Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL
The objective of the project is to connect two Weredas mainly; Toke Kutaye, and
Cheliya Wereda and to facilitate the inter Kebele movement. Specifically, this project
focuses to design short, easy and economical root connecting Babogallo to Babichi
town.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
The project start by describing the main objectives, then root selection and the traffic
analysis The wide area of the project, which is geometric design, will be done by the
support of eagle point software. Earthwork analysis is also manipulated by the
software aid. But, drainage design part is manipulated manually.
The vegetation cover along the proposed project road is dominated by pod
carpus species, Eucalyptus tree and bushy grass land. Most of the land in which the
route passes is covered with cultivated land and Grazing Land.
1.8 GEOLOGY
According to the Geological Map of Ethiopia (Mengesha, Second edition 1996), the
project route corridor is generally made up of two types of geological formations,
which are Platue Basalt- Quaternary basal which are characteristically alkaline and
represent the final pulse of basaltic volcanism on the Ethiopian plateau, and Chilalo
Formation-Nc (Lower Part) which developed on both sides of the rift shoulder and
margins. The top part of the project road alignment is characterized dominantly by
silt clay material. Clay soils are also been found.
Mean
Elevation of
Climatic Annual Mean Annual
Area the Vicinity
Classification Temperature Rainfall (mm)
(meter masl)
(oc)
CWB (Warm
Babogallo- Prevails b/n
Temperate Climate 15 – 20 600 - 2000
Babich 1,750 to 3200
I)
[Source: National Atlas of Ethiopia & Meteorological Services Agency, 1998]
Temperature
Temperature variation can often the binder and affect the performance of bituminous
surface and cement concrete pavement. The nearby project area at Guder Station
show that the temperature ranges from 15°c -20°c.Therefore, as per the Ethiopian
climate classification the area in which the road going to be constructed is
―woinadega‖.
Rainfall
Rainfall causes erosion of shoulders, side slopes and ingress of water in to the
pavement structure and sub grade which affects the performance of the designed
road.The project area is located in the Western Ethiopia with various rivers/streams
watersheds that drain to big rivers as tributaries and finally meet Abay River in this
basin. For almost four months from June to September, it is positioned in south west
Ethiopia and this is when the project area receives its major rainfall.
In March – April as it is returning to the West, it may give the second rain to the area
and continues its journey further east of Ethiopia until the cycle repeats the next
season.
The mean annual rainfall distribution is higher in May, July, August and
September but highest in June, when the project area receives frequent and peak
rainfall prevalence. Rainy season in the project area is therefore expected from
May to September, whereas the rest of months can be considered as dry season
with little rainfall occurrence.
CHAPTER TWO
ROUTE SURVEYING
2.1 GENERAL
Road design, construction and maintenance require an approach depending on
the terrain. The shortest Road alignment is not necessarily the easiest, quickest or
most economical option for construction and maintenance. Frequently; topography,
slope stability, flood hazard and erosion potential are likely to be the most significant
controls in the choice of the most suitable alignment and design of cross section.
Therefore before any alignment of any route and design of the selected route a detail
route survey is needed to understand the terrain, hydrology, and any other important
parameters which affect the alignment of the route. In any road alignment projects
highway surveying of the area is essential and basic for best route and ease of
design and economical route to be found.
2.2ROUTE SURVEY AND ITS CONSIDERATIONS
As mentioned above highway surveying is the base before, during and after any
alignment and design of road. Route surveying include many considerations or steps
in order to carry out. These are:-
Desk study
Reconnaissance
Preliminary survey
Detail survey or location survey
A. Desk study
Topographical maps of the concerned area provide important features like river,
cultivation areas, valleys, hills together with contour lines. Routes or alignments
could be selected keeping in view of the topographic features and obligatory points
to be touched by the road. In the map villages, water courses, churches and
mosques should be clearly shown.
CHAPTER THREE
TRAFFIC SURVEY AND ANALYSIS
3.1 GENERAL
Traffic survey and analysis is very essential issue in the design of highway
pavements. It is necessary to consider the total number of vehicles and their wheel
loads (axle load). So, the traffic volume has to be properly estimated by considering
current traffic and future growing traffic.
Design Period
Design period determination is the first step towards highway pavement design.
There are factors influencing the determination of design period. The designer
should follow certain guidelines in choosing an appropriate design period, taking into
account the conditions governing the project. Some of the factors include:
Functional importance of the road
Traffic volume
Location and terrain of the project
Financial constraints
Difficulty in forecasting traffic
Based on the above list of factors the design period is decided to be 15 years.
06/3/2011 Day 6 3 7 3 3 3 4 1
07/3/2011 Day 5 5 6 2 2 4 3 1
08/3/2011 Day 3 4 5 2 3 6 6 0
There is no historical count data along the project zone. Then the nearby historical
traffic data Gedo - Ambo road from year 2006 to 2008 obtained from ERA is used.
3st Cycle 3.33 1.28 0.96 1.17 0.97 1.32 1.32 1.32
After multiplying with the seasonal factor, the average annual daily traffic will be 50
VPD.
Rural people painstakingly bring their product to market centres over distances of
the order of 10km or more using non-motorized modes of transport. Such non-
motorized modes have the potential for being converted in to motorized modes in
future in view of improvement of the project road. So, there will be the modal shift
where the pedestrians will use the passenger car and the loads carried on animal
back and animal drawn cart will be carried by freight transport.The analysis of
converting non-motorized modes to the motorized one is shown as follows.
Freight Transport
The following assumptions were made under this situation.
Average load carried by pack animal during the market day is
65kg and 55kg for non-market day.
Besides transporting people, animal drawn cart carry an
average load of 60kg during market day and 200kg in non-
market day.
The truck with the capacity of 3.5 tone is categorized under short trucks with
seasonal adjustment factor of 1.09 as shown in table 3.5.
The no of S/trucks required is 26*1.09 = 28.34
Passenger vehicles
The pedestrians walk on foot, use bicycles and animal drawn cart use passenger
cars with less than 24 seats in newly designed road. The following assumptions were
made:
All pedestrians walk on foot shift their mode to bus transport.
80% of passengers using bicycles use bus transport service.
Average pedestrians use animal drawn cart is 4 person/cart.
The total pedestrians those shift their mode of transport to passenger car is:
=1037.19+80%*6.48+4*17.14=1111
So
Adopting the seasonal variation factor 1.10, the total no of short buses required is 52
vehicle per day.
Table: 3.8 summary of the above analysis
3.2.3TRAFFIC FORECASTING
In order to forecast traffic growth it is necessary to separate traffic into normal
traffic, diverted traffic, and generated traffic.
A. Normal traffic
Normal traffic is a traffic which would pass along the existing road of Babogallo
to Babichi even no new pavement was provided. Assuming general economic
conditions are expected to continue, fixed percentage increase is used in forecasting
the normal traffic. In order to determine the likely traffic volume at road opening year.
the current traffic (base year 2011) will be forecasted with the growth rate shown
below.
Table: 3.9 Traffic forecast rate
Assuming two years of road construction and traffic growth rate shown above, the
volume of normal traffic at road opening year of 2013 is shown in table.
Table: 3.10 Traffic at the base year (2011)
Vehicle 4 S/ S/ M/ H/
type Car WD Bus L/ Bus Truck Truck Truck T & T Total
Total
8 7 64 6 34 9 7 2 137
AADT
Vehicle 4 S/ L/ S/ M/ H/
type Car WD Bus Bus Truck Truck Truck T&T Total
Total
9 8 71 7 37 10 8 3 153
AADT
Diverted traffic
Diverted traffic is the traffic that changes the route or mode of transport to the
project road because of the improved road. But, still travels between the same origin
and destination. Where parallel routes exist, traffic will usually travel on the quickest
and cheapest route, although this may not necessarily be the shortest. Thus, the
new road may divert traffic from a parallel and shorter route because higher speeds
are possible on the new road. Diverted traffic is normally forecast to grow at the
same rate as computed normal traffic.
The amount of diverted traffic is assumed to be 15% and 10% of passenger and
freight vehicle respectively.
No of vehicle No of diverted
vehicle
Passenger vehicle 85 13
Freight vehicle 52 6
Generated traffic
Generated traffic may arise because of:-
a) Improvement of the facility which enable the modal shift and;
b) Subsequent triggered development of the project area.
After the construction of new road allowing access to an undeveloped area,
there could be large reductions in transport costs as a result of changing mode from
head loading to motor vehicle transport and, in this case, generated traffic could be
the main component of future traffic flow. The generated traffic is assumed to be
13% of the normal traffic. The estimated generated traffic will be 13% of total normal
traffic(137 vpd) which is 18 vpd.
The total forecasted traffic is the sum of normal diverted and generated traffic
at the first year of opening.
The forecasted traffic volume lies in DS5 But; there is uncertainty in forecasting
the exact traffic volume of traffic flow. In this case, the Design Traffic Flow shall
normally be limited to be no more than one Design Class step higher than the
average daily traffic (AADT) in the first year of opening (ERA Geometric
manual,2002).So, the design class is decided to be DS4.
CHAPTER FOUR
DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA
The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors:
the functional classification of the road; the nature of the terrain; the design vehicle;
the trafficvolumes expected on the road; the design speed; the density and character
of the adjoiningland use; economic and environmental considerations. Some of the
major factors those affect design control and criteria are:-
Road functional classification
Terrain classification
Design standards etc.
These factors are usually varied along a route of some length, so the design is not
constant for the whole length of a road. On the contrast, changes in the design are
usually required in order to obtain proper correlation between the road layout and the
above factors, whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels.
4.1 FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
Ethiopian roads Authority classify the roads according to their function. The
functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes. These are:-
Trunk Roads (Class I)
Link Roads (Class II)
Main Access Roads (Class III)
Collector Roads (Class IV) and
Feeder Roads (Class V)Trunk Roads (Class I)
The transverse slope of the project road varies from 0 to 50% along the root corridor.
The transverse slopes of the selected route at different chainage were summarized
as per ERA in the form of table.
CHAPTER FIVE
CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
5.1 GENERAL
Road cross section consists of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage
features, and earthwork profiles. The typical cross section elements are different for
rural and town roads. Due to the traffic requirements and characteristics of the
terrain, the cross-section may vary over a particular route. The basic requirements
are, however, that changes in cross-section standards shall be uniform within each
sub-section of the route and that any changes of the cross section shall be effected
gradually and logically over a transition length.
5.1.1. Carriageway
Carriage way is the part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing
lanes, and passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
5.1.2. Roadway
Roadway is another type of road cross section element which consists of the
carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing areas.
5.1.3. Earthwork profiles
An earthwork profile includes side slopes and back slopes designed to insure the
stability of the roadway.
5.2 LANE WIDTH
The width of the carriageway is feature of a highway having great influence on
safety and comfort of road users. Provision of adequate lane is important which
lessen wheel concentrations at the pavement edges. The lane width varies based on
the design standards. ERA manual sets the carriage widths for each design
standards (DS1 up to DS10). Babogallo – Babichi road lies under DS4.Accordingly,
the carriage width provided for this road is 6.7m and the lane with is 3.35m.
5.3 SHOULDER
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the
accommodation of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized
traffic, animals, and pedestrians; emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles;
and lateral support of the pavement courses.
Providing adequate shoulder improves roadway safety by preventing edge ravelling,
serving as parking space, better surface for vehicles experiencing emergency repairs
and serve as way for heavy pedestrian flow. The shoulder width provision depends
on the terrain type and volume of traffic using the road. ERA sets the width of
shoulder to be provided to the road for each design standards based on terrain type
for rural roads. Since the Babogallo – Babichi road has flat, rolling and mountainous
terrain; the width of shoulder to be provided varies. According to ERA manual
classification, the shoulder width of 1.5m is provided for flat and rolling while width of
0.5m is provided for mountainous terrain. But, the shoulder is replaced by parking
lanes in urban roads.
5.4 NORMAL CROSS FALL
Normal cross fall (or camber, crown) is the slope provided to the carriage width to
carry surface water away from the pavement structure effectively. The normal cross
fall should be 2.5 % on paved roads and 4 % on unpaved roads. Shoulders having
the same surface as the roadway should have the same normal cross fall while
unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 % steeper than the cross fall of
the roadway. The construction type and material affect precise choice of normal
cross fall on unpaved roads rather than any geometric design requirement. The
normal cross fall of the project road is uniform throughout the route. But, it is decided
to vary the unpaved shoulder slope based on suitability of the site condition.
5.5 SIDE SLOPES AND BACK SLOPES
Side slopes are slopes designed to insure the stability of the roadway and
provide a reasonable opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle.The
selection of a side slope and back slope is dependent on safety considerations,
height of cut or fill, and economic considerations.
CHAPTER SIX
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
6.2.1 Topography
Topography of the area affects geometric design of a highway. The geometric
design elements like cross section, horizontal and vertical alignment strongly
depends on the transverse terrain through which the roads passes. Alignment should
be as directional as possible, but should be consistent with the topography. A flowing
line that conforms generally to the natural contours is preferable aesthetically, to one
with long tangents that slashes through the terrain. In general the number of curves
should be kept to a minimum.
6.2.2 Design speed
Design speed is the most important factor controlling the geometric design
element of a highway. It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a
specified section of highway when conditions are so favourable that the design
features govern. The choice of design speed is governed primarily by topography,
traffic volume, function and class of highway, capital cost, aesthetic considerations
etc. All of the geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the
selected design speed. Different speed standards are assigned for different classes
of the road. It is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a
chosen design speed should ensure a safe design.
D=
Where, f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway.
Again it depends on the curve l
6.3.4.1.3 Stopping sight distance on horizontal curve
Once we have a radius that connects the two sections of road way safely and
comfortably, it is needed to make sure that we have to provide an adequate sight
distance throughout the horizontal curve. Sight distance can be the controlling
aspect of horizontal curve design where obstruction are present near the inside of
the curve to determine the actual sight distance that we have provided, It must be
considered that the driver can only see the portion of the roadway a head, there
should be a length of roadway between the vehicle and the hazard that is greater
than or equal to the stopping sight distance. Because the sight obstructions for each
curve will be different no general method for calculating the sight distance has been
developed.
Tangent run out (crown runoff) section: Length of roadway needed to Accomplish
change in out-side cross slope from normal cross slope Rate to zero which is the
tangent distance needed to avoid sudden change. It is computed from geometry of
the cross slop and design supper elevation.
6.3.5.3 Shoulder supper elevation
The low side (inner shoulder) super elevation of the curves, match with the roadway
super elevation. On the high side (outer shoulder), the super elevation is set such
that the grade break between the roadway and the shoulder is 8 percent. An
exception to this occurs at a maximum super elevation of 8 percent, where the
resultant shoulder super elevation would be an undesirable flat configuration. To
drain the shoulder the super elevation is set at -1%.
6.3.6 Widening of high way
Extra widening of pavements on curves and embankments is provided for the
following reasons.
Rear wheels follow front wheels in shorter radius.
W=nL2/2R
2. Extra widening needed for Psychological reason.
W=Vd /10√R
We =nL2/2R+Vd /10R1/2
Where:-
n =No of lane.
L = length of the vehicle
R = radius of curvature
Vd = design spe
6.3.7 Horizontal curve design and setting out
Design of curve No. 1
Data required for design.
Terrain type --- Rolling
Design standard --- DS4
Design speed ---70km/hr
Coefficient of friction --- 0.17
Maximum super elevation --- 4%
degree of curvature --- 4%
Chainage of PI ------- 0+278.903
Δ (Delta) = 83005'33"
Curve type ------ simple curve
Then from the table the minimum length of runoff excluding tangent run out is
39m.Hence,
Using the above principle,
= 2/3 of L for tangent portion
= 26m
And,
= 1/3 of L is provided for curved portion
= 13m
The tangent run out can be determined as follow:
Y= W*S
Where:-
Y = the vertical distance b/n the edge to centre of the road
W = lane width = 3.35m
S = cross slope = 2.2%
Y = 3.35m*2.5%
= 0.08m
Then the longitudinal length required (the tangent run out) is determined from y
Lt = y/e
= 0.08m/0.04
= 2.0m (remove adverse crown)
Design of curve No 12
The following are the data required for design.
Terrain type --- Rolling
Design standard --- DS4
Design speed --- 70km/hr
Coefficient of friction --- 0.17
Maximum super elevation --- 8%
But the calculated Rmin is less than recommended Rmin in ERA manual in the table
8.4 so we use the minimum recommended value from table 175m =Rc radius of the
curve. Since the topography at this station is rolling and the radius is short we use
transition curve.
B. Psychological reason.
W=Vd/10
Where: -
Vd = 70km/hr
R = 175m
W = (70km/hr)/10* m
= 0.53m
Then total widening needed for n lanes of highway is given by:
We = widening for vehicle operation + Psychological reason
= nL2/2R+vd/10
= 1.32m +0.53m = 1.85m ≈ 2.0m
So, we decided to provide 2.0m widening length; 1.0m on both sides of the road
lane.
Super elevation Design
At the entrance of the curve:
A. Tangent
run out (crown runoff) section: - it is calculated from geometry,
Y= W*S
Where:
Y = the vertical distance b/n the edge to centre of the road
W = lane width = 3.35m
S = cross slope = 2.2%
Y = 3.35m*2.5%
= 0.084m
Then the longitudinal length required (the tangent run out) is determined from Y and
Lt = y/e
= 0.084m/0.08
= 1.05m (remove adverse crown)
inner edge starts to rotate at point where outside cross slope is zero (TS).Hence,
length of runoff section = Spiral length = 67m
The topography of the area through which the road travels has a significant impact
on the design of the vertical alignment. The two major aspects of vertical alignment
are vertical curvature, which is governed by sight distance criteria and gradient.
6.4.1 Vertical curves
6.4.1.1 Crest curve and Sag curve
According to the topography (position of gradient)‘vertical curves are of two types.
1. Crest curve.
2. Sag curve.
1) Crest curve
If the offsets of curve are below the tangent line (grade) the curve is called crest
curve.
This curve occurred;
a) If there is a change in gradient from large positive to small positive.
b) If there is a change in gradient from positive to negative.
c) If there is a change in gradient small negative to large negative.
2) Sag curve
If the offsets of curve are above the tangent the curve is called sag curve.
This curve occurred;
a) If there is a change in gradient from large negative to small negative and,
b) If there is a change in gradient from negative to positive.
c) If there is a change in gradient from small positive to large positive
In this project both curves are applied. Minimum lengths of crest and sag vertical
curves have been recommended based on design
Speeds and stopping sight distance requirements. They provide for ride comfort,
appearance, and most importantly, safety. These are shown in Tables9-1 and 9-2 in
ERA manual 2002, respectively, in terms of ―K‖ values.
6.4.1.2 Vertical curve Gradients and grade controls
One of the important considerations in designing vertical alignment is the gradient.
The cost of operation of vehicles the speed of vehicles and the capacity of a highway
are profoundly affected by the grades provided in order to limit the effect of grade on
vehicular operation; the maximum grade on any highway should be selected
judiciously. The selection of the maximum grade for a highway depends on;
Visibility related to sight distance.
Passengers comfort.
The requirements for climbing lanes are therefore based on road standard, speed
and traffic volume. Climbing lanes must be considered for roads when present traffic
volumes are greater than400ADT. Thus the application of climbing lanes is limited
particularly to trunk and link roads.
Depending on the above information application of climbing lanes is not necessary
for our road.(Note:- main access road with ADT of 190. )
6.4.4 Sight distance
Sight distance is the length of the highway that‘s visible to a driver. A safe sight
distance is the distance needed by the driver on arterial, or a driver exiting a drive
way or a street, to verify that the road is clear and avoid conflicts with other vehicles.
Sight line must be kept free of objects which might interfere with ability of drivers to
see other vehicles. Features like hills, curves in the road, vegetation, other land
escaping, sins and buildings can reduce sight distance. In design of highway there
are two sight distances which are considered: passing sight distance and stopping
sight distance.
6.4.2.1 Stopping sight distance on vertical curves
To calculate the following points must be considered:-
Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters
Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters
Brake reaction distance is the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the
driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied and
braking distance is the distance required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake
application begins. So, sum of the two distances is called stopping sight distance.
terrain type
minimum curvature
Aesthetic values
Passenger comfort
Passengers comfort
Drainage control
Aesthetic
Length of crest curve required for minimum curvature
Lmc = AK
Length of crest curve required for safe stopping sight distance
When sight distance is, SSD >L
Lsd = 2* SSD - 2(h+SSDtan )/A
Length of crest curve required for safe passing sight distance
Lpd= 2* PSD - 2(h+PSDtan )/A
Length of crest curve required for aesthetic value
La = Vd2*A/389
Length of crest curve required for passengers comfort
Lc = 30*A
The maximum of the above values is taken as design length for the curve.But if the
computed curve length for the above requirements is less than the minimum curve
length of recommended by ERA 2002, then the recommended value is taken as a
curve length.
Length of curve = max {calculated length, minimum curve length of recommended
by ERA 2002}
Where:-
A = the algebraic difference of the two gradient
K = rate of vertical curvature
SSD = minimum stopping sight distance
h = the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, for sag curve, h = 0.6m
Vd=deign speed
= angle between the ray from the observer‘s eye to the object,for sag
Curve, = 1O
6.4.4 DESIGNAND SETTING OUT OF VERTICAL CURVES
Design of curve four
The design data are taken from ERA geometric manual 2002, table forDS4.
Design speed ------ 70km prhr
Topography --------- Rolling
Maximum gradient desirable ---- 5%
Maximum gradient absolute ------ 7%
Departed gradient ---- G1=11% and G2=12%
Minimum gradient ----- 0.5%
Min. stopping sight ----- 110m
Min .passing sight distance ----- 275m
Here, in this project there is a departure from ERA standards on the maximum
absolute gradient value. The reason of this departure is the grade increment of the
longitudinal ground profile.If it is compelled to fix the longitudinal gradient to ERA
standards for DS4, there will be excavation of huge amount of earth work which will
be uneconomical. As it is described in section 9.3 of ERA geometric manual there
are conditions that, itis possible to consider gradients >10%.It is also stated as the
designer can deviate from these standards in some situations where he/she face
difficulty. The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards
to the Design and Research Division Manager as illustrated in section 2.3 of ERA
geometric manual for evaluation. But it is simply considered as it is approved by
Design and Research Division Manager for academic purpose.
Here are the considerations taken for safety purpose in the design.
Critical length of the gradient set to the ERA standards to assure user
comfort.
The climbing lane is provided to reduce the impact of a steep gradient.
The traffic signs are provided in order to alert the drivers not to drive with
high speed.
Curve data computation
Since the gradient changes from +11% to +1 2%, the vertical curve is a sag curve.
Algebraic difference in grade (A) = 12-11=1%,
Station of PVI is 1+444.00
Elevation of PVI=2262.006m,
Minimum allowable "K" value = 25, ERA geometric manual table 9.2 for V=70km/hr
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L=AK ,where K is rate of vertical curvature.
K=25 for sag curve
L= 1.0*25 =25.0m
2. Length required for safe stopping site distance
When SSD > L
L=2SSD - 200(h+ SSDtanα)/A
Where for sag curve, the height from the ground to the eye of the driver, h =0.6
and the angle b/n the ray from the observer‘s eye to the object, α= 1o
Soothe required curve length is:
L=2SSD - 200(h+ SSDtanα)/A
=2*110 - 200(0.6+ 110*tan 10)/1%
= -284.011m
3. Length required for safe passing site distance
Lc=2* PSD- 200(h+PSD tanα)/A
= 2*275 – 200(0.6+ 275tan1°) / 1%
= -530.03m
Here the negative sign indicates that the curve length is visible and no need for
sight distance consideration.
4. Length required for passengers comfort
Lc = Vd2*A /389
= 702*1 /389
=12.596m
5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
Lc = 30 *A
= 30*1
= 30.0m
But this maximum length is not greater than the minimum curve length
recommended by ERA (i.e. 200m). Provide, L=200m
Design of curve 10
Curve data
Design speed 70 KPH
Topography rolling
Maximum gradient desirable 5%
Maximum gradient absolute 7%
Gradient G1=3% and G2=2%
Minimum gradient 0.5%
Min .passing sight distance(PSD) 275m
Since the gradient changes from +3% to + 2%, the vertical curve is a crest curve.
Station of PVI is 4+429.00
Elevation of PVI=2493.326
G1=3%, G2= 2%
A = G2 - G1 = |3 – 2|% = |1|% = 1%
Computation of the curve length for curve eleven
1. Curve length required for minimum curvature, k
L=AK, where K is rate of vertical curvature.
K=31 for crest curve, from ERA table 9.1 of V=70km/hr
L= 1*31= 31.0m
2. Length required for safe stopping sight distance
When SSD> L
L =2SSD- 200(√H1+√H2)2/A
=2(110) - 200((√1.07+√0.15)2/1
= -184.25m
Negative sign indicates that the curve length is visible and no need for stopping
sight distance consideration.
3. Length required for safe passing sight distance
L= 2PSD -200(H1+H2+2√H1*H2)/A
=2*275-200(1.07+0.15+2√1.07*0.15)/1
=145.75m
4. Length required for passengers comfort
L= Vd2*A/ 389
= 702*1/ 389
=12.596m
5. Length required for aesthetic (appearance)
L= 30 *A
= 30*1
= 30m
The maximum of the above values is L=145.75m. But this maximum length is
not greater than the minimum curve length recommended by ERA (i.e. 200m).
CHAPTER SEVEN
EARTH WORK ANALYSIS
7.1. Introduction
Earth work is conversion of natural condition to required section and grade.
Earth work in high way design includes determination of cuts and fills, location of
borrow, waste sites, the free haul and over haul distance determination. The most
common item of work encountered in high project is earth work.
Earth work includes:
Clearing and Grabbing
Excavation of drainage channels
Borrows
Haul & overhaul
Grading
Preparation of side slopes
Excavation
This is the excavating and grading of the road way and ditches including the removal
of all excavated materials and all work needed for the construction and completion of
the cuts, embankments, ditches, approaches, intersections and similar operations of
the work.
B. Excavation for structures
This refers to the excavation of materials in order to permit the construction of pipe
culverts, concrete box culverts, foundation for bridges, retaining walls and practically
all other structures that may be required in particular work
C. borrow excavation
When sufficient materials for the formation of embankments and other elements of
the road way structures is not available for excavation performed within the limit of
the right of way, additional suitable materials is generally taken from the borrow pits.
A = 1/2(y1x2+y2x3+……+ynx1) - (x1y2+x2y3+………xny1)
b) Volume calculation
The volume of earth work from the successive cross sections can be computed by
different formulas like average end area method, (trapezoidal method) or primordial
formula. Since trapezoidal method is simple and widely accepted we have used it to
compute the volume. Since the average end area method is simple and is generally
preferred, we choose this method for this particular project.
Average end area method (trapezoidal method)
V= 0.5 (A1+A2)*L
Where:-
V= volume in m3
A1and A2 = areas of successive cross-section in m2
L= distance between successive cross section in m
We considered the value of L to be 20m
To determine the cost needed for the earthwork first we must quantify the total
volume of cut and fill by considering the swelling factor and shrinkage factor.
— Total volume of cut is the sum of all adjusted volume of cuts from station to
station.
Total adjusted cut=excavation volume *adjusted factor
— Total accumulated fill is the sum of the embankments from station to station
without adjustment.
We assume swelling factor and shrinkage factor indicated above for the soil type
light soil (ordinary ground) 0%and 15% respectively.
The mass ordinate can now be calculated by taking the algebraic sum of the
adjusted excavation and unadjusted embankment from station to station, using ―+‖
for excavation and ―-‖ for embankment.
The maximum limit of economical length of over hauling Le is obtained at the point
where these two costs are equal.
Ce+Coh*Le= Ce+Cb.
Therefore;
Le ≤ Cb/ Coh. and
LT=Le+F
.
CHAPTER EIGHT
PAVEMENT DESIGN
8.1 General
The road pavement is the actual surface on which the vehicles will travel. Its purpose
is to hold to provide friction for the vehicles and to transfer normal stresses to the
underlying soils (sub grade).Some of the desirable characteristics of pavement are:
The surface should be impervious so that water doesn‘t get in to the lower
layers.
It should be hard wearing surface so that abrasion action of wheels
doesn‘t damage the surface.
It should be structural sound to with stand the stresses exerted on it.
It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the load and stress to a safe
value to the sub grade soil.
It should be smooth enough to provide comfort to the road users.
The Design Process
There are three main steps to be followed in designing pavement.
1. Estimating the traffic and cumulative equivalent standard axels that pass
through this road over the design life.
2. Assessment of the sub grade strength of the soil over which the road is to be
built.
3. Selecting the most economical combination of pavement material and layer
thickness that will provide satisfactory service over design life of the road.
Vehicle 4 S/ S/ M/ H/
type Car WD Bus L/ Bus Truck Truck Truck T&T Total
Projected
11 10 89 9 44 12 10 5 190
traffic
Table 8.3:- Calculation of Cumulative number of traffic volume over the design
period.
Vehicle type Cumulative number of traffic
volume over 15 years
Car 365*11*0.5[(1.048)15-1]/0.048=42673
4 WD 365*10*0.5[(1.048)15-1]/0.048=38794
S/ Bus 365*89*0.5[(1.048) 15-1]/0.048=345260
L/ Bus 365*9*0.5[(1.048) 15-1]/0.048=34914
S/ Truck 365*44*0.5[(1.039) 15-1]/0.039=170691
M/ Truck 365*12*0.5[(1.039) 15-1]/0.039=46552
H/ Truck 365*10*0.5[(1.039) 15-1]/0.039=38794
Table 8.5:- Traffic class for flexible pavement design, ERA geometric manual
2002
Based on the above analysis, the main access road under study would belong to the
traffic class of T2.
Table 8.6:- CBR values of the sub grade taken from tested sample.
CBR values
Station (AASHIO T 193)
2.54 mm 5.08mm
16+150 5 5
17+900 11 12
19+800 5 5
21+600 7 7
23+000 5 4
24+700 7 7
26+600 6 5
The sub grade strength ranges from 5 – 7% except at station 17+900 which will be
safe if we designed with this range. Based on ERA sub grade strength classification
manual, our sub grade material strength lies in S3 which ranges from 5 – 7%.
All the charts provide alternate pavement structures for all sub grade classes (S1
throughS6).\
Using traffic class and sub grade strength T2 and S3 respectively we have selected
tthree possible layer for our highway from ERA catalogue.
KEY
Selecting the most suitable pavement layer from the above alternatives
The following preliminary information has been derived from the site investigations.
Granular sub base materials are available in sufficient quantities and
qualities.
All other materials entering the composition of the possible pavement
structures are available; there are less transport/construction costs.
In the selection of appropriate pavement layer we must check the availabilities of
nearby materials that are used for the construction of the layers of the pavement and
analysing cost of each alternative. We have no current unit cost for each material, so
we are not able to compare in terms of cost. Simply, depending on the above
information we compare the alternatives in terms of weather the cement or lime
stabilization of road base and sub base is needed or not.
So, alternative No.2 and alternative No.3 needs cement or lime stabilization of road
base and sub base. But from the above information we have concluded that cement
or lime stabilization of sub base or road base materials is not necessary. So,
alternative No.1 is the best alternative from the others.
CHAPTER NINE
HIGH WAY DRAINAGE
The process of removing and controlling excess surface and sub-surface water
with in the right of way of the road is termed as highway drainage. This highway
drainage includes interception and diversion of water from the road surface and sub
grade. During rains, part of the rain water flows on the surface and part of it reach
the ground water. There are two type of highway drainage.
1) Surface drainage: it is the removal and diversion of surface water from the road
way and adjoining land.
2) Sub-surface drainage: it is the diversion or removal of excess soil water from the
sub grade.
The importance of highway drainage
The strength of stability of soil mass decreases with increasing moisture content
also depends on the soil type and mode of stress application. Highway drainage is
important because of the following reasons:
Excess moisture in sub grade soil causes considerable lowering of
pavement strength. So, the pavement is likely to fail due to sub grade
failure.
In some clay soil, there is variation in volume of sub grade. This
sometimes contributes for pavement failure.
Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavement causes failure due to
striping of bitumen from aggregate like losing or detachment of the
bituminous pavement layers and formation of potholes.
Excess water in shoulder and pavement edge causes considerable
damage.
Erosion of soil from top of subsurface road and slope of embankment cut
and fill side also caused due to surface water.
In the hydrological analysis for a drainage facility, some of the factors which need
to be recognized and considered on an individual site by site basis include:-
Rainfall amount and storm distribution
Drainage area size, shape and orientation
Slope of terrain and streams Water shed development potential
and
Types of precipitation(rain, snow, hail or combinations)
Hence the drainage should enable to drain the surface water efficiently peak flows
with an acceptable approach should be known to design the surface drainage
systems.
CROSS DRAINAGE
The stream cross the road way, facility for cross drainage is to be provided. The
water from side drain is often taken by cross drain. Cross drain also used to divert
the water away from the road to water course or valley. When small stream crosses
a road with a linear water way less than about six meter, the cross drainage provided
is called culvert. The commonly used types of culverts are:-
Slab culvert
Box culvert
Arch culvert
Pipe culvert
In our case, we designed pipe culvert at the place where cross drainage is required.
9.1 Design of surface drainage systems
The design of surface drainage system for a high way may be divided into three
major phases.
Estimation of quantity of water to be drained
Hydraulic design of each drainage element
The comparison of alternatives systems, alternative materials and
other variables in order to selects the most economical system.
The rational formulas estimates the peak rate of runoff at any location in a
catchment area as a function of the catchment area, runoff coefficient, and mean
rainfall intensity for a duration equal to the time of concentration (the time required
for water to flow from the most remote point of the basin to the location being
analyzed). The rational formula is expressed as:
Q = 0.00278 CIA
Vegetation cover in %
Dense Spares Grass land Cultivation Sparse Barren (%)
forest (%) forest (%) (%) (%) grass land
(%)
0 15 15 50 20 0
According to ERA drainage manual classification, the terrain of the project road
categorized under Escarpment,( >15%) with the slope of 23.6%.So, the values of
drainage coefficient are determined based on land use soil properties.
Well Drained Soil (%) =60% of the surrounding its coefficient of runoff C1‘=0.22
Fair Drained Soil (%) =25% of the surrounding its coefficient of runoff C2‘=0.3
Poorly Drained Soil (%) =15% of the surrounding its coefficient of runoff C3‘=0.4
=
= 0.267
These values are taken from table 5-5 of ERA drainage manual, 2002 .Coefficient
for composite runoff are listed in the following table.
So, Coefficients of Asphalt C2 = 0.95 and Shoulder (walks) C3=0.85
B. Determination of rainfall intensity I
Fallow or minimum tillage cultivation
Water course slope = 23.6%
Velocity = 0.65m/s for long water course slope of 23.6% from figure 5.2
of ERA manual.
Length of the over land flow = 98.41 m
Length of the main channel = 240 m
Slope of channel = 9%
Frequency factor Cf = 1(From ERA drainage manual table5-3)
Time of concentration (Tc) = T0+Tf
Where To is overland flow time and Tf is channel flow time
Since our furthest point is 98.41m on the ground surface, the time required will be
To = 98.41m/0.65m/s = 2.52min .The time required for the flow storm water from the
inlet to the cross drainage (out let) along the channel is calculated as follow.
Cw =
= 0.407
Compute the total runoff using the area, runoff coefficient and rainfall intensity
Q = 0.00278CCfIA, Where, Cf = return period coefficient = 1 for 10 yrs.
= 0.00278*0.407*1*180*0.5437
= 0.111m3/sec
Assume flow speed of road side channel is 1m/s.
Q = AV
A= Q/V = 0.111m3/sec /1m/sec = 0.111m2
Design of efficient and economical trapezoidal cross sectional channel
The following criterion applies to roadside channels:-
I. Stone pitching or grouted riprap must be used for channel side slopes
steeper than 2:1.
II. Flexible linings are calculated using the method of allowable tractive
force.
III. The design discharge frequency for permanent, roadside, ditch linings
and for temporary linings is based on ERA drainage manual, Table 2.1.
IV. Channel freeboard shall be 0.3 meters.
p= =
=
A= , where m = √3/3 for 600
= (b+0.577y)*y
R = A/P = Y/2 for economical trapezoidal section.
Q = A * V = (b+0.577y)*y x 1/n R2/3S1/2
0.111m3/sec = (b+0.577y)y*1/0.023( y/2)2/3(0.09)1/2 Solving
simultaneously, Y=√(A/√3) =√(0.111/√3)= 0.253 m 0.30m
B = 2/√3y = 0.292m; take b=0.3m
Considering free board height of 0.3 m, the depth of the trapezoidal channel is :-
Y = Ycalculated +free board
= 0.253+0.3m = 0.53m.
Check flow capacity using Manning’s Equation
For a given depth of flow in a channel with a steady, uniform flow, the mean velocity,
V, can be computed with Manning‘s equation:
V = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
Where:- V = velocity, m/s
n = Manning‘s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the energy grade line, m/m (note: for steady uniform
flow, S = channel slope, m/m)
Pascal‘s(N/m2) from Table 6-2 and/or Table 6-3,τp for mortared stone
is>958 pa.
Compute maximum shear stress at normal depth as: Τd(Pa) =
9800*yo*S, where :- S = channel slope, m/m
If τd<τp then lining is acceptable, otherwise consider the following options:
choose a more resistant lining,
use concrete, gabions, or other more rigid lining either as full lining or
composite,
decrease channel slope,
decrease slope in combination with drop structures, and/or
increase channel width and/or flatten side slopes
τd (Pa) = 9800*Y*S
= 9800*0.253*0.09
= 223.146pa
Hence, Tp = 223.146pa > 958pa lining stone mortar is safe.
Design considerations
First the function of the culvert must be chosen and the design flow conditions (e.g.
Qd, flood level) must be selected. The primary design constraints in the design of a
culvert are:
The cost must be (always) minimum;
The afflux3 must be small and preferably minimum;
Eventually the embankment height may be given or may be part of the design;
A scour protection may be considered, particularly if a hydraulic jump might
take place near the culvert outlet.
DESIGN LIMITATIONS
Allowable Headwater—is the depth of water that can be ponded at the upstream end
of the culvert that will be limited by one or more of the following:
will not damage up stream property,
not higher than 300 mm below the edge of the shoulder,
equal to an HW/D not greater than 1.5,
no higher than the low point in the road grade, and
Equal to the elevation where flow can be diverted around the culvert.
Generally there are two culverts at stations 0+240 and 9+760.
Hydraulic analysis for pipe culvert at station 0+240
At station 0+240, there is sag curve due to negative grade followed by positive grade
( from grade -9% to +9%). There are two ditches at right side of the road flows
towards to this station. So providing of pipe culvert is necessary.
Discharge calculation
Q10 (Storm from side ditch 0+000 to 0+240) =0.111m3/s
Q10 (Storm from side ditch 0+240 to 1+320) = 0.425m3/s
Design storm frequency for pipe culver span length less than 2m is 10
years.(ERA drainage manual table 2.1)
Storm for pipe culvert Q=0.111+0.425=0.536 m 3/s
The pipe culver is designed large enough to carry the maximum Storm discharge
while flowing half or three fourth or two third full. Generally , the pipes of sizes less
than 0.4m diameter are designed as running half full at maximum discharge and the
pipes greater than 0.4m in diameter are designed as running 2/3rdor 3/4th full at
maximum discharge.
Q = AV
Assume V= 2.5 m/s
For full condition A‘= Q/V = 0.536/2.2
= 0.2144 m2
Assuming D > 0.4m and 2/3rd full pipe flow in the pipe,
A = 3/2*A‘= 3/2*0.2144
= 0.3216 m2
A = D2 /4
D=√ (4*A/) =√ (4*0.3216/) = 0.64 m, use D=0.65 m
Therefore this speed is safe, since the concert pipe cannot be eroded and not
exposed to sedimentation.