ITEM NO.

1 - Mode of transport
Mode of transport is a term used to distinguish substantially different ways to perform.
The different modes of transport are air, water, and land transport, which
includes rail, road and off-road transport. Other modes also exist,
including pipelines, cable transport, and space transport. Human-powered
transport and animal-powered transport are sometimes regarded as their own mode,
but these normally also fall into the other categories. In general, transportation is used
for the movement of people, animals, and other things. Each mode of transport has a
fundamentally different technological solution, and some require a separate
environment. Each mode has its own infrastructure, vehicles, and operations.

ITEM NO. 2 - Animal-powered transport

Animal-powered transport are broad category of the human use of non-human working
animals (also known as "beasts of burden") for the movement of people and goods.
Humans may ride some of the larger of these animals directly, use them as pack
animals for carrying goods, or harness them, singly or in teams, to pull (or haul) sleds or
wheeled vehicles.

1
ITEM NO. 3 - Air transport
A fixed-wing aircraft, typically airplane, is a heavier-than-air flight vehicle, in which the
special geometry of the wing generates lift. Fixed-wing aircraft ranges from small
trainers and recreational aircraft to j j large airliners and military cargo aircraft. For short
distances or in places without runways, helicopters can be practical.[1] (Other types of
aircraft, like autogyros and airships, are not a significant portion of air transport.)
Air transport is the second fastest method of transport, after Commercial jets reach
speeds of up to 955 kilometres per hour (593 mph) and a considerably higher ground
speed if there is a jet stream tailwind, while piston-powered general aviation aircraft may
reach up to 555 kilometres per hour (345 mph) or more. This celerity comes with higher
cost and energy use,[2] and aviation's impacts to the environment and particularly the
global climate require consideration when comparing modes of
transportation.[3] The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates a
commercial jet's flight to have some 2-4 times the effect on the climate than if the same
CO2 emissions were made at ground level, because of different atmospheric chemistry
and radiative forcing effects at the higher altitude.[4] U.S. airlines alone burned about
16.2 billion gallons of fuel during the twelve months between October 2013 and
September 2014.[5] WHO estimates that globally as many as 500,000 people at a time
are on planes.[2] The global trend has been for increasing numbers of people to travel by
air, and individually to do so with increasing frequency and over longer distances, a
dilemma that has the attention of climate scientists and other researchers,[6][7][8] the
press,[9][10] and the World Wide Web.[11] The issue of impacts from frequent travel,
particularly by air because of the longer distances that are easily covered in one or a

2
few days, is called hypermobility and has been a topic of research and governmental
concern for many years.

ITEM NO. 4 - Human powered transport

Human powered transport, a form of sustainable transportation, is the transport of
people and/or goods using human muscle-power, in the form
of walking, running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to
enhance human power. Human-powered transport remains popular for reasons of cost-
saving, leisure, physical exercise, and environmentalism; it is sometimes the only type
available, especially in underdeveloped or inaccessible regions.
Although humans are able to walk without infrastructure, the transport can be enhanced
through the use of roads, especially when using the human power with vehicles, such
as bicycles and inline skates. Human-powered vehicles have also been developed for
difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing; even
the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft.

3
ITEM NO. 5 - Rail transport
Rail transport is a means of conveyance of passengers and goods by way of wheeled
vehicles running on rail track, known as a railway or railroad. The rails are anchored
perpendicular to railroad train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on
the rails. Propulsion is commonly provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of
unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight. The locomotive can be powered
by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems. Alternatively, some or
all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be powered
by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with
much less friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient,
though not as efficient as ships.
Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities;[12] modern high-speed rail is
capable of speeds up to 430 km/h (270 mph), but this requires a specially built
track. Regional and commuter trains feed cities from suburbs and surrounding areas,
while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacity tramways and rapid transits,
often making up the backbone of a city's public transport. Freight trains traditionally
used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s,
container trains have become the dominant solution for general freight, while large
quantities of bulk are transported by dedicated trains.

4
ITEM NO. 6 - Road transport
Road transport is transport using roads. Transport on roads can be roughly grouped into
the transportation of goods and transportation of people. In many countries licensing
requirements and safety regulations ensure a separation of the two industries.
Movement along roads may be by bike or automobile, truck, or by animal such
as horse or oxen. Standard networks of roads were adopted
by Romans, Persians, Aztec, and other early societies. Cargo may be transported
by trucking companies, while passengers may be transported via mass transit.
Commonly defined features of modern roads include defined lanes and signage. Within
the United States, roads between regions are connected via the Interstate Highway
System.
The nature of road transportation of goods depends, apart from the degree of
development of the local infrastructure, on the distance the goods are transported by
road, the weight and volume of an individual shipment, and the type of goods
transported. For short distances and light, small shipments a van or pickup truck may be
used. For large shipments even if less than a full truckload a truck is more appropriate.
(Also see Trucking and Hauling below). In some countries cargo is transported by road
in horse-drawn carriages, donkey carts or other non-motorized mode. Delivery services
are sometimes considered a separate category from cargo transport. In many places
fast food is transported on roads by various types of vehicles. For inner city delivery of
small packages and documents couriers are quite common.
People are transported on roads either in individual cars or in mass
transit by bus or coach. Special modes of individual transport by road such as cycle
rickshaws may also be locally available. There are also specialist modes of road
transport for particular situations, such as ambulances.

5
ITEM NO. 7 - Water transport
Water transport is the process of transport that a watercraft, such as a barge, boat, ship
or sailboat, makes over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. If a
boat or other vessel can successfully pass through a waterway it is known as a
navigable waterway. The need for buoyancy unites watercraft, and makes the hull a
dominant aspect of its construction, maintenance and appearance. When a boat is
floating on the water the hull of the boat is pushing aside water where the hull now is,
this is known as displacement.
In the 1800s, the first steamboats were developed, using a steam engine to drive
a paddle wheel or propeller to move the ship. The steam was produced using wood or
coal. Now, most ships have an engine using a slightly refined type of petroleum
called bunker fuel. Some ships, such as submarines, use nuclear power to produce the
steam. Recreational or educational craft still use wind power, while some smaller craft
use internal combustion engines to drive one or more propellers, or in the case of jet
boats, an inboard water jet. In shallow draft areas, hovercraft are propelled by large
pusher-prop fans.
Although slow, modern sea transport is a highly effective method of transporting large
quantities of non-perishable goods. Commercial vessels, nearly 35,000 in number,
carried 7.4 billion tons of cargo in 2007.[14] Transport by water is significantly less costly
than air transport for transcontinental shipping;[15] short sea shipping and ferries remain
viable in coastal areas.[16][17]

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ITEM NO. 8 - Pipeline transport
Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods or material through a pipe. The latest
data from 2014 gives a total of slightly less than 2,175,000 miles (3,500,000 km) of
pipeline in 120 countries of the world.[1] The United States had 65%, Russia had 8%,
and Canada had 3%, thus 75% of all pipeline were in these three countries.[1]
Pipeline and Gas Journal's worldwide survey figures indicate that 118,623 miles
(190,905 km) of pipelines are planned and under construction. Of these, 88,976 miles
(143,193 km) represent projects in the planning and design phase; 29,647 miles
(47,712 km) reflect pipelines in various stages of construction. Liquids and gases are
transported in pipelines and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a
pipeline.[2] Pipelines exist for the transport of crude and refined petroleum, fuels – such
as oil, natural gas and biofuels – and other fluids including sewage, slurry, water,
and beer. Pipelines are useful for transporting water for drinking or irrigationover long
distances when it needs to move over hills, or where canals or channels are poor
choices due to considerations of evaporation, pollution, or environmental
impact. Pneumatic tubes using compressed air can be used to transport solid capsules.
Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes which are usually buried. The oil is
moved through the pipelines by pump stations along the pipeline. Natural gas (and
similar gaseous fuels) are lightly pressurised into liquids known as Natural Gas Liquids
(NGLs). Natural gas pipelines are constructed of carbon steel. Hydrogen pipeline
transport is the transportation of hydrogen through a pipe. District
7
heating or teleheatingsystems use a network of insulated pipes which transport heated
water, pressurized hot water or sometimes steam to the customer.
Pipelines conveying flammable or explosive material, such as natural gas or oil, pose
special safety concerns and there have been various accidents. Pipelines can be the
target of vandalism, sabotage, or even terrorist attacks. In war, pipelines are often the
target of military attacks.

ITEM NO. 9 - Cable transport

Cable transport is a broad class of transport modes that have cables as the foundation
for transporting things or people, often in vehicles called cable cars. The cable may be
driven or passive; items may be moved by pulling, sliding, sailing, or by drives within the
object being moved on cableways. The use of pulleys and balancing of loads going up
and down are common elements of cable transport.They are also used in mountainous
areas.

8
ITEM NO. 10 - Space transport
Space transport is transport out of Earth's atmosphere into outer space by means of
a spacecraft. While large amounts of research have gone into technology, it is rarely
used except to put satellites into orbit, and conduct scientific experiments. However,
man has landed on the moon, and probes have been sent to all the planets of the Solar
System.

9
ITEM NO. 11 - Clearing and grubbing
Clearing and grubbing is a crucial phase in any kind of land development. Whether you
are demolishing an existing structure or preparing a new site for construction, you will
likely need to clear and grub the site before it is ready for pipelines and residential or
commercial development.

After a site has been surveyed and demolition (if necessary), vegetation and surface
debris are removed by clearing and grubbing the site. Clearing refers to the removal of
all vegetation, while grubbing is the removal of roots that may remain in the soil. This
includes the removal of all logs, brush, and debris, as well as grinding and removal of
stumps. Once completed, the site is ready for grading and drain installation.

10
ITEM NO. 12 - Scalping
The process of screening earth and or stone to create various size products. A scalper
is a piece of construction equipment that consists of various size screens coupled with
conveyor belts. Each screen allows a different size material to pass through the
screening. If a small 1/2″ stone is required, then the screen will allow only those pieces
of product that are 1/2″ to pass through, however this product will then accumulate on a
smaller screen that will let only the smaller product ( less than 1/2″ ) through.

A scalper is a series of conveyor belts, designed to accept the screened materials in

various sizes and stockpile these materials off the ends of the belts. A scalper can be a
very profitable operation on a large construction project.

In addition to producing product that can be used on the construction project, the
excess material can be trucked and old off the project. Stone, sand, etc. are very
expensive products if the contractor is forced to purchase these materials. However, if
the contractor can produce the material in lieu of buying it, the profit margin is
expanded. A real positive scenario is that if the contractor is intelligent enough to
anticipate the needs of a project and their ability to produce material required by

11
scalping, the actual bid value of the project can be much less than a competitor that
does not have the same capability.

The proper use of a scalper, to manufacture site work products, is a very valuable
enterprise, allowing the bid to be less than competition due to the ability to make
product in house, the use of the product, in lieu of purchase on the job ,as well as the
possibility of resale to other site work subs all the excess product manufactured by the
scalper.

ITEM NO. 13 - Excavation

Excavation is the process of moving earth, rock or other materials with tools, equipment
or explosives. It includes earthwork, trenching, wall shafts, tunneling and
underground. Excavation has a number of important applications including exploration,
environmental restoration, mining and construction. Among these, construction is one of
the most common applications for excavation. Excavation is used in construction to
create building foundations, reservoirs and roads. Some of the different processes used
in excavation include trenching, digging, dredging and site development. Each of these
processes requires unique techniques, tools and machinery to get the job done right.
The processes used will depend upon the structure that will result from the construction
process. Excavation construction is used during the construction process of almost
every structure we encounter throughout our lives. It is used to build the foundation for
the construction of homes, roadways, and buildings and creates reservoirs like lakes
and pools that house some of our favorite summer activities. It is also relied upon for the
mining of precious metals and minerals. Excavation facilitates the construction process
and helps our important structures be built to their fullest potential by providing
increased control over the job location.

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ITEM NO. 14 - Drainage and Channel Excavation
During construction, ditches are required to be maintained to ensure proper drainage at
all times. Any necessary ditches and channels should be constructed and maintained to
ensure there is no damage to the roadway section. All existing ditches, or drainage
channels, which the road crosses, need to be closed at the edge of the embankment,
unless pipes or structures are to be constructed and, where necessary, alternative
outfalls are to be provided. Any canals and channels which are located within the
embankment area need to be cleaned up and then back filled with sand. The sand fill
should reach a level of 500 mm above the water level, but thereafter earthworks can be
placed.

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ITEM NO. 15 - Borrow Pits
In construction and civil engineering, a borrow pit, also known as a sand box, is an area
where material (usually soil, gravel or sand) has been dug for use at another
location.[1] Borrow pits can be found close to many major construction projects. For
example, soil might be excavated to fill an embankment for a highway, clay might be
excavated for use in brick-making, gravel to be used for making concrete, etc.
In some cases, the borrow pits may become filled with ground water,
forming recreational areas or sustainable wildlife habitats (one such example is the
Merton Borrow Pit, near Oxford in central England, excavated to provide materials for
the nearby M40 motorway). In other cases, borrow pits may be used
for landfill and waste disposal.
A regional variation of this is termed "barrow pit" in the western United States
(especially the Rocky Mountains). The localism -- sometimes pronounced "borrer pit" --
describes the ditch along a roadway. These ditches were created to provide the fill to
level and crown the roadway and subsequently provided drainage for the road. [2]
The borrow pits should be kept as drained as possible. Borrow pits should not be
constructed where they might:- a) Affect the stability or safety of the highway, see
Figure 2, or any railway or other structures, which may be present. b) Prevent natural or
artificial drainage or irrigation. c) Damage adjacent property or future expansion plans
for the highway. As materials are only paid for when included in the embankment, there
is no need to measure the volume of material removed from any borrow pits.

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ITEM NO. 16 - EMBANKMENT
A road, railway line or canal is normally raised onto an embankment made of
compacted soil (typically clay or rock-based) to avoid a change in level required by
the terrain, the alternatives being either to have an unacceptable change in level or
detour to follow a contour. A cutting is used for the same purpose where the land is
originally higher than required. Embankments are often constructed using material
obtained from a cutting. Embankments need to be constructed using non-aerated and
waterproofed, compacted (or entirely non-porous) material to provide adequate support
to the formation and a long-term level surface with stability.

15
ITEM NO. 17 - Embankment Construction Methods
Before placing any material, clearing and grubbing and the removal of any unsuitable
materials needs to have been completed. Also any necessary information to determine
earthwork quantities should have been collected (normally cross sections of the original
ground). Where an existing embankment is widened, the new fill material must be fully
keyed into the old embankment by means of benching. Steps not less than 300 mm
high and 600 mm wide should be cut into the old embankment prior to any filling, see
Figure 3. Material cut from these benches may be used as fill, if it is suitable. Normally
embankments should be constructed in layers approximately parallel to the finished
grade of the road. The grade and crossfall should be maintained during construction, as
this will enable water to run off the embankment allowing construction work to start as
soon as possible after rainfall and avoid soft spots forming. All fill material used must be
free from roots, or any vegetable matter. Each layer of fill should be less than 150 mm
on completion of the compaction. Compaction must be undertaken using appropriate
equipment. If large rollers (very heavy vibrating compaction) are used it may be possible
to increase the depth of the layers but this should only occur after checking that
adequate compaction is being achieved. Generally the compaction should begin at the
outer embankment edges and gradually progress toward the centre rolling in a
longitudinal direction so that the full width is uniformly compacted. In order to ensure

16
proper compaction of the embankment slope it is good practice to overfill by 150 – 300
mm and then trim the embankment to the specified shape. The arisings can be re-used
as fill material. The fill material needs to be of a type and moisture content so that it can
be compacted to form stable layers. The water content of each layer, before being
compacted, must be assessed. The material may require water to be added or be
allowed to dry to bring the moisture content close to the optimum in order to make it
possible to achieve the required dry density and hence degree of compaction. Normally
one density test for each 1,000 square metres of every layer should be carried out by
laboratory personnel. These tests should be carried out at random and be across the
full width of the embankment. If the test results show that the density is less than that
required, then further compaction to obtain at least the required density is necessary.
Results of all the compaction tests undertaken should be kept on file. If it is not possible
to arrange for compaction testing at the appropriate time (e.g. where this would delay
the contractor) a visual check of the earthworks should be made. If the layer appears to
be satisfactorily compacted, approval maybe given. In this case tests must be carried
out on the subsequent layer. This procedure is not acceptable for any layer within 300
mm of the subgrade level. As an alternative the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
can be used to test earthworks. The DCP is a rapid in-situ method which after
correlation can be utilised to obtain CBR's and density results.

17
ITEM NO. 18 - SUBGRADE
The subgrade is the layer of embankment immediately below the pavement. This may
be undisturbed local material or may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill. In
either case it has to be prepared to give added strength. All subgrade material must be
free of vegetable matter. The material also needs to be of a type and moisture content
that it can be compacted to form a stable layer. If the material in the subgrade level is
found to be unsuitable, this must be excavated and replaced with suitable material,
which should then be compacted. The subgrade must be prepared over the full width of
the embankment, including the shoulders. This is generally carried out in lengths of
greater than 100 metres. In some cases tomaintain traffic, part width working may be
necessary. If this is the case it is vital that the full width of the embankment meets the
subgrade material and compaction requirements. When the road is to be placed on
existing material, this should be fully loosened to a depth of 150 mm below the
subgrade level. Any lumps should be removed or broken up to be less than 50 mm in

18
size. The subgrade must be compacted uniformly by use of adequate and appropriate
compaction equipment. The material should be at a moisture content close to optimum
throughout the layer so that it can be compacted to produce a dense compacted layer.
Generally the compaction should begin at the outer edges of the embankment and by
rolling in a longitudinal direction gradually progress towards the centre so that each
section receives equal compaction. Three compaction tests are required for each 1,000
square metres of subgrade. If the test results show that the density is less than that
required, further compaction will be necessary. After which the density should be
rechecked to ensure the required dry density has been achieved. The surface of the
finished subgrade must be to the required cross section with a tolerance of 20mm
above or below the specified level at any point. Typically the subgrade should be
checked at not greater than 25m intervals, where necessary shorter lengths can be
checked. There must be no depressions which could form water ponding areas in the
subgrade. The subgrade layer must be approved before the Contractor can start on the
construction of the road pavement. Before any shoulder fill is placed, all subgrade
preparation and subgrade drainage work require to be completed. For the shoulder a
compaction test must be carried out for every 500 square metres of finished layer.

19
ITEM NO. 19 - Subgrade Drains
Subgrade drains are constructed to ensure that water in the pavement, which would
weaken the road, is allowed to drain away. Subgrade drains should be extended to the
edge of the embankment with drains on opposite sides of the road being staggered. In
case of roads with minimal longitudinal fall it is often better to install subgrade drains
longitudinally at the edge of the road pavement, see Figure 5. Subgrade drains should
be excavated by hand in the prepared subgrade. The excavation should be filled with
clean sand or gravel, which contains no vegetable matter, silt or clay. The backfill must
be compacted by hand ramming and struck off level with, or slightly above, the finished
subgrade level. The finished backfill must be immediately covered with an approved
separator material. The separator material is normally specified and will be woven rot
proof fabric, geotextile membrane or perforated heavy duty polythene sheeting. The
separator material should extend 150mm beyond the edges of the drain on all exposed
faces. Any joints in the fabric should overlap by at least 150mm. Materials over the drain
should be placed by hand for at least 100mm above the separator membrane prior to
rolling either the pavement or the shoulder materials.

20
ITEM NO. 20 - Pavement layers
HMA pavements are flexible pavements. Flexible pavements are so named because the
total pavement structure deflects, or flexes, under loading. A flexible pavement structure
is typically composed of several layers of material each of which receives the loads from
the above layer, spreads them out, then passes them on to the layer below. Thus, the
further down in the pavement structure a particular layer is, the less load (in terms of
force per area) it must carry.
· At least seven days before a proposed material's use a sample of the material along
with laboratory test results have to be submitted by the contractor to the Engineer for
approval. Fresh approval is required if the material is changed. · The material for sub
base and base must be graded, with sufficient fines that they can be properly
compacted. All areas of segregated coarse or fine material must be corrected, or
removed and replaced with complying material. · Continued checks on materials must
be carried out throughout the contract period. If the materials’ tests indicate changes

21
have occurred the contractor and the Engineer must be immediately informed. · The
moisture content of the material at the time of compaction must be appropriate to
produce a dense compacted layer. · If a pavement layer, does not conform with the
thickness or tolerance required, the layer must be corrected. Once the correction is
completed the area should be rechecked to ensure it conforms to the correct depth,
cross fall and degree of compaction. · Each layer should be tested for compaction (3
tests for each 1000 square metres). If the test results show that the required density is
not achieved, further compaction must be undertaken. · Each layer of pavement must
be shaped, compacted and approved ahead of the placing of subsequent material.

ITEM NO. 21 - Improved Subgrade

Improved Subgrade - Material for improved subgrade should be locally available
material which is a natural or artificial mixture of sand or other mineral aggregate, free
from vegetable matter. The material should not be greater than 5 mm and should not
contain clay or soft particles.

22
ITEM NO. 22 - Sub-Base
Sub-Base - Sub base is the secondary load spreading layer of the pavement. The
material should be a natural or artificial aggregate (or a combination) with no vegetable
matter, soft particles or clay. The material requires to have varying sizes of material
(well graded) with sufficient fine material so that it can be compacted to produce a close
and tight surface texture. The coarse aggregates should not appear particularly flaky or
elongated

23
ITEM NO. 23 - Aggregate Base
Aggregate base is the main load spreading layer. It should consist of hard pieces of
rock, brick or gravel crushed to the required size, and a filler of sand or other fine
mineral matter. The material must be graded, with sufficient fines so that it can be
compacted to produce a close and tight surface texture. The materials should not
contain clay and the coarse aggregate should not appear particularly flaky or elongated
(see Figure 7). Figure 8 provides a comparison between uniform single sized material
and well graded materials. This illustrates that well graded materials, provided the road
is adequately rolled, will produce a suitably compacted layer

ITEM NO. 24 - Brick paving

Brick paving is a commonly used decorative method of creating a pavement or hard
standing. The main benefit of bricks over other materials is that individual bricks can
later be lifted up and replaced. This allows for remedial work to be carried out under the
surface of the paving without leaving a lasting mark once the paving bricks have been
replaced. Typical areas of use would be for
driveways, pavement, patios, town centers, precincts and more commonly in road

24
surfacing. Bricks are typically made of concrete or clay, though other composite
materials are also used. Each has its own means of construction. The biggest difference
is the way they set hard ready for use. A clay brick has to be fired in a kiln to bake the
brick hard. A concrete brick has to be allowed to set. The concrete paving bricks are a
porous form of brick formed by mixing small stone hardcore, dyes, cement and sand
and other materials in various amounts. Many block paving manufacturing methods are
now allowing the use of recycled materials in the construction of the paving bricks such
as crushed glass and crushed old building rubble. Many different laying patterns can be
achieved using block paving. The most common of these is the herringbone pattern.
This pattern is the strongest of the block paving bonds as it offers the most interlock,
therefore making it a good choice for driveways and road surfacing. A herringbone
pattern can be created by setting the blocks at either 45 degrees or 90 degrees to the
perpendicular. Other popular types of pattern include stretcher bond and basket weave;
with the latter being better suited to paved areas that will only receive light foot traffic,
due to its weaker bond.

25