24-08-2018

Session - 1

Research Methodology
Research Methodology The Basic Concepts

Prof. Dr. Lewlyn L. Raj Rodrigues,

B.E. (Mech.), MBA (HRM & Q), M.Tech. (Prodn. Engg.), Ph.D. (System Dynamics)
HOD, Department of Humanities & Social Sciences,
MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, Manipal
rodrigusr@gmail.com/ l.rodrigues@manipal.edu
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At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
 Know what is Research.
 Understand when research gets accomplished.
 Know what are the skills required by a good researcher.
 Know what do examiners look in a PhD work.
 Know how to search for facts.
 Know the basis for scientific methods.
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
 Understand the characteristics of research.
 Appreciate the purpose of research.
 Comprehend the classification of research.
 Comprehend the research approaches.
 Have an understanding of the entire research steps.
Cont…  Have an overview of various methods of research.
 Know significance of research in different fields.

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References on Research Methodology What is Research?

1. Dr Ranjit Kumar, Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners, SAGE, 2005.
2. Geoffrey R. Marczyk, David DeMatteo & David Festinger, Essentials of Research Design and  Search for facts
Methodology, John Wiley & Sons, 2004.  Answers to questions
3. John W. Creswel, Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches,  Solutions to problems
SAGE, 2004
 Purposive investigation
4. Suresh C. Sinha and Anil K. Dhiman, Research Methodology (2 Vols-Set), Vedam Books, 2006.
 Organized inquiry
5. C. R. Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, New Age International Publisher,
2008.  Correction of the misconceived facts
6. Donald R Cooper & Pamela S Schindler, Business Research Methods, McGraw Hill  Seeking to find explanations to unexplained phenomenon to clarify doubtful
International, 2007. Facts.
7. R. Pannershelvam, Research Methodology, Prentice Hall, India, 2006
8. Manfred Max Bergman, Mixed Methods Research, SAGE Books, 2006.
9. Paul S. Gray, John B. Williamson, David A. Karp, John R. Dalphin, The Research Imagination,
Cambridge University press, 2007.
10. Cochrain & Cox, Experimental Designs, II Edn. Wiley Publishers, 2006.
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When is Research accomplished?

• A new area is opened up

• A unifying framework is developed  Is research gap correctly identified?
• A long-standing question is resolved
 Is the problem statement correctly stated?
• An area is explored thoroughly
• Existing knowledge is contradicted  Are the objectives achievable and measurable?
• A theory is experimentally validated
• An ambitious system is developed
 Are the instruments used for measurement accurate
• Empirically a hypothesis is tested enough and the right ones?
• Superior algorithm is developed
• A new methodology is developed  Are the metrics validated?
• A new tool/technique is developed in science or technology
 Is the procedure adopted for measurement correct?
• …….?????????????
• Each one of them by applying an appropriate Research Methodology. cont…
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Module: Introduction to Negotiation

Skills required by good researcher

 Is the data presented in an appropriate way?

 Are the results obtained acceptable? Thinking

 Is there novelty in this research?

Problem
 Are the inferences drawn justifiable? ComprehensionIdentification
 Are implications practicable? Communication Experimentation
Modelling Time management
 Is there a significant contribution to the body of Interpersonal Articulate Synthesizing
knowledge? Bold Reasoning Respectful
Rational Perceptive
 Does the thesis adhere to the norms? Direct
Workshop on Research Methodology/Lewlyn L.Raj Rodrigues Unemotional Evaluation

Thinking: Communication:
• Knowing • Oral
• Comprehension • Written
• Problem solving • Publishing
• Critical thinking • Patenting
• Creative thinking
Experimentation:
Truth Knowledge Belief
Problem identification: Modelling:
• Literature review
Time Management:
• Questioning Interpersonal Skills:
Euler diagram representing a definition of knowledge.
Source: Introduction to Research Methodology, 10 Day Workshop, IIT Bombay, 2012

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How to search for facts? Basis of Scientific Methods –

‘Articles of Faith’

• Reliance on Empirical Evidence

1. Arbitrary Method (or unscientific) (through imagination, opinion,
• Use of Relevant Concepts
blind belief or impression)
• Commitment of Objectivity
2. Scientific Method (systematic rational approach to seeking facts)
• Ethical Neutrality
• Generalization
 Young defines Research as:
• Verifiability
“a scientific undertaking which, by means of logical and systematic
• Logical Reasoning Process.
techniques, aims to:
• Discover new facts or verify and test old facts
• Analyze their sequences, interrelationships and causal
explanations
• Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories”.

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Characteristics of Research Purpose of Research

 Objective and logical

 Adoption of scientific method • Extension of knowledge of human beings, social life and environment

 Based on observable experience or empirical evidence, or verifiable evidence. (What-Where-When-How-Why)

 Purposive investigation aiming at describing, interpreting and explaining a • Bringing to light information that might never be discovered fully during

phenomenon the ordinary course of life

 Systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon • Establishment of generalizations and general laws and contribution to

 Directed towards finding answers to pertinent questions and solutions to theory building in various fields of knowledge

problems • Verification and testing of existing facts and theory

 Emphasis on development of generalization, principles, or theories • Making reliable predictions of events yet to happen

 Proper recording of data and good control over experimental variables • Analysis of inter-relationships between variables and to derive causal

 Purpose is not only to arrive at an answer but also to stand up the test of explanations – Better understanding of world in which we live

criticism. contd…

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Purpose of Research Types of Research – According to Intent

• Pure Research – Research for the sake of knowledge e.g. Einstein‘s

• Finding solution to problems (Technical, social, economic, health, human
relations in organizations)
• Development of new tools, concepts and theories for better study of
unknown phenomenon
• Aid in planning and contribution to national development.
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theory of relativity, Newton’s Laws
• Applied Research – Putting theory to test
• Exploratory Research – Generating new ideas, discovering variables,
and then, seeking relationships between these variables.
• Descriptive Study – Fact finding and interpretation
• Diagnostic Study – Finding what is happening, why it is happening and
what can be done about it
• Evaluation Studies – Assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an
activity and find attributes for success
• Action Research – In depth study as the activity occurs and the post-
experimental evaluation.
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Types of Research – According to Methods of Study Research Approaches

1. Qualitative Approach – Subjective assessment of opinions, behaviour

• Experimental Research – Studying the effect of select variables by and attitudes e.g. in-depth interview, focus group interviews and
keeping other variables constant or controlled e.g. studying the effect of projective techniques.
cutting speed on a specific metal using a particular machine and a tool.
Qualitative Approach
• Analytical Study – Deals with analysis on quantitative data e.g. testing
a hypotheses statistically. In the above cited example, a hypothesis that
Narrative
‘a particular tool produces better results than the other in the specified
Phenomenological
situation’ can be tested using statistical analysis.
• Historical Research – Study of past records/information and
Grounded Theory
development of a system based on trend.
• Survey – Fact finding kind of study to investigate cause and effect Ethnography
relationship and making scientific predictions, forecast etc.
Case Study
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Research Approaches

1. Narrative Study – How individual stories need to be told to gain personal experiences about 2. Quantitative Approach – Collection of quantitative data and subjecting
the research problem e.g. Gandhian Philosophy.
it to rigorous analysis in a scientific manner such as experimental,
2. Phenomenological Study – The researcher makes a case that a need exists to know more
inferential, simulations etc.
about a particular phenomenon and the common experiences of the individual with the
phenomenon e.g. Disaster Management Study.
3. Grounded Theory Study – Author states that we need a theory that explains a process
because the existing theories are inadequate, or non-existent for the population under study,
or need to be modified for the existing population e.g. Developing Wear Theory Quantitative Approach

4. Ethnographic Study – The purpose statement states why it is important to describe and
interpret the cultural behaviour of a certain group of people or how a group is marginalized
Inferential Experimental Simulation
and kept silent by others e.g. Study of Homophobia.
5. Case Study – The researcher might discuss how the study of a case/cases might help Infer relationships or Observe the effect of Observation of the dynamic
characteristics of a manipulation of one behaviour of a system (or its
inform the issue or concern e.g. Future of Computer Technology. variable over the sub-system) under
population
other controlled conditions
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Qualitative Quantitative Method:

(Usually) Non-probability based Typically a probability-based sample  A method is a formalized way to do things.
sample  e.g., the experimental method, the comparative method, and so on.
Non-generalizable Generalizable
Methodology:
Answers Why? How? Answers How many? When?
Where?  Methodology is the study of methods.

Formative, and used in earlier Tests hypotheses, and used in latter  It is a discipline-specific approach and processes.
phases phases  It is not a method itself: it is a branch of epistemology (philosophy of science, theory of
Data are “rich” and time-consuming Data are more efficient, but may miss science), dealing with the foundations and nature of the various methods.
to analyze contextual detail
Design may emerge as study Design is decided in advance
unfolds Techniques:

Researcher IS the instrument Various tools and techniques are the  Within one method (e.g. the experimental method) you may have a number of specific
instruments techniques, or tools that are used in the implementation of such method.

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Steps in Research Process

The 4 Research Paradigms

Analyse & Interpret the Results,

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Draw inferences & Report writing Pragmatist

Data Collection/ Experimentation

Obtain Ethics Approval
Identify Where, When and from Whom Data will
come from/Design the experimental set-up Step 1:
Choose Data Collection Start With The Broad Notion
Positivist or
Instruments/Methods Postpositivist
Of Discipline And Of The Transformative
Paradigm You See As Suiting
Determine Data Types The Research
Identify Research
Methodologies
Conduct Literarure Review
Determine area/s of Investigation
Interpretivist/
Start with Broad Notion of Discipline and of the Constructivist
Paradigm you see as suiting to the Research Title
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The 4 Research Paradigms

Positivist/ Constructivist/
Transformative Pragmatist
Post-positivist Interpretivist
Consequences of
Determination Understanding Political and activist
actions

Empowerment,
Multiple participant
Reductionism human rights, social Problem-centered
meanings
justice oriented

Empirical
Social and historical
Observation and Collaborative Pluralistic
construction
measurement
Change,
Theory Real-world practice
Theory generation emancipatory
Verification oriented
oriented L.Raj Rodrigues
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For Example: Historical,

Descriptive, Feminist,
Step 3: Developmental, Case study, Field
Identify Approach Study, Correlation, Causal
Comparative, Experimental, Quasi
Experimental, Action Define

Research Problem

Refined in light of literature –

Research Gap

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Research Question or Issue 30
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Surveys

Observations Tests

Quantitative Step 6:
Choose Data Collection
Instruments/Methods
Focus Interviews
Groups

Qualitative

Documents
Mixture of Qualitative and Quantitative Experiments
Analysis

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Step 7:
Identify Step 8:
Determining Develop or Type determined by the
Where, When Developing Trailing data Refining data Obtain Ethics Where the data are
who will identify data type of research
and Who Data timeline collection tools collection tools Approval coming from
collect data collection tools
Will Come
from

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Step 10:
Storage & Analyze the data
Management

Thematic
Analysis

Statistics

Coding & Step 9: Organising &

Data Collection Data
Displaying Sorting analysis may
lead to
further data
collection
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1. Empiricism
1. Empiricism*
2. Ontology
 Assumes that genuine knowledge is a priori, in other words given
3. Epistemology
directly prior to and necessarily structuring sensory experience.
4. Phenomenology
 So, we should explore knowledge through observation,
5. Positivism
experimentation, repetition, logic, analysis etc.
6. Postmodernism
7. Pragmatism
8. Realism *Two Cornell Realisms -- Moral and Scientific," Philosophical Studies, forthcoming.

9. Relativism.

3. Epistemology* Epistemology is what is known as true

2. Ontology Doxology is what is believed to be true
 Model of ‘how it is known’ e.g. how is 1+1 = 2
 Model of ‘what is’ known e.g. what is 1+1
 Whether knowledge acquisition is possible, and if so how it can be gained and
 This refers to enquiry into, or assumptions or theories about, the what are its limits?
nature of what exists, including whether anything can be said to  Concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge.
exist at all.  It questions what knowledge is, how it is acquired, and the possible extent a

 Deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can be said
to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within
a hierarchy, and subdivided according to similarities and
differences1
1Logic and Ontology entry by Thomas Hofwebwer in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
given subject or entity can be known.
 Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of
knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief,
and justification.
 Gert Biesta (2010), WHY ‘‘WHAT WORKS’’ WON’T WORK: EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND THE DEMOCRATIC DEFICIT IN
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH, University of Exeter and O¨ rebro University.

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4. Phenomenology*
 Study of the appearance or experience of things.
 Attempts to create conditions for the objective study of topics
usually regarded as subjective.
 Study of the structures of subjective experience and
consciousness.
* Zahavi, Dan (2003), Husserl's Phenomenology, Stanford: Stanford University Press
5. Positivism*
 The term is generally used to dismiss what are seen as false
interpretations of science.
 Involved in logically deriving scientific laws from empirical
evidence.
 Positivism assumes that there is valid knowledge (truth) only in
scientific knowledge
*John J. Macionis, Linda M. Gerber, "Sociology", Seventh Canadian Edition, Pearson Canada

6. Postmodernism* 6. Pragmatism*
 It is a 'condition' whereby established values are rapidly eroded by  Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of
new technological advances. practice and theory.
 Postmodernism is a reaction to scientific or objective efforts to  Important characteristics of pragmatism
explain reality. - instrumentalism,
 It is based on the position that reality is not mirrored in human - radical empiricism,
understanding of it. - verificationism,
- conceptual relativity, and

*Powell, Jim (1998). "Postmodernism For Beginners" (ISBN 978-1-934389-09-6)

- fallibilism.
*Biesta, G.J.J. & Burbules, N. (2003). Pragmatism and educational research. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

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7. Realism* 8. Relativism*
 Belief that reality exists independently of observers.  Relativism is the concept that points of view have no
 Realism is a philosophy of mind rooted in the common sense. absolute truth or validity.
 It is the view that the world described by science (perhaps ideal  Everything has relative and subjective value according to
science) is the real world, as it is, independent of what we might differences in perception and consideration.
take it to be.

* Brink, D., (1984) “Moral Realism and the Sceptical Arguments from Disagreement and Queerness,” Australasian Journal
of Philosophy, 62: 112–25.
* Sir Isaiah Berlin, 'Alleged Relativism in Eighteenth Century Thought,' in The Crooked Timber of Humanity, Princeton:
Brock, S and Mares, E., (2007) Realism and Antirealism (Chesham: Acumen)..
Princeton Univ. Press, 1999, p.89

Positivist/ Paradigm Methods (primarily) Data collection tools (examples)

Interpretivist/ Constructivist Transformative Pragmatic
Postpositivist
Positivist Mainly quantitative. "Although qualitative methods can be Experiments
Experimental Naturalistic Critical theory Consequences of actions used within this paradigm, quantitative methods tend to be Quasi-experiments
Quasi-experimental Phenomenological Neo-marxist Problem-centred predominant . . ." (Mertens, 2005, p. 12). Theory is tested by Tests
Correlational Interpretivist Feminist Pluralistic this paradigm. Scales
Reductionism Ethnographic Critical Race Theory Real-world practice
Theory verification Multiple participant meaning Freirean oriented Interpretivist/ Qualitative methods predominate although quantitative Interviews
Causal comparative Social and historical construction Participatory Mixed models Constructivist methods may also be utilised. Observations
Determination Theory generation Emancipatory Theory is developed by this paradigm. Document reviews
Normative Symbolic interaction Advocacy Visual data analysis
Grand Narrative Transformative Qualitative methods with quantitative and mixed methods. Diverse range of tools - particular need to
Empowerment issue Contextual and historical factors described, especially as avoid discrimination. Eg: sexism, racism,
oriented they relate to oppression (Mertens, 2005, p. 9). Creation of a and homophobia.
Change-oriented new paradigm or field of science, engineering, or
Interventionist education.
Queer theory Pragmatic Qualitative and/or quantitative methods may be employed. May include tools from both positivist
Race specific Methods are matched to the specific questions and and interpretivist paradigms. Eg
Political purpose of the research. Interviews, observations and testing and
Adapted from Mertens (2005) and Creswell (2003). experiments.

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An Overview of Empirical Research Methods 1. Ethnography

Detailed study of a group to describe its behaviours

Descriptive (Qualitative)
 Ethnography
 Case Study
 Survey/Sampling
 Focus Groups
 Discourse/Text Analysis
 Prediction/Classification
From Lauer and Asher, Composition Research: Empirical Designs and
MacNealy, Empirical Research in Writing
Experimental (Quantitative)
 True Experiment
 Quasi-Experiment
 Meta-Analysis
characteristics, cultural morals, etc.
+ Observational field work done in the actual context being
studied
+ Focus on how individuals interrelate in their own environment
(and the influence of this environment)
- Difficult to interpret/analyze
- Time consuming/expensive

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- Can influence subject behavior.
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2. Case Study 3. Survey/Sampling Research

Documented study of a specific real-life situation or imagined scenario. Use of sampling techniques whose findings may be expressed
Analysis of the prescribed cases should lead to interpretations or solutions, numerically, and are amenable to mathematical (statistical)
supported by the line of reasoning employed, and assumptions made. manipulation enabling the researcher to estimate (forecast) future
+ Focus is on individual or small group events or quantities.
+ Able to conduct a comprehensive analysis from a comparison of cases + An efficient means of gathering large amounts of data
+ Allows for identification of variables or phenomenon to be studied + Can be anonymous and inexpensive
- Time consuming
- Feedback often incomplete
- Depth rather than breadth
- Wording of instrument can bias feedback
- Not necessarily representative.
- Details often left out.
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4. Focus Groups 5. Discourse/Text Analysis

Small number of people (usually between 4 and 15, but typically 8) brought Analyzing all the issues under consideration in detail
together with a moderator to focus on a specific product or topic. Focus during a discussion, examination, discourse or the
groups aim at a discussion instead of on individual responses to formal
material available in the text form.
questions, and produce qualitative data (preferences and beliefs) that may or
may not be representative of the general population. + Examines actual discourse produced for a particular
+ Aid in understanding audience, group, users purpose (job, industry)
+ Small group interaction more than individual response
+ Helps in understanding of context, production,
+ Helps identify and fill gaps in current knowledge regarding: perceptions,
attitudes, feelings, etc. audience, and text
- Does not give statistics + Schedule for analysis not demanding
- Marketing tools seen as “suspect”
- Labor intensive
- Analysis subjective.
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6. Quantitative Descriptive Study 7. Experimental Research: True Experiment

Analysis of measurable and verifiable data such as surface finish,
hardness, strength, earnings, revenue, wages, market share, etc. to
arrive at a meaningful outcome.
+ Isolates systematically the most important variables (often from
case studies) and to quantify and interrelate them (often via survey,
questionnaire, observed readings, measured parameters etc.)
+ Possible to collect large amounts of data
+ Not very troublesome
+ Biases not as likely
- Data restricted to information available.
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Building an experimental set-up and systematically changing the independent
variables and studying their influence on dependent variables, so as to test a
hypothesis or arrive at a conclusion.
+ Random sampling, or selection, of subjects (which are also stratified)
+ Introduction of a treatment
+ Use of a control group for comparing subjects who don’t receive treatment
with those who do
+ Identifies a cause-and-effect relationship
+ Seen as more objective, less subjective
- Adherence to scientific method (seen as positive too)
- Must have proved internal and external validity
55 - Treatment and control might seem artificial.
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8. Meta-Analysis 9. Prediction and Classification Studies

Combines the results of several studies that address a set of Goal is to predict and classify behaviors:
related research hypotheses is to more powerfully estimate the  Prediction forecasts an interval variable (Diagnostic
true "effect size" as opposed to a smaller "effect size" derived in a scores)
single study under a given single set of assumptions and  Classification forecasts a nominal variable
conditions.
+ Takes the results of true and quasi-experiments and identifies + Important in industry, education to predict behaviors
interrelationships of conclusions - Need substantial population
+ Systematic - Restricted range of variables can cause misinterpretation
+ Replicable - Variables cannot be added together; must be weighted
+ Summarizes overall results and looked at in context of other variables.
- Quality of studies used?
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Significance of Research in Science, Technical, Engineering, Social

Sciences and Business Management

• Studying the effect of newer materials as cutting tools, saving energy,

testing alternative fuels, formulating mathematical models for explaining
Hammersley's1 conclusions
theory, disproving existing theories, enhancing efficiency and  Research is a specialised form of inquiry with the exclusive goal of producing
effectiveness of machines, Maintenance management etc. knowledge
• Formulation of economic policy for government and business
 It is not necessarily about providing solutions to practical problems
• Budget formulation, Ratio analysis, Share market fluctuations
• Collection of statistical information on the social and economic structure • This is inquiry subordinated to practical activity
of an economy to understand the process of change occurring in country
 It is not necessarily about making the world a better place
• Assumption of significant role in solving various operational and planning
problems associated with business and industry, Market research etc. • This is inquiry subordinated to a desirable outcome. (contd...)
• Microbiology, Disease propagation, Biotechnology, Biomedicine.
• Operations research, TQM, Educational research, Hospitality research,
Insurance and banking research etc., and many more….. 1Hammersley, M. (2003) Social Research Today. Some Dilemmas and Distinctions. Qualitative Social Work, 2 (1), 25-44.
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 To what extent do you agree with Hammersley’s
conclusions?
 How might these issues impact on your own
research?
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1. Work on important problems
2. Work on multiple problems
3. For each problem, identify where you are on the S curve
4. Seek beauty in everything you do Also applicable to:
• A professional
5. Get emotionally involved
• A student
6. Remain committed
7. Work hard, work continuously
• A teacher
and almost all walks of life!
8. Consolidate your understanding
9. Don’t depend on luck
10. Handle uncertainty and disappointments.
Workshop on Research Methodology/Lewlyn L.Raj Rodrigues
Lewlyn L. Raj Rodrigues