CHAPTER 1: NATURE OF INQUIRY AND RESEARCH

LESSON ONE: RESEARCH – OVERVIEW

RESEARCH DEFINED:
Innovations and breakthroughs that you come to know and enjoy are products of research. Middle
French word recherche, which means “the act of searching closely”. Combination of the prefix re-, which
means “again” and the word search, which mean “to look for”. Research is the process of looking for
information once again. Its main objective is to answer questions and acquire new information, whether
to solve a problem or to shed light on confusing acts. Research is a process of gathering data to prove a
claim, test existing hypothesis, and find answers and solutions on pressing problems at hand. It
generates knowledge that aims to describe, explain, and predict events.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN RESEARCH:

Science is conceptualized as a procedural and systematic approach in gaining new knowledge by making
thorough observations and using controlled and precise methods. Knowledge gained from science is not
based on subjective or personal views; it rather comes from objective or tangible pieces of evidence
which come from a meticulously designed research study. In this regard, a research done scientifically is
more accurate, reliable and valid. The process of conducting research scientifically involves a systematic
collection and investigation of data through the scientific method. It provides a set of clear and settled
guidelines for collecting, assessing, and detailing data in the context of a research study.

Knowledge that came from research that employs scientific method is characterized by the following
elements:

1. EMPIRICAL APPROACH
Knowledge is gained through direct observation and experimentation. Only those data derived from
scientific procedures are considered factual. Thereby, you ignore your preconceived notion about
the construct understudy. You also disregard your feelings and opinions about it.

2. OBSERVATION
Your awareness of your environment constitutes your ideas. But if you rely on your awareness
alone, it results in information bias, decreasing the validity of your findings. To increase the veracity
of the information you gained for observation, you have to measure it carefully using an appropriate
instrument.
Example 1: You want to find out how far car A from car B, you do not rely on your estimate of
distance that merely come from our vision. Instead, you should use a measuring instrument to
measure the distance between the two cars to yield precise data.

3. QUESTION
Knowledge comes from inquiries that are answerable. Questions must be answered through a
scientific investigation and must generate tangible proof. A question is answerable when it is
deemed impossible for realistic exploration, no matter how intriguing it can be.

Example 1: What is the butterfly’s level of wellbeing as it eats nectar from a flower?
Despite the fact that it can really result in breakthrough, the preceding inquiry is unfeasible to be
studied given the present state of science. Therefore, a question that yields knowledgeable
information must have an obtained answer based on the current scientific procedure available.

Example 2: Is there an increase in test scores among students when they attend a tutorial class?

The foregoing inquiry could definitely be investigated using available scientific methods because it is
realistically measurable and concrete pieces of evidence are produced.

4. HYPOTHESIS
An educated guess, or hypothesis, is an attempt to explain a phenomena. Once formulated, it
should help you formulate a prediction. Therefore, it must be testable for analysis and
interpretation.

Example 1: There is a significant increase of voters when registration is duly advertised.

This hypothesis can be tried through an experiment. Any result that comes from it guarantees
scientific foundation.

5. EXPERIMENTS
The given hypothesis should assure testability in a crafted condition for the accuracy and reliability
of results. The process of experimentation itself is a proof of scientific procedures. And so, the
findings are considered truthful.

6. ANALYSES
For findings to be reliable, the data gathered are subjected for analysis through statistical methods.
The statistical treatment to be employed depends on the design of the study, type of data, and
given questions. You have to use statistics because it presents numerical evidence of the degree in
which the results are considered valid and reliable. Also, it minimizes the chance of having a faulty
conclusion about the object of investigation.

7. CONCLUSION
The process of making inferences involves concrete data to rule out opinions. Usually, a conclusion
must be objective and supported by meticulous analysis of data. You should avoid adding more to
what is literally available.

Example 1: If the results of the study proved that students’ scores increased after exposure to
tutorial classes, you should only concentrate on this given set of data in making your inferences.

It is not advisable to relate other classes that the students attend that might help increase their
scores. In doing so, the present data will be contaminated with your subjective analysis, thereby
weakening the scientific procedures employed.
 8. REPLICATION
This means doing the same study once again to a different set of participants to test the soundness
of the obtained result. The importance and prevalence of replication research varies greatly on the
discipline and research area. Conducting the study for the several times will pave the way for
additional and essential purposes:
a. Establishment of reliability of findings. The previous data that were proven will have a stronger
belief factor.
b. Discovery of new knowledge. Most often, replication generates additional information on brand
new data that will improve your knowledge acquisition and enlighten your confusion, if any.
c. Ascertainment of the generalizability of results. This means that the results of the study can be
applied to other groups of participants and, therefore, do not only limit to the original samples.

GOALS OF RESEARCH:
1. DESCRIPTION. This refers to the way in which the phenomena being studied is defined,
classified, and categorized. The goal of describing is to provide essential information.
2. PREDICTION. It entails stating the possible consequences of present events based on existing
knowledge of something else. The purpose of prediction is to control one’s action and behavior
through careful planning derived from a given set of information.
3. UNDERSTANDING/EXPLANATION. This is the process of analyzing information to find out the
causes behind phenomena. To understand and explain data, a relationship between events
must already be established; one should cause the effect to the other; and other explanations of
causality between them must be ruled out.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH:

The research is essential for the following reasons:

1. Knowledge is established.
2. Perceptions are corrected.
3. Phenomena are validated.
4. Present solutions are tested for effectivity.
5. Problems are solved.

MAJOR APPROACH USED IN RESEARCH:

The process by which you are going to investigate the variable of your interest or those that you will test
as a solution to a problem will depend on the approach that you will use. There are 3 major approaches
of doing research:

1. Qualitative Approach
2. Quantitative Approach
3. Mixed Methods
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

QUALITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Aim of the researcher Detailed description Classify features, count them and
construct statistical models to
explain
What the researcher is May roughly know what he is Knows clearly in advance what he
finding looking for is looking for
Design Emerges as study unfolds Carefully designed in all aspects
Data Gathering The researcher himself Questionnaires or equipment
Instruments
Data Presentation Pictures, words or objects Numerical in nature
Perspective Subjective Objective
Time Rich, time-consuming and cannot Efficient, and able to test
be generalized hypothesis
Relationship of the Subjectively immersed in the Not involved with the subject
researcher to the subject subject matter matter

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

It is a form of social inquiry that focuses on the way people interpret and make sense of their
experiences and the world in which they live. Qualitative Research involves finding out what people
think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what they say they think and how they say they feel. This kind
of information is subjective. It involves feelings and impressions, rather than numbers.

MAIN TYPES OF QUALITATIVE DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS:

"Those who are not familiar with qualitative methodology may be surprised by the sheer volume of data
and the detailed level of analysis that results even when research is confined to a small number of
subjects" (Myers, 2002).

QUANTITATIVE APPROACH

Quantitative methods center on objective measurements and numerical analysis of data collected
through questionnaires or surveys and generalizing the results across groups of people. The overarching
aim of quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models to
explain the observable phenomenon. This approach is mainly used in social science studies, which
usually investigate abstract variables.

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH:

1. The data are usually gathered using more structured research instruments.
2. The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
3. The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
4. The researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
5. All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data are collected.
6. Data are in the form of numbers and statistics.
 7. The project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or
investigate causal relationships.
8. The researcher uses questionnaires or other forms of research tools to collect numerical data.

STRENGTHS OF THE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH:

1. Quantitative approach involves a greater number of subjects and enables a broader study, as
well as enhancing the generalization of the results.
2. Study results are more objective and accurate. Usually, to support a certain generalization by
using a summary of data, quantitative research employs certain procedures on a few variables
to ensure the reliability of data.
3. Quantitative research, when the right procedure is used, can be replicated, as well as analyzed
in comparison with other similar works.
4. You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and
over time.
5. Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a “distance” from participating subjects and employing
facilitators unknown to them.

LIMITATIONS OF THE QUANTITATIVE APPROACH:

1. Quantitative data, while they can test a hypothesis, may be limited in explaining their context.
This is because the explanation often focuses on numerical results as basis.

2. The research is often conducted in an artificial setting, where a certain level of control is
exercised. Because of this, the results may not necessarily reflect the real-life situation
presented in the problem. Additionally, the use of research tools may only reflect researcher’s
point of view instead of the subject’s.

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH:

1. Descriptive Research
Involves the collection of data to either test a hypothesis or describe the variables mentioned in
the study. Data, which are typically numeric, are collected through surveys, interviews, or
observations. Most researches in science and technology, engineering and social sciences use
this type of quantitative approach. For example, if you want to describe the process of
photosynthesis, you have to observe the occurrence of the event, write your observations, and
integrate the data for description.

a. Correlational Research
Attempts to determine the level of relation between two or more quantifiable variables. The
correlation between two variables does not mean that one variable causes the other, but it can
be used to predict their values. To determine the strength of the relationship, researchers get
the correlation coefficient and the p value.
b. Survey
 2. Causal-Comparative Research
Attempts to establish cause-effect relationship among the variables of the study. In this
research, the independent variable (IV) usually involves a demographic (e.g. gender, race, social
status) in which the researcher has no control of. He/she will test how the IV will cause a
significant effect on the dependent variable (DV), which is the outcome of the study.
Example 1: Low percentage of jobless people (IV) reduces the poverty rate of the country (DV).

3. Experimental Research
It is similar to causal-comparative research, in that it also measures the effect of the
independent variable (cause) to the dependent variable (effect); however, the researcher can
control the independent variables in the study, wherein the participants are randomly assigned.
a. True experimental
b. Quasi-experimental
It is an alternative to determine the causes and effects between two variables that cannot be
subjected to experimental control. Most of the time, this design is used on a naturally given
phenomenon and its effect on the people who are experiencing the occurrence. One example is
when you want to know the effect of a calamity on its victims.
MIXED METHODS RESEARCH
It involves collection and analysis of data using both quantitative and qualitative approaches to be able
to address the disadvantages of the two approaches and provide better understanding of data.
Qualitative approach provides a richer explanation because the instrument allows elaborative answers
but lacks objectivity due to lack of numerical value. Using the quantitative method will strengthen the
results obtained from qualitative data.
Advantages. This method can make the description easier because it has both subjective and objective
data. It is beneficial to both qualitative and quantitative studies because its findings will increase the
validity and reliability of the variables under investigation.
Disadvantages. Combining the two methods in a single study takes a lot of time for the study to be
completed. Because it provides few guidelines in applying both methods, discrepancies in findings are
difficult to resolve.
CONSTRUCTS AND VARIABLES
Research involves the investigation of constructs and ideas that constitute one’s area of interest, or an
important issue that needs to be resolved using appropriate methods that fit the purpose of the study.
The knowledge to be derived from the investigation comes from measurement and analysis of data.

Constructs are mental abstractions derived from the combination of concepts, or your mental
representation of the world around you. In research, both are used interchangeably, owing to the fact
that theory are basically ideas based on your observation and experience.
CONCEPTS more general; free from description. (Age, Sex, Height, Weight, Attitude, Pollution,
Education)
CONSTRUCTS more particular, has one or more descriptions.
Age – young or old Sex- male and female
Height – small, average, tall Weight- Light, heavy
Attitude - good, bad Pollution – land, air, water
Education – Grade school, High School, College
Variables are constructs that can be understood differently because of their differences in values.
Example: Height is a variable because there are different subscriptions of height: small, average,
and tall.

Before describing the height of a person, for instance, the available descriptions take on different
numerical values. The numerical values that are assigned for the given description are also different
based on how they are established. To standardize the abstraction and quantification present in them,
and to acquire additional knowledge about them, variables become the object of the study.
It can be observed directly or indirectly. Variables that are based on direct observations are those that
can be easily gauged by the senses.
Examples: size, brightness, odor, and taste.

Variables that are made through indirect observations can be determined only by using tools or
instrument. Most often, they are abstract construct. Variables as objects of study must be measured to
be able to generate data for analysis and to be used as additional knowledge. But before a variable can
be measured, you have to define it based on how it is going to be used in the study.

KINDS OF VARIABLES:
1. Independent Variables are manipulated variables that cause the change in another variable.
Usually, the treatments/conditions that produce a varied response or effect.
Example: “Peace-loving Learning Environment Reduces test Anxiety Level of Grade School
Students.
2. Dependent Variables are those that are affected by independent variables. Simply put, they are
the responses or effects that result from the treatment or conditions employed.
Example: “Peace-loving Learning Environment Reduces Test Anxiety Level of Grade School
Students.
3. Confounding or Extraneous Variables are those variables usually indicated in an experimental
research. They are not included in the study but in one way or another causes effect on the
dependent variable.
Example: The family background of the grade school students
4. Categorical Variables are those that characterize and describe the quality of data. They are
often classified into:
a. Mutually exclusive- take only specific values; do not follow sequence; called nominal
variables (describe data) e.g. Civil Status – single, married, widowed, annulled
b. Extensive categories- using definite range and sequence; logical order or rank; called
ordinal variable. e.g. Size- small, medium, large (values are not numeric).
5. Continuous Variables are those variables in which values are based on a given interval or
continuum. These variables rely on numbers for descriptions.
Examples:
a. Normal Temperature – 36’C to 37’C
b. Income
c. Distance
 6. Quantitative Variables are those variables that give details regarding the number or level of
something. These variables count the frequency of responses or effect. An example is popularity
contest. The contestant who will get the highest number of votes as the most well-liked will be
declared the winner.
7. Qualitative Variables are those variables that represent kinds or types of objects. They are
synonymous with categorical variables. They are often categorize into names, labels, or groups.
At times, numbers are used as codes to represent the categorization to be able to measure the
variable and describe its extent.
Examples: Responses such as yes or no; few, many, and too much; and agree or disagree

Why study about variables?

1. Proper interpretation of data related to the variable. For example, gender refers to male and
female, and the study just provided the number of male and female participants. Then, the idea
being conveyed will be easily expressed. It is just about the quantity of the participants based on
the two categories.
2. Decisions about the proper statistical analysis to be used. If the measure is the quantity of
males vs females, you do not need to test the relationship between them. Rather, you should
just take note of the frequency and the average of males and females.

FOUR LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT:

1. Nominal Scales – are just concerned with the names and categories of responses. They do not
intend to quantify the data. Qualitative and categorical variables are examples. Nationality and
hair color are some examples.
2. Ordinal Scales – are used for data that intends to be ranked. The scale is expressed through a
sequential and numerical order and therefore allows a comparison of degree. Qualitative and
sometimes quantitative variables are measured using this scale. e.g. first, second, third; good,
better best.
3. Interval Scales – use equal units of measurement and intervals to know the distance between
them more than the sequence. An interval scale does not use zero as its base point, though.
Quantitative data are usually measured by interval scales. e.g. temperature, attitude, and IQ.
4. Ratio Scales – are the highest level of measurement. Variables will be more accurately
measured because a ratio scale uses zero as its base point. It permits the comparison of both
differences in scores and the relative magnitude of scores. e.g. height, weight, and age.