two types of surveys can be defined: those in shallow
waters and those in open sea (offshore). Shallow
water inspections, i.e. from the water’s edge out to a
depth of 15-20 m, call for small boats of shallow draft
with a type of instrumentation mainly in tow
(Anselmi et al., 1990). The offshore areas, however,
i.e. depths from about 15-20 m up to a maximum of
around 800 m and usually a long way away from the
coast, need ships with specialized equipment, such as
remote controlled underwater vehicles (ROV,
Remotely Operated Vehicle) capable of working
continuously round the clock even in extreme
meteorological conditions (Fig. 34).
The objectives of a sub sea pipeline maintenance
survey are: a) to establish its planimetric position;
b) define the pipe/seabed profile; c) check the state of
its covering; d) determine the external condition of its
reinforced coating (highlighting any damage), the state
of any stabilization work and the state of the cathodic
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF HYDROCARBONS

Fig. 34. Inspection of an undersea pipeline using an ROV.
protection; e) identify any dangerous objects close to
the pipeline.
In planning a survey at sea a decisive aspect is the
comparison of different surveys for obtaining and
processing data carried out at different times. To be
able to make such comparisons, it is necessary to have
the most information possible about the general
characteristics of the pipeline and the area chosen for
it to be laid, as well as data on the operations of laying
and stabilizing the pipeline on the seabed. Whenever
such information is only partially available, it is
necessary to carry out an initial survey aimed at
providing the missing information which, together
with that already available, will constitute the
comparison data (Cherubini et al., 2001).
One of the difficulties regarding measurements
taken at sea is the need to determine precisely and
repeatably the geographical position in which the
measurement was taken. To this end, two types of
positioning are generally adopted: one of the absolute
type and the other of a relative type. Usually in a
maintenance survey it is necessary to know the
parameters of importance in relation to the progressive
kilometric position (relative positioning). The absolute
position, on the other hand, is vital for all the
requirements connected with the location of the
structures in a wider context, such as mapping for
obtaining work permits, transfer of data to appropriate
Fig. 35. Pipeline inspection using a pig
(courtesy of R. Bruschi).
VOLUME I / EXPLORATION, PRODUCTION AND TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT BY PIPELINE
bodies, or correlation between the measurements carried
out and the national mapping (Iovenitti et al., 1994).
Internal inspection techniques
The internal inspection of a pipeline is carried out
using a special tool called a pig; this term refers to all
instruments that can be inserted into a pipeline and
carried forward by the thrust of the fluid being
transmitted (Fig. 35). Pigs are used to collect
information on the general conditions, on the
configuration of the pipeline layout, on the presence of
defects in the pipeline, and on its geometry.
‘Smart’ pigs are particularly suitable for use in
pipelines buried under the seabed, which cannot be
inspected visually or through conventional non-
destructive methods. Internal inspection is a very
important activity when it comes to evaluating
structural integrity and quantifying the risk of failure.
It makes it possible to discover, identify, localize and
size correctly a series of defects and/or anomalies,
such as indentations, deformations (buckle),
ovalization, notchs, generalized areas of corrosion
(internal and external), welding defects, cracks (from
stress corrosion, from hydrogen, or from fatigue) and
lamination defects. In the case of lines laid a long time
ago, for which adequate project documentation does
not exist, or to verify any uncontrolled shifting of lines
laid in trenches, it is also necessary to have
instruments available that make it possible to verify
the geometry of the line’s axis, locating curves and
changes of direction.
At the present state of technological development
for inspecting pipelines, it is not possible to discover,
differentiate and size accurately all possible defects
using just one type of pig. Indeed, none of the non-
destructive control techniques available are suitable for
all categories of defect. There are several types of
vehicles, smart or semi-smart, including: a) caliper
pigs, for obtaining details of the profile of the internal
walls, including ovalization. These are recommended
for the survey of geometric/mechanical defects;
b) magnetic pigs (MFL, Magnetic Flux Leakage) and
ultrasonic pigs (UT, Ultrasonic Test), for metal loss
types of defect; c) pigs for revealing cracks; d) pigs for
identifying leaks and fissures; e) pigs fitted with GSM
and inertial devices for surveying the geometric
characteristics of the pipeline layout.
In areas of instable terrain where a pipeline is laid
it is important to discover if and when it undergoes
enough movement to induce excessive stress.
Movement can be caused by seismic phenomena,
subsidence, currents and erosion of the seabed. For the
safe and reliable operation of pipelines in areas of
potential instability it is vital to check on any
movement of the line and, whenever a reduction in the
825
HYDROCARBON TRANSPORT AND GAS STORAGE
safety margin is recorded, to evaluate its structural
integrity with a view to defining the appropriate
interventions. Naturally it is necessary to confirm the
ability to inspect the pipeline, therefore checks must
be made on its geometry (to guarantee that the pig can
pass), on the existence of launching and receiving
traps, and finally on the operating conditions, to
guarantee their compatibility with the requirements of
the inspection. The choice of the type of pig for the
inspection should take the peculiarities of the line into
account, in particular if it is characterized by
significant variations of thickness along the path, as
well as the characteristics of the process fluids.
In the case of magnetic pigs, the high resolution
type is certainly the most often used. The MFL
conventional type pigs are in fact most suitable for an
initial inspection of pipelines on which it is expected
to find a very high number of defects. A significant
variation in thickness could create a problem if a
magnetic pig is used, in that the functioning of the
entire system and therefore the reliability of the
inspection are linked to the ability to magnetize the
walls adequately. The use of the ultrasonic technique
(UT) of inspection, however, allows for the direct
measurement of the residual thickness of the pipe and
of the possible variations in thickness caused by any
corrosive action. It must be considered however that
the UT pig is highly sensitive to the surface condition
of the wall, so it is essential to carry out careful
cleaning in advance. The choice of the type of
instrument to use is based, therefore, on a thorough
evaluation of the possible problems of usage, to be
made also in collaboration with the companies that
carry out this specific service (Palmer and King,
2004).
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