Cognitive Science of Religion and Belief Systems

DAVID CYCLEBACK
COGNITIVE SCIENCE
OF RELIGION AND
BELIEF SYSTEMS
2
Cognitive Science of Religion and Belief Systems
1st edition
© 2019 David Cycleback & bookboon.com
ISBN 978-87-403-2880-6
Peer review by Dr. Catarina Amorim, medical scientist and academic at University
of Oxford; Alison Wald MS (clinical psychology), fellowship and medical residency
manager at University of Washington Medical School and Swedish Medical
Center; Rev. Gabbai Eli Shirim Lester, theology faculty and thesis advisor at
All Paths Divinity School in Los Angeles; Dr. Dale F. Rudd, Slichter Professor
Emeritus of Engineering Research at University of Wisconsin-Madison.
3
COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Contents
CONTENTS
About the author 10
1 Introduction 11
2 A Brief Summary of the Book 12
3 A Universe Beyond Humans Senses and Cognition 14
4 Cognitive Psychology: An Introduction To How Human Brains

Work And The Of Limits Of Human Knowledge And Understanding 16
4.1 Introduction 16
4.2 The Human Brain Is An Information Processor 16
4.3 Ambiguity 18
4.4 The Importance of Speed 19
4.5 Unconscious Automatic Methods Used To Perceive 19
4.6 Shape, Form And Pattern Biases 21
4.7 Imagination 26
4.8 Perceptions Via Comparison 31
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4.9 Attention 34
4.10 Vision: What You See Is Different Than What You Look At 36
4.11 The Unique Subjective Experience 47
4.12 Automatic Perceptions And Uncorrectable Illusions 51
4.13 Humans Cannot Know The Reliability Of Their Own Minds 53
4.14 Final Notes 53
4.15 Questions 54
4.16 Further Reading 54
5 The Brain’s Hemispheres And Different Ways Of Thinking 55

5.1 Overview 55
5.2 The Right And Left Hemispheres Of The Brain 56
5.3 Videos 57
6 Mystical Experiences 58
6.1 Overview 59
6.2 Methods For Obtaining Mystical Experiences 61
6.3 Mystical Experiences Through Secular Practices 65
6.4 The Debate About The Nature, Meaning And Authenticity
Of The Mystical Experiences 67
6.5 Mystical Experiences Demonstrate The Artificial Cognitive
Constructs Of The Human Mind 72
6.6 The Mystical Experience Is Explained Through One’s Culture,
Language, Beliefs, Sensory Abilities, Biology 74
6.7 Even Beyond These Differences Caused By The Beliefs,
The Experiences Are Still Not Provable Of Truth 75
6.8 Whether Real Or Not, Mystical Experiences Can Be Life Changing 76
6.9 Summary: Key Points Of Chapter 77
6.11 Questions 78
7 Mystical Experiences As The Genesis Of Religion,

And John Hick’s Pluralism 79
7.1 Further reading 80
7.2 Questions 80
8 Eastern Versus Western Psychology: Introduction 81
9 Eastern Psychology 82
9.1 Introduction 82
9.2 Eastern Psychology, Philosophy And Theology As One Not Separates 83
5
9.3 Eastern Psychology Focuses On Everyone,

Not Just The Mentally Ill Or Troubled 85
9.4 Eastern Psychology Is About Looking Inward At The Self 86
9.5 Eastern Psychotherapy 88
9.6 Eastern Psychology Is Concerned With Society And Earth,
Not Just The Individual 91
9.7 Question 93
10 Western Psychology And The Scientific Method 94

10.1 Introduction 95
10.2 Western Psychology As A Science 95
10.3 Structuralism 97
10.4 Behaviorism 98
10.5 Looking Inside: Cognitive Psychology 99
10.6 Limits Of The Scientific Method, Including In Psychology 100
10.7 Moving Beyond The Limits Of Science in Western Psychology 102
10.8 Question 102
11 Summary Of Eastern Versus Western Psychology,

And The Differences Between The Spiritual and Scientific Views 103
11.1 Overview 103
11.2 Focus: Charles Towne On Religion And Science 105
11.3 Natural Theology 105
11.4 Questions 106
12 The Constant Fight Between The Two Ways Of Thinking 107
13 Art As Religion Or Spirituality 113

13.1 Questions 118
14 Art Perception: Connecting To The Unreal 119

14.2 Art Perception is Irrational 121
14.3 Humans interpret art using many
of the cognitive methods they use in the real world 122
14.4 Symbols 125
14.5 Humans Mentally Adapt To And Accept New And Artificial Worlds 125
14.6 Each Art Medium Is Limited In What It Can Show Literally 126
14.7 Speculation, Play Acting, Day and Night Dreams 127
14.8 Humans Know and Feel There Is More Than What They See And Can
Comprehend, More Than What They Experience
In Their Day To Day Lives 127
6
14.9 Final Notes 129

14.10 Questions 129
15 Cognitive Influences Behind Beliefs In And Images of God 130

15.1 Overview 130
15.2 The Search And Desire For Order 131
15.3 The Innate Tendency To Perceive Meaning
And Purpose Behind Things And Events 133
15.4 Humans Perceive Minds Beyond Their Own 134
15.5 Anthropomorphism 135
15.6 Humans Perceive Things, Everything, In Human Emotional Terms 136
15.7 Humans Automatically Apply Narratives And Stories To Things 136
15.8 Human Thinking, Including About the Existence Of God,
Is Influenced By Experience, Education And Culture 137
15.9 Religious Symbols And Texts Are Figurative And Translations 141
15.10 One’s Style of Thinking Influences One’s Beliefs 142
15.11 More Conscious Reasons 143
15.12 Social Order 143
15.13 These Processes Neither Prove Nor Disprove The Existence Of God 144
15.14 Question 144
16 Narrative And The Perception Of Still Information 145

16.1 Narrative And Storytelling 145
16.2 Aleatory Narrative In Art 150
16.3 Assignment 152
16.4 Questions 152
17 Humans Use False Information And Made Up

Beliefs To Function And Achieve 153
17.1 Overview 153
17.2 The Rituals of Baseball 155
17.3 Faith 156
17.4 Positive Achievement Is Regularly Based On False Beliefs 157
17.5 Olympic Psychology 158
17.6 The Idolized 158
17.7 This Practice in Religion 158
18 Cognitive Dissonance 160

18.1 Discussion Topic 162
7
19 Attribution Substitution, And Why You Can’t Answer

Affirmatively Or Negatively That You Believe In God 163
19.2 Attribution Substitution 164
19.3 Art Judgments 165
19.4 “Do You Believe In God?” 165
20 Humans Aren’t Totally Or Even Primarily About Finding

Truth And Factual Accuracy 166
20.1 Questions 167
21 Language and Its Limitations: Introduction 168
22 Language: Examples Of Ambiguity, Arbitrariness And Limits

In Language 169
22.1 Ambiguity Of Language 169
22.2 Ludwig Wittgenstein 170
22.3 The Impossibleness In Translating Poetry 171
23 Language: Subjective Categorization,

Grouping And Prioritizing Of Information 172
23.1 Overview 172
23.2 So, If A Tree Falls When No One Is Around Does It Make A Sound? 174
23.3 Loaded Words 176
23.4 Discussion Question 176
24 Language And Models: The Fiction In Science 177

24.2 The Distortions Of A Map 177
24.3 A Model Of An Atom 179
24.4 Organize The Following Into Two Groups Of Related Objects 180
24.5 The Scientist’s Purpose 181
24.6 Question 183
25 Summary Of Language And Its Problems 184
26 Inborn Survival Drives 186
27 The Human As Social Animal: Group Psychology,

Social Intelligence, Etc 189
27.1 Overview 189
27.2 Swarm Intelligence 192
27.3 Organized Religions 194
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28 Non-Religious Belief Systems 195
29 The Effects Of Artificial Intelligence 199

29.1 Overview 199
29.2 Studying AI Produces Significant Questions About Humans 201
30 Modern Medicine, Technology, Transhumanism And Posthumanism 207

30.2 Medicine 208
30.3 Psychiatric And Other Drugs To Treat Mental Conditions 209
30.4 Add On And Implants 210
30.5 Eugenics, And Gene Editing And Therapy 212
30.6 Brain-Computer Interfaces 213
30.7 Expanding Human Senses 214
30.8 Virtual Reality 215
30.9 Brain Plasticity And Psychological Treatments 216
30.10 New Methods Of Communication 218
30.11 It’s Not Just New Technology, But What You Do With It 218
30.12 The Future Is Unknown 218
30.13 Expansion On An Artificial And Arbitrary Construct 219
30.14 The Brain’s Left Hemisphere 219
30.15 Changing Society 219
30.16 Final Notes 220
30.17 Question 220
31 Summary And Final Thoughts 221
32 Book Encompassing Questions 225
9
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS About the author
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

David Cycleback is Director of Center for Artifact Studies ( centerforartifactstudies.org ),
and an internationally known scholar working in cognitive science, philosophy and artifacts
history. He was runner-up for the International Book Award for Philosophy for Noise Music:
Cognitive Psychology, Aesthetics and Epistemology and a three-time Eric Hoffer Award Finalist.
In their second printing by China’s National Photographic Art Publishing House, his guides
Judging the Authenticity of Prints by the Masters and Judging the Authenticity of Photographs
were the first comprehensive books on the subjects published in Asia, and Art Perception is
one of four books students are recommended to study in preparation for India’s Common
Entrance Exam for Design (CEED) for postgraduate studies in technical design. He has been
a practicum coordinator for the University of Washington, and an authenticity researcher and
writer for Arizona State University’s Society for American Baseball Research. His other books
include Understanding Human Minds and Their Limits, Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence
and Authenticating Art and Artifacts: An Introduction to Methods and Issues.
PEER REVIEWERS
The chapters were peer reviewed by the following:
Dr. Catarina Amorim, medical scientist and academic at University of Oxford (Chapters
reviewed: 4, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28)
Alison Wald MS (clinical psychology), fellowship and medical residency manager at University
of Washington Medical School and Swedish Medical Center (reviewed chapters: 4, 5, 6, 8,
9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 30, 31)
Rev. Gabbai Eli Shirim Lester, theology faculty and thesis advisor at All Paths Divinity
School in Los Angeles (chapters 4, 6, 8, 9, 13)
Dr. Dale F. Rudd, Slichter Professor Emeritus of Engineering Research at University of

Wisconsin-Madison (Chapters: 4, 12, 17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28)
10
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Introduction
1 INTRODUCTION
This book is an introduction to cognitive science of religion and other belief systems.
Cognitive science is the study of the mind, looking at areas such as thought, learning,
intuition, information processing and mental organization. It is multidisciplinary, including
psychology, neuroscience, philosophy, computer science, artificial intelligence and linguistics.
Thus, this book is about cognitive science and its approach to studying how humans come
to their religious and nonreligious beliefs and belief systems.
Everyone has an overarching belief system that is formed by a wide variety of aspects,
including sensory abilities, psychology, biology, physiology, education, culture, conscious
and unconscious decisions, and even individual personality and taste. While differing about
the belief in “God,” a theist and an atheist can have belief systems with remarkably similar
qualities and aspects, and can come to their beliefs using similar mental paths.
This area of study and research is vast and deep with many unanswered and unanswerable
questions. This book introduces a variety of key concepts and ideas as food for thought
and springboard for further reading and research. Discussion, debate, and different and
opposing theories are welcome and encouraged, and links to further reading and videos
are included throughout.
This book is an application for this topic and a different audience (including theology and
religious studies students) of the Bookboon cognitive science series Understanding Human
Minds and Their Limits, Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence, and Attempts to Expand the
Human Mind. As such, this book re-uses and re-fashions many sections from that book.
Sections of this book have been used and cited in courses, lectures and literature at various
institutions, including Linköping University, Museum of Innovation and Science, Saylor
Academy, Jewish Theological Seminary, University of California Center for Learning in the
Art and Sciences, Tufts University, University of Arkansas and University of Portsmouth.
Thanks and appreciation for the assistance and input from Catarina Amorim (University of
Oxford), Alison Wald (Swedish Medical Center), Eli Lester (All Paths Divinity School), Dale
Rudd (University of Wisconsin), Maryann Spurgin (Department of Philosophy, University
of New Orleans), and Sandra Rudd.
11
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS A Brief Summary of the Book
2 A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE BOOK

Chapters 2-3 introduce that much of the universe and reality is beyond human comprehension
and senses, and how the human brain works to process and try to understand sensory
information. The chapters look at the physiological and psychological methods humans use to
function and survive as a species, but that put limits on their knowledge and understanding
of the universe, their immediate environment and themselves. Understanding how minds
work is essential to understanding how humans form their beliefs.
Chapters 5-12 look at different and competing ways the mind works. It looks at the right
and left hemispheres of the brain which work differently and, according to neuroscientist
Jill Bolte Taylor, have “different personalities.” These competing methods of thinking-- the
emotional versus the logical, spiritual versus empirical, religious versus scientific, rational
versus irrational, give different, limited and competing perspectives of the universe and reality.
Chapter 13-15 look at art as a type of religion or spirituality. Art and art perception reflect
on religion and spirituality, but also how humans perceive generally. Looking at how humans
view reality shows how they view art, and looking at how humans view art helps show how
they interpret reality.
Chapters 16-17 look at the cognitive reasons behind people believing in and their conceptions
of god. Much of beliefs, both religious and nonreligious, is a byproduct or extension of
innate psychological tendencies such as anthropomorphization, searching for order, and
trying to find meaning and purpose behind things.
18-20 look at particular psychological methods humans use to process and react to
information, that help form their perceptions and judgments, and greatly influence and
explain their beliefs.
22-26 focus on symbolic language, which is both of great functional use and limiting for
humans. Human thought and expression are formed and limited by human language.
Beliefs systems are expressed in, explained by and use symbolic language, including words,
symbolic images, categories and models. Philosophers and theologians have long been well
aware of the limitations of and problems with human language.
27-28 look at how human perceptions and beliefs are formed by innate biology and psychology.
Many human beliefs are byproducts of the innate need to function and survive as a species.
12
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS A Brief Summary of the Book
29 looks at non-religious belief systems, and how they have many of the same issues,
limitations, arbitrariness and artifice of religious belief system. Religions and non-religions
are often alike, and sometimes share similar conceptions about morality, ethics and how
social groups should be ordered.
30-31 Look at artificial intelligence, medicine and technology, and ponders how it does
and will alter human perception, beliefs and social structures.
13
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS A Universe Beyond Humans Senses and Cognition
3 A UNIVERSE BEYOND HUMANS

SENSES AND COGNITION
“What we know is a drop. What we don’t know is an ocean.”
– Isaac Newton
The universe is far beyond human senses, comprehension and imagination. The Lakotas called
the universe “The Great Mystery,” and great thinkers and most belief systems throughout
history have expressed this.
“God is beyond the capacity of the human mind to

understand.”
– Rabbi Aharon Shear-Yashuv
“Knowing the extent of one’s ignorance is true knowledge”
– Confucius
“The cognitive power of all humanity combined, all humanity

of the past, present, and future, does not suffice to discover
or verify one of the truths beyond reason.”
– Catholic Priest and philosophy professor James Brent
Philosopher Immanuel Kant wrote that there are things as they appear to the human,
and these constitute the immanent world of common, personal experience. He said these
appearances are illusions because they are translations by the human senses and mind, and
that things in their true nature and forms are beyond empirical access. He said things in
their true nature belong to reality and transcend human experience, knowledge and senses,
and that humans can never have true knowledge of reality.
Humans don’t know and can’t know ultimate answers, if they exist, or even if humans
are asking correct questions. Can humans, through science, mysticism and philosophy
get further insight and perspective into the universe, reality and themselves? Yes, though
the knowledge will always be, as Kant said, myopic, subjective and distorted. However, as
Confucius said, becoming aware of what one doesn’t and can’t know is itself important
knowledge and awareness.
14
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS A Universe Beyond Humans Senses and Cognition
Humans have a wide variety of belief systems about how the universe and reality to be
studied, considered, conceptualized, and how humans should act and think in the face of
it. The spiritual use the term transcendental reality and try to study and access it through
mysticism. The religious often call it by names such as God, Allah and Brahman, and try to
study and access it through dogma and ceremonies. Scientists may call it natural reality and
try to study it through science. Philosophers have many theories and use human logic as their
tool. All these methods can be useful and offer insight and knowledge, but are inherently
limited. Every explanation, every model, every translation is distorted and incomplete.
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COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION TO
COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION HOW HUMAN BRAINS WORK AND THE OF LIMITS
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING
4 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: AN
INTRODUCTION TO HOW HUMAN
BRAINS WORK AND THE OF
LIMITS OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE
AND UNDERSTANDING
“Philosophers’ philosophy can no more escape their psychology
than the philosophers can escape being human.”
– Noise Music: Cognitive Psychology, Aesthetics and

Epistemology
This lengthy chapter covers the basic ways humans process sensory information to make perceptions
and judgments. Understanding the brain is key to understanding how humans form beliefs,
perceptions, judgments and conceptions of their world.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
For an understanding of how humans come to religious and other beliefs it is essential
to understand not only the human brain’s limits but how it works. The human brain and
senses are the tools, the only tools, humans use to perceive, judge, conceptualize and make
decisions. Human psychology and biology are inseparable from human religion, philosophy
and science.
4.2 THE HUMAN BRAIN IS AN INFORMATION PROCESSOR

The human mind is a sensory information processor. The human eyes detect only a limited
amount of light, the ears only limited sounds, the humans’ physical position in geography
and time limits their view. Yet, in this situation, the human must make practical and often
instantaneous perceptions and judgments to function, survive and thrive.
The human is not omniscient and makes educated guesses about what is going on and what
to do. The human has intelligence and experience. However, as it is using limited information
and methods, these guesses have an inherent margin of error. Sometimes a perception or
choice in action is correct, at least within a reasonable margin of error, while other times
it is wrong. Visual illusions demonstrate how the guesses can be wrong.
16
Figure 4.1 Despite appearance, the middle bar does not change in color or tone. If
you cover up the image so only the bar is showing, you will see this. Visual illusions
demonstrate that reality and human perception of reality are different things.
Figure 4.2 Despite appearance, all the columns are

of equal width and parallel to each other.
17
4.3 AMBIGUITY
Humans have learned and inborn mental methods, biases and assumptions used to consciously
and nonconsciously identify things and judge the complex information in their daily lives.
Humans compare side-by-side objects to judge size and speed. They identify distant silhouetted
objects by how their shapes match up with their memories. They ‘recognize’ objects and
qualities in paintings, sketches and movies using these same nonconscious methods.
Realize that humans never see the entirety of an object or scene, any object or scene. Not
only are things such as coffee cups and sticks and tree branches partially visibly obscured
by overlapping other objects, but a human can never see all sides and parts of an object at
once. Even with an apple you’ve turned over in your hands, you can’t be sure whether it is
fresh or rotten in the core until you bite or cut it apart. Humans live, learn and learn how
to process and judge information in an environment where information is always obscured
or otherwise hidden from view.
Ambiguity is a concept essential to understanding humans, as humans constantly make choices

in the face of ambiguous information. Often caused by missing, obscured or unknowable
information, ambiguity means there is more than one possible explanation for something and
the viewer doesn’t know, often can’t know, which one is correct. In the face of ambiguity,
the mind will almost always pick the explanation that meets its expectations and experience.
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18
Figure 4.3 Is it a Vase or Two Faces? The standard ‘Is it a vase or is it two
faces looking at each other?’ visual illusion shows that humans project a
subjective, or personal, identity onto an object. You initially see a black vase
or a pair of white faces looking at each other. As you stare longer your
perception will be replaced by the other view, then your perception will flip
back and forth between the two views. The image is unchanging, while your
perception of it changes. Of course, it is neither a vase nor faces, but a black
and white abstract pattern. The pattern could be perceived as many things.
However, in part by your biases and by the leading question (‘Is it a vase or
faces?’), you perceived a vase and faces. As I look at the image, I could see
how the top or bottom portion could be perceived as two boots placed back
to back. The chin to nose areas could be perceived as little black faces. The
black shape could be seen as a table. In fact, there’s no reason, beyond
viewer’s predilection for order, that the pattern
has to depict anything specific.
4.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF SPEED

As you are reading this chapter, keep in mind that speed is an important quality of the
mind, as the human must make quick, often instant decisions. This is a requirement of
practical function and survival. Everything from walking through a new room to assessing
what to do when a large shape is moving at you in the dark requires speedy perceptions and
decisions. A human’s mind is designed (for lack of a better word) to make speedy, automatic
decisions, and that is a source for many of the errors of perception and judgment.
4.5 UNCONSCIOUS AUTOMATIC METHODS USED TO PERCEIVE

Most of the rest of this chapter shows examples of the often subconscious and automatic
methods the mind uses to process, order and make judgments about the complex and
ambiguous information it encounters. These are ones you use daily, minute by minute, in
your life to identify objects, judge speed, distance, size and more.
19
While these methods are essential to human functioning, you will see there are inherent
margins of error, and they produce many errors in judgment and perception and make
objective, full perception and judgment impossible. The mental and biological methods
humans use to function limit their knowledge and understanding.
The methods shown in the following chapters are:

Shape and pattern recognition: the subconscious ability to subjectively pick
forms, shapes, patterns and figures in complex and ambiguous information, such
as seeing animals in clouds.
Comparison: Making judgments and perceptions by comparing objects and

qualities with each other, such as judging size by comparing side-by-side objects.
Imagination: Making whole perceptions by filling in missing information.
Visual perception: The internal methods the eyes and mind use to process light
to ‘see.’
Subjectivity
Attention
Other topics:
The human cannot know the reliability of its own mind
Automatic and unsolvable illusions
20
4.6 SHAPE, FORM AND PATTERN BIASES
Figure 4.4
Human visual perception is profoundly influenced by biases about forms, shapes and patterns.
Humans have ingrained and nonconscious attractions for specific forms, shapes and patterns.
Some of these biases are innate, while others are learned. These biases greatly influence how
humans perceive, organize and label, and are essential to the quick identifications needed
to go through life.

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21
You instantly perceived a dog in the black shape in the just shown image, even though the
shape lacked fur, eyes, whiskers, correct size and other essential doggy details. You didn’t
have to contemplate the shape. You perceived it instantly.
The problem for humans is that their biases for certain shapes, forms and patterns are so
strong and ingrained that they will perceive these things when don’t objectively exist. These
biases lead to many visual illusions.
Human form and pattern biases are shown when they perceive horses or castles or hot
rods or other familiar shapes in clouds. These ‘identifications’ are subjective to the viewer,
and do not objectively exist in the cloud. There are thousands of possible connect-the-
dot shapes in a cloud, but you perceive, or mentally pick out, that which matches your
knowledge. The horse or castle is a projection of what exists in your mind. If there were
no horses on earth or in fantasy books, you would not perceive a horse in the cloud, as
you wouldn’t ‘recognize’ it.
Figure 4.5 In this figure, you perceive a person in the lines and squiggles of the Rembrandt etching just as
many do an animal in the cloud.
The connect-the-dot figures in stars don’t exist except as humans draw them. The familiar
faces or figures humans perceive in burnt toast, wood grain and stones are projections of
their minds. What you perceive is as much a reflection of you as what you are looking at.
I hope it dawns on you when you pick up a stone that ‘looks just like Elvis,’ the stone
existed long before Elvis was born. It would be silly to believe the stone was formed by
glaciers 10,000 years ago to commemorate Elvis’ future rise to popularity on the pop charts.
22
The Face on Mars
Figure 4.6
In 1976 the NASA spacecraft Viking 1 took photographs of an area on the planet Mars
that contained many giant mesas, craters and other geological formations. One of the
mesas in the photographs somewhat resembled a human face. As should not be unexpected,
many humans on earth became interested in this ‘human face’ (and, not surprising, were
less interested in the formations that didn’t resemble human body parts). Some were and
still are convinced the mesa was constructed by intelligent life form. This perception of a
face is a pattern bias, a projection of the viewer’s mind whose own face has a similar form.
If someone has patterns in her mind (human face, kitty cat, square, letter ‘B,’ house key,
baseball cap, house) and looks at enough information (such as all the geological formations
on a planet’s surface), she will be able to pick out some of these patterns in the information.
Seeing the ‘face of Nixon’ isn’t proof a potato was built by intelligent life form. It means
that out of millions and millions and millions of potatoes, a few are bound to somewhat
resemble a former US President who had a sticky outy nose.
As the following images show, the face on Mars is just one of many mesas, hills and craters
that come in a wide variety of shapes.
Figure 4.7
23
Figure 4.8 Just another mesa in the crowd
24
Figure 4.9 The mesa at a different light angle
Years later, the above photograph of the same mesa was shot at a different angle and time of
day. This shows that angle and shadow contributed to the perception of a face. If originally
shot at this angle and time of day, the mesa may not have been perceived as a face and
humans on earth would have considered it no more significant than any of the other blobs
in the photographs.
Figure 4.10 Smiley face of Mars?
All human perception involves shape, form, categorizing and labelling biases.
25
4.7 IMAGINATION
Figure 4.11 When shown this cropped image, most people imagine a whole
vase to exist.
When looking at a scene, all humans have the natural and nonconscious ability to extrapolate
beyond what is visible. When information is missing, or assumed to be missing, humans
make it up in their minds.
This ability is essential to normal living, as humans must regularly make quick guesses with
limited information. When you step on a sturdy looking building step, you assume it will
hold your weight. When you pull a book from the library shelf, you assume the pages are
filled with words. When your waitress brings you a steaming mug, you assume it is filled
with a hot liquid.
In many cases the extrapolation is accurate, or at least a fair estimate of reality. If your dog
is standing on the other side of the open doorway, half hidden by the wall, you correctly
assume an entire dog exists. As the dog steps forward into the room, your assumption is
proven correct. When the waitress puts down your steaming coffee mug, you are far from
surprised to see it’s filled with the hot coffee you ordered. Humans would be a dim, slow
species if they couldn’t make these kinds of elemental deductions.
In many cases, however, the extrapolations are wrong. These bogus extrapolations involving
the viewer non-consciously perceiving what he wants to see or expects to see.
26
The following pages show examples of correct and incorrect perceptions based on imagining
what is not seen.
Figure 4.12 Though the dogs block the view people assume there is snow behind them.
This assumption is likely correct.
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Figure 4.13 Though the overlapping prevents one from ever knowing,
most will assume the above shows whole playing cards. I assume
the cards are rectangular and whole.
Figure 4.14 This image says I Love You several time
Figure 4.15 Now read the same text below with the ruler removed
28
Figure 4.16 In the above, most perceive a cube behind the three diagonal bands.
Figure 4.17 With the bands removed, humans perceive something different.
29
Figure 4.18 Many perceive a white triangle above,

even though there isn’t one.
All human perception and judgment involves imagination, and, thus, is, at least partially
imaginary.
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4.8 PERCEPTIONS VIA COMPARISON
Figure 4.19 Circles A and B are the same size. It is the surrounding
grey circles that make circle B appear smaller.
Human perception of objects is influenced by nearby objects, qualities and other information.
Both consciously and nonconsciously humans judge things through comparison. To measure
fabric one compares the cloth to a yard stick. To judge the size of someone’s hand, you
might press your palm against hers. To judge someone’s speed, you might race him or watch
him race someone else.
In often less exacting comparisons, humans judge the length, height, angle, shape, color
and distance by comparing one object to others in the scene. Looking at a family snapshot
photo you might guess the height of a stranger by comparing him to someone you know.
You will guesstimate the distance to a house by comparing its size to the sizes of closer
houses and trees. You will guesstimate an angle by comparing it to a level line (“Appears
to be about 10-15% off from level”).
Often these guesstimates are accurate within a reasonable degree. You might guess that
stranger in the photo is 6 feet tall, as you know your aunt is 5’ 5.” When you meet him,
you may discover he’s 5’10-1/2.” Not perfect, but a darn good guess—especially as you
were unable to clearly see what shoes they had been wearing.
A problem is that, while comparing to other objects is essential to making judgments,

comparisons can lead to errors. Seemingly logical comparisons can produce answers that
are bizarrely wrong. These errors happen when assumptions about an object or about the
overall scene are wrong.
31
What happens if you incorrectly remembered your aunt as 6 feet tall, instead of 5’5,” as the
last time you saw her you were a five year old munchkin? Your calculations of the man’s
height will be similarly off. You might incorrectly guess he was 6’7.” What happens if she
was wearing flats in the photo, while he, shy about his height, was wearing lifts? What
happens if the man couldn’t make the family reunion and a cousin photo-shopped in an
image of him?
Figure 4.20 The above two horizontal lines are straight and parallel. The angled background
makes them appear to bend. Without the angled background, the lines would appear
parallel.
Figure 4.21 The men are the same size. Measure them yourself. It is the skewed diminishing
scale lines that make them appear to be of different sizes.
32
Figure 4.22 There is no bulge in this checkerboard. The horizontal and vertical lines are
perfectly square and even. It is the triangles in the corners of the middle squares that
make it appear to bulge.
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Humans like to think of themselves as objective, but all perception and judgment involve
comparison and contrast. This includes not only comparison of objects and physical qualities,
but the use of education, experiences and memories.
4.9 ATTENTION
A human does not and cannot simultaneously focus on all information in a scene. Humans
do not have the mental capacity. Humans focus on some things and ignore others. This is
a normal part of human thought and function.
When you enter a room, your eyes are drawn to something or things. Perhaps you focus on
the gracious hosts, perhaps a statue to the side. If there is a rat in the middle of the floor,
your immediate perception will be of the rat and not of the rose wallpaper.
If you enter the room and there is an attractive nude, you likely won’t notice what is on the
coffee table. You might not even notice the coffee table. After blushingly excusing yourself
and scooting out of the room, you may not recall the existence of a coffee table, but it was
there right in front of your eyes.
This focus, and the resulting perception, is your creation. How and what humans focus on
(and ignore) is an essential part of human function and their perception.
Figure 4.23 Does this trident have three prongs or two?
34
With the impossible trident visual illusion, in Figure 4.33, the viewer forms a perception
about the whole from looking at just one end.
When she looks at the other end, she realizes her extrapolation was wrong. Unlike some
visual information where part of the graphic is blocked and left to the imagination, there
is no missing information here. All of the information is there for the eyes to see, but
the viewer forms her initial perception as if information is hidden. She mentally hides, or
ignores, the information herself.
This shows that how human attention involves ignoring, or the impossibility to focus on all
the information simultaneously, and how the focusing and ignoring affects their perception.
Their attention is biased and arbitrary, and so is their perception. Your initial perception
of the above is based on whether you naturally, or by learning, read or view pictures left
to right or right to left.
The viewer’s purpose shapes perception. A person going to look at the art will have a different
perception of the museum than someone merely stopping by to use the bathroom. A kid
visiting to do a report on sculpture will have a different perception of the art than a kid
doing a report on paintings. If they visit different areas of the museum and enter different
doors, they may have different ideas about the building’s architecture.
The purpose is formed before the scene is viewed, meaning a perception is partially
predetermined.
Human attention is both learned and inborn, conscious and subconscious. Something
strange and new catches their attention. Our attention naturally focuses on loud, sudden,
unexpected noises, such as thunder or a car horn. It is an inborn part of the ability to
survive and function. Due to its unusualness, an albino squirrel captures viewers’ attention.
35
4.10 VISION: WHAT YOU SEE IS DIFFERENT

THAN WHAT YOU LOOK AT
Figure 4.24
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Despite common belief, humans do not perceive a direct and exact representation of external
reality, but a distorted translation formed by their eyes and mind. The image humans
see is different than what they are looking at. This is not some coffee house theory, but
physiological fact. The human eyes and brain do a decent but imperfect job at detecting
and translating light.
The following is a look at the physiology of seeing and offers examples of optical distortion
caused by the eyes and mind.
A quick look at the physiology of seeing
Figure 4.25
When a human looks at an object, light from the object enters the eyes. The light goes
through the cornea, which is a clear covering, then through the pupil which is a clear circle
in the center of the colored part of the eye called the iris. The pupil gets larger (dilates)
when there is little light and smaller when there is more light. The lens focuses the light
through the aqueous humor, a clear liquid, onto the retina. The retina, in the back of the
eye, contains millions of tiny photo sensors that detect the light. There are two main kinds
of photosensors, called rods and cones. Shaped like rods, rods detect shades and forms and
are needed for night and peripheral vision. Rods are not good at detecting color. Shaped
like cones, cones are needed for seeing details, seeing in daylight and detecting colors.
Cones do not work well in low light. Rods and cones cover the entire retina except for a
spot where the optic nerve connects to the brain. The optic nerve carries the information
received from the retina to the brain, where the brain translates it into the single image
humans perceive, or ‘see.’
37
The Blind Spot

All humans have blind spots, which are spots where the eye cannot see. The blind spot
corresponds to the spot on the retina where the optic nerve connects the retina to the brain.
At this spot there are no light detecting cells and, thus, it cannot detect light. A small object
can disappear from view.
In everyday life the blind spot goes unnoticed. This is in part because the eye is constantly
looking around, getting a wide and varied range of views. It is also in part as the brain uses
the information from both eyes to create the single mental vision. What one eye misses,
the other often picks up.
As its optical nerve connects differently, the octopus has no blind spot.
Detecting your blind spot
Figure 4.26
To detect your blind spot using the just shown letters L and R, hold the book about two feet
in front of your face, close your right eye and look at the letter R. Slowly move your head
forward, towards the picture. At one point the L will disappear. The L will also disappear
if you start up close and slowly move back. Notice that the missing spot is filled in white
by your mind, so it appears as if nothing is missing from your view. This illustrates how
your blind spot goes unnoticed during daily living. Many people live their entire life not
knowing they have a blind spot.
Humans have more glaring blind spots. Due to the placement of their eyes in their head,
they can’t naturally see behind us, under their feet, from the top of their head, behind their
elbows. A common saying to explain why humans didn’t notice something is, “I don’t have
eyes in the back of my head.” And it’s common knowledge that if you want to sneak up on
a person you approach from behind. Humans compensate for these blinds spots by turning
around, moving their heads, using a mirror or other reflection, saying “Who’s that behind
me?,” listening, noticing shadows.
38
Other animals have different eye placement and fields of view. As a robin has its eyes on
the side of its head, it has better side view but worse directly ahead view. The robin’s life
depends on its being able to detecting predators from the side and back. When hunting for
worms in the grass, robins turn their heads. Some think they are turning their ear to listen
for worms, when they are turning their heads to see in front of them. A wolf, which is a
hunter stalking prey, has eyes placement best suited for seeing ahead. The wolf sees better
straight ahead, but its side to side vision is worse than a robin’s. A crocodile has eyes that
rise above the rest of its head. Not only does this create a different field of view, but allows
the crocodile to see above water while the most of its head and body are hidden below water
Figure 4.27 Different eye placements on non-human animals
39
Afterimages
Afterimages are when, after staring at an object, you look away and still see an image of the
object. An example is when you still see the nighttime headlights of a car, even though your
eyes have closed and the car has turned away. Another is when after looking away from a
candle flame in the dark you still see light in the shape of the candle flame.
Afterimages happen after the retina’s photosensors (the rods and cones in your eyes)
become over saturated, or burned out, from staring at a particular color. This burning out
is comparable to lifting weights in the weight room. After doing enough arm curls you lose
your arm curl strength for a short while and will be able to lift only lighter weights. Your
muscles are fatigued, if only temporarily, from all that weight lifting.
Similarly, after staring at a large area of a single color, the eye’s photosensors lose their strength
for that color. If right afterwards the eyes look at a blank piece of paper, the photosensors
will be weak towards the previously stared at color but fresh and strong for detecting the
other colors. This imbalance causes the mind to perceive the image (the afterimage), but
in the color opposite to the original color. To the mind, the weakness towards one color
means the presence of the opposite primary color is stronger. Quirky perhaps, but this is
the way the brain works.
If you are staring at a green image, the afterimage should be red (the opposite primary color).
After staring at a yellow image, the afterimage should be blue. The mind sees afterimages in
primary colors, so any non-primary color (orange, pink, etc) will be seen as the primary opposite.
Though they occur almost constantly, afterimages usually go unnoticed. Afterimages are best
observed when focusing on a single color or object for a lengthy period of time. In normal
about the house viewing humans view a wide range of objects and colors at once and their
eyes are always moving around, the view constantly shifting. In these cases, the afterimages
are minor and get lost in the visual shuffle. Humans barely if at all notice them.
Binocular Vision
Humans have binocular vision, meaning the single image they see in their mind is made
from two different views-- one from each eye.
Binocular vision gives humans a number of advantages. One is humans have a wider field
of view than if they had only one eye. The right eye can see further to the right and the
left eye further to the left. The single vision in their mind shows more than either single
eye can see.
40
Another advantage is the two views give humans imperfect but good depth perception.
People who are blind in one eye have worse depth perception than the average human.
The mythical Cyclops might at first appear an unbeatable foe, but a wily human opponent
could take advantage of the monster’s poor depth perception and narrow field of vision.
TRIANGULARISM AND CALCULATING DEPTH

Binocular vision produces the perception of depth in a way similar to how triangularism
measures length in applied mathematics. When looking at a distant point using only one
point of view it is hard to impossible to determine the distance accurately. In applied
mathematics, triangularism can accurately calculate this distance from point a to point b
by creating an imaginary triangle. Triangularism has long been used in the real world to
measure distant objects, such as islands and boats from land and when surveying land.
Figure 4.28 Triangularism: From point a alone, it can be impossible to accurately

calculate the distance to point b. In the real world, point a could be you standing on
land and point b an anchored boat out at sea. However, by taking angle
measurements from point a, then taking an angle measurement from nearby point c
(perhaps a walking distance away), and measuring the distance from point a to c, one
can create an imaginary triangle that calculates the distance from point a to point b.
It’s just a matter calculating angles and doing the math.
Two eyes give the mind a similar two point view, and the mind uses these two views to
judge distance. This is mostly done nonconsciously. You simply reach out and grab that
pencil or door knob, no problem. If you wear an eye patch, you may discover it’s more
difficult to grab things on the first try.
41
The Hole In The Hand Illusion
Figure 4.29
This simple trick plays with your binocular vision to make it appear as if you have a hole
in your hand.
Roll a normal piece of 8x11” paper into a tube and place it next to your hand as shown in
the above picture. With one eye look through the tube and with the other eye look ahead at
the back of your hand. With a little bit of shifting you should see what appears to be a large
hole through your hand. Your mind takes the two distinct views to create one bizarre view.
42
NIGHT VERSUS DAY VISION
Figure 4.30 Albert Ryder’s The Race Track, or Death on a Pale Horse
Due to their optics, humans see better in daylight than dark. This is reflected in their
perception and description of the world and in their art and language.
43
There almost always is light when it is pitch black to humans, but it is in wavelengths
human eyes can’t detect. Ultraviolet and infrared light are always present, but invisible to
humans. A human can get a suntan from ultraviolet light and feel the warmth associated
with infrared light, yet is unable to see either.
There are legitimate reasons for humans to naturally fear, or at least be wary, of the dark.
They don’t know what’s out there. If they run in it, there’s a good chance they could trip
and fall. That’s not superstitious, that’s common sense.
Other animals have night and day vision different from humans. Owls see better in night
than in day. It’s not that objects such as picnic tables and fence posts physically vanish in
the dark of night. It’s that humans are unable to see them. Owls see them fine. Geese see
ultraviolet light invisible to humans. Geese eyes see all the color humans see, plus the color
of ultraviolet. Goldfish can see both ultraviolet and infrared light.
Darkness is popularly associated with sinister, and light with goodness. Look at the common
dark words and phrases:
Dark angel
Dark and mysterious
She has a black heart
He has a dark mind
The color black is worn as a statement by brooding teenagers.
In Western culture, white, yellow and other bright colors are associated with happiness and
goodness. Someone who is upbeat and smiley is said to be in a bright or sunny mood.
Hell is commonly pictured as shadowy and Heaven as sunny. Good angels are typically
described as wearing white. Virginal brides wear white. The Wicked Witch of the West
wore black. The Good Witch of the East wore white.
44
Figure 4.31 In Hieronymus Bosch’s Garden of Earthly Delights Paradise and earth (first two
panels left to right) are depicted in daylight, while hell (right) is depicted as night.
Monsters are commonly called creatures of the night, and genuine creatures of the night,
like bats and owls, have been called monsters and demons.
Vampires, as the stories go, rise at night from their coffins and die when exposed to daylight.
The cursed man becomes a werewolf at the full moon of the night.
Final Thoughts on Human Vision

As I said, you don’t see physical reality even in the physical world, but a translation of it.
When you are looking at a living room or bowl of apples or painting or mountain range,
the image you see is not a direct representation of the objects. The image is a translation
made by your eyes and mind. As demonstrated, binocularism (changing two views into one),
afterimages (images created by the eyes/mind), unnoticed blind spots, inability to see colors
in low light and countless other purely physiological occurrences ensure that human mental
image is always different than the objects viewed. Everything humans perceive involves illusion.
A few interesting notes on vision:
• A mirror mirrors what is in front of it. If you place an apple two feet in front
of the mirror, an identical looking apple will look as if it is the same distance
behind, or into, the mirror. Curiously, if you use triangulation to measure the
distance to the apple in the mirror, the apple will measure as being two feet
behind the mirror. Both human eyes and scientific measurement say there is an
apple two feet behind the mirror’s surface.
45
• Infrared viewers, such as night vision goggles, do not allow humans to see
infrared light, but translate infrared light into visible light. Humans cannot see
infrared light and can only guess how an infrared viewing animal perceives it.
• Have you ever noticed that when you’re outside at night, you can see a star
better when you’re not looking straight at it? The center of your retina does not
have rods which are used to see at night. The rods are off center, so you see
better at night off center. When looking at a faint star, try turning your head a
bit as it may appear brighter out of your periphery.
• Given humans’ night vision it is not coincidence that humans perceive ghosts
as things that come out at night, are pale and colorless, ephemeral, fleeting,
peripheral, dreamlike, shimmering, mysterious, otherworldly. Under the shroud
of night a lawn chair can look like a shadowy figure. A backpack left on a picnic
table can resemble a strange animal. A rustling bush can startle the sheckles
out of someone walking home alone. As there is a lack of visual information at
night, humans use their imaginations to fill in the story.
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• While humans depend mostly on sight, other animals depend more on other
senses. The bloodhound has worse than human eyesight, but uses its advanced
sense of smell to find lost people that even trained police detectives cannot find.
In these instances, the blood hound’s non-seeing perception is more accurate
than all of the detectives’ senses combined. This explains why many police
departments have bloodhounds on staff.
• Human perception and description of the universe is greatly influenced by their
senses. Humans categorize and label objects in part by visible colors. Many
animals, flowers, gems and even humans are defined by their visible colors. As
defined by the American Kennel Club, a cairn terrier can come in all colors
except white. If a cairn terrier is born white, it’s not a cairn terrier. It’s a West
Highland Terrier, a different breed. If humans could see infrared and ultraviolet
light their categorizations and objects, including terriers, would be different.
• Considering, for example, humans would have better depth perception and
receive more information if humans had more eyes, how would you design
perfect eyesight? Realize that if humans had one hundred eyes all over their
body, they would still have limited perspective due to where they stand, their
height, etc. What would be perfect eyesight? What about perfect perception?
Our physical perception would still be limited if it was just about eyesight.
Remember smell, hearing and other senses. How would you design perfect
perception? Are there senses humans don’t use or know about? Also realize that
such advanced perceptual systems would require a bigger, different brain to
process and interpret the visual information, and the sensory information would
still be interpreted and transformed by the brain.
• Ii is fascinating how much human philosophy, religion and society are formed
and influenced by human sensory abilities and disabilities.
• How would art be different if humans had the sensory abilities of bats and owls?
4.11 THE UNIQUE SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE

Subjectivity is a constant and integral part of the human experience. Love, lust, like, dislike,
taste, smell, views about beauty and ugliness and art. How you view this paragraph and
this book involves subjectivity— your taste about the writing style, word choice, chapter
subjects and length, book cover.
By definition, a subjective experience is a product of the individual’s mind. While real and
often profound, the subjective experience cannot be objectively measured by others. When
someone is listening to music, the music’s note, pitch, speed, volume and the listener’s ear
vibration and heartbeat can be measured by scientific instruments, but the listener’s aesthetic
experience cannot. This experience is experienced by the listener alone. Even if asked to, the
listener could not fully translate the experience to others, in part because it is beyond words.
47
It’s doubtful that two people have the same subjective perceptions. People may have similar,
but not identical perceptions. People regularly like the same song but perceive it differently.
It is common for best friends to like a movie, but one likes it more than the other or for
different reasons.
A large range of things determines a person’s subjective perception and experience. This
includes genes, education, culture, where and when born, personal experiences, upbringing,
travel, family makeup and personalities, friends, acquaintances, natural temperament, mental
abilities, physiological abilities (quality of eyesight, hearing, smell), talents, language, health,
hobbies and work. Your perception is subjective to your viewing position and your sensory
abilities. Humans never see the entirety of a scene, or even an object, so what part you are
looking influences your perception.
Little things influence, such as what toy one had as a six year old and what tea grandmother
drank. While walking in a foreign land, the scent of jasmine tea can bring back a rush of
memories. The appearance of the toy in a movie will alter one’s emotional reaction and
interpretation of the movie. It may have been chance that the movie viewer’s parents bought
that toy, making his movie interpretation a result of chance.
It is not just the tea and a toy, but millions of little things that influence, including from
forgotten events.
If a bird watcher and a rock collector go for a walk together in the park they may have
equally grand times, one due to the birds in the trees and the other due to the rocks on
the ground. Though they were side by side, they will give decidedly different descriptions
of the walk.
Do you dislike a name simply because it was the name of someone you couldn’t stand?
Even when they experience similar feelings people will usually have these feelings under
different circumstances, if only slightly different. People will be artistically excited, but
for different works of art or when interpreting differently the same work of art. People
have similar feelings of romantic love, but for distinctly different people— different looks,
personality, culture, interests, sex, race. The emotional states may be alike, but the objects
of desire are not.
You cannot separate your biases from your perception, because it is those biases that help
create the perception. Without those biases, you would have a different perception. Even
that childhood toy affected the movie goer’s perception thirty years later.
48
Humans believe they receive important objective insights, including cosmic truths, through
strong subjective experiences— such as through the sublime experience of art, epiphany of
music, nature, love, lust, religious experience. The psychological power of these experiences
is considered verification of the ‘truths.’
A question is whether these experiences involve genuine insight into external reality or are
merely strong biological reactions. Love and lust themselves, after all, are standard innate
reactions. Psychological reactions to certain sounds, such as in powerful music, involve genetics.
The reactions to high delicate notes (such as from songbirds or a pop song) and low booming
notes (distant thunder, the start of Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony) have been shared by humans
for thousands and thousands of years. You and your ancient ancestor have remarkably similar
psychological reactions to the sound of a songbird and the sudden deep roar of a bear. It is
no coincidence that church music uses delicate high notes to evoke heaven in the audience,
and the loud, deep bass of the organ to evoke power and awe.
It is not coincidence that horror movies use discordant notes. The director knows audiences
find the sounds scary and creepy. In the famous 1960 Psycho shower scene, the sharp, grating,
discordant musical notes evoke violence, evil, something gone horribly wrong. They sound
similar to someone scratching a chalkboard, one of the most despised sounds to humans.
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It can never be known to the experiencer that an epiphany made through a strong
psychological experience is anything more than an innate reaction. If there is insight into
the external, the insight is shaped by the experiencer’s subjectivity, and what parts of the
insight are objective and what parts subjective is unknowable.
Even if important insights into the universe are gained they still are in subjective format.
For example, if your epiphany comes through your experience of art, your experience of art
is personal and different than that of others. Not only is your ‘insight’ intrinsically tied to
your subjective views, you likely would not have had the insight at that same time, place
or format, or at all, if you had different aesthetic views.
Humans use aesthetic rules for defining truths, including what is good and evil, what is
moral and immoral. Common rules include conditions of beauty, symmetry, color, tone
(light versus dark), fashion and order.
Even if the rules were valid (which, of course, itself is a big if ), it would mean truth is
subjective. If truth is beautiful, your definition of what is beautiful differs from others’
definitions. Further, an individual’s perception of beauty changes with time and experience.
A culture’s perception of beauty changes with time. Compare the depictions of the desirable
feminine body from 1450, 1850, 1950 and this year.
Cultural definitions of ‘objective truth’ are formed by cultural sensibilities, including fashion,
politics, gender, race, beauty, geography, self interest, desire for social order, etc. There is
no indication these are identifiers of objective truth, or are even related, but they are still
used as criterion.
Simplicity
To humans, simplicity is that which is simple to them. Simple matches one’s sensibilities,
knowledge, intuition and expectations. If it didn’t, it wouldn’t be simple. What may be
simple to one human may not be to another. What may be simple to humans may be
simple only to humans.
Simplicity has long been used by humans to define supposedly absolute things such as
cosmic truth, goodness, beauty, logic and purity. There are a number of problems with this.
One is there is no proof that cosmic truths, for example, are simple. Another problem is
simplicity, and thus what is defined as cosmic truth, is in the eye of the beholder.
50
Normal, even nonconscious thinking involves simplification, translating complex information

into something understandable. Conceits are simplifications.
Your visual perception involves simplification– interpreting a complex scene, grouping and
labeling the objects according to your experience, focusing on what you seem to recognize and
ignoring what you don’t. Visual illusions and mirages shown throughout this book involve
simplification. The scene or graphic is translated by the viewer into something understandable,
an understandable translation that happens to be wrong. This alone proves that simplicity
is not proof of truth, and that truth isn’t always simple. Lies are often simpler than truths.
Simplicity, of course, has many practical uses. Scientists strive for simplicity in theories and
testing. A scientific theory that is needlessly complicated will needlessly confuse students
and seasoned scientists alike. Needlessly muddled theories are harder to test, study, correct
and understand. In human daily life, good verbal communication requires simplicity,
including using words, phrases and language the listener understands. If a traveler speaks
only English, it does them no good for you to give road directions in Spanish. Road
directions in Spanish may be simple to a Spanish speaker, but it’s complicated to someone
who doesn’t know the language.
4.12 AUTOMATIC PERCEPTIONS AND UNCORRECTABLE ILLUSIONS

As already mentioned, many human reactions, judgments and perceptions are automatic
and subconscious. Many perceptions are made in an instant.
In an instant can mean the instant eyes are laid upon a scene. It also sometimes means
the perception suddenly flashes in the mind after looking at the scene for a while. An
example of the latter is when you stare at a Magic Eye picture before the hidden image is
suddenly revealed. Another is when you are looking at a crowd of faces and all of sudden
recognize a friend.
These instant perceptions often come from the nonconscious. That they arise instantly and
from within, like epiphanies, make them powerful, even when wrong. To true believers,
they didn’t arbitrarily pick out the Face on Mars, they recognized it as one recognizes a
relative in a crowd.
51
Uncorrectable Illusions
Even after you learn how they work, there are many visual illusions that still fool you. If
you go back and look again at the visual illusions shown throughout this book, many will
still fool your eyes. You have already learned that the middle bar in the following picture
is solid, yet it still looks to change. If you look at the picture tomorrow or two months
from now, the bar will still appear to change in tone.
Figure 4.32
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The mind contains compartments that perform specific tasks. For example, one compartment
is used for comprehending spoken language, another for perceiving smell. Some of these
compartments are isolated from other parts of the brain. They work on their own, not
influenced by goings on elsewhere. These compartments sometimes are even isolated from
conscious knowledge.
The perception of many visual illusions is made independent of your conscious knowledge.
This explains why even your conscious knowledge that they are illusions does not solve your
nonconscious misperception.
Visual illusions point out the existence of blind spots and unreliability in human logic and
reasoning systems. For those who have never before seen Figure 4.32, the rational answer
would be the bar changes in tone. To say it is solid in tone would be irrational. It’s not
that all false perceptions of reality are due to faulty logic, but that many are formed using
what is considered sound logic and reasoning.
4.13 HUMANS CANNOT KNOW THE RELIABILITY

OF THEIR OWN MINDS
To humans, the reliability of the human mind cannot be known, because they use the
human mind to test and judge the reliability. If your goal is to determine the accuracy of
the human mind, that means you do not know the accuracy of the tool used for testing
and judging (the human mind), which makes it impossible to determine the accuracy of
the human mind.
Your opinion about the reliability of the human mind involves a leap of faith. A common
tendency is to overestimate the reliability. There are a number of reasons for this. One
is that many cognitive errors and blind spots are unknown and not counted. Another is
that a human’s belief system and worldview are premised on a reliable mind. If the mind’s
reliability comes into question, so does the reliability of the belief system and worldview.
4.14 FINAL NOTES

For many who have read this, they will have a different view of how ironclad are their
perceptions. Even physical vision involves illusion, distortion and blind spots. And realize
that this chapter has shown just a few of many automatic and nonconscious methods used
to process information. There are many that of which you are unaware and of which you
will always be unaware.
53
These and other methods are used singly and in combinations to make educated guesses
in the face of complex and ambiguous situations, and where speedy decisions are required.
In defense of humans vis a vis these errors, humans are amazingly adept at making good
guesses. Yes, there is a margin of error and sometimes big mistakes are made, but on the
whole humans are adept at doing such things as judging distance and size, identifying
objects in their daily lives, guessing how far away is that milk jug, how tall is that doorway,
walking through a room without hitting a table or wall.
However, when you get into realms of philosophy, theology and trying to understand and
explain the universe, these misperceptions, blind spots and inescapable illusions take on
profound significance.
4.15 QUESTIONS
• What are four reasons why human perception of the universe is subjective?
• What are some causes for optical illusions?
• What does it mean when someone says all human perception and judgment
involves imagination?
• Does all human thinking and perception involve comparisons?
• Why is attention, or focus, required for function, how does it distort human
perception?
• What is the blind spot and what causes it?
• Why does human religious art depict heaven as light and hell as dark? Why do
you think heaven and God is depicted as above, and Hell below?
• Why is simplicity subjective to the individual?
• What is an unconscious bias, and why can’t all of them be corrected?
4.16 FURTHER READING

The Ultimate List of Cognitive Biases: Why Humans Make Irrational Decisions
54
COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION THE BRAIN’S HEMISPHERES AND
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS DIFFERENT WAYS OF THINKING
5 THE BRAIN’S HEMISPHERES AND

DIFFERENT WAYS OF THINKING
“Heart and head are contrary historians.”
– Jerry Spinelli, children’s book writer
5.1 OVERVIEW
Humans have different and often competing ways of thinking-- the artistic versus the
mathematical, intellectual versus emotional, spiritual versus empirical. This often causes
conflict, such a person unable to decide whether to follow the head or the heart.
While many envisioning expanding of the mind involving better practical functioning,
sharper reason and logic, more factual knowledge and calculating ability-- and these are
important--, others see the development of the unconscious, intuition, emotional and
aesthetic perception, as essential, and even the most important path.
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Cognitive and artificial intelligence scientists know the importance of subconscious intuition
to human thinking, intelligence and function. Humans function and make perceptions and
judgments in part using intuitive knowledge, aesthetics and emotions, with intuition being
a subconscious archive of knowledge.
Psychiatrist Carl Jung wrote how the conscious is only the tip of the iceberg that is the
mind. He felt it important to study the vast unconscious mind, to tap into it. He believed
that the unconscious mind contains not only personal information but genetic evolutionary
information shared by all of the species. Just as the human body developed via evolution,
so did, and does, the mind.
5.2 THE RIGHT AND LEFT HEMISPHERES OF THE BRAIN

Nobel Prize winning neuropsychologist Roger Sperry studied how the human brain is
physically split into the two hemispheres, the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere. Each
hemisphere has its own qualities and control over different functions and sides of the body.
The left hemisphere is more verbal, analytical and orderly than the right hemisphere. It
is sometimes called the digital brain. It is better at things such as reading, writing and
computations, and works on aspects such as logic, ordering, linear thinking, mathematics,
facts, symbolic language.
The right hemisphere is often called the creative brain, and is more visual and intuitive. It
is more creative and less organized, and works in areas such as imagination, arts, rhythm,
intuition, daydreaming, feelings.
The two sides work together constantly, and the popular idea of a “left brain” versus a “right
brain” person is a myth. The two sides work simultaneously, bringing different qualities and
skills to the tasks, whether the task is judgment, perception or language. Even learning facts
and doing mathematics involves both logic and aesthetics.
Article on how people aren’t left-brained or right-brained
Article on how the right and left hemispheres work together
However, Indiana University Medical School neuroanatomist Jill Bolte Taylor said that the
two hemispheres are distinct and have “different personalities.”
56
Many say that in the modern age humans have shortsightedly overdeveloped logical and
scientific qualities at the expense of creative, artistic qualities. Schools have removed art and
music classes, which are essential for developing the brain.
‘’The intuitive mind is a sacred gift and the rational mind

is a faithful servant. We have created a society that honors
the servant and has forgotten the gift.’’
– Albert Einstein
5.3 VIDEOS
“Introduction to Carl Jung - The Psyche, Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious”
“What’s the Difference Between the Right Brain and Left Brain?”
Psychology
Professor Michael Gazzaniga explains the Split Brain Theory
57
6 MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES
“The psychotic drowns in the same waters in which the
mystic swims with delight.”
– Mythologist Joseph Campbell
Mysticism has long been an attempt to expand the mind and understanding beyond normal
boundaries. It suppresses parts of the brain in order to more fully utilize other parts, and is often
referred to as a proverbial right brain activity.
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Figure 6.1 The Ecstasy of Saint Francis by Francisco de Zurbaran and the meditating Buddha
6.1 OVERVIEW
Mystical experiences are altered states of consciousness that seem to the person in the state
to take him beyond the normal consciousness and give him a union or experience with a
transcendent reality. Mysticism is the area of trying to reach mystical states.
All religions have their mystical traditions or subdivisions. These include the Jewish Kabbalah,
Muslim Sufis and Christian mystics. Some religions, such as Buddhism, Hinduism and some
aboriginal religions, can be considered essentially, or largely, mystical.
Though commonly associated with religion, mystical experiences involve genuine neurological
events that are also experienced by non-religious believers, including agnostics and atheists.
It is that the experiences are often interpreted by the experiencer as being transcendental
reality that it is associated with religion. Mystical experiences are the genesis of religions.
Mystical experiences have been experienced throughout human history, and many people
today have them, whether in religious or secular life. According to a 2009 Pew survey, 49%
of respondents said that they had a religious or mystical experience, defined as a “moment
of sudden religious insight or awakening.” Those who said they experienced them included
the young and old, religious and non-religious. (Reference: ‘Frequency of spiritual/religious
experiences’ religiousnaturalism.org).
59
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Mystical Experiences
During mystical experiences, people feel connected to a transcendent reality and often describe
gaining profound knowledge and insights. The experiences involve changes in perception
or sense of time, space and reality. Time seems to slow or cease to exist, the sense of self
and ego dissolves, and the person feel one with the universe.
According to Andrew Newberg MD, professor of medicine and religious studies at the
University of Pennsylvania, the experiencers perceive the physical world in a much more
vivid and intense way, as if their senses are heightened ( reference: medium.com).
The following is famed primatologist Jane Goodall description of her mystical experience:
“Lost in the awe at the beauty around me, I must have

slipped into a state of heightened awareness…It seemed to
me, as I struggled afterward to recall the experience, that
self was utterly absent: I and the chimpanzees, the earth
and trees and air, seemed to merge, to become one with
the spirit power of life itself…Never had I been so intensely
aware of the shape, the color of the individual leaves, the
varied patterns of the veins that made each one unique. It
was almost overpowering.” (reference: medium.com)
In his landmark book The Varieties of Religious Experiences, Harvard University philosopher
and psychologist William James said that the experiences are beyond words. They cannot
be fully explained or communicated to others, just experienced. James was only interested
in these experiences, and not the human-made dogmas and structures religions used to
explain them.
German Lutheran theologian Rudolf Otto similarly said that the mystical experience is
a-rational, meaning it is a direct experience and not to be explained with reason. (Reference:
Mystical Experience/ Rudolf Otto )
6.1.1 VIDEOS
The following is an audio discussion about the nature of the mystical experience from British
philosopher Alan Watts : Alan Watts - The mystical experience
The following is an interview with people who have had mystical experiences: “Enlightened
Beings Share Their Awakening, Mystical Experiences”
60
6.2 METHODS FOR OBTAINING MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES

Mystical experiences can happen spontaneously and without intention for both the religious
and secular. However, there have also been intentional efforts to produce them, including
via religious and secular practices.
Religious mystical ceremonies often involve meditation, music, chants, shamanic drumming,
dance or such to achieve a trance-like state.
For believers, these ceremonies are typically coupled with a way of life, including good
living, morality, discipline, freeing oneself from lust and greed and anger, having feelings
and actions of kindness and charity. Meditations, reciting mantras, focusing the mind on
the higher power are supposed to be a part of daily life. For Jews, the daily life, every
event, is supposed to be treated as holy. For many aboriginal tribes, living in harmony and
reverence with nature, which they consider holy, is a part of their life. Having a practiced,
undistracted, meditative mindset is important to achieving mystical experiences, even for
the non-religious. For example, serious non-religious people meditate daily, often multiple
times daily, while also being mindful throughout their day.
The following are just a few examples of religious mystical practices and ceremonies.
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The Mevlevi Sema ceremony is a Muslim Sufi ceremony with music, singing, dancing,
poetry and other rituals. The participants try to purify the soul and connect with Allah.
They can enter different physical and mental states, in particular during the dancing.
A famous Sufi dance involves the Whirling Dervishes. The below two videos show the dance
and give a Muslim interpretation of them:
Video: Whirling Dervishes in Istanbul
Video: Whirling Explanation by Shaykh Hisham Kabbani
Hindu Yoga involves mental, physical and spiritual practices. Coupled with a proper lifestyle,
they are designed to get the person to the mystical state of enlightenment, the ultimate
goal of the religion.
There are four methods of Yoga, each designed for different personalities and ways of
learning. Hinduism is psychologically modern in that it appreciates that people learn and
experience things differently.
Video: Four paths of yoga
The Sun Dance is a ceremony of some American Indian tribes of the United States and
Canada, primarily the Plains tribes. It involves the community gathering to pray and make
personal sacrifices.
Video: The Sundance Ceremony
62
Catholic mystical prayer is meditative prayer that Catholics say they use to expand the
mind and commune with God:
“Contemplative prayer has the tendency to become ever

simpler and more silent. As we gain experience in this form
of prayer we need fewer and fewer thoughts, until finally
one single thought may be sufficient to find the way to
truth and God. Fewer thoughts demand fewer words. St.
Francis used the phrase My God and my all’ as his theme
of contemplation for a whole night. . . . In contemplation
our mode of thinking changes. From its usual restlessness
it becomes a quiet beholding and a comprehending, a
watching and a witnessing. Our voice changes: it becomes
softer and lower. Finally, speech dies down and its place is
taken by a silent regarding and longing between the soul
and God. If we should reach this stage in contemplation,
we should not force ourselves back into the diversity of
thought. When simplicity contains the essence, there is no
need for diversity; when silence is eloquent, it is greater
than words.”
– ‘The Art of Contemplative & Mystical Prayer’ by Father

Romano Guardini (reference )
The Jewish Kabbalah is a mystical sect of Judaism that does many things to try to personally/
experientially get closer to God. Judaism teaches the contradiction that God is both beyond
humans, yet humans can have a connection to Him via mystical experience.
Video: Sacred Practice: Kabbalah Practice with Rabbi Lawrence Kushner
Taoism is a mystical religion that uses mystical practices, such as Tai Chi, to connect to
the perceived flow of the universe. Taoists believe that physical movement, even in how one
walks across the room, is important to becoming connected with ‘the way’ of the universe.
Interfaith religions, and many other religious leaders and theologians acknowledge that there
are many different personal paths to achieve mystical experiences and enlightenment, based
on the person’s personality, background, language and culture. Though one must focus in the
specific method, whether it is secular meditation or Christian prayer. The human requires
focus, and one cannot obtain enlightenment through proverbial multitasking.
“There are hundreds of paths up the mountain, all leading

to the same place. The only person wasting time is the
one who runs around the mountain telling everyone that
their path is wrong”
– Hindu proverb
63
6.2.2 MEDITATION
Meditation is commonly associated with Buddhism and Hinduism, but is used in all religions
and also by the non-religious. Mediation works to calm the conscious mind, to remove the
daily conscious chatter and idle thoughts that enter human minds.
The meditator uses various possible methods to clear quiet. One is to focus on a single
thing-- a mantra, one’s breath. A common Hindu meditation is to not focus on anything
but remove external thoughts as they enter. With the mind quieted, and the conscious
thoughts removed, there can be a mental awakening. Buddha and Mohammed achieved
enlightenment after lengthy periods of medication.
“Emptiness meditation — to sit quietly and empty oneself

of all mental images (thoughts, feelings, and so on), to
‘forget about everything’, in order to experience inner
quiet and emptiness. In this state, vital force and “spirit”
is collected and replenished.”
– Taoist meditation (thewayofmeditation.com.au)
64
All religious mystical practices involve meditation in some form or other. It can involve
the meditative practice of focusing on a mantra, focused scripture reading, drumming,
ceremonies, music, art, dance, even walking or eating. The counting of the Catholic rosaries
is a meditative task. Any singular repeated or focused task, even playing chess or knitting,
can be meditiative if it involves singular focus and removal of other thoughts.
Nearly all sacred religious scripture alludes to meditation:
“Commune with your heart upon your bed, and be silent”
– Hebrew Bible
“Verily, from meditation arises wisdom. Without meditation

wisdom wanes”
– Buddhism, Dhammapada 282
“He is revealed only to those who keep their minds

one-pointed on the Lord of Love and thus develop a
superconscious manner of knowing. Meditation enables
them to go deeper and deeper into consciousness, From
the world of words to the world of thoughts, Then beyond
thoughts to wisdom in the Self.”
– The Upanishads (Hinduism)
6.3 MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES THROUGH SECULAR PRACTICES

Mystical experiences happen not only in religious settings, but secular. Many atheists and
agnostics have such experiences when meditating, focusing on work, study, when in nature,
and experiencing art, athletics, fasting. Some say the runner’s high, or the athlete being in
the zone is a form of mystical state.
“To those who do not know mathematics it is difficult to

get across a real feeling as to the beauty, the deepest
beauty, of nature . If you want to learn about nature, to
appreciate nature, it is necessary to understand the language
that she speaks in.”
– Nobel Physics Prize winner Richard Feynman on the

spiritual experience of doing math
65
“A chess player (said) that when he plays the game, ‘I have

a general sense of well-being, a feeling of complete control
over my world.’ Similarly, a dancer told him that during her
performances, ‘A strong relaxation and calmness comes
over me. I have no worries of failure. What a powerful and
warm feeling it is! I want to expand, to hug the world. I feel
enormous power to affect something of grace and beauty.’”
– Psychologist Steve Taylor ( Reference )
6.3.1 DRUGS AND MENTAL CONDITIONS
Certain drugs have been shown to lead to mystical states. These include LSD, psilocybin,
mescaline, peyote and marijuana. Peyote is used in some American Indian ceremonies, and
marijuana is sometimes used by Hindus and Rastafarians.
Video: Harvard psychologist and Hindu spiritual teacher Ram Dass on drugs
and mysticism
Article: Harvard Psychiatrist and Minister Walter Pahke on drugs and mysticism
Some mental conditions have been associated with mystical experiences. These include some
forms of epileptic seizures, schizophrenia and bipolarism.
Video: Scientist Dr. Jill Bolte Taylor’s experience after having a stroke
“Ecstatic epileptic seizures are a rare but compelling epileptic

entity. During the first seconds of these seizures, ecstatic
auras provoke feelings of well-being, intense serenity, bliss,
and ‘enhanced self-awareness.’ They are associated with
the impression of time dilation, and can be described as a
mystic experience by some patients.”
– Markus Gschwind and Fabienne Picard, Neurology

Department at the University Hospital of Geneva (ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4756129/)
Link to Article on psychiatric medicine and spiritual states by psychologist Lynn

Vanderpot
66
Link to Paper on Schizophrenia and mysticism by Joseph Parmas and Gram

Henrickson of the University of Copenhagen (Mysticism and schizophrenia: A
phenomenological exploration of the structure of consciousness in the schizophrenia
spectrum disorders)
Link to Article on epilepsy and mystical experiences by University of South

Carolina-Aiken philosophy professor D. B. Dillard-Wright
6.4 THE DEBATE ABOUT THE NATURE, MEANING AND

AUTHENTICITY OF THE MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES
While there is no debate that they involve genuine neurological experiences, there is an
ongoing and ultimately unanswerable debate over what are the musical experiences: if they
are authentic views of transcendent reality, merely delusory/hallucinatory states of the mind,
or some combination.
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6.4.1 RELIGIOUS TRUE BELIEVERS
Many religious believers believe that mystical states are authentic, direct looks into a transcendent
reality and even God. They believe either that these states and knowledge are given to them
by God, or the altered state involves a cleared mind that allows them to see truth.
“My most formative religious experiences were a series

of mystical experiences. They began to occur in my early
thirties. They changed my understanding of the meaning
of the word “God”-of what that word points to-and gave
me an unshakable conviction that God (or “the sacred”)
is real and can be experienced. These experiences also
convinced me that mystical forms of Christianity are true,
and that the mystical forms of all the enduring religions of
the world are true.”
– Oregon State University Professor of Religion Marcus

Borg (marcusjborg.org/mystical-experiences-of-god/)
“The same dynamic takes place when God reveals Godself

to women and men. At certain times in our lives, God’s
gracious presence becomes manifest in our lives as God
communicates God subjectivity through subjectivity. Through
concrete events in our lives, or particular words-- very
ordinary things-- God becomes present and palpable to us
in God’s incomprehensible, inexpressible, mysterious reality.
This is the pattern of divine revelations: the finite reveals
the infinite, the objective reveals the subjective, what is
ordinary reveals what is Mystery.”
– Stephen B. Bevans. Jesuit Priest and Professor of

Theology and Culture at Catholic Theological Union,
in An Introduction to Theology in Global Perspective
(Orbis Books).
In non-theistic religions- such as Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and some traditional

aboriginal religions-- there is no god but an enlightenment or higher state of awareness.
These can be considered constant mystical states. Jesus, Buddha, Moses and Muhammad
were said to be enlightened individuals, or people living in mystical states.
In the interview, ‘‘Can We Trust Religious Experiences?” (link ) Christian professor of

philosophy at Talbot School of Theology, William Lane Craig, said that, even using normal
logic, the religious mystical experiences could be argued to be authentic. His argument is
that there are many unprovable things that humans all accept as true, due to experience
and innate thought. These include that the external world humans perceive is real, that
68
the past was real, that humans aren’t computers run by a mad scientist, that they weren’t
born five minutes ago with an implanted false memory of the past. He said human’s shared
beliefs about these things are unprovable, yet humans accept them as self evidently true. He
said people come to these conclusions using what is widely considered to be good reason
and logic. He said that, along these rational lines, someone’s perceived personal experience
connecting with God, coupled with that many people have these shared experiences, can
just as reasonably be considered real. These mystical experiences with God probably being
called real is as reasonable as the average person probably saying the external world he
perceives as being real.
Of course, it could be argued that neither perception was correct, and both involve delusion
and biased answers to some degree. Both views could be delusory.
6.4.2 SKEPTICS
Skeptics, including some scientists, say that mystical experiences are strictly in the mind and
are on the order of delusions or hallucinations. That drugs and mental illnesses can lead to
them have is seen to them as proof of this. Many of these people accept the humanistic,
rational point of view of the world, and accept the normal human perception of the world
as accurate. Many of these people use science as arbiter, and don’t buy anything that hasn’t
been, or the can’t be, proven by science.
Article: “Turns out near-death experiences are psychedelic, not religious”
6.4.3 THE MIDDLE ROAD
These people say that the experiences are the result of changes to the brain, but that the
experiences are not hallucinations or psychoses, but different than normal sensory experiences.
Neuroscience studies of the brain support this contention that mystical experiences are
different experiences of sensory information.
During mystical experiences, the parts of the brain that are associated with filtering and
translating sensory information, categorization, language, creating ideas of self, separation of
self from other, perception and categorizing of time and space are reduced. The person receives
the sensory information unfiltered and untranslated (or at least to a much lesser degree) by
these parts of the brain. Thus, the sense of self seems to dissolve, normal categorizations
and perceptions of time and space disappear, and there is a rush of sensory information.
69
Additionally, there is often a rush of dopamine that makes the person feel bliss. Thus, people
not only get a different rush of sensory information, but an associated sense of beauty,
happiness and love. Aesthetics and emotions are an integral part of humans accepting facts
and ideas. (“To humans, the meaning of life, of everything, is a matter of mood.”-- Noise
Music: Cognitive Psychology, Aesthetics and Epistemology).
“The frontal lobes are the most evolved areas of the human
brain, and help control and make sense of the perceptual
input we get from the world. When the frontal lobes’
inhibitory functions are suppressed, a door of perception
can open, increasing the chances of mystical experiences.”
– Jordan Grafman, Professor and Physical Medicine

and Rehabilitation, Cognitive Neurology & Alzheimer’s
Disease Center, Northwestern University Medical School
(reference: livescience.com)
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70
“When activity in the networks of the superior parietal

cortex [a region in the upper part of the parietal lobe, which
is a structure slightly above and behind our ears] or our
prefrontal cortex [the section of the frontal cortex that lies
at the very front of the brain] increases or decreases, our
bodily boundaries change. These parts of the brain control
our sense of self in relation to other objects in the world,
as well as our bodily integrity; hence the ‘out of body’ and
‘extended self’ sensations and perceptions many people
who have had mystical experiences confess to. . . . At the
same time, midbrain dopaminergic pathways — key circuits
in the brain that create and release the neurotransmitter
dopamine — are activated to release dopamine in networks
of the forebrain,”
– James Giordano. Professor of neurology and

biochemistry at Georgetown University Medical Center
“Andrew Newberg believes a cause of these feelings is the

reduced activity he saw in their parietal lobes, the orientation
area of the brain responsible for perceiving three-dimensional
objects in space. A meditator may experience a sense of
oneness with all living things or unity because the reduced
activity blurs the perceived lines between the meditator and
other objects . . . When the parietal lobes are damaged,
patients have distorted beliefs about their own bodies and
are sometimes confused about their spatial orientation to
outside objects. In an example from Why We Believe What
We Believe, patients think one of their own legs is not theirs,
and have been found trying to throw this other leg out of
their bed. In his new book, Newberg cites a study led by
Dr. Brick Johnstone that found that damage to the right
parietal lobe caused patients’ self-transcendent experiences
to increase.” ( Reference: theatlantic.com )
“This suggests that these spots may be linked to inhibitory

cognitive functions, and a suppression of these functions,
which typically help us regulate and resolve our perceptual
experiences, appears to open up a ‘door of perception’,
exposing people to more mystical experiences.”
– Dr. Irene Cristofori from the Rehabilitation Institute

of Chicago and French National Centre for Scientific
Research ( reference )
71
The psychedelic drugs can do this. American Indians practitioners say that the peyote is
not the source of the vision or mystical knowledge, but used to cleanse the mind for them
to have the experience.
“Sometimes we ask the peyote to help us cleanse the

illnesses away and cleanse our mental being, our spiritual
being, And we believe that’s what peyote does, too. That’s
why we call it a sacrament, a sacred herb.”
– Navajo High Priest Fred Harvey ( reference: npr.og )
“The Peyote Sacrament and Its Way is part of the Great

Mystery. Its focused agenda is for the maturing of the soul.
Peyote unique abilities can cut through any resistance,
whispering to the inquisitive heart a fundamental question
at the core of every soul’s experience, “What are we? . . . .
Indigenous people of North and South America have a long,
rich tradition of experiencing themselves as part of all that
we see. There is no separation between our surroundings
and us. Intelligence is experienced to be in and through
all things…birds, bees, rocks, trees, plants and water…the
list includes all of Creation.”
– Kevin ‘He Who Has Know Name’ Towt, President of

Oklevueha Native American Church of Orderville and
Toquerville (references: nativeamericanchurches.org)
In his book Waking From Sleep (Penguin Random House, 2010) Leeds Beckett University
psychology lecturer Steve Taylor writes that schizophrenics have unfiltered sensory information--
heightened senses, more information--, but without the normal conscious cognitive functions
that organize it. In the book, a woman with schizophrenia said that schizophrenia is great
for painting and writing poetry, but she can’t drive a car because she notices all the details
in and to the side of the road (the crack in the road, a leaf, etc).
6.5 MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES DEMONSTRATE THE ARTIFICIAL

COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTS OF THE HUMAN MIND
This all points to that the standard human perceptions of time, space, categories, labels,
linguistic explanations, rationality are artificial constructs of their mind. The mystical
experiences are unfiltered, or less filtered by these. There is no separation of things, language
and categories and labels don’t apply. Mysticism is a method to try and free one of these
artificial constructs of the normal mind.
72
The conscious structures, arbitrariness and labels are required for function and survival
of the species, but should not be confused for reality or objective truth. In fact, function
requires false beliefs, arbitrary rules and distorting information (See chapter 18). This is is
only in part because the human mind needs attention to function and function requires
rules and focus, even if delusory or arbitrary. So the conscious mind is in part designed
to fool and lie and hide facts from the mind and make artificial rules and constructs. And
mystical experiences remove or suppress these, and people who have had mystical experiences
suddenly see the falseness of these traditional perceptions.
In Awakening from Sleep, Steve Taylor writes that mystical experiences contradict ordinary
consciousness in three ways:
“As we see, the experiences tell us that our normal view is

false. This strong ego structure has given us some massive
benefits, such as greater powers of abstract thought (when
we analyse, deliberate and plan) and greater conceptual
knowledge (e.g., knowledge of the laws of nature, of the
structure of matter and of the universe self. It has also given
us more personal autonomy, leading to more control over
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73
our life. But in a sense the ego has become overdeveloped.

Its boundaries have become too strong and its self-reflective
ability has muted into the chaotic thought-chatter that runs
through our mind whenever our attention isn’t occupied.“
Many ancient mystical religions, such as Sufism, Buddhism and Hinduism, discuss the
cleansing of the mind, ridding oneself of normal mind chatter and categorization and labels
in order to perceive reality. Buddhist meditation attempts to move beyond symbolic human
language. This was before science learned what was going on in the mind.
American religious philosopher Huston Smith said that humans are divine within, as there
is divinity without, but that they can be like a dirty lantern with caked on soil that masks
the light. He said it is an endless quest to keep the surface of the lantern clean. (Reference:
Huston Smith: Psychology of Religious Experience )
University of Pennsylvania’s Andrew Newberg says that human epiphanies, the small ‘Aha!’
moments, are moments of mystical clarity. The person is suddenly seeing things from a
different picture, seeing the big picture, and things fall into place in the mind.
6.6 THE MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE IS EXPLAINED THROUGH ONE’S

CULTURE, LANGUAGE, BELIEFS, SENSORY ABILITIES, BIOLOGY
Even if the mystical experiences of people are very similar, the individual interpretations
and explanations are influenced by the individual’s background, culture and beliefs.
In his book Religious Experiences (University of California Press, 1985), Columbia University
philosophy of religion professor Wayne Proudfoot writes that mystical experiences are
explained in a religious framework, and that the framework is unconscious. A Christian
may say she saw the Christian God, a Muslim Allah, and an atheist a secular vision.
In his book Mysticism and Philosophy, Princeton University philosopher Walter Terence
Stace says that mysticism is perception not interpretation, and that only after the mystical
experience is the interpretation made.
Psychologist Carl Jung discussed how much of human’s cognitive ordering, how they feel
and react to a situation is, is evolutionarily ingrained in us. He said that the mythical
archetypal visions of hero, tree of life, mother, birth, death, wise old man, are ingrained
in their minds, shared by most humans, and thus theoretically appear in mystical visions
across many cultures.
74
And, as is apt to happen, some will interpret the particular path they took to achieve the
mystical state (ceremony, religion, artwork, other) to be the ‘correct’ if not ‘only true’ path
to enlightenment. It is like people who try to ‘objectively’ identify the best art, when the
artistic experience is personally subjective.
6.7 EVEN BEYOND THESE DIFFERENCES CAUSED BY THE BELIEFS,

THE EXPERIENCES ARE STILL NOT PROVABLE OF TRUTH
Even though these experiences point to human’s normal views of realism being artificial and
arbitrary constructs, that does not mean the mystical experiences are ‘truth’ or ‘reality’--
though many claim they are.
The experiences are experiences. They may be less formed by the normal artificial cognitive
constructs of the mind, but they are still formed by the limits of human senses, their
biology. They are still a limited sensory view. There is no way to know this heightened
sensory experience is ‘truth’ or ‘reality.’
In the beginning and in the end, they are experiences. Trying to interpret them, assign
meaning, translate them into language, communicate what they are to others, are at odds of
what the are. It is fine to have an opinion about what is this experience-- but realize that it
is just that, an opinion. Humans want explanations for events, but not only cannot that be
done here, the rational or intuitive translation itself is opposed to the experiential nature.
It is interesting to note that theologians say that God or higher reality is both beyond
human comprehension and not. An oxymoron. They discuss how God and transcendent
reality is beyond human language, logic, conception and human constructs, but that one
can have a personal relationship or experience with it (mysticism). They also talk how
God or transcendental reality cannot be understood intellectually but can be through the
personal mystical experience. They say the mystical experience is a matter of being viscerally/
experientially aware of it. They see the mystical experiences as truth, which is debatable,
but are sharply aware of the dual nature of the mind and thinking. Look at the competing
quotes from the Koran:
“No vision can grasp Him. He is above all comprehension.”
– Quran
“Allah as close to a man as the vein in his neck.”
– Quran
75
Mystical experiences are good as they offer a different mental viewpoint that demonstrates
that the normal human view is arbitrary and false, and that there are different ways to look
at things. This itself is mind expanding. However, in the end they are just experiences and
there is no proof or real reason to think of them as ‘true.’
6.8 WHETHER REAL OR NOT, MYSTICAL

EXPERIENCES CAN BE LIFE CHANGING
Whether or not they are truthful looks at reality, the mystical events can change people’s
lives and help their lives. Even if they are not insights into objective truth, they can give
people new perspectives on things, new perspectives on their lives. They can make one reflect
on the artifice of one’s life and society, put things into different perspective.
“Mystical experiences are events that can shake up your

world in a single moment. They can also help us ‘on the
way out’; we exit them ‘transformed,”meaning that the
insights into our personal life or our very sense of being
are deeper and sharper after them.”
– Andrew Newberg MD, University of Pennsylvania.
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One should also not merely try to expand one’s mind through the rare mystical experience,
but through daily work. This includes meditation or helpful spiritual practices, and paying
attention to the world. ‘Stopping to smell the roses’ may not induce a mystical state, but
it is a daily practice that opens the mind and keeps things in perspective.
“There are two mistakes you can make. One is that you’re
too afraid of them, so you don’t allow them at all in your life,
you’re terrified of letting go of control. The other mistake
is that you’re really attached to them, so you’re constantly
searching for a high. It’s about finding a place for these
experiences in your life.”
– Jules Evans, research fellow at Queen Mary University

of London’s Centre for the History of Human Emotions
6.9 SUMMARY: KEY POINTS OF CHAPTER

Mystical experiences are altered from normal states of consciousness where it seems to
the experiencer that one has an expansive view or experience of the universe. The normal
perception of time, categorization and space dissolve, and the senses seem more heightened.
People often think they receive great insight and sublime knowledge.
Mystical experiences can happen unintentionally, and happen to both the religious and non-
religious. There are many ceremonial and other methods to try to achieve them. These include
religious art, music, meditation, drugs. Meditation, or meditative states, is a common strain.
Mystical experiences involve genuine neurological changes in the brain. During the
experiences, the normal cognitive filters are lowered that allowed a heightened, relatively
unfiltered experience of sensory information. This is often coupled with a dopamine rush
that gives a good feeling and association.
There are debates about the authenticity and what the experiences mean. True believers
believe them a genuine look into reality, transcends reality and even God. Skeptics say
they are are just delusions on the order of hallucinations. Those in between say they are
genuine sensory experiences when the filters are removed, but assign no special or ‘higher’
meaning to them.
These experiences show that the normal human concepts of labels, categories, self and time
are artificial constructs of the mind.
77
To the human, the mystical experiences are just sensory experiences. They cannot be explained
or interpreted accurately-- because that is at odds with the sensory experience. The ‘truth’
or ‘meaning’ cannot be known. Plus, the sensory information is still filtered and formed
by human sensory capabilities and biological methods.
These experiences can expand the mind, by giving new experiences, by showing the shallowness
of human normal thought and ways of thinking. However, they are still channeled by the
mind and senses and are unverifiable.

Article: “How does neuroscience explain spiritual experiences”
Stephen Hawking’s Views on Mysticism and Science
Article: “Brain origins of mysticism found”
Article on runner’s high
Article: “Neurotheology: Where religion and science collide”
Article: Do Animals Have Spiritual Experiences?
6.11 QUESTIONS
• Have you had a mystical experience? If so, explain it. How did it/does it affect
you?
• What are your opinions about mystical experiences? What is your opinion about
their authenticity? Are there any points in this chapter with which you disagree?
• Do you think mystical experiences are important? Is honing them important for
expanding the mind?
• How do you think mystical experiences relate to the topic of this book? Do they
serve to expand the mind? If so, how?
• Do you believe in a transcendent reality beyond humans?
78
COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES AS THE GENESIS OF
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS RELIGION, AND JOHN HICK’S PLURALISM
7 MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES AS
THE GENESIS OF RELIGION,
AND JOHN HICK’S PLURALISM
“I realized that all forms of religion are masks that the divine
wears to communicate with us. Behind all religions there’s
a reality, and this reality wears whatever clothes it needs
to speak to a particular people.”
– Rabbi Zalman Schachter-Shalomi
Mystical experiences are the genesis of religions. The religious dogmas and structures are built
around these experiences. They are made and used by humans to try to explain, interpret
and obtain, along with giving guidance to humans on how they can achieve, live and try
to understand things.
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION MYSTICAL EXPERIENCES AS THE GENESIS OF
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS RELIGION, AND JOHN HICK’S PLURALISM
With his theory of Pluralism, influential religious philosopher and Presbyterian Minister
John Hick believed that if different religions have genuine views into transcendent reality
(and he, for one believed that they have), these views are filtered through each religion’s/
people’s culture, time and place in history, political happenings, language, sentiments and
artistic traditions.
“In the late 1960s, Hick had (a) set of experiences that
dramatically affected his life and work. While working on
civil rights issues in Birmingham, he found himself working
and worshiping alongside people of other faiths. During
this time he began to believe that sincere adherents of
other faiths experience the Transcendent just as Christians
do, though with variances due to cultural, historical, and
doctrinal factors. These experiences led him to develop
his pluralistic hypothesis, which, relying heavily on Kant’s
phenomenal/noumenal distinction, states that adherents
of the major religious faiths experience the ineffable Real
through their varying culturally shaped lenses. ”
– David Cramer, Religious Studies Department, Baylor

University (reference)
Hick knew how human minds work, and that the broader reality and universe are beyond
human conception and senses and had to be translated for humans to grasp. The translation
is via language, culture, aesthetic norms, sentiments and social standards. The sacred texts
were composed by people for people, written in human language and cultural sensibilities.
Jesus and Buddha used instructional parables humans could understand and relate to. Hindu
texts and art use symbols and deities to represent higher reality. Organized religions and
their scriptures are human products and artifacts, and are inherently human-centric with
all the associated issues that come with human-centrism and human methods of sensing
and thinking.
7.1 FURTHER READING

John Hick’s Religious Pluralism
7.2 QUESTIONS
Do you agree with Hick’s theory? Do you think religions are equal in their insight, or do
you find some better than others?
80
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Eastern Versus Western Psychology: Introduction
8 EASTERN VERSUS WESTERN

PSYCHOLOGY: INTRODUCTION
The East (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism) and West (Western academic, science, medicine)
offer two different approaches to the study of the mind, and are emblematic of the
philosophical and epistemological study of the brain. They approach the brain differently,
looking at things at different levels, and have their own benefits and limitations. In the
end, the two approaches should compliment each other, and each school has influenced the
other. They also reflect on the two often contradicting ways human think and perceive: the
spiritual versus the scientific.
81
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Eastern Psychology
9 EASTERN PSYCHOLOGY
“After Self-Realization, one does not regard any other gain
superior to Self-Realization.”
– The Bhagavad Gita
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Psychology, both Eastern and Western, is important areas of understanding things and
expanding the mind. This chapter looks at the intuitive, some say mystical, Eastern psychology
(Buddhist, Taoist, Hindu), while the next chapter looks at the empirical, academic Western
psychology. They are different, and at best complimenting, studies of the human mind.
Both have their limits.
Eastern psychology is tied into the Eastern philosophy and theology, is more subjective and
inward looking than the academic West’s scientific approach. They, thus, differs in many
ways. It works to serve not just the mentally troubled, but everyone. It attempts through
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many methods and processes-- meditation, yoga, tai chi, mindfulness, personal introspection,
psychoanalysis-- to bring the individual to higher consciousness and enlightenment. This
shows how it is an intertwined with the religion and philosophy.
9.2 EASTERN PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY AND

THEOLOGY AS ONE NOT SEPARATES
In the West, psychology is separate from other sciences, religions and often even philosophy.
Traditionally it is considered bad, and even unethical and unscientific, to mix them together.
Some in the West consider theology and science to be like oil and water.
In the East, however, philosophy, psychology, theology and the way of life are all mixed
together, and considered parts of one whole.
“If we look deeply into such ways of life of Buddhism and

Taoism, Vedanta and Yoga, we do not find either philosophy
or religion as these are understood in the West. We find
something more nearly resembling psychotherapy”
– Philosopher Alan Watts, Psychotherapy East & West

(New World Library)
If you know Buddhist, Taoist and Hindu philosophy and their techniques for enlightenment
and leading a proper religious life, you essentially know their psychology. Buddhism is about
clearing and expanding the mind through meditation, mindfulness and proper living, which
is both a philosophical and psychological methodology. Same with the yoga and meditation
of Hinduism, and the Tai Chi of Taoism. It is about mystical awareness.
“Buddhism also is the most psychological of religions. It is

significant that the intricate workings of the human mind
are more fully dealt with in Buddhism rather than in any
other religion and therefore psychology works hand in hand
with Buddhism than with any other religion. Is Buddhism
related to modern psychology? one may ask. Yes, but with
some differences . . . Buddhism is more concerned with
the curative rather than the analysis. Psychology helps us
to understand life intellectually. Meditation goes beyond
the intellect to the actual experience of life itself. Through
Meditation the Buddha had discovered the deeper universal
melodies of the human heart and mind.”
– Anne Ihnen, Psychotherapist. (Purify Mind)
83
“If you were to go by the stream of psychology and

neuroscience books published over the last two decades,
you’d think Buddhism is an intricate philosophical system
designed by a man with a keen insight for the emergence of
psychoanalysis and philosophy some 2,400 years down the
road. Indeed, Buddhism lends itself to emergent sciences
in ways no other faith has. In fact, many modern thinkers,
including Sam Harris and Stephen Batchelor, question if faith
is even necessary to understand Buddhism. The question of
faith is one Siddhartha Gotama generally avoided.”
– Derek Beres (“Is Buddhism a religion or a philosophy?”)
Really, Eastern psychology is a mystical reflection and exploration. Buddhists regularly talk
about the shallowness of symbolic language, categorization, labels.
The ultimate goal in Hinduism is to become one with Brahman. This is achieved by gaining
complete knowledge with Brahman, Brahman in part seen as complete intelligence and
knowledge. Similarly, Buddhism doesn’t have a god or deity, but is about trying to expand
one’s mind to become one, or fully understand, the universe and transcendent reality.
Buddhism and Hinduism say that such knowledge is a realization of what already exists. This
is similar to Judaism that teaches that reality and truth are all around them, including in
their daily lives, and enlightenment is merely a matter of realizing it is there. Enlightenment,
or higher knowledge that includes but goes beyond book knowledge, is a concept common
to most religions. It is a higher consciousness, or awareness.
The Buddhist and Hindu process and practice of gaining ultimate enlightenment and
unification with reality centers around self-knowledge. This is because the Buddhist and
Hindus believe that transcendental reality is in all things, and the cause of all things. This
means that “God” is in everything-- a flower, a stone, the self. Thus, studying the self is
studying the universe and God. This is like pantheism.
As this path is long and arduous, Hinduism realizes that there are many intermediary steps
and people won’t be perfect from the start. It acknowledges that Brahman is well beyond
normal human understanding, and that many deities, demigods, rituals and icons can be
useful for normal people to have a quasi-connection to Brahman and the unknowable universe.
Brahman and the universe are beyond human symbols, yet the normal human needs symbols
to understand things. This is similar to Christianity, Islam and Judaism that sees symbols
and language itself as important, but artificial, limited and not true representations of God
and reality. Though, as in Buddhism, the ultimate Hindu goal is to rid oneself of all these
artificial trappings and ‘middle men’ in order to attain full enlightenment.
84
“Knowledge is better than mere ritualistic practice.”
– The Gita
9.3 EASTERN PSYCHOLOGY FOCUSES ON EVERYONE,

NOT JUST THE MENTALLY ILL OR TROUBLED
While traditionally Western clinical psychology and psychiatry were designed for the
treatment of the mentally ill or people having troubles, Eastern psychology was designed
for everyone, including the normal and healthy. Eastern psychologists say that a problem
with such Western psychology is that it applies its conclusions for treating the mentally ill
to everyone, which they feel is an incorrect approach.
Buddhist, Hindu and Taoist philosophies are designed to bring normal people into higher
states of enlightenment and knowledge of the universe, being of better conduct and living
better lives, and being harmonious with the universe. Eastern psychological techniques--
mindfulness, meditation, self reflection, yoga-- are for everyone, not just the mentally troubled.
85
In recent years, Western clinical psychology has caught on to this, as evidence by the
integration of Eastern psychological practices of mindfulness, meditation and yoga into
clinical psychology and daily life, along with the field of positive psychology.
“Positive Psychology is the scientific study of the strengths

that enable individuals and communities to thrive. The field
is founded on the belief that people want to lead meaningful
and fulfilling lives, to cultivate what is best within themselves,
and to enhance their experiences of love, work, and play.”
– Positive Psychology Center at the University of

Pennsylvania (https://ppc.sas.upenn.edu/)
“Positive psychology is the study of happiness. Psychology

has traditionally focused on dysfunction—people with
mental illness or other issues—and how to treat it. Positive
psychology, in contrast, is a field that examines how ordinary
people can become happier and more fulfilled.”
– Positive psychology, Psychology Today (reference)
9.4 EASTERN PSYCHOLOGY IS ABOUT

LOOKING INWARD AT THE SELF
“As by knowing one tool of iron, dear one, we come to
know all things made out of iron. That they differ only in
name and form, While the stuff of which all are made is
iron, So through spiritual wisdom, dear one, we come to
know that all of life is one.”
– The Upanishads (Hinduism)
“The little space within the heart is as great as the vast

universe. The heavens and the earth are there, and the sun
and the moon and the stars. Fire and lightning and winds
are there, and all that now is and all that is not.”
– The Upanishads
Hinduism and Buddhism were well ahead of their time, at least compared to Western
psychology and science, in that they focused on the inner mental self, studying one’s own
mind and inner world. That was the center of study and spiritual practice, and laboratory
of examination. Hinduism and Buddhism consider one’s self a reflection or microcosm of
the universe. From a practical standpoint, it is all humans one can really study and know.
Even the perception of the external world is in part product of the self.
86
“Ancient Indian philosophy says that man is the microcosm of

the Universe. The Universe is referred to as the brahmanda
(i.e. Egg of Brahma) and Man is referred to kshudra-brahmanda
(i.e. Little Egg of Brahma). The Greeks also believed in
the same concept.”
– Integral Yoga of Sri Aurobindo
This reflection and study of the self is intuitive and subjective. This goes against the tenets of the
West’s scientific method. However, the East sees the limits of the Western psychology that only
studies that which can be objectively and externally measured. There is much in psychology, in
the self and the universe that is personal, unmeasurable and unquantifiable: emotional feeling,
aesthetic experience, mystic experience, much of the religious and spiritual experience. Much
of the universe is beyond science, human logic and symbolic language. Mysticism attempts to
become closer with the transcendental universe in personal, a-rational ways.
“A central feature of Buddhist psychology is its methodology,

which is based on personal experience through introspection
and phenomenological self observation. According to the
Buddha while initially unreliable, one’s mind can be trained,
calmed and cultivated so as to make introspection a refined
and reliable method. This methodology is the foundation for
the personal insight into the nature of the mind the Buddha
is said to have achieved. While introspection is a key aspect
of the Buddhist method, observation of a person’s behavior
is also important.”
– Alchetron.com, “Buddhism and Psychology” (alchetron.

com/Buddhism-and-psychology)
While Western psychology shies away from introspection and personal subjectivity, this
Eastern study of the inner works of the mind was centuries ahead of Western psychology’s
cognitive psychology that used scientific methods to study the inner workings of the mind.
In fact, the West’s behaviorism and structuralism intentionally avoided the ‘untestable’ inner
workings of the mind, and were criticized even by Western psychologists for this blind spot.
That something cannot be scientifically studied, or that you choose to ignore it, doesn’t
make it non-existant or unimportant. It makes the study unwhole.
It is true that this exploration is subjective to the person, and this is a limit and a problem.
However, the human experience, all human experience, is subjective. While it is limiting and
corrupting, it is also a path that the Eastern psychologists take to expand their mind. All
explorations and modes of study, all attempts to expand the mind, have limits and problems.
87
9.5 EASTERN PSYCHOTHERAPY

Along with studying and reflection on the inner workings of the mind, early Eastern
psychology had many clinical psychology and cognitive therapy methods that are used
today in the West.
The following are cognitive therapy methods used by Hindus:
“Fear reduction by graded exposure and reciprocal inhibition;

using rewards for promoting desirable behavior; modelling
for inducing behavioral change; the use of stimulus control
to eliminate undesirable behavior; the use of aversion to
eliminate undesirable behavior; training in social skills; self-
monitoring; control of intrusive thoughts by distraction,
switching/stopping, incompatible thoughts, and by prolonged
exposure to them; intense, covert, focusing on the unpleasant
aspects of a stimulus or the unpleasant consequences of a
response, to reduce attachment to the former and eliminate
the latter; graded approach to the development of positive
feelings towards others: use of external cues in behavior
control; use of response cost to aid elimination of undesirable
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behavior; use of family members for carrying out behavior

change programs; and cognitive-behavioral methods--for
example, for grief.”
– Padmal de Silva, lecturer in psychology at King’s

College.
“Letting go gives us freedom, and freedom is the only

condition for happiness. If, in our heart, we still cling to
anything - anger, anxiety, or possessions - we cannot be free.”
– Buddhist monk Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart of the

Buddha’s Teaching: Transforming Suffering into Peace,
Joy, and Liberation
In the video ‘The Roots of Buddhist Psychology,’ Buddhist psychologist and meditation
expert Dr. Jack Kornfield talks about the Buddhist method that intertwines practices such as
mindfulness, meditation and introspection with moral and ethical living of loving kindness,
charity and environmentalism. He says one should work to rid oneself of delusions, and
realize that all one needs is in the self. One key method is to mindfully watch how one
reacts to situations-- what triggers anger, sadness-- and observe what one really feels. The
goal is to be aware and fix things as needed. A key is to be open and not avoid painful
thoughts or bad things about the world. Awareness and enlightenment are keys both as a
philosophy and cognitive/clinical therapy. Kornfield says one should rid oneself of the ego
(an artificial construct), or at least see it for what it is. And he says true enlightenment
is when the mind and the universe are inseparable. As you see, Buddhist psychology and
philosophy are one.
“When the stories of our life no longer bind us, we discover

within them something greater. We discover that within the
very limitations of form, of our maleness and femaleness,
of our parenthood and our childhood, of gravity on the
earth and the changing of the seasons, is the freedom and
harmony we have sought for so long. Our individual life is
an expression of the whole mystery, and in it we can rest
in the center of the movement, the center of all worlds.”
– Jack Kornfield, A Path with Heart: A Guide Through the

Perils and Promises of Spiritual Life
“When we let go of our battles and open our heart to things

as they are, then we come to rest in the present moment.
This is the beginning and the end of spiritual practice. Only
in this moment can we discover that which is timeless. Only
here can we find the love that we seek. Love in the past
89
is simply memory, and love in the future is fantasy. Only

in the reality of the present can we love, can we awaken,
can we find peace and understanding and connection with
ourselves and the world.”
– Jack Kornfield, A Path with Heart: A Guide Through the

Perils and Promises of Spiritual
The Taoists believe that one should live in harmony with nature, and its psychology works
to fix bad habits and thoughts that prevent this.
“As we have seen, a similar idea plays an important role

in Taoist philosophy. Like modern day psychologists, the
ancient Taoists came to realize that a set of deeply seated
motivations underlie our daily actions. These motivating
forces remain hidden, yet actively work to determine our
behavior. As part of Taoist philosophy, Taoist teachers agree
that as we age, we learn to accept certain ideas and beliefs
about ourselves and others and about how the world works
in general. Once we have accepted them, they become
part of us, and we refuse to modify them even if they are
absolutely wrong. Over time, these ideas sink to the back
of our minds, and while they still influence our thinking
processes, we are no longer aware they even exist. In this
way, our hidden human motivations can indeed determine
our everyday patterns of thought and behavior. The basic
problem with these hidden values is that they are unnecessarily
restricting and can even be dangerous. Eventually, they can
manifest as a pathological condition.”
– Taoist Philosophy
Much Taoist psychology work is beyond words, such as Tai Chi. Taoists believe it is not
just words and thoughts that are important, but even the way one moves, even walks across
a room. This is mystical.
“In terms of the physical, we learn to be inflexible and

awkward in our movements. Over time, this state negates
the natural athletic abilities most of us possess as children.”
– Taoist Philosophy
But, again, as with Buddhism and Hinduism, Taoism isn’t just trying to deal with normal
living, but to raise one’s mind and consciousness to a higher, beyond-normal level. This is
how it ties into its theology.
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9.6 EASTERN PSYCHOLOGY IS CONCERNED WITH

SOCIETY AND EARTH, NOT JUST THE INDIVIDUAL
While Eastern Psychology works with the individual, including teaching him or her to work
on the self while living in a troubled, distracting, materialistic and often corrupt society,
it also is concerned with society as a whole and the whole universe. Remember that the
Eastern religions see everything as intertwined, not separate.
While Western psychology often sees mental illness as one who does not fit in with society, the
East often sees the society itself as being the ill one. The East often sees that the enlightened
will be seen as mentally ill by the West, because the enlightened person’s thoughts and ways
do not conform. Eastern psychology is concerned with social greed, corruption, war, ethnic
and racial hatred, and often views them as the result of the people’s errant inner thoughts.
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“Many Buddhist practitioners have questioned what to do

in these turbulent times. More than anything, I believe the
world is in need of a spiritual perspective. The Dharma—
the teachings of generosity, virtue, loving-kindness, and
wisdom—are non-partisan. The benefits of dharma teachings
can be used by Republicans and Democrats, by Green
Party and Libertarians, by Iraqis and Israelis. The Dharma
welcomes everyone and encourages all to awaken together.
But how, as dharma practitioners, do we find our own place
in a complex political world and find a way towards peace?
Our first task is to make our own heart a zone of peace.
Instead of becoming entangled in an embattled bitterness
or cynicism that exists externally, we need to begin to heal
those qualities within ourselves. We have to face our own
suffering, our own fear, and transform them into compassion.
Only then can we become ready to offer genuine help to
the outside world. Albert Camus writes, “We all carry within
us our places of exile, our crimes, our ravages. Our task is
not to unleash them on the world; it is to transform them
in ourselves.”
– Jack Kornfield (jackkornfield.com/dharma-politics/)
Duly note that when we talk about ‘Western psychology’ we talk about traditional white
psychology. Many non-geographically Eastern aboriginal religions and beliefs are much in
alignment with the East not the white West. The below is a comparison of Buddhism and
American Indian beliefs.
“There is a great similarity between Native American

spirituality and the Tibetan Buddhist teachings of compassion
and respect for every living creature. This respect for all life
is what I learned from my Cree grandmother when I was a
child. There are many Tibetan teachers who come through
here and I try to attend their sessions. They are grounded in
the environment, and they have ceremonies similar to ours
of burning cedar to invite and honor the spirits-the spirits
of the mountains, the spirits of the water, the Elemental
Beings and the great Thunderbird who brings the rains of
purification and regeneration. The spiritual power of thunder
and lightning is central to both Native and Buddhist traditions.
These ancient traditions hold that Thunder Beings are the
spiritual and physical manifestations of Spirit. Some of the
Tibetan Buddhist practices and most of those of Native
American are grounded in relationship to the elements and
all beings. The Tibetans have a smoke offering ceremony
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called Sang in which you make a fire and then put juniper
branches and other offerings like grains, honey and milk
products to make smoke. You see the smoke from that fire
turning into offerings for all beings. The Native Americans
also use smoke from cedar and age for purification. For me,
the sweat lodge, or Stone People’s Lodge, is a bit like the
Tibetan Buddhist Mandala.”
– Buddhism & Native American Practices, Interview with

American Indian Lorraine Fox Davis and Buddhist Lama
Tsultrim Allione (taramandala.org)
“From Wakan Tanka, the Great Spirit, there came a great

unifying life force that flowed in and through all things —
the flowers of the plains, blowing winds, rocks, trees, birds,
animals — and was the same force that had been breathed
into the first man. Thus all things were kindred, and were
brought together by the same Great Mystery.”
– Lakota Chief Luther Standing Bear
9.7 QUESTION
What, in your opinion, are some positives and negatives with Eastern psychology?
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Western Psychology And The Scientific Method
10 WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY AND

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
“The task of science is to stake out the limits of the knowable”
– German physician and biologist, Rudolf Virchow
This chapter looks at both the Western academic approach to studying the mind (psychology),
and the limits of the scientific methods both in psychology and in science in general.
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Figure 10.1 American psychologist and

behaviorist B.F. Skinner (credit: Wikipedia)
10.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is a brief look at Western psychology, a relatively modern area that studies
human minds and behavior using the scientific method. It studies humans using observation
and measurable sensory information.
This method has produced much important information about humans and animals, but the
scientific method cannot study or know about some areas, such as theology, what emotions
feel like, subjective experience, mystical experience, aesthetics and other integral parts of
the human and human experience.
Western psychologists and others have realized the limitations of this scientific psychology,
and have integrated Eastern theology, psychology and practices, in particular into clinical
psychology. Studying both Eastern and Western psychology, one comes to the conclusion
that both approaches are useful, and should be integrated or complimented. It is not an
either/or but a both/and.
10.2 WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE

Unlike the centuries old Eastern psychology, Western Psychology of the academic Europe and
North America is a relatively recent area, started in the mid-1800s. Western psychology is
the scientific study of human minds and behavior, traditionally approaching from a strictly
scientific point of view.
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“Psychology is the science that studies why human beings

and animals behave as they do. Psychologists are interested
in understanding the whole range of human experience,
including the reasons for people’s motives, thoughts,
feelings and emotions. These problems have puzzled man
for centuries. But the scientific study of such problems only
began in the mid-1800s . . . Psychologists have learned much
about behavior and experience, but they have made only
a beginning. There is a great deal they know little about,
and a lot to be discovered. Suppose you ask yourself ‘How
does my brain function as a mind?’ You would be asking
a question that has baffled investigators for hundreds of
years. The question is still largely unanswered, but it is
being studied by many psychologists’ collaboration with
neurophysiologists and other scientists.”
– Hadley Cantril, Psychology Professor at Princeton

University (world book encyclopedia)
As it is a science, psychology uses the scientific empirical method used in all areas of Western
science.
The scientific method is the process where scientists collectively and over time try to create
reliably objective representations, theories and/or models of the world and the things in it.
It is applied to all areas of science, including chemistry, biology, physics, engineering and
medicine. In particular, it creates theories and experimentally tests them through the senses
and observations. It attempts to be objective and remove the scientists’ biases, though biases
can never be entirely escaped.
“The scientific method has four steps: 1. Observation and

description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena. 2.
Formulation of an hypothesis to explain the phenomena.
In physics, the hypothesis often takes the form of a causal
mechanism or a mathematical relation. 3. Use of the
hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena,
or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.
4. Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by
several independent experimenters and properly performed
experiments . . . If the experiments bear out the hypothesis
it may come to be regarded as a theory or law of nature
(more on the concepts of hypothesis, model, theory and law
below). If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it
must be rejected or modified. What is key in the description
of the scientific method just given is the predictive power
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(the ability to get more out of the theory than you put in;
see Barrow, 1991) of the hypothesis or theory, as tested by
experiment. It is often said in science that theories can never
be proved, only disproved. There is always the possibility
that a new observation or a new experiment will conflict
with a long-standing theory.”
– University of Rochester Physics and Astronomy

Professor Frank L. H. Wolfs
The science of psychology avoids individual introspection, experimentation through subjective

personal feelings, intuition. It considers many areas such as palm reading, crystals and mystic
intuition to be pseudoscience. It is wary of the way lay people use personal or anecdotal
experiences as proof of broader laws. They know that such personal experience is subjective
and formed by personal and often irrational biases.
There are many areas, schools and specialties in Western psychology. The following shows
a few major ones, demonstrating how the scientific method is used and how each area has
its limitations.
10.3 STRUCTURALISM
In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt introduced the first formal experimental psychology, and his area
of study was called structuralism. He worked to study the conscious mind-- totally ignoring
the unconscious mind--, and intentionally studied it using the scientific methods he saw
being used in chemistry and physics.
“At the turn of the century, many advances in science were

occurring due to a fundamental concept that philosophers
of science refer to as ‘elementism.’ Structuralism can be
defined as psychology as the study of the elements of
consciousness. The idea is that conscious experience can
be broken down into basic conscious elements, much as
a physical phenomenon can be viewed as consisting of
chemical structures, that can in turn be broken down into
basic elements. In fact, much of the research conducted
in Wundt’s laboratory consisted of cataloging these basic
conscious elements. For example, one of Wundt’s research
assistants might describe an object such as an apple in terms
of the basic perceptions it invoked (e.g., “cold”, “crisp”,
and “sweet”).”
– Missouri University of Science & Technology

‘Psychology World’
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An obvious limitation of structuralism is that it was limited in its study conscious mind.
10.4 BEHAVIORISM
Another major psychology school/movement that shows both the objective scientific method
and its limits was behavior psychology or behaviorism. The earlier pictured B.F. Skinner of
Harvard University was the leader in this area.
Behavioralism studied the outward behavior of humans and animals. It dismissed the
inward personal experiences and non-symbolic thoughts of the subjects, as they could not
be objectively measured. Behavioralism studied how humans and animal outwardly reacted
(behavior) to events, stimuli and actions, and could even be used to alter human behavior.
Pavlov’s dog that drooled at the ringing of a bell in anticipation of food is perhaps the
most famous example.

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“Behaviorism was a movement in psychology and philosophy

that emphasized the outward behavioral aspects of thought
and dismissed the inward experiential, and sometimes the
inner procedural, aspects as well; a movement harking
back to the methodological proposals of John B. Watson,
who coined the name. Watson’s 1913 manifesto proposed
abandoning Introspectionist attempts to make consciousness
a subject of experimental investigation to focus instead on
behavioral manifestations of intelligence. B. F. Skinner later
hardened behaviorist strictures to exclude inner physiological
processes along with inward experiences as items of legitimate
psychological concern. “
– Philosophy Professor Larry Hauser, Alma College

(reference)
10.5 LOOKING INSIDE: COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Psychologists and philosophers saw the obvious blindspot of structuralism and behaviorism:
They ignored the inner experiences of the mind. The inner experience is hard to study
externally, but that does not make it any less real or any less important a subject.
The next major movement was cognitive psychology that worked to study the inner
workings of the mind: how the mind works, processes information, comes to judgments,
the emotions, attention, etc.
“The successful ‘cognitive revolution’ of the nineteen sixties

styled itself a revolt against behaviorism even though the
computational processes cognitivism hypothesized would
be public and objective -- not the sort of private subjective
processes Watson banned. Consequently (and ironically),
would-be-scientific champions of consciousness now indict
cognitivism for its “behavioristic” neglect of inward experience.”
– Philosophy Professor Larry Hauser, Alma College

(reference)
This area also uses the scientific method, and often incorporates biologists, biochemists,
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Along with old school testing methods, cognitive psychology
uses MRI, brain scans to study how the brain reacts under different circumstances from
sleep to art perception to fear. It may be a study of the inside of the brain, but it is no less
scientific than behaviorism.
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Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis and theories have been refuted over the years, and often
called pseudoscience in part because they are testable by the scientific method, but he is
credited with studying the subconscious mind, and showing that it affects the conscious mind.
Structuralism, behaviorism and cognitive psychology are just three of many areas of psychological
study, but show the progression of the areas of study and the use of the scientific method.
10.6 LIMITS OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD,

INCLUDING IN PSYCHOLOGY
Science is a tool, a careful and exacting tool, but all tools have limits. With science, this
includes what it can and cannot study.
Despite wishing to remove subjectivity and bias form the theories and experiments, this
cannot be entirely done. The history of science is filled with sexism, racism, human-centrism,
moral and other biases. It would be foolish to think they can ever be entirely removed. The
human race has biases simply by being human.
Biases appear in what is studied, what are the purposes, how funding is allocated. The
theories that are tested are devised by humans with their aesthetic tastes and sensibilities.
Theories that fall outside of human thinking are never addressed. The testing is based on
sensory information humans and their instruments can perceive, and not using what cannot
be perceived or detected. Human logic and symbolic thinking are used, so the science will
have these biases and myopocism.
Scientific models show the subjective and even aesthetic tastes of humans-- the standard
forms, the styles, the colors used (See chapter 25).
Science can only study that which can be objectively observed or measured, and many real
things are outside of this realm. This includes the artistic experience, the mystical experience,
inner feelings, the aesthetic experience of music, emotions and internal non-symbolic
experiences. This should show the limits of Western psychology as applied to humans and
the human mind.
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“Clearly, the scientific method is a powerful tool, but it does

have its limitations. These limitations are based on the fact
that a hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable and that
experiments and observations be repeatable. This places
certain topics beyond the reach of the scientific method.
Science cannot prove or refute the existence of God or any
other supernatural entity.”
– Science educator William Harris
“Religion does not have to be involved for a question to

be unsuitable for scientific research. Anytime a construct
that can’t be reliably measured is involved or depends for
its existence on assumptions which cannot be tested, you
are outside the range of the scientific method.”
– Clinical psychologist Dr. Lawrence B. Erdile (quora.com)
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“Like any good scientist, you may question the range

of situations (outside of science) in which the scientific
method may be applied. We determine that the scientific
method works best in situations where one can isolate the
phenomenon of interest, by eliminating or accounting for
extraneous factors, and where one can repeatedly test the
system under study after making limited, controlled changes
in it. There are, of course, circumstances when one cannot
isolate the phenomena or when one cannot repeat the
measurement over and over again. In such cases the results
may depend in part on the history of a situation. This often
occurs in social interactions between people. For example,
when a lawyer makes arguments in front of a jury in court,
she or he cannot try other approaches by repeating the
trial over and over again in front of the same jury. In a new
trial, the jury composition will be different. Even the same
jury hearing a new set of arguments cannot be expected
to forget what they heard before.”
– Physics and Astronomy Professor Frank L. H. Wolfs,

University of Rochester
10.7 MOVING BEYOND THE LIMITS OF SCIENCE

IN WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY
In recent times, people in the West have seen these limits in Western psychology, in
particular in the clinical and therapeutic ways where they are dealing with real individuals
with personal problems. The West has incorporated many Eastern psychology theories in
practices. Meditation, self-introspection, yoga, mindfulness and acupuncture are commonplace
these days in the West, including in mainstream psychology.
Humanistic psychology is a clinical psychology that values the private, subjective experience
and even says it is more important to the individual. New age religions incorporate both
Western science and Eastern practices.
10.8 QUESTION
What are some strengths and weaknesses with Western psychology and the scientific method?
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SUMMARY OF EASTERN VERSUS WESTERN
COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION PSYCHOLOGY, AND THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS THE SPIRITUAL AND SCIENTIFIC VIEWS
11 SUMMARY OF EASTERN VERSUS

WESTERN PSYCHOLOGY,
AND THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN THE SPIRITUAL
AND SCIENTIFIC VIEWS
“To put it at its simplest: science takes things apart to see
how they work. Religion puts things together to see what
they mean. And we need them both, the way we need the
two hemispheres of the brain.”
– Rabbi Jonathan Sacks
11.1 OVERVIEW
Eastern and Western psychology study and focus on different aspects of the mind. Each
has its own scope and methodology.
Eastern psychology is intuitive and mystical in its approach, and studies the self, its emotions,
feelings, mystical experience of things. It is of the belief that studying the self is studying
the universe--- a theory consistent with mystical experiences where things appear to be one,
where there is no ‘self versus other.’ It studies things and addresses questions that cannot be
addressed by science. However, its limits are that it is subjective and much of its findings
cannot be verified empirically.
Western psychology uses the scientific method to study the human brain and mind. It is
an exacting tool, which is its strength. However, its limits are that there are things that are
beyond empirical study. Science can only study that which can be objectively measured
and ‘seen.’ Further, science is a work in progress, with theories proven wrong, adapted and
fixed. This is both its strength and its weakness.
Each method is limited, and both complementary and conflicting. Such is the nature of
human existence.
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While the brain and body simultaneously use both hemispheres of the brain, some say that
religion, or spirituality, is a proverbial right brain activity, while science is a proverbially
left brain activity.
“Religion is an associative, holistic, right-brain activity,

while science and philosophy are linear, analytical, left-
brain disciplines. In one fell swoop, the entire enterprise of
reconciling science and religion (and, ergo, apprehending
religion through philosophy) is torn asunder: “Greek science
and philosophy and the Judaic experience of God are two
different languages, that—like the left- and right-brain
modes of thinking— only imperfectly translate into one
another”. This distinction allows religion to be recognized
for what it truly is—a meaning-making enterprise that was
never meant to offer scientific facts about the natural world
or to be analyzed through the prism of logic.”
– Rabbi Daniel Goodman (Reference: Harvard Divinity

Bulletin)

>studyinsweden.se
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Video: Prominent University of California San Diego neurologist V. S. Ramachandran

explains the case of split-brain patients with one hemisphere (the right) without
a belief in a god, and the other (left) with a belief in a god.
Split brain with one half atheist and one half theist
Video: An interesting dialogue between Ram Dass and Timothy Leary, both
former Harvard psychologists. You will notice that Dass has a particularly Eastern
frame of mind, while Leary is decidedly Western. Leary is concerned with labels
and term definitions, while Dass sees them as unimportant:
Timothy Leary and Ram Dass Debate
11.2 FOCUS: CHARLES TOWNE ON RELIGION AND SCIENCE

University of California-Berkeley physics professor and co-inventor of the laser and maser
Charles H. Townes won the Nobel Prize for physics. He was also devoutly religious, a
member of the United Church of Christ. He felt that science and religion were trying to
answer different questions about the universe, and predicted that in the future the two
would merge to give greater understanding of the nature of the universe.
Video: Charles Townes on Science and Religion Charles Townes on Science

and Religion
Link: Townes on how scientific discovery and religion have similar qualities
Now watch the following video where another Nobel Prize winning physicist, Richard
Feynman, discusses the intent of science versus the intention of religious speculation.
Feynman was an atheist but confirms that science and religion or spirituality are looking
at different aspects.
Video: Richard Feynman: “The Uncertainty Of Knowledge”
11.3 NATURAL THEOLOGY

Natural theology studies and theorizes about the universe, god and the nature and details
thereof, using human reason and observation. It excludes the use of mysticism, and divine
revelation such as Biblical or Quranic scripture.
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“Natural theology is the science of God, so far as God can

be known by the light of our reason alone.”
– Bernard Boedder, Catholic Priest and author of Natural

Theology (Jacques Maritain Center at Notre Dame
University)
This type of study can be traced to the logical philosophy of Aristotle and Plato, but is
particularly associated with the writings of Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas thought that theological
matters could be studied logically and through earthly observation, with the occasional aid
of revelation.
The logical and scientific study of that which is beyond logic and science seems problematic,
though Aquinas said human reason is a gift from God and what separates humans from the
rest of the animals. And many theologians will say that theology involves a combination
of reason, faith and mysticism.
Further reading: ‘Natural Theology’ entry at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
11.4 QUESTIONS
• What do you think of the different approaches of Eastern and Western
psychology?
• Do you think one is better than the other? Do you think they can be used
together?
• Do you believe that science and religion are complementary or competing?
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION THE CONSTANT FIGHT BETWEEN THE
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS TWO WAYS OF THINKING
12 THE CONSTANT FIGHT BETWEEN

THE TWO WAYS OF THINKING
In the 1985 movie Ladyhawke, two lovers were cursed, he to be a wolf at night and she
to be a hawk during day. They could not be human together.
There has always been and always will be fights between the two ways of thinking, the
proverbial right hemisphere/mystical/artistic way and the left/scientific/mathematical/logical.
This chapter demonstrates the conflict between the two types of thinking and perceiving.
LOGIC VERSUS ART, FACTS VERSUS FICTION

IN EXPLAINING HIGHER IDEAS
Humans perceive and interpret the world in many ways. Humans think of things rationally,
irrationally, consciously, subconsciously, emotionally, intuitively, directly, indirectly, aesthetically,
figuratively, literally, ‘from the head and from the heart’-- in a varying combination of these
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and more all at once. A human can think rationally one moment and be emotionally swept
up by a song on the radio the next. Math professors fall head over heels in love, and abstract
painters calculate their taxes. A great movie is sometimes enjoyed on the intellectual and
visceral levels.
A human’s best possible exploration, understanding and expression of the universe use all
the levels. An interpretation of the universe through only mathematics or only music is
inherently limited. Many things in the world can’t be explained with mathematics-- love
and beauty for examples--, just as mathematics can’t be explained with love and beauty. An
explanation using just one level is flawed.
This chapter touches on two standard and distinct ways humans try to explain and study
the complex world: the rational/factual essay and art. One is based on reason and logic
(rational/factual explanation). The other has its meaning in the irrational (art). Each is a
worthwhile method of communication yet limited and different in what it can express.
Rational explanation
Humans often find it important to explore subjects and ideas logically and with unbiased
facts. A rational fact-based essay uses reason and, well, logic. It tries to remove emotion,
whims, logical fallacies, subjectivity and, except when clearly identified as such, the author’s
opinion. The language of a logical essay or book itself is expected to be free of logical
fallacies and linguistic muddiness.
Logical essay
In proofing the logical essay, the writer and proofreader make sure that statements are
consistent. As statements are built upon statements, even small logical fallacies can undercut
the entire essay.
The following are examples of checking the logic of statements.
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Statement #1: “Jenny has only one brother. Thus, her brother has only one
sibling.”
Analysis of statement #1: Incorrect, should be rewritten. If Jenny has a sister,

then the second statement would be untrue, as John would then have more than
one sibling. While John may indeed only have one sibling, the first sentence
does not prove the second.
Statement #2: “Jenny’s favorite type of fruit over all other fruit is the orange.
Thus, the banana is not her favorite fruit.”
Analysis of #2: The statement is logically correct.
Art
Opposed to the logical essay, the essential meaning of art is based in irrationality. While a
work of art has an underlying and often even logic-related structure, the essential meaning
is irrational-- sublimeness, profound beauty, aesthetic taste, emotional response. Art produces
a profound psychological, sometimes visceral effect on the audience and it is here where
the meaning exists.
This irrational meaning is illustrated by the wordless music you love. There is nothing
logical or rational in the sounds or the emotional reaction you get from them. The aesthetic
experiences exist beyond reason.
Art
Artists intentionally subvert logic, reason, objectivity and reality to produce the desired
psychological effect in the audience.
Many paintings intentionally distort reality. Look at paintings by Picasso, Dali, Cezanne,
Jackson Pollock and Renoir. Even the ‘realistic’ paintings of the 1300s have impossible
dimensions, odd looking humans and made up visual stories. Classic movies and novels have
unreal plots, characters, timing and effects. Some are fairy tales and some are science fiction.
To produce the desired emotions in the audience most movies have music soundtracks.
In real life many of the scenes portrayed would have no full symphonic accompaniment.
Washington crossing the Delaware, man lost alone in the middle of the desert, Humphrey
Bogart walking a deserted street. Most movie music is a calculated distortion of reality for
psychological purposes.
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Isn’t there something bizarre about musical accompaniment for a National Geographic
documentary about insects? What does synthesizer or orchestral arrangement have to do
with ants? The answer is it has nothing to do with ants, and everything to do with the
audience’s psychology.
Art
Art is so different than the real world that its truth is derived from lies. Shakespeare’s Hamlet
is made up. Of Mice and Men is a figment of John Steinbeck’s imagination. Picasso once
said, “Art is a lie that tells the truth.”
An irreconcilable conflict exists between art and the rational essay. One requires rationality
and the other involves irrationality. Each subverts the other.
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Logic
An inherent problem with the rational factual essay is that, despite the author’s intentions, it
can never be free of the things the author wishes it to be free of-- subjectiveness, irrationalness
and arbitrariness.
The author has personal taste about writing style, structure, pacing and overall presentation.
A writer can’t write or think without using a plethora of conceits, some chosen, some
nonconscious, some inborn. A writer can’t visualize things in his mind without biases,
personal and cultural ways of grouping, labeling and conceptualizing. Writers take into
consideration the conceits of the audience, as the point of the essay is to communicate.
Even the seemingly perfectly logical equation 1 + 1 = 2 demonstrates human taste in the
spacing, balance, linearity, colors. Many would rewrite “1 +1 = 2” as “1 + 1 = 2.” The
equations mean the same thing, so the reason for the change is aesthetic.
Pure mathematicians will be the first to tell you that math can be beautiful and ugly, and
that their research is influenced by aesthetics. In practice, human logic and philosophy have
their own art.
Facts versus aesthetics in a biography

The subject of the biographical movie or book is or was flesh and blood, a life filled with
measurable facts, dates, times, durations, amounts, heights, geography, quotes, test scores,
employment records, mailing addresses. Yet a strict recitation of facts will not wholly represent
the person and her life, much less engage the audience. A person is much more than facts
and dates. Character, personality, aesthetic vision (perhaps the subject was a great artist),
beliefs, faiths, mental conflicts, contradictions, urges, dreams, fears, subjective experiences,
nonconscious, desires.
A famous composer might say, “If you want to know who I am, listen to my music. That’s
all you need.” A woman might say, “If you want to know about me, forget about my high
school transcript and the conversations I have with my boss. Watch my favorite movie. If
you don’t get the movie, you’ll never understand me.” Her favorite movie probably was made
by someone she never met, perhaps who died before she was born, the movie isn’t about
her, perhaps takes place in a country or even planet she’s never been too and may not have
a single character that resembles or acts like her or even speaks her language.
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Even when distorting facts and logic and time, a biography that is a work of art can, at
least in a way, be a better representation of the subject, his deeper personality and vision.
This type of biography is an aesthetic or psychological representation of the person, as a
Cezanne painting is a figurative representation of a landscape. Cezanne didn’t intend or
expect for the viewer to take the painting literally.
The essential problem in the biography is that to create this psychological representation,
one must distort the literal truth. And to tell the literal truth, one destroys this aesthetic
truth. The biographer needs the two to exist together, but they cannot.
The conflict between the two ways of thinking

This conflict is an example that shows how there are things beyond human intelligence and
consciousness, and that humans are trying to understand them using sparse and too limited
of tools. They are looking at something from different narrow views, with the views giving
different, conflicting ideas.
There is also the unanswerable question of if the conflict is an indication that the unified
truth is beyond human understanding or if there is no single truth. Humans have a bias
towards wanting a unified truth-- a single model or theory to explain everything--, but
perhaps there are multiple truths. Perhaps there are many different truths, some or all that
conflict with each other. Perhaps there is no meaning(s) or truth(s), and, like ‘art,’ those terms
are merely human conceptions-- and that’s why humans can’t find “truth” and “meaning.”
Some believe that if one can somehow combine the two ways of thinking, one will have
a complete, whole view and understanding of things, but there likely is not true. They are
just two of many possible ways of perceiving and thinking about things, and the combing
of the two will likely still give a limited and distorted view.
No matter how hard you think, you won’t be able to answer these questions. They are
beyond the limits of human minds.
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Art As Religion Or Spirituality
13 ART AS RELIGION OR
SPIRITUALITY
The first time I saw 2001: A Space Odyssey I thought it
was the greatest movie I’d ever seen and I didn’t know
what it was about. I still don’t know and still think it is the
greatest movie.
My friend Lidia Están said “It is a film about God, or about

intelligence. God is intelligence.”
I say it is about things beyond the human comprehension

and the capabilities of the human mind. It can’t expose
it, but, as with great art, points towards it. Vis a vis Lidia,
it points towards things larger, more intelligent than the
human mind. As with great music and paintings, its plot
and meaning is at the subconscious level, because what
it points towards is beyond our conscious understanding.

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The movie is about the evolution of the human species

once every millions of years influenced by never seen (by
the characters nor the audience) aliens . . . What makes the
movie so formidable is at the end it envisions an evolutionary
step to something far, far beyond the intelligence and
consciousness of current humans, including the viewing
audience, and even beyond the genius ‘smarter than humans’
supercomputer in the movie. The movie is so mysterious
and incomprehensible because it attempts to go beyond
current human consciousness and intelligence levels.
Director Stanley Kubrick said that in the film he was trying

to be philosophical, but through images and sounds rather
than words, and even compared the movie to a painting.
– from Noise Music: Cognitive Psychology, Aesthetics and

Epistemology
“Art is a lie that takes us closer to the truth”
– Picasso
I have an atheistic friend who is against religions, but loves art. I tell her that art is much
like a religion. And it is. It is an emotional, intuitive, “right hemisphere” way to experience a
sublime and a transcendental-like experience. It offers a look into transcendental perception,
truths and ideas beyond the consciousness, beyond the literal and beyond imminent reality.
It offers deep emotional, intuitive looks into the universe and the self. It deals in areas
beyond empirical science and logic.
Numerous theologians group religion and art together.
“Conceptualizing religion as right-brained means it occupies

the same sphere as the arts, not the sciences.”
– Rabbi Daniel Goodman (Harvard Divinity Bulletin)
“Mysticism is our deep experiences of unity – with nature,

with music, with friends, with truth, with God. It is a work
of the right brain more than the left brain; it is the essence
of authentic religion and it is about experiencing, not
intellectualizing.”
– Christian Priest and theologian Matthew Fox
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As with religions it uses artificial symbols, ceremonies, rules and stories to evoke higher
meaning. Art loving atheists and the non-religious often mock religion for its fictitious
characters, fake stories and ideas, yet the art they love contains all of these. Atheists do not
take the characters, facts or story of a novel or movie literally, and neither do the learned
religious their symbols and stories. Comic book lovers know the characters are not real, and
the learned religious too know their images of God are just symbolic metaphors.
“The object of art is to give life a shape.”
– Jean Anouilh
Art is used by religions as a source and device to achieve mystical experiences and to convey
spiritual ideas, and many sacred scriptures, such as the Quran and Songs of Solomon,
are ranked as great works of literature. This chapter could have fit into the chapter on
mystical experiences.
“It is inevitable that inspired art and illumined writing should

arouse the beginning of mystical feelings in the hearts of those
prepared and sensitive enough to appreciate mysticism. But
even in hearts not so ready, the dim echoes of such feelings
are often aroused. This is particularly true of music. If he can
lay himself open to the power of beauty in art or nature,
letting it get deep inside him, he may receive an intuition
or attain an experience as mystical as the meditator’s.”
– Paul Bruton, Neo-Hindu Spiritualist ‘Art Experience and

Mysticism’, Notebooks of Paul Brunton (paul brunton.org)
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Figure 13.1 The Taking of Jesus (1602) by Caravaggio. Caravaggio was famous for his use
of chiaroscuro and tenebrism, which helped with the drama and emotions of his subjects.
Chiaroscuro uses shading to give the figures a three-dimensional effect. Tenebrism makes
large areas black, which focuses the viewer’s attention of the desired figures and action.
Along with the realistic and often gritty depictions of humans, these two techniques brought
the scenes to life and made the audience emotionally connected to the familiar Biblical
scenes. Even today’s audiences are emotionally connected to the scenes.
116
University College London neurobiology professor Semir Zeki said that, though they didn’t
realize it, great artists were neuroscientists in that they used angles, symbols, colors and
other qualities to influence the audience’s’ minds.
It is also telling that the artistic experience is subjective to the person. People may get similar
sublime experiences, but through different artworks. As the old saying goes, art is in the
eye of the beholder. This is a commentary on all religious and spiritual practices.
Figure 13.2 Composition VI (1913) by Wassily Kandinsky. One of the first non-
representational abstract painters, Wassily Kandinsky was an academic who carefully studied
and theorized how colors, shapes and other qualities resonated with the viewer. He was also
a devout Russian Orthodox Christian who aspired to make his paintings a spiritual
experience for both him and the audience.
Humans have vague ideas, psychological inklings, about the mystery of the universe
beyond their comprehension and life that they cannot fully explain. Art can point to these
feelings, point to the mysteries of the universe and to ourselves in different ways than other
forms of expression.
While not solving the major questions, art can perhaps give insight into them, into humans
and the human condition of living in a universe where they cannot know the meaning or
what is their purpose on earth or even if there is one.
Artworks are artifacts, showing how humans think and perceive, their physiological abilities and
limitations, the questions they have, the human condition. Alien psychologists and scientists
from the future would learn about humans from these artifacts. The same with religions.
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13.1 QUESTIONS
In what ways is art like religion?
Do you think art is religion?
Is religion art?
Why do religions use art?
118
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Art Perception: Connecting To The Unreal
14 ART PERCEPTION: CONNECTING

TO THE UNREAL
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Looking at art perception is a reflection on religion and spirituality, as art perception is spiritual,
but how humans perceive in general.
Figure 14.1 Fans feel a connection to cartoon characters, seeing them as if they’re living beings,
following their lives, laughing at their jokes, feeling good when good things happen to them
and bad when bad things happen. Someone can feel closer to a cartoon character than a living,
breathing next door neighbor.
119
Figure 14.2 Many feel a human-to-human connection to the figure in this

Modigliani painting even though it clearly is not human in many ways.
120
A complex and fascinating question is why do humans have such strong emotional reactions
and human connections to unrealistic art? Why do viewers become scared, even haunted for
days, by a movie monster they know doesn’t exist? Why do humans become enthralled by
distorted figures and scenes that aren’t realistic? Why do viewers have emotional attachments
to comic book characters?
The answer lies in that, while humans know art is human made artifice, they decipher and
perceive art using many of the same conscious and nonconscious methods that they use to
perceive reality. Looking at how humans view reality shows how they view art, and looking
at how humans view art helps show how they interpret reality.
While a full discussion of this topic would fill books, the following offers several aspects
of art perception.
14.2 ART PERCEPTION IS IRRATIONAL

People don’t perceive art, or reality, on the entirely logical, rational or literal levels. Art
is designed to communicate psychologically, aesthetically, sensually, viscerally, irrationally,
subconsciously, intuitively. Music is felt. Beauty and ugliness are psychological. Unreal things,
distorted figures, a fictional monster in a movie can strike a primordial chord in humans
that their normal daily reality can’t. A computer generated science fiction landscape can be
perceived as beautiful.
Humans have aesthetic reactions to many basic qualities including colors, shapes, angles and
balance whether the qualities are in the real world, dreams or in art. These qualities don’t
just symbolize feelings and evoke meaning in nature, they symbolize and evoke in abstract
art and even a kitchen design.
121
Figure 14.3 Even those who have never seen the 1922 silent vampire movie Nosferatu get a
psychological reaction from this still image. I don’t have to tell you that isn’t the tooth fairy
climbing the stairs.
14.3 HUMANS INTERPRET ART USING MANY OF THE

COGNITIVE METHODS THEY USE IN THE REAL WORLD
Shape and form biases, imagination, comparison and the other cognitive methods discussed
throughout this book are used when humans look at art.
Figure 14.4 A sketch
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In both nature and art, humans subjectively pick out figures and patterns in ambiguous
and even random information.
Figure 14.5 Even though she has no legs, humans perceive Mona Lisa as a whole person and not as some
freakish amputee. This mimics how humans perceive a real person standing behind a fence or sitting
behind a counter.
Figure 14.6 Image from the movie Detour
123
Both in real life and when art viewing, humans focus on some information in a scene while
being oblivious to other. The audience can get into a movie to a point they forget they are
sitting in a theater and watching a projected image showing paid actors. This explains why
a movie shark can make jump the audience in a desert theater one thousand miles from
the nearest ocean.
Figure 14.7 The movie monster is a small man in a rubber suit. The surrounding even
smaller set and props make him appear big. If the set and props were many times
larger, we’d perceive Godzilla as small as a mouse.
UNIVERSITY WEST
IN SWEDEN
124
14.4 SYMBOLS
Symbols are an integral part of the human experience on many levels. A symbol is something
that represents something else, something larger. It is a shorthand, often to a complex idea.
To many, blue at the top of an abstract painting or kid’s sketch represents sky, and green
at the bottom represents grass or ground. A gold ring on the finger symbolizes marriage.
Shadows in a movie can symbolize danger and mystery.
Not only can commonly known symbols be used in art to communicate ideas, meaning
and mood, but this illustrates how humans don’t need reality to communicate real ideas.
Symbols literally aren’t the thing they symbolize.
Literature, this paragraph you are reading, is a long series of symbols. The meaning isn’t in
the symbols themselves, but what they evoke in your mind. I couldn’t communicate many
of the ideas in this book without these symbols.
Much of art is focused on stylizing symbols, making sentences sound a certain way, designing
that wedding ring to be attractive.
14.5 HUMANS MENTALLY ADAPT TO AND ACCEPT

NEW AND ARTIFICIAL WORLDS
Throughout their lives human learn new games, rules, languages, rituals, manners and
fashion. In art, they accept and adopt new musical styles, symbols, genres, conceits, artifices.
Through repetition and experience, artistic symbols, conceits and associations become more
than convenient intellectual devices. They become ingrained.
Figure 14.8 Kids playing ‘cowboys and indians’
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Our perception of reality is formed by the conceits of art. Around the world people perceive
the Old West from Hollywood movies, even though historians will tell you those depictions
are historically incorrect. People gain dubious perceptions of faraway places and peoples
from sitcoms and action movies.
14.6 EACH ART MEDIUM IS LIMITED IN WHAT

IT CAN SHOW LITERALLY
A painting or sketch doesn’t have physical depth or movement. A silent movie doesn’t have
voices even when the people on screen converse. The letters of a novel can’t graphically
show a sunrise.
This means a medium must use artificial devices to communicate the literally undepictable.
Figure 14.9 Movie subtitles so foreigners can know what is being said.
Figure 14.10 Comic strips use panels to depict the passage of time,
and words and bubbles to depict talking.
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14.7 SPECULATION, PLAY ACTING, DAY AND NIGHT DREAMS

All humans speculate about the past, present and future, things that haven’t happened, things
that could have happened, things that might have happened. People wonder what their
life would have been like if they were born in a different family or time and place or with
different looks. Someone wonders how the conversation would have gone differently if he
hadn’t made that stupid remark. People ponder when they will die, what their life will be
like in the future. People wonder what it’s like to visit Iceland or live in Paris. Speculation
is an essential part of human intelligence. Great inventions and human achievements arise
from speculation.
Humans daydream, play act, dress up as different people, pretend they’re different people,
mimic others, act as if they are animals to amuse their kids, dress up in costumes for
Halloween and masquerade balls, join Civil War recreation clubs, have imaginary in their
head conversations, practice speeches before imaginary crowds.
In their sleep humans have strange and surreal dreams of impossible situations and lands
and scenarios. Dreams can resonate and haunt they deeply. Dreams affect how they think
and act in their daily lives.
The surreal situations, fictitious plots, made up characters and distorted figures of art go
hand in hand with normal dreaming, speculation, play acting lives. A novel may have a made
up plot and fictions characters, but human daily speculation and daydreams involve similar
fiction. Science fiction is often a serious intellectual, if also entertaining, speculation of the
future and space. A painting or movie may have a surreal landscape and bizarre characters,
but so do human’s dreams. Much art is about dreams and daydreams.
14.8 HUMANS KNOW AND FEEL THERE IS MORE THAN WHAT

THEY SEE AND CAN COMPREHEND, MORE THAN WHAT
THEY EXPERIENCE IN THEIR DAY TO DAY LIVES
They know people in a society hide their true thoughts and feelings. They know they
themselves have feelings and ideas that can’t be put into words. They know there are concepts
they can only imagine.
The unrealistic, the impossible, the surreal, symbolism can evoke that which realistic art and
daily life don’t. Abstract patterns and wordless music can evoke secret memories, emotions
and philosophical ideas that a photograph or neighborly chat cannot.
127
Figure 14.11 Munch’s Scream
Open your mind to

new opportunities
128
A ‘photorealistic’ snapshot can reveal little about what the subjects think and feel, while an
expressionist painting can tell a lot.
14.9 FINAL NOTES

Art artificially manipulates the mind. The artist uses symbols, colors, shapes, wordplay and
other techniques to play on the audience’s psychology, subconscious. One significant point
about this is that it shows that the mind can be artificially manipulated.
That humans can be affected by the fake of art, the artificial– sometimes even more so
than reality– says something significant about the reliability of human aesthetic perception.
Human emotions and psychology being a direct path to identifying larger objective truths
is at best a dubious notion.
14.10 QUESTIONS
Is religion ‘irrational’ in the same sense as art?
‘Irrational’ is often considered a negative, or derogatory, term. In what ways or instances

are irrational thoughts and feelings positive and useful?
What did Picasso mean by “Art is a lie that takes us closer to the truth”? Can the same be
said about religion?
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION COGNITIVE INFLUENCES BEHIND BELIEFS
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS IN AND IMAGES OF GOD
15 COGNITIVE INFLUENCES BEHIND

BELIEFS IN AND IMAGES OF GOD
“Let’s build a happy little cloud. Let’s build some happy
little trees.”
– Bob Ross
15.1 OVERVIEW
There are many innate cognitive reasons and processes for people believing in and having
particular conceptions of God or religious higher power. The belief in and description of
god or higher power are byproducts, or extensions, of innate unconscious psychological
tendencies humans use to function and survive as a species.
The human brain is a meaning-making machine. Humans constantly look for patterns,
meaning, purpose, motives and cause-and-effect relationships wherever they go. These
contribute to many religious and spiritual beliefs. Just as one tries to find motives, patterns
and identifications in a room, photograph or abstract paintings, so do humans when
contemplating the universe and unknowable.
The following are some of the cognitive processes that lead to religious beliefs.
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15.2 THE SEARCH AND DESIRE FOR ORDER
Figure 16.1 1496 diagram of the cosmos. Symmetrical, neat and orderly
INNOVATIVE
LIKE YOU.
131
Humans tend to desire and strive to find order in situations, both in their daily lives and in
ambiguous and chaotic information and situations. This is a natural part of identification,
and an essential aspect of function and survival. Chapter 4 demonstrated how humans
make up artificial identifications in ambiguous designs, such as seeing animals in clouds
and faces in tree bark.
This extends to people’s perceptions about the unknowable universe and reality. Not only do
many people want order and structure in the universe, they imagine it exists and artificially
create it. This desire for order, structure and identity influences people in believing in
God, a higher power and orderly universe. While not believing in God, many non-theists
and scientists imagine that there are order and structure to the universe, even though it is
impossible to know there is order. Even if there is order, it may be in a different form than
humans can conceive of or sense.
In some religions, God brings order out of chaos, and religion is a fight for order in the face
of chaos. The ancient Egyptians believed that the god Atum created earth and its order and
principles out of chaos and darkness. It was the Egyptians’ duty to live moral and ethical
lives to keep the chaos at bay.
It is a common religious belief that moral order comes from God or higher power, and
some religious thus believe that an atheist cannot have morals.
Figure 16.2 Pieter Bruegel the Elder’s ‘The Triumph of Death’ picturing disorder (chaos) and
violence
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15.3 THE INNATE TENDENCY TO PERCEIVE MEANING

AND PURPOSE BEHIND THINGS AND EVENTS
It is an innate tendency for humans to perceive and try to find meaning and purpose
behind things. As with finding patterns and identification, this has been essential for human
survival and function.
Knowing what is the purpose and meaning of a scene event, groups of people or non-human
animals is part of social function and survival. If a group of people or dogs approach you,
you want to know and do guess what is their purpose. If you hear a bang in the dead of
night in your house, you want to know what is behind it and assume something is. Safety
and self preservation are about erring on assuming the worst, which is why many people
get out of bed to check for intruder. Humans would not have survived as a species if they
did not err on the side of safety.
In her paper Why Are Rocks Pointy? Children’s Preference for Teleological Explanations of the
Natural World (source), psychology professor Deborah Keleman wrote that if you ask children
why a group of rocks is pointy, many theorize that it is so animals don’t sit on them and
break them. She said if you ask children why a river exists, they will often say so humans
can fish in it. The children assign a meaning and purpose where they don’t exist, and ones
that match their expectations, biases and human logic. Also note that they perceive the
rivers to exist to serve humans.
Because of this bias, Kelemen says that children are able to come to the idea of a being
that created the universe and earth with a purpose and meaning. This bias or tendency
extends to many adults.
It takes training and education for one to overcome or be able to question these rote beliefs.
“Romanian Roma adults with little formal schooling (less

than six years on average) were more than twice as likely
to endorse purposeful answers than highly educated Roma
adults (averaging approximately 12 years of schooling). They
also more closely resembled American schoolchildren (first
through fourth grades) than either highly educated Romanian
adults or American adults. These results suggest that the
tendency toward extending teleological reasoning from living
to non-living natural things may recur across cultures, and
that it is not merely outgrown but must be out-educated
for it to go away.”
– Justin L. Barrett Thrive Professor of Developmental

Science, and Professor of Psychology at Fuller Graduate
School of Psychology (reference )
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15.4 HUMANS PERCEIVE MINDS BEYOND THEIR OWN

Humans are able to perceive others having minds. This is a part of function and survival
of the species. Humans are social animals and need to guess the thoughts and intentions
of human and non-human animals.
What is telling is that humans not only imagine minds in humans and other animals, but
they imagine or project minds and thinking on inanimate objects. These include teddy
bears, figures, artworks, dolls, toys, cars, movie projections. Humans easily accept cartoon
characters that talk and think, even when the characters are cars, toasters and trees. Humans
talk to paintings on their walls, and what the subject is thinking and doing.
Many either figuratively or literally imagine nature and the universe having minds, and
this can lead to conceptions of God or higher power. Even non-religious scientists and
philosophers talk about plants, the planet and the universe having consciousness, which,
some could argue, is coming very close to believing in God.

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134
15.5 ANTHROPOMORPHISM
Humans have an innate tendency to perceive non-humans as thinking and feeling as humans
do. Humans often incorrectly believe or imagine that a non-human animal thinks like a
human and feels the same way about a happening as humans. Humans make non-human
animal and non-animal cartoon characters that act like humans, see human faces in abstract
information, and describe inanimate objects and nature in human terms: mother earth,
father time. It should not surprise that humans can imagine the unseen universal reality as
a being, that deities and Gods are depicted in human-like forms and having human-like
thoughts, motives and ideas.
Similarly, humans often depict non-animal animal forms as having animal qualities. Howl of
the wind, the hound of love. Many deities and gods are depicted in non-human animal forms.
Anthropomorphism is not always meant literally, but often as a symbolic translation.

However, this all shows how humans see things and translate things in human terms, even
nature, random information and the unknowable.
Figure 16.3 Depiction of God in a 15th century German prayer books
Article by Psychology professor Rick Naert : Why Do We Anthropomorphize?
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15.6 HUMANS PERCEIVE THINGS, EVERYTHING,

IN HUMAN EMOTIONAL TERMS
Emotions and aesthetics are an integral and constant part of human perception, judging and
thinking. Humans innately and automatically make emotional judgments and perceptions.
How new scenes are perceived, how to judge a stranger, how a foreign object is perceived,
whether a new fact is true or false, are in part done on the intuitive, emotional, aesthetic
level. Our descriptions of non-human things are steeped in human emotional and aesthetic
terms and imagery: universal love, the angry sea, cruel fate, happy sun.
As people imagine the universe and unknowable in emotional terms, it is natural for people
to see the transcendent reality not only in human terms but as human-like. All humans
perceive and define the universe and ideas using their emotions and in human emotional
terms. And a universe and reality that is believed to made up of human emotions is a step
away from seeing it as a living being.
To humans, the meaning of life, of everything, is a matter of mood.
15.7 HUMANS AUTOMATICALLY APPLY NARRATIVES

AND STORIES TO THINGS
Just as humans interpret meaning, motive and identifications in ambiguous information,
humans automatically interpret things-- an object, a painting scene, a snapshot of a person--
as part of an ongoing story and narrative. This is an expression of cause and effect, and
human perception of time, meaning and purpose. Humans even apply narratives and stories
to abstract information.
Humans apply such narrative and stories to the universe and the unknown, which means they
interpret it in human ways. Religious scriptures are in the forms of stories and narratives.
The Christian Bible has been referred to as “The Greatest Story Ever Told.”
The following chapter goes more deeply into this.
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15.8 HUMAN THINKING, INCLUDING ABOUT THE

EXISTENCE OF GOD, IS INFLUENCED BY
EXPERIENCE, EDUCATION AND CULTURE
What and the way people think, at both the conscious and unconscious levels, is greatly
influenced by their education, culture, family, when and where they grew up. Many people
believe in God, and a particular condition of God, because they were raised in a theist family
and culture. It is not coincidence that most Christians were born in Christian countries
and families and Muslims in Muslim countries and families. Read the below two short
pieces to see how much human geography and culture affect their perception at even the
unconscious levels:
Piece #1:
The BaMbuti Pygmies of Congo traditionally live their entire lives in the dense
rainforest, where the furthest away anyone can see is feet. They learned, loved,
played and hunted in this environment.
89,000 km
Who are we?


What will you be?
careers.slb.com
1
137
British born Anthropologist Colin Turnbull wrote how he took one of these
Pygmies, named Kenge, for his first time to a wide open plain. As the two stood
on a hill overlooking the land, a group of water buffalo was seen a few miles
away. Having no experience of how things appear smaller over long distance,
Kenge asked what kind of insects they were. Turnbull told him they were water
buffalo and Kenge laughed loudly at the “stupid story.” Turnbull drove Kenge
towards the water buffalo. Watching the animals growing visually larger, Kenge
became scared and said it was witchcraft.
Human beings develop an idiosyncratic logic and sensibility distinct to the

environment where they were brought up. The environment one grows up in is
seemingly the world. A kid born and raised in the inner city versus the country,
rich versus poor, in Cairo versus Chicago, conservative family versus liberal,
woods versus desert. The person who has lived her whole life in Portland or
Cairo may get a chuckle at that story about the Pygmy then dismiss the idea
that a similar incongruity could exist with her native logic.
Figure 16.4
For example, in this picture, which yellow line looks longer?
The yellow lines are the same length. Measure them yourself. It is your lifelong
experience with diminishing scales in open spaces that caused you to perceive
the upper line as larger.
Kenge would not have been fooled by this illusion and would have correctly
said the lines are the same length.
138
Piece #2
Figure 16.5
Give an objective identification of what is in the three pictures. Answer one

picture at a time, by saying the answer aloud or to yourself.
The images are not digital tricks or manipulations. They were picked because
of their straightforward, familiar subjects. I am just looking for quick objective
identifications.
One or more of your answers likely was (at least if you are an American) on
the order of ‘George Washington crossing the Delaware,’ ‘a bald eagle’ and/or
‘a watch.’
These answers are not objective, being formed in part by value judgments,
aesthetic views and other personal biases.
In the lower left picture there is much more than a bald eagle. There is sky,
clouds, ground, water. The ‘eagle’ answer subjectively singles out one thing.
Part of this is due to a personal and cultural value judgment that a bald eagle
is more important than the other objects. Another reason is because the eagle
is pictured large, clear and centered. If the picture showed a tree close up and
in focus and a small out of focus eagle flying in the distant background, your
answer likely would have differed. Change in arrangement, size and focus affect
the viewer’s labeling, even when the identical objects are pictured.
139
Similarly, if your answer to the lower right picture was ‘a watch,’ you made an
aesthetic and value judgment about what is and is not important. Placement
and focus affected your judgment, along with your feeling that a potentially
expensive watch is the center of attention.
In the top image there are quite a few people pictured. If you answered “George
Washington crossing the Delaware” you singled out one as being the identity.
This is in part due to a higher value placed on George Washington, a famous
figure in United States history. This is also due to your knowledge, as Washington
is likely the only person you know by name. Again, it is common to focus on
the known and ignore the unknown.
If you said “This pictures a bunch of people, one whose name is George
Washington” you would have given a broader answer, while acknowledging the
extent of your knowledge.
Also, notice that your answer was not ‘sky, water and ice,’ even though sky, water
and ice takes up more space than the men, boat and flag. This was due to your
bias that the human is the natural center of attention.

mathematics meet.

mathematics.
140
The initial request of this chapter was to give objective identifications, but
your answers were subjective. I didn’t ask for your moral judgment of George
Washington versus other men, whether a bald eagle is more significant than out
of focus background trees or the relative financial value of a watch.
These and other types of subjective judgments are both natural and essential to
humans. Quick interpretations of scenes, including judging what is and is not
important, is essential to getting through our day to day lives. You wouldn’t have
lasted long on this earth if you placed equal visual significance on a twig on the
pavement and a car speeding in your path. If someone unexpectedly tosses you
a ball, you catch the ball by focusing on it. If you focus on the thrower’s shoes
or what’s on TV, it is probable you will drop the ball.
The problem is that, while essential, this type of subjective identification helps
make it impossible to make objective identification. One’s identification is always
shaped by one’s knowledge level, past experience, aesthetic view, pattern biases
and value judgments. As shown with the identification of the three pictures, the
human is often not aware of this influence. To many people, biases are what
others have.
15.9 RELIGIOUS SYMBOLS AND TEXTS ARE

FIGURATIVE AND TRANSLATIONS
Depictions of gods and transcendent reality, religious stories and ceremonies are human
translations of abstract ideas for understanding, teaching and communication. The learned
religious know that they are just translations of ideas that are beyond human understanding.
Teaching must be done in languages the students understand. Jesus taught in parables,
Buddha in en riddles. The Christian ‘Kingdom of God,’ doesn’t mean a physical building,
but a state of enlightenment. Hindus use deities to represent transcendent reality, because
a literal depiction would be beyond normal human comprehension and understanding. As
the Hindu student becomes more and more learned the depictions of transcendent reality
becomes more and more intricate and complex. Jesus himself, or at least as he is portrayed
and symbolized, is a metaphor.
Some anti-theists and atheists make straw man arguments against theism, mocking their
beliefs in deities and myths. However, they do not realize that the deities and stories are not
taken literally by the learned religious. Learned Christians do not literally believe God is an
old man with a white beard and robe sitting on a throne in heaven, and learned Hindus
do not believe in thousands of Gods.
141
Figure 16.6 The Ancient Egyptian depictions of the gods were not intended as literal
representations, as the Egyptians believed the gods’ true forms and natures were
mysterious and beyond human comprehension. The depictions were in forms or symbols
recognizable to humans and represented each god’s role in nature.
15.10 ONE’S STYLE OF THINKING INFLUENCES ONE’S BELIEFS

Those who come to conclusions emotionally and intuitively, or ‘from the gut,’ are more
likely to believe in God or religious higher power. Those who have had their gut reactions
proven correct, are more likely to trust the natural cognitive tendencies described in this
chapter, and believe in magic, the paranormal and God.
Those who think logically and in the past had their intuition proven wrong are less likely
to believe in God or a religious higher power. They have learned to question, or double
check, their normal cognitive biases and innate tendencies. They think of other possibilities.
“It is the standard skeptical narrative that people are biased

in numerous ways. The “default mode” of human behavior
is to drift along with the currents of our cognitive biases,
unless we have critical thinking skills as a rudder or paddle
(choose your nautical metaphor). Metacognition – thinking
about thinking – is the only way for our higher cognitive
function (evidence, analysis, logic) to take control of our
beliefs from our baser instincts”
– Steve Novella MD, Assistant Professor of Neurology,

Yale University (reference)
Link: What Kind of Thinker Believes in God?
142
15.11 MORE CONSCIOUS REASONS

Humans often choose to believe in a god and higher powers for conscious and calculated
reasons. These include if they so greatly dislike chaos that they choose an artificial answer,
they want purpose in their life, they fear death, like the idea of universal justice, want a
way to deal with loss or suffering. Some do it because it makes them feel better.
Many are theists in order to fit in with a theistic culture or community. Many religious
beliefs are an integral part of culture. Major reasons people belong to a church for the social
aspects and community. Believing in a religion and following its practices is as natural as
being a part of the community and culture.
15.12 SOCIAL ORDER

Shared beliefs, purpose and meaning are important for any social group, and many societies
and groups have used God or higher power to keep societies together and functioning.
Games require rules, often arbitrary ones. This is a standard reason for the belief in God,
even today. Of course many leaders have called themselves deities or gods or said they had
a special connection to higher power.
“Dogmatic religion stems from a psychological need for group

identity and belonging, together with a need for certainty
and meaning. There is a strong impulse in human beings
to define ourselves, whether it’s as a Christian, a Muslim, a
socialist, an American, a Republican, or as a fan of a sports
club. This urge is closely connected to the impulse to be
part of a group, to feel that you belong, and share the
same beliefs and principles as others. And these impulses
work together with the need for certainty—the feeling that
you “know,” that you possess the truth, that you are right
and others are wrong.”
– Leeds Beckett University psychology lecturer Steve

Taylor (Reference )
In the beginning and end, humans can only perceive, think about and conceptualize things
in human ways-- their biases, logic, biology, intuition senses and logic. Thus, the perception
of the universe and abstract is seen and described in human ways and with human qualities
and concepts. It should be of no surprise that many think of and describe the universe in
human-like imagery and with human-like stories and motives. The non-religious do as well,
if not invoking a deity.
143
15.13 THESE PROCESSES NEITHER PROVE NOR

DISPROVE THE EXISTENCE OF GOD
Some will say these innate psychological processes prove that God does not exist and is
merely the product of the human mind. This is not true. They certainly are evidence that
religious and other conceptions are in part human creations, but they are not proof against
or for the existence of God or higher power.
15.14 QUESTION
What are some cognitive tendencies described in this chapter that show up or helped form
your personal beliefs?
144
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Narrative And The Perception Of Still Information
16 NARRATIVE AND THE

PERCEPTION OF STILL
INFORMATION
“There’s always a story. It’s all stories, really.”
– Terry Pratchett
Following the previous chapter, this chapter is a more in depth look at how humans perceive
and make up meaning, purpose and ongoing story with even still image. It shows how which,
if any, narrative is the ‘correct’ one is impossible to know. It also begins to get into issues and
dilemmas of language, in particular how to symbolically represent complex things such as time
and thinking and the unknowable.
16.1 NARRATIVE AND STORYTELLING
Figure 17.1 What is the story in this Jan Vermeer painting?
145
Figure 17.2 What’s the fox doing?
Figure 17.3 What do you suppose was happening here?
Narrative is an integral part of how humans perceive, identify and judge of information,
both moving and still, realistic and abstract.
A narrative is the conscious and nonconscious story humans see and tell about their lives,
attach to observed situations and still objects.
146
Narrative includes perception of time, plot, order, causation, mood, action, point of view,
emphasis (what is important, what is not), character motives, past and future. When
humans look at a still photo or painting or a distant couple standing at a street light
they perceive a story in progress. They may not know the story, but take for granted that
there is one. A cup on a table isn’t just there, there is a history of how it got there, where
it will go next. Presumably, a human walked up to the table and placed the cup there,
perhaps drank from it. “Who left this dirty cup on the table?!,” someone may soon say.
“Dirty dishes go in the dishwasher.”
We know the earlier fox image was an observer’s snapshot of a real living animal in mid
movement. A good guess is the fox is/was chasing prey. Did it catch anything? That’s a
question to ponder.
If you change the narrative to an image, you change the meaning of the image, at least the
perceived meaning. This is why narrative issues are so important.

YOUR CHANCE
TO CHANGE
THE WORLD
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A still image of a man with a knife is generally defined by the narrative-- what he is perceived
as going to do with the knife, what he is perceived as having done with the knife. If the
narrative is he just cleaned a fish and is taking the knife to the sink, the still image has
one meaning. If the narrative is he’s looking to hide a murder weapon, the same still has a
distinctly different meaning. The accuracy of the narrative is no small issue.
It brings up the question of if a still image can be understood independent of narrative.

The two knife narratives were for the same image. Can the cup on the table’s identity and
meaning be determined as it is? Is how it got there essential to its identity? Humans often
like to think they can judge things in a vacuum, without the relativism of past and present
and nearby other objects, but is it possible?
Some things are defined by their movement. A cheetah in the wild is defined and identified
by how fast it runs. A sidewinder snake is identified because it moves sideways. When it’s
just laying there, most people wouldn’t know what kind of snake it is.
Much of human’s narrative is speculative. Humans can guess but don’t know the whole
story. The judgment of significance, motives and movements of the players in a scene is
influenced by their biases and personal experiences. Different viewers see different stories
in the same movie.
Consciously and nonconsciously predicting what will happen is a necessary part of human
function. To catch a ball, you not only need to know where the ball is at any given moment
in flight, but correctly anticipate where it will be at later moments.
Narrative is an expression of human’s philosophy of time, cause-and-effect, relationships

between things. To most humans, nothing is static, but a part of a linear flow. Even still
things and still images of things are viewed as part of this flow.
What is particularly interesting is humans apply narratives to abstract images and other
information where it is not clear there is a real narrative.
Figure 17.4 Describe what going on above?
148
Even though this is an abstract combination of dots and lines in Figure 17.4, most will
say this shows two balls racing towards each other. Viewers can even describe what they
see as happening before and after this image. However, unlike a movie still or snapshot
photo, there is no before or after. As I am the one who created this design, I can assure
that this is the only image, the one and only existence of these dots and lines. There is no
narrative with this image other than as speculated by the viewer. That it shows balls on a
line is itself imagination.
Whether there is a real narrative to the earlier Vermeer painting is debatable. It’s not a
photographic snapshot of live movement, as with the fox. The narrative and resulting
meaning is nothing more than speculation.
As you can see, artistic experience is speculative, theoretical. Art is a symbol and metaphor
for something larger and something in the viewers’ minds. Art isn’t so much interpreted
by the viewer as made up. Movement is imagined in the following Matisse, but it doesn’t
literally exist. Even the artist having imagined movement doesn’t make it exist.
Figure 17.5 Matisse artwork
A question to consider is is narrative the correct way to judge information? Is it always the
correct way? And if it is correct to view information via narrative, is the human narrative
the correct narrative? Does all human narrative, even as used by scientists and logicians,
involve imagination and the associated biases and psychology? Of course, many of these
questions humans can’t answer.
149
The mentally ill often have abnormal narratives. They see and experience the same now
and past and future that you and I experience, but give the pieces a different causality and
relationships, viewpoint, emphasis and soundtrack.
16.2 ALEATORY NARRATIVE IN ART

“Any path is right, if— as according to Bach-- it leads to
the divine”
– music historian Paul Epstein on J.S. Bach’s fugues, to

which Bach never gave a playing order.
Art, or how humans express ideas via style and aesthetics, shows a lot about how they as a
whole and individuals process information.
Aleatory art is art where the finished result is substantially out of the artist’s hands. It can
involve chance or the musicians’ or audience’s choice. Many games are aleatory. Monopoly
involves the roll of the dice. Poker involves the shuffling of the cards. Aleatoricism in art
can create fresh, inventive, unexpected results. If the results defies the conventions of plot,
narrative and order, that is the point.
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J.S. Bach’s fugues are aleatory in that he never communicated which order the short musical
pieces should be played. They can be played or listened to in any order, take your pick,
randomly program the CD player. In the above quote, Epstein is saying an overall sublime
aesthetic result justifies whichever fugue order lead to it. It’s reminiscent of the Hindu
saying, “Any path that leads to God is correct.”
Novelist William S. Burroughs used the so-called cut-up aleatory technique. Pages of text
were physically cut up and randomly pieced back together, sometimes with text by other
authors, creating new and often profoundly surreal meaning and narrative. Burroughs believed
this type of collage more closely represented the human experience. Despite the conceit of
linearity, humans don’t think or experience things linearly, one’s thoughts constantly flipping
back and forth between past, current and future. Random little events and objects trigger
memories and provoke speculation of the future. When you consider buying a can of beans
in the grocery aisle, you think about past meals and the future meal where these beans might
be used. The human ability to identify flowers, shoe brands and people involves comparing
the present to memory. Human intelligence and reasoning involves mentally flipping back
and forth through time.
Broken Glass is the name of an aleatory computer storytelling technique that intentionally
scrambles the traditional linear narrative. It is a computer web page made up of a plethora
of small assorted images, often resembling a stained glass window. Each image is linked to
a small piece of the story-- a plot, a description, a picture, characterization, whatever. The
story’s order is determined by the reader blindly clicking on the images.
The facts, scenes, characters, events and days of the week are always constant in Broken
Glass, but the aleatory order in which the pieces are read affects the complexion, aesthetics,
psychology and meaning. As any great novelist or film director will tell you, how facts
are revealed can be as important as the facts themselves. A story told straightforward is
markedly different than the same story told in flashbacks. Knowing what will happen to
a character, what she will do and how she will change, affects how you view her in the
present. Knowing versus not knowing how the romance will end (or will it end?) affects
how the movie goers view the lovers when they first meet, interact. Jumbled up order in
and of itself has psychological meaning and symbolism.
Even with a physically bound paper book, the reader chooses the order in which the book
is read. Whether or not they realize it, readers are as responsible for the order as the author,
though the author usually gets the blame.
William S. Burroughs said the chapters of his novel Naked Lunch could be read in any
order. That a reader read them 1, 2, 3 had nothing to do with him
151
Dictionaries and encyclopedias are aleatory. Excluding the editors and writers, it’s possible if
not likely that no two people have read the word definitions in a dictionary in the same order.
William S. Burroughs felt that the cutting up and shuffling together of different texts,
included by different authors, revealed hidden information.
This is all getting into the nature of language, and the problems and dilemmas of translating,
or trying to translate, things beyond language into symbolic language, and trying to translate
the intangible into the tangible. Language is covered in more detail in later.
16.3 ASSIGNMENT
Look up online storytelling and psychology and give some of your findings and ideas from
various articles and pages. Answer the question ‘How is storytelling important to human
learning?’ Notice how religious scriptures are stories, and how scientists’ explanation of
things (big bag theory, evolution) are timeline stories.
16.4 QUESTIONS
Why is storytelling an integral part of religious scripture?
Why do religious use parables, symbols and metaphors?

What Religion Can Teach Us about Our Brains’ Addiction to Stories
What role does storytelling play in religion?
Perception and Misperception of Movement
152
COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION HUMANS USE FALSE INFORMATION AND MADE
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS UP BELIEFS TO FUNCTION AND ACHIEVE
17 HUMANS USE FALSE

INFORMATION AND MADE
UP BELIEFS TO FUNCTION
AND ACHIEVE
“So I trick myself like everybody else”
– Robert Smith, The Cure (‘Sinking’)
17.1 OVERVIEW
Religious or not, all humans use arbitrary rules, false information, biases and imaginary
environments to reach higher levels of achievement. This achievement can range from a
musician composing a great symphony to a ten year old improving her math scores to a
mystic trying to expand their mind.
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Humans do not have the mental capacity to effectively focus on a variety of tasks simultaneously.
To reach higher levels of achievement in an area, the human must put most to all of its
focus on that area. Humans must eliminate or stabilize (make a non-factor) areas that
distract from the needed focus.
This is comparable to a water kettle with four equal sized holes in the top. When water is
boiled inside, steam will raise a height from the holes. If three of the holes are sealed, the
steam will rise much higher from the remaining hole.
The following are everyday examples of manipulating one’s mental and physical environment
to produce achievement:
** While background music or others’ chit chat may be fine while browsing a
glossy magazine, many humans cover their ears in order to comprehend a
difficult passage or perform a math problem.
** To expand one’s mind by meditation one focuses on a repeated mundane and
often arbitrary task, such as following one’s breath or repeating a word. Muslims
focus their thoughts on Allah, while Catholics will recite rosary beads.
** To improve the team’s horrid free throw percentage, the junior high basketball
coach teaches the players to focus on the basket and their shooting motion and
to ignore the crowd. He has them practice by ignoring recorded crowd noise and
cardboard cutouts of fans.
** Many with a fear of speaking reduce their nervousness by imagining the
audience wearing only their underwear. They create a fantasy.
154
17.2 THE RITUALS OF BASEBALL
Figure 18.1 Ty Cobb in 1908
Many consider hitting a baseball to be the most difficult feat in sport. The batter swings
a stick to hit a small ball. The thrown ball can reach speeds of over 100 miles per hour.
Early 1900s player Ty Cobb holds the record for the highest career batting average in Major
League Baseball history. His batting average was 0.367, or 3.67 hits per every 10 turns at bat.
Even the greatest hitters fail more than they succeeded. Enough to give anyone a complex.
Baseball hitters, and baseball players in general, are notorious for their strange rules and
rituals. Players often wear the same unwashed undershirt and socks during a hitting streak.
Most players don’t step on the white foul lines when entering and leaving the field. Pitcher
Turk Wendell waved to left field every time he entered and left a game. When coming to bat,
Nomar Garciaparra went through a well documented ritual of pulling at his shirt, opening
and closing the Velcro straps on his batting gloves and tapping the toes of his shoes. Lucky
charms, bracelets, necklaces, gum brands abound the game. Five-time batting champion
Wade Boggs ate chicken before every game. U.L. Washington batted with a toothpick in
his mouth. After parents complained that kids might emulate the unsafe habit, he switched
to a q-tip. After the first slump, U.L. was back to the toothpick.
Though many of the rituals are comical, they can aid performance. Hitting requires a calm
and focused mind and exceptional mind body coordination, all while the player is surrounded
by television cameras, screaming fans and the other pressures of being a professional athlete
expected to perform. If wearing the lucky undershirt or repeating an odd ritual eases the
batter’s mind and gives confidence, it can increase the player’s batting average. U.L.’s reason
for switching back to a toothpick was because it made him feel more comfortable. While
a toothpick as aid may seem nonsensical, the desire to be comfortable makes sense.
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17.3 FAITH
For a rule or belief to aid performance, the person must have faith in the rule or belief.
During a meditation session, one must accept that the thing of mental focus is worthy
(breath, mantra, stone, other). Whether the thing was carefully chosen by an instructor or
picked in a rush (a pebble hastily grabbed from the ground), meditation requires you to
focus on that thing. If you fret about whether or not the mantra was the perfect pick, this
very fretting makes the meditation session less effective.
The lucky blue undershirt only helps the baseball player if he believes it lucky. If the blue
undershirt is deemed lucky because he had a great game the first time he wore it, this
illustrates the arbitrariness in his belief. If before that big game he pulled his grey undershirt
from the drawer, it likely would be the grey undershirt that is considered lucky.
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17.4 POSITIVE ACHIEVEMENT IS REGULARLY

BASED ON FALSE BELIEFS
There are regular cases where positive achievement is achieved from a false belief. This
includes in your daily life. Believing the false, if only temporarily, is a technique humans
use to remove distracting thoughts. The following are two examples.
** A placebo helps when the patient falsely believes it is medicine. When the
patient knows what it is, a placebo often won’t help.
** A freshman at the University of Georgia, Jessica is entering final exam week
before winter break. Unknown to her, her beloved 14 year old cat Tiger just
died back home in Savannah. The night before her first test she has her weekly
telephone conversation with her parents back home. Jessica asks how Tiger is
doing. Her mother says Tiger is doing just fine, adding that the cat is playing
with a toy on the couch. After hanging up, Jessica’s mother feels bad about
lying, but thinks it was best considering the exams. After a productive week,
Jessica takes a bus home to Savannah where her parents break the bad news and
explain why they delayed it. Jessica understands, agreeing that the news would
have distracted her from her studies.
In both these cases it was a false belief that lead to the desired achievement. In both cases,
knowledge of the truth may have hindered the achievement.
This shows that positive achievement arising from a belief is not proof that the belief is
correct.
But, also ironically, that falsehood and arbitrary rules are needed for higher achievement.
Patients who get better after taking a placebo often swear the pills had to be medicine. To
them, getting better is the proof. Even when the doctor informs them it was a placebo,
some patients continue to believe it was medicine because they got better.
A sincere faith involves a psychological, often irrational attachment to the ideas. This
psychological aspect is both what helps the placebo-taking patient get better (Most doctors
believe positive ‘I am getting better’ thinking aids recovery), and what prevents him from
accepting his belief as false even when confronted with the facts. This psychological attachment
has both a positive and a negative result.
This points to the fascinating relationship humans have with facts. A human cannot function
as it desires without the distortion and suppression of facts. Even a search for the truth requires
false beliefs to focus mental attention. In other words, a search for the truth requires lies.
157
17.5 OLYMPIC PSYCHOLOGY

For world class Olympic athletes a common rule is that one must believe one is going to
win in order to win. Paraphrasing a top speed skater interviewed the day before an Olympic
race, “You shouldn’t just think you will win, you must know you will win.” In a track,
swim or bike race, the difference between first and fourth may be a fraction of a second,
and the winning psychology can mean the difference between a win and loss. Of course
most of these athletes who are sure they will win will not win, and those who win do not
win every time. Even when the belief turns out to be wrong, it may better the athlete from,
say, fifth to third or third to second.
17.6 THE IDOLIZED

Whether the idolized is a sports coach, historical leader or artist, most worshipers of a
human being worship an unreal representation. Much of the misrepresentation is intentional,
followers embellishing good qualities and glossing over bad.
At first it seems strange that groups intentionally misrepresent the person they supposedly
idolize. However, the representations aren’t about complete factual accuracy. Amongst other
things, they are concerned with gaining and maintaining members’ loyalty and spirit, group
self importance, gaining power versus other groups and perhaps giving a representation
to whom members can better relate and understand. The word idolizes implies the act of
changing, changing something into an idol.
It should not surprise that during a political election supporters put their candidate in the
best light and their competitor in the worst. Their representation isn’t about truth, it’s about
winning the election. If you ask either campaign manager why he doesn’t include bad facts
about his candidate in the campaign literature, he’ll look at you as if you are crazy.
17.7 THIS PRACTICE IN RELIGION

“Credo ut intelligam” (“I believe so that I may understand”)
– maxim of Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109)
Theologians from all religions teach that one must use artificial symbols, ceremonies and
leaps of faith to focus the human mind to achieve spiritual enlightenment. They are keenly
aware of human psychology and that artificial devices and leaps of faith are required to focus
the mind to expand it. They are aware that the human must have faith in these devices for
them work. They know that the human needs translations, if artificial, arbitrary and false,
for the human to understand concepts.
158
Figure 18.2 Different racial depictions of Jesus Christ
Beyond the West’s blue eyed dishwater blonde version, it has long been common for Jesus
Christ to be depicted in art as looking like the local people. The old Ethiopian art at the
bottom shows him as black. The Chinese painting on the right shows him as Asian in
Asian dress. Of course, the real Jesus looked like none of these three depictions. These are
symbols or metaphors that the people of the various geographies can relate to and use for
spiritual purposes.
159
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Cognitive Dissonance
18 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
“No one loves the messenger who brings bad news”
– Sophocles
The theory developed by American psychologist Leon Festinger, cognitive dissonance is the
mental discomfort experienced by a person who has conflicts or contradictions between ideas,
values, behavior and/or information at the same time. An example of this dissonance is if
after deciding to go on a diet you eat a fried chicken and ice cream. There is a contradiction
between your idea/plan and the behavior that will be obvious to you. Another is if you
have a blind loyalty to a public figure and news comes out that he did something bad and
against his professed views.
This conflict between expectations and reality is unconformable and the person has a strong
ingrained drive to try to reduce the dissonance. Humans psychologically want constancy
between their expectations and reality.
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There are countless ways to try to reduce dissonance– healthy and unhealthy, rational and
irrational, adaptive and maladaptive, honest and dishonest. Some will deal reasonably with
the conflict– such as accepting that it was a mistake to eat that bad food and vowing to get
back on the straight and narrow, or making one’s views about the public figure more realistic.
Others will act poorly, such as trying to delude themselves that fried chicken and ice cream
for breakfast really is good for you, denying or dubiously justify the facts about the public
figure or, as is often the case, ‘shooting the messenger.’ Denying facts, lying to oneself and
dubious justifications are common maladaptive ways to try to regain cognitive consistency.
How humans deal with cognitive dissonance says a lot about humans and their maturity,
and is a major part of their personality. Humans admire people who admit to their mistakes,
handle well unexpected setbacks, and can change their viewpoints when given new information.
On the other hand, humans express frustration with people who stubbornly cling to false
notions and who react angrily to anyone who doesn’t agree with them.
“Sometimes people hold a core belief that is very strong.

When they are presented with evidence that works against
that belief, the new evidence cannot be accepted. It would
create a feeling that is extremely uncomfortable, called
cognitive dissonance. And because it is so important to
protect the core belief, they will rationalize, ignore and
even deny anything that doesn’t fit in with the core belief.”
– Psychiatrist Frantz Fanon
The desire to reduce cognitive dissonance explains why humans often automatically deny
facts or theories that go against our ideas or beliefs, even when they later accept them.
Our belief systems, leaps of faith and religious structures and opinions are often attempts
to bridge the gap between psychologically wanting to know and not knowing.
Look at yourself, and think about how much of your actions and beliefs are to reduce
cognitive dissonance in your life. How do you react when your beliefs are challenged by facts
or other opinions? Working to act better in the face of cognitive dissonance is something
all people should work at.
Article on cognitive dissonance by University College London psychiatry lecturer

Vaughan Bell: Prophecy Fail What happens to a doomsday cult when the world
doesn’t end?
Article: Harvard Gazette: Cognitive Dissonance and The art of political persuasion
161
18.1 DISCUSSION TOPIC

Give examples of how parts of belief systems are reactions, both good and bad, to cognitive
dissonance. Give examples of how specific belief systems react to cognitive dissonance.
162
ATTRIBUTION SUBSTITUTION, AND WHY
COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION YOU CAN’T ANSWER AFFIRMATIVELY OR
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS NEGATIVELY THAT YOU BELIEVE IN GOD
19 ATTRIBUTION SUBSTITUTION,
AND WHY YOU CAN’T ANSWER
AFFIRMATIVELY OR NEGATIVELY
THAT YOU BELIEVE IN GOD
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19.1 INTRODUCTION
Figure 20.1
In this picture, which cyclist is going fastest? Most will say the cyclist on the left is going
the fastest and the one on the right the slowest.
There are, however, unanswered and unanswerable questions that make it impossible to
know. Did they start at the same place? Did they start at the same time? Are they moving
forward or backward? Are they moving? I’ve seen sprint cyclists stand still during a race.
Even if it’s a normal 1-2-3-Go! race, it’s possible the guy on the right is going the fastest and
the guy on the left the slowest at the moment the image was shot. Catching up, slowing
down and switching positions are normal parts of all races.
The initial guess was made on a made up simplified explanation to a complex and
unanswerable image.
19.2 ATTRIBUTION SUBSTITUTION

In cognitive psychology, attribution substitution is an automatic subconscious process that
the mind uses to make speedy decisions needed to function, but that contributes to many
cognitive biases, misperceptions and visual illusions. It is a heuristic, or mental shortcut,
used when someone has to make a judgment about a complex, ambiguous situation and
substitutes a more easily solved situation.
The substitution is done at the automatic subconscious level and the person does not realize
he or she is actually answering a related but different question. This helps explain why many
individuals can be unaware of their own biases and even persist in the bias when they are
made aware of them.
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An example is when you judge the intelligence or beliefs of a stranger by their looks, fashion,
age, race, sex, accent or nationality. Determining a person’s intelligence and beliefs is a complex
question and must be done at the closely examined person-by-person level. However, even
those who claim they don’t, make automatic judgments from their stereotypes (simplified
generalizations) before they’ve talked to the person or even when shown a picture. As said,
this is an innate automatic process.
19.3 ART JUDGMENTS

People judge a work of art by deciding what they think it is– how the pieces fit together,
what is its intended meaning, genre etc– then judging that. When someone says a work of
art is trite and silly, what he is saying is his interpretation of what is the art is trite and silly.
I didn’t say the work can’t also be trite and silly.
19.4 “DO YOU BELIEVE IN GOD?”

Answering this question “Yes” or “No” is an example of attribution substitution.
God (and I’m not making a statement there about whether or not God exists or my personal
sentiments) is impossible to define. Even the religious know that ‘God’ itself is just a human-
made word, and God is beyond human definition and conception. Asking if someone
‘believes in God’ is, as my professor dad would phrase it, a non-question. One hundred
different people have 100 different incomplete and subjective definitions and conceptions.
Thus, all the person is actually answering is if he believes in the existence of his personal
definition or conception of God which isn’t and cannot be the true or accurate depiction
of God. You can’t believe in what you don’t know. Two of those people may say “Yes” to
the question, but, as their definitions and conceptions differ, do not have the same belief.
An anti-theist, or someone who answers “No,” is using the same process. He is making up
a personal definition and conception of God then saying that that does not exist.
In short, belief in God (as a real thing, rather than an artificial conception) or belief that
God does not exist is a question that is impossible for a human to answer. The question
itself is nonsensical or a “non-question,” as it is asking for an answer as to the existence of
something that question doesn’t and cannot define.
Or, as one might respond to the question if she believes in God, “I cannot answer that.
However, if you give me your definition of God I’ll tell you if I believe in that.”
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION HUMANS AREN’T TOTALLY OR EVEN PRIMARILY
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS ABOUT FINDING TRUTH AND FACTUAL ACCURACY
20 HUMANS AREN’T TOTALLY OR

EVEN PRIMARILY ABOUT FINDING
TRUTH AND FACTUAL ACCURACY
While identifying facts and making accurate perceptions are important parts of the human
function and survival, the human mind is not entirely about this or perhaps even mostly
about this.
To survive and function, the human must do other things such as act and guess in ambiguous
and mysterious situations. Many of these things are not about identifying facts and assessing
truth, but making speedy and practical decisions. In fact, humans are in part hard-wired
to make speedy intuitive decisions in the face of lack of knowledge.
Avoiding instant danger is often about how to react to the unknown and unknowable. If a
mysterious large shape is moving quickly at you, taking the time to accurately identify the
shape (‘gathering the facts’) is the opposite of what you need to do. Get out of the way
asap, then worry about identification later. This reacting without knowledge or even trying
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION HUMANS AREN’T TOTALLY OR EVEN PRIMARILY
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS ABOUT FINDING TRUTH AND FACTUAL ACCURACY
to gain knowledge is the natural and automatic subconscious self-preservation instinct of

humans. This is just one example of how truth finding is not always the priority of the
mind and, in fact, can get inhibit function.
Survival is commonly said to be about erring on the side of safety– as it takes only one
time being hit by a speeding car or falling off a cliff to be dead– and the key word there
being ‘erring.’ In this case, the mind is designed to err.
As shown in previous chapter the human mind has limited capacity and capabilities and
human function can be inhibited by too much information and even truths. If your task
is to move across a room (or do any other mundane moment to moment task), trying to
identify and learn the history and “truth” of everything and everyone in the room would
lead to you dying of old age before you reach the other side.
Many people mistake things and ideas required for function as facts.
20.1 QUESTIONS
How are religions about the search for truth, and how are they about function?
Where do religions mistake function for truths? Is this intentional or unconscious?
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Language and Its Limitations: Introduction
21 LANGUAGE AND ITS

LIMITATIONS: INTRODUCTION
“Never forget, the words are not the reality, only reality
is reality”
– Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead
A major part of human function and success as a species is language, modeling and
communication. Humans not only communicate with but think using symbolic language.
Unlike other animals, humans can document information and ideas through symbols and
these symbols can be used to communicate information between people, groups and even
time periods. Humans can read someone’s cooking recipe, read about the past and what
past people thought. Humans mark numbers with symbols and use these symbols to make
advanced calculations.
However, as with all things human, a language and it’s reading are full of conceits,
oversimplifications and generalizations, irrationality, arbitrariness, biases, subjectivity,
imagination, illusions and psychology. As with the internal methods used to make perceptions,
language has both practical uses and limitations.
Theologians and religious thinkers have long known the limits and problems with language
and models, and mysticism is an attempt to get beyond it. They know that religious
concepts such as God, transcendent reality and mind are too big and complex to fit into
human words or model
“Staying in words and staying in phrase is not the speech

of liberation”
– 14th century Buddhist monk Eihei Dōgen
“Deepest communion with God is beyond words, on the

other side of silence.”
– Madeleine L’Engle
Language is a complex and huge area that has been the subject of many books and continual
study. The following three chapters illustrate limits of language, categories and modeling.
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION LANGUAGE: EXAMPLES OF AMBIGUITY,
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS ARBITRARINESS AND LIMITS IN LANGUAGE
22 LANGUAGE: EXAMPLES OF
AMBIGUITY, ARBITRARINESS
AND LIMITS IN LANGUAGE
This chapter shows how normal human spoken and written symbolic language is limited in part
by ambiguity and arbitrariness.
22.1 AMBIGUITY OF LANGUAGE

Our daily language is ambiguous and can be interpreted in different ways. Words have
multiple meanings, definitions change and multiply over time, phrases are interpreted
differently by different people and differently by the same person in different situations. Voice
intonation, pacing, grammar and facial expressions communicate meaning. The audience
uses its experience, education and culture to guess what is meant. Words are just symbols
and require reader imagination and guessing to impart meaning.
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John and I went to the food court. We ate at Taste of India.
The above everyday sentences seem straightforward but can be interpreted in many ways.
The ‘we’ of the second sentence commonly is read to mean John and ‘I,’ but this reading is a
guess. It could mean the narrator and someone else than John, or perhaps the narrator, John
and someone else or multiple people. It’s very plausible the two caught up with someone
else on the way to the Taste of India.
Most read the second sentence to mean that Taste of India is at the food court and they
ate there soon after they arrived at the food court. However, this is also assumption. There’s
nothing in the sentence that says the Taste of India is not far away from the food court
and their eating didn’t take place days if not months later.
It is even an assumption that the two sentences relate to each other. They could just happen
to be sitting next to each other, like strangers on a bench. For all you know, I lifted them
from different books, published 15 years apart.
Even when in Kyoto how I long for Kyoto when the cuckoo sings
In the above you can’t go home again line by the famous 1600s Japanese poet Matsuo Basho,
the word Kyoto has different meanings. The first Kyoto indicates the physical city and the
second refers to a past life in the city, perhaps a childhood. Or at least that’s how readers
commonly interpret it. Basho died over 300 years ago and no one today knows what he meant.
22.2 LUDWIG WITTGENSTEIN

Philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein said that there is no set, absolute meaning for words and
language, but the meaning is defined by the usage. This is demonstrated in humor, sarcasm
(where the meaning is the opposite of what is literally said), how words and phrases have
different meaning or significance in different contexts and places.
Comedy regularly plays on the ambiguity of language:
Lt. Frank Drebin: “Miss, I’m Lieutenant Frank Drebin, and

this is Captain Ed Hocken, Police Squad.”
Buxom Female Shop Assistant: “Is this some kind of bust?”
Lt. Frank Drebin: “Well… it’s very impressive, yes, but we

need to ask you a few questions.”
– Naked Gun 2-1/2 (1991, Paramount Pictures)
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22.3 THE IMPOSSIBLENESS IN TRANSLATING POETRY

Beyond the changed words, the foreign language translation of a poem alters and often
destroys the original poem. With rare exception the translation of a beautiful poem can be
similarly beautiful or literally faithful, but not both.
Poetry is uniquely tied to the native language– the unique word definition, culture, diction,
rhyme, sound, meter, feel and even physical length of words and phrases. Due to the literal
and figurative differences between languages, a foreign language translation of a poem not
only changes the literal words but the poem. It is not possible to change the language and
perfectly preserve the original meaning.
This is elementally illustrated by the translation of simple rhyming poems. While ‘dog’ and
‘fog’ rhyme, the standard Spanish translations of ‘perro’ and ‘neblina’ do not. To make the
translation rhyme, the translator must take liberties with the literal meaning. To keep intact
the literal meaning, she must omit the rhyming.
In order to preserve artistic meaning, many translators consciously dismiss literal translation. The
translation is often as much the artistic creation of the translator as it is of the original poet.
The reader of a translation is not reading the original poem. The translation may be closely
related and beautiful and profound, but it’s something different. This illustrates the problem
with those who take literally modern translations of ancient text.
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION LANGUAGE: SUBJECTIVE CATEGORIZATION,
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS GROUPING AND PRIORITIZING OF INFORMATION
23 LANGUAGE: SUBJECTIVE
CATEGORIZATION, GROUPING
AND PRIORITIZING OF
INFORMATION
This chapter demonstrates how human language, labeling and conception involves subjective and
arbitrariness in how things are labeled, categorized and defined.
23.1 OVERVIEW
When a human being visually perceives, she mentally organizes, sorts, groups, prioritizes
and labels the things in the scene. When you look at an ink sketch, you mentally assemble
the ink lines, squiggles and dots into a form. “It’s a kitty cat.” “It’s a cottage in the woods.”
You decide which ink marks belong together and how, and which do not. Two people can
and do group the ink markings differently.
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A Rorschach inkblot is perceived differently by different people. The ink blot remains the
same. The viewer changes. Rorschach ink blots are used by psychiatrists and psychologists
to learn about an individual’s mind.
The human is never just an observer of a scene, but an active participant in creating his
or her perception. The viewer picks out what information is deemed important and what
is not. When someone labels a photo as “a group of kittens,” the label has grouped kittens
together and disregarded other visible information (background pillow, wall, grass, toy). The
picking out of kittens alone as the label shows us the viewer’s priorities.
Language is a common way to organize, label and perceive objects and ideas. Native language
is something humans learned as infants, talk, think and even dream in. Human’s native
language has profound influence on how they look at the world. Different languages give
different emphasis, meaning, aesthetics, sounds and, perhaps most important, categories to
things. As one perceives and thinks in part through categorizing (cats belong as one group,
dogs belong as one group, magazines as another), native linguistic categories influence even
nonconscious perception. It influences how humans imagine things when their eyes are closed.
An elemental example of difference between languages is when a person in Atlanta Georgia

and a person in Rome Italy read the same word ‘pizza,’ yet imagine different things. A
pizza in Georgia is different than a pizza in Italy. If you asked the two to identify a pizza
at a market, they might point to different objects. The Italian may say of the Georgian’s
choice, “You’re crazy. That’s not pizza. Let me read the label . . . Tombstone . . . Do not
defrost before cooking . . . remove cellophane . . . Glenview Illinois . . . You Americans might
know Slim Whitman and Gilligan’s Island, but you know nothing about pizza. Come to
Rome and I’ll show you pizza.”
Many differences are more subtle. For example, different cultures do not always categorize
color alike. Different languages can and do have a different number of names for colors. This
means a particular name, say red or green, will apply to a different range of wavelength on
the visible light spectrum. It’s the same total light spectrum of color for both cultures, but
the different numbers of names divide the spectrum into different size pieces. Like cutting
two identical pizzas, one into nine pieces and the other into seven. The pizzas are identical
except one has fewer and bigger pieces. In one culture, ‘red’ can cover a different range of
color than the equivalent word ‘red’ in another culture. What you call red, a person on
another continent may or may not call red.
Even within a culture, people often categorize colors differently. This is commonly done in
the marginal areas, such as aqua blue, dark orange versus red, magenta versus pink. It is
probable that you perceive some borderline colors differently than your spouse, friend or
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co-workers. If two friends define colors differently, they may believe they are talking about
different cloth swatches when they are talking about the same one. Or they may believe
they are talking about the same swatch when they are talking about different.
This between friends difference can be because they don’t have the exact same color vision
and that they never had a serious discussion about what are the boundaries of aqua blue, or
what constitutes badious, brunneous and gamboges. I don’t recall ever having an instructor
teach the exact boundaries of aqua blue, aquamarine or magenta, not even in art class. I
doubt I ever had an instructor who knew the exact boundaries.
As humans commonly communicate, learn and conceptualize the abstract through words,
different interpretations of words often lead to conflicts. What may at first appear to be a
visual illusion or even mental illness in a person may be a difference in culture.
An American joke is “Never ask for Squirt on an English airline.“ To Americans, Squirt is
a brand of lemon/lime soda pop. To the
English the word means urine.
I think it’s safe to order 7Up.
23.2 SO, IF A TREE FALLS WHEN NO ONE IS

AROUND DOES IT MAKE A SOUND?
Many arguments are not caused by disagreement over the main ideas, but that the arguers
unknowingly define terms differently. Arguers may have different definitions of war, peace,
work week, formal attire, animal, automobile, tall, stiff drink and sexy, even though they
both assume they are using identical definitions. Once the parties mutually set the definitions
(which they didn’t do in the beginning), they are often surprised to discover how much they
agree with each other. Many arguments, many conundrums, many philosophical debates
exist simply because parties never thought to mutually define terms.
An age old question is “If a tree falls in the woods and no one is around to hear, does it
make a sound?”
The answer to this question depends on what is the definition of sound, and a key to the
discussion is the determination of what sound means.
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Is sound defined by the act of a human or other animal hearing? Or can a sound exist with
none around to hear it? It would seem the smart thing to start by looking up the word
sound in a dictionary.
I looked in one dictionary and two encyclopedias. One encyclopedia said that sound is
defined by the ear detecting (hearing) the vibrations in the air. This would mean the tree
in the question would make no sound if no one is around. The other encyclopedia and
the dictionary defined sound as the vibrations itself, whether or not someone is around to
hear them. By this definition, the tree would make a sound even if no one was around.
As you see, the famous tree debate isn’t a matter of philosophy but of word definition.
The difference between “Yes, it makes a sound” and “No, it doesn’t make a sound” can
come down to the arbitrary choice of definition, the outvoting of 2 reference books to 1,
the flipping of a coin. Depending on what definitions used, the answer of Yes and No can
describe the same forest scene. Is one sound definition superior than the other? Not that I
can see. They’re just different.
People also have differing definitions of the word one in ‘ . . . no one is around to hear . . . ’
Some people think deer, birds and mice count as ones, while others think only humans
count. The definition of one can also determine whether the answer is Yes or No.
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23.3 LOADED WORDS

Certain words have strong connotations in a culture, and people intentionally play around
with the definitions so they can apply words as they desire. If patriot is a popular label,
people will fiddle with the definition so that they are defined as patriots and their enemies
are not. If patriot is an unpopular label, the same people would define the word so that
their enemies are patriots and they are not. These shameless self serving manipulations of
definitions are common during political campaign season, but also during human’s daily
lives. What may be a lie when someone else does it, is a fib if you do it.
Notice these instances involve people being emotionally attached to a word no matter how
it is defined. It’s word numerology.
When I was in high school, the quarterback for the football team came to school wearing
a pink sweater. He spent the day saying, “No, it’s coral.”
THE WORD ‘GOD’

‘God’ is a troublesome word, as it has many different interpretations,and even believers
say the word cannot be wholly defined or explained by humans. They it is beyond words
and language. To many non-believers, ‘God’ is a trigger word, often representing their past
bad experiences with organized religion or bringing to mind the many historical bad deeds
done in the name of God.
An atheist does not believe in ‘God.’ However, if you replace the word God with ‘transcendental
reality’ (which is essentially what many theists believe is God), many atheists will say they
believe in that. The religious philosopher and Presbyterian minister John Hick regularly
used the word ‘Transcendent’ instead of God.
23.4 DISCUSSION QUESTION

Is a red ball red in the dark? Is this a physics question or a language question?
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Language And Models: The Fiction In Science
24 LANGUAGE AND MODELS:

THE FICTION IN SCIENCE
“Al models are false, but some are useful”
– Statistician George E.P. Box
This chapter shows how scientific representations and models are language, with all the limitations
of language.
24.1 INTRODUCTION
Scientific representations are different than the things they represent. A representation,
model or description is a limited view of the subject, made for a specific purpose, edited
by the scientist and translated into a form the scientific audience can understand and use.
As scientific representations are made by and for humans, they are part about the scientific
subject and part about the humans using them.
24.2 THE DISTORTIONS OF A MAP

A paper world map is a useful device, but one with a plethora of differences than what it
represents. To start with the obvious, the world isn’t flat, it isn’t paper thin and can’t fit on
your desk or be pinned to the wall. These unreal qualities are for the convenience of the user.
For easy understanding, maps are artificially colored and marked (latitude and longitudes
lines, for example). roadmaps usually make roads appear proportionally wider than in reality,
and remove unwanted details.
All world maps have proportional distortions. For an example see the following page.
Translating anything three dimensional into two dimensions requires distortions, as three
dimensions and two dimensions are mutually exclusive. Compare your world map at home
to a globe and see the differences for yourself. There are different methods of mapping the
earth, each method creating its own distortions.
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Figure 25.1 Distortions on maps. As with all types of world maps, this common Mercator
projection map has significant distortions. Greenland is incorrectly shown as being bigger
than Africa. Alaska is shown as being as large as Brazil,
when Brazil is really multiple times larger.

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24.3 A MODEL OF AN ATOM
Figure 25.2
The above representation of an atom is different than a real atom in an abundance of major
ways. To start, it’s thousands and thousands of times larger than a real atom. If it weren’t
you couldn’t see it.
The representation hardy resembles an atom, and the artist would agree. The intent was to
make a dummy model for students to learn about the different atomic ‘parts.’ The unreal balls,
outer ring and cartoonish appearance are designed to engage the audience, simplify things.
As with the map, this representation is part about the subject and part about humans. It is
in a form students can understand. In this case the form students understand looks more
like a Saturday morning cartoon character than an atom.
Any human representation of something complex (and all things are complex) is simplified
and distorted, focusing on a specific area, quality, layer or angle, made from a limited amount
of information, interpreted by the maker’s sensibilities, presented in a way the maker and
audience can understand.
As a means of communication, a representation will include conceits of the scientist, audience

and even general culture. These conceits include expected form (pie charts, graphs, book,
magazine article), style, shape, measurement method (volume, height, meters, liters), color
associations (hot = red, cold = blue, forest = green).
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It is similar to art, where following the genre’s conceits, even shallow ones, are constraining
but necessary for communication. The conceits create an artificial representation, but without
them you might as well be communicating in a foreign language.
Just as the creation and perception of art involve human psychology, so does the creation
and perception of scientific representations.
Whether they admit it or not, scientists and philosophers view the universe and the things
in it psychologically. A scientist and her work can no more escape human psychology than
she can escape being human.
All one has to do is to look at a scientific representation, any representation, and find the
human imprint— the human sensibility in form, style, color, language, balance, aesthetic
choice. A representation of water may be a magazine article in English. English language and
magazine articles, of course, have to do with humans and communication between humans.
The article’s subject may be about water, but its form is human. The article will be read as
a work of human literature, as it is a work of human literature. As an artifact, the article
shows about as much about humans as it does about water.
24.4 ORGANIZE THE FOLLOWING INTO TWO

GROUPS OF RELATED OBJECTS
Figure 25.3
Scientists, and non-scientists find it convenient and often necessary to group information.
I asked different people, including a science professor, to group the previous objects into
two groups of like objects. One person grouped by color (black objects and white objects),
another by size, another by letters. He saw the objects as E’s and C’s. Interesting, as I drew
the C’s as moons! Another by direction left or right (problematic as one doesn’t know if a
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moon is faced left or right). Their reasons for pairing were equally legitimate, but produced
different pairings. This should show you how one scientist’s model can look different
than another’s, not due to scientific theory or knowledge but different views of aesthetics,
simplicity and associations.
This illustrates an essential human problem that goes beyond science. Humans must translate
a subject to understand it, but what they understand is the translation.
24.5 THE SCIENTIST’S PURPOSE

A scientific representation is a product of the scientist’s purpose. A different purpose will
produce a different representation of the same subject.
I own three maps of North America. One represents the altitude (mountains, valleys, etc),
one shows the traditional aboriginal tribal regions and one is a roadmap. Even though they
are of the identical place, each map is different. It’s not so much whether the maps are right
or wrong, but that they were created from different purposes.
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Many to most scientific representations aren’t intended to be the be all and end all. Scientists
usually consider scientific models to be works in progress, to be studied, tested, reworked,
changed and even tossed aside as necessary. Science is a continual work in progress.
For testing purposes, models are often intentionally made to be overly simple. One purpose
of such simplification is that errors are more easily identified and corrected. With a more
complicated, muddled model, it’s harder to identify what is working and what is not.
Another reason for simplification is the scientist may be studying only one aspect of the
subject. The other aspects are excluded. If a dentist is studying the teeth and gums, there may
be no need for her computer model to be full-bodied, including detailed feet, fingernails,
hair color and belly button. It may not even include eyes and nose, even though people with
teeth and gums also have eyes and noses nearby. She may consider these details distracting
and “beside the point.”
A scientist will often be the first to say her representation isn’t a duplication of the subject,
and was never intended to be an exact duplication of the subject.
As with communicating of scientific ideas to others, reducing a subject into a simplified

if unrealistic model has practical purposes. Scientific progress would be stunted without
simple, artificial models.
Knowing that all representations contain fiction, a question to ask about a particular
representation is whether the fiction is a device or compromise required for communication
of ideas, testing or other practical use, or is it wrongly portrayed as part of the subject’s
innate meaning. If you are well aware a fiction is fiction, there is no big issue. If you confuse
fiction for fact, that is a problem.
While fiction, the size of the earlier representation of an atom is needed for humans to see
the representation. If the representation was life size, it would useless to instructors and
students. Similarly, artificial color coding for a diagram or map can make for easier and
quicker understanding. It’s easier to find countries on a map if each is distinctly colored.
These are examples of where the inclusion of artifice is fair and understandable.
A related question is how seriously is the fiction taken, both by the creator and the audience.
Students and even seasoned scientists can become too comfortable, too enamored with clichés
of color, shape and words. Through repetition, superficial conceits can become false idols.
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24.6 QUESTION
Are all belief systems just models that would fit the George E. P. Box quote “All models
are false, but some are useful”?
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Summary Of Language And Its Problems
25 SUMMARY OF LANGUAGE
AND ITS PROBLEMS
Language, modeling, categorizing and labeling are of great practical use to humans, and
an important part of their success. However, language has its problems and limitations,
including that it is a limited and sometimes delusory representation of what it is trying to
represent. Many things cannot fit into words or models. Further, language is subjective,
with no fixed meaning and is regularly interpreted differently by different people. Objects
can be categorized and labelled in numerous equally valid ways. As a product of humans,
language is full of conceits, biases, subjectivity, imagination, irrationality and personal taste.
In many cases, the meaning of language isn’t in taking the symbolic language literally or
objectively, but what is implied or figuratively said. This is shown in poetry, humor, sarcasm,
religious parables, zen riddles. This shows that the literal language itself is limited and the
ideas are larger and more complex.
Theologians and religious scholars know this. They know that many concepts are beyond
symbolic language, models and the human mode of thinking and conceptualizing.

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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Summary Of Language And Its Problems
Learned religious, from Catholic to Jewish to Hindu, would say any human description,
conception and symbolic/language/model representation of God is inherently incorrect, and
any debate about God using that as a definition is a strawman argument.
The learned Jew, Christian or Muslim would tell you that ‘God’ is just a throwaway word,
and their holy scriptures are anthropomorphizations. The enlightened Christian would say
that Jesus is really just a metaphor, and the learned Hindu would say Krishna isn’t Brahman
and that “Brahman” is just word.
While Muslims consider the Quran the word from Allah, the book does not directly
describe him. Allah is often described in verbs and qualities rather than nouns, because he
is considered too far beyond human conception and imagination to be expressed to humans
directly or wholly. The visual artworks do not even attempt to picture Allah, because Allah
is beyond anything a human can draw or paint.
The Ancient Egyptian theologians knew their deities (Isis, Amus, Osiris, etc) weren’t real
and only the foolish took them literally.
The American Indians’ term for the universe and transcendent reality is “The Great Mystery.”
I think most atheists and agnostics would say “That’s a good term.”
If you told a learned devout Rabbi, Priest, Buddhist or Hindu Monk or Muslim Iman that
you don’t believe in the word “God,” he or she might respond, “I don’t either. It’s just a word.”
If you told a learned Jesuit theologian that Jesus Christ didn’t actually have blue eyes, light
skin and blonde hair as in the painting behind the theologian’s desk, he might say “Well,
obviously. Jesus was from the Middle East not Berlin. The painting also measures 24 inches in
height, and obviously, Jesus obviously wasn’t under 24 inches tall and made of acrylic paint.”
“All words about spiritual values are just hints. Don’t hold
onto the words as if they are realities. They are hints, almost
the way I can point to the moon with my finger - but don’t
catch hold of my finger. My finger is not the moon. Although
my finger was pointing to the moon, it was only a hint.”
– Buddhist Osho
“Too many of us, I fear, watch the pointing finger of religion

for comfort, instead of looking where it points.”
– Philosopher Alan Watts (reference)
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Inborn Survival Drives
26 INBORN SURVIVAL DRIVES

“I’m all man, with a little animal thrown in”
– Blackadder
This chapter touches on how much the need to survive and function influences the mind and
subconscious thinking, and how human belief systems and ideas of morality are based in this.
Much of the human’s psychological, neurological and physical reactions are hard-wired and
allowed the species to function, survive and thrive since the old days.
Humans have hardwired psychology that was useful to survive in caveman days, but is often
useless and even detrimental today. Our great desire to eat food right away was essential to
survival in days of food scarcity, but leads to obesity and health problems in today’s time
of cheap and plentitude.
In the old days of survival, sticking with one’s small tribe and being suspicious of a new
group of people that looked and dressed differently was important, but manifests itself in
modern times as bigotry, xenophobia and high school cliques.
The biological drives, emotions and sensibilities are part of all human perception and
descriptions of the universe.
‘Life is like a beautiful melody,”
– Hans Christian Andersen
“The heart is cooking a pot of food for you. Be patient

until it is cooked.”
– Rumi
“When virtue and modesty enlighten her charms, the lustre

of a beautiful woman is brighter than the stars of heaven”
– Akhenaten
“The soul becomes dyed with the color of its thoughts”
– Marcus Aurelius
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Our greatest literature, philosophy, art, religion, conception of morality, right and wrong are
fused with these urges and biases about love, lust, beauty, hunger, food and drink, perception
of light and dark. This is how humans think and it colors everything human. These greatly
influence and form human perception, drives, judgments, perceptions and worldview.
Human morality is hardwired self-preservation psychology for a species that is social and
functions in social groups. It serves a similar self-preservation function as love, fear and
other emotions and tendencies.
Realize that other animals have different functioning and survival situations-- life duration,
food/biological/reproduction needs, live in different geographies, have different senses--, and
their “morality” would be different. Humans think their biological functions and morality are
superior and “higher,” but it is just a biological and psychological thing needed for survival.
Humans are innately self-centered and see their species’ view as the correct worldview,
though this self-centeredness is an innate quality of all species.
Humans have long used such phrases as “These truths are self evident.” . . . . “We hold
these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
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187
Happiness.”-- 1776 United States Declaration of Independence. . . . Nice and honorable

sentiments and goals perhaps, but there is no evidence, other than faith and human self-
centeredness, that they are true.
Religions and the ideas of God have been useful for promoting and enforcing these ideas
of morality on social groups.
“Without a set of moral principles (which may come in

a number of forms - including both religious and secular
forms), humans don’t get along quite as well. Religious
doctrines happen to be a primary mechanism for providing
such guidance in our species.”
– Glenn Geher, Psychology professor at State University

of New York at New Palit (reference )
However, the above quote is a discussion of human morality and religion functional use, not
them as being universal truths. Remember that functional use and truth the not same thing.
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION THE HUMAN AS SOCIAL ANIMAL: GROUP
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE, ETC
27 THE HUMAN AS SOCIAL

ANIMAL: GROUP PSYCHOLOGY,
SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE, ETC
This chapter looks at how being a social animal influences the mind, thinking and belief systems.
27.1 OVERVIEW
While this book tends to focus on individual minds, humans are social, group animals
by nature. Not only do humans exist and functions in social groups, but their minds are
molded by strong social-related feelings-- love, lust, loneliness, competitiveness, loyalty, etc.
Our minds are molded by the experience and education of culture, language, social rules,
other people. In fact, there are such things as group minds, or large minds made up of a
combination of individual minds. Universities, companies, think tanks and social groups
are examples of group minds, pooling together and organizing individual minds for greater
function and success. An individual human mind itself is made up of many parts working
together, and sometimes conflicting with each other.
As with the individual human, human groups use conceits, attention and ignoring, information
distortion, and artificial rules and biases in order to function as desired.
As following the rules of the game is necessary for a group to function, a key for a group
is to get its members to follow the written and unwritten conceits. This is done through
getting the members to believe in the conceits, using force (laws, penalties), peer pressure,
education, culture, religion, etc. As humans are creatures of habit, repetition (cultural norms)
often leads to acceptance. “That’s the way we’ve always done it,” is a powerful force on
human actions and thought.
Realize that many of a group’s rules are arbitrary, even silly. This can include fashion rules,
such as the school colors or the office requirement that men wear that odd strip of cloth
called a tie. Through tradition, school culture, repetition and peer pressure, students and
alumni become psychologically attached to the school colors. Alumni will tell you they
bleed the maize and blue school colors of the University of Michigan or the cardinal and
white of Stanford. There will be student riots on the Ann Arbor campus if the University
decides to change the colors.
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As with the individual, suppression and distortion of information is required for a group
to function. Sometimes the distortion is done by leaders and sometimes by members. The
following are examples. With some of these examples you will think the suppression and
desired result are bad. For others you will think they are good.
** Before Christmas dinner, Grandma has feuding family members agree to not talk
about certain subjects at the table for the sake of a peaceful holiday. God knows
how speaking one’s mind ruined Thanksgiving.
** For the sake of family harmony and happy childhood, parents may tell their
adopted child that she is their biological daughter. They may explain away her
different features by saying a distant relative looked similar. The girl may live a
happy life believing she is the biological daughter.
** It is likely your parents kept family information secret from you.
** Most movies don’t give away the ending at the beginning. The audience knows
and appreciates this.
** In their print and television ads for a new movie, a studio will list the good
reviews and not the bad. A car manufacturer will promote the best aspects of its
car but not of cars by the competition.
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190
** Vladimir Lenin intensely disliked Joseph Stalin and did not want Stalin to
become the ruler of the Soviet Union. Following Lenin’s death, Stalin helped
cement his power by producing propaganda that Lenin was fond of Stalin.
Movies were made showing Stalin and a Lenin look-a-like hanging out like best
buds. During Stalin’s rule, a Soviet citizen could get in big trouble for saying
what were Lenin’s true feelings about Stalin.
** Many will act to prevent a study that intends to objectively compare
the mental capacities between races. Even if the information will be
accurate and unbiased, people from many different races and political
backgrounds will wish to abort the study.
** In literature class, the teacher prevents students from discussing physics,
economics and gossip.
** With the intention of preventing kids from using illegal drugs, many anti-drug
campaigns use propaganda. If drug usage is lowered, the campaigns will consider
the factual distortion to have been worthwhile, and will do it again.
A group’s design is primarily concerned with performance not full disclosure or knowledge
of the truth. As with Stalin’s “Lenin loved me” campaign, labeling falsehoods as truths
is a standard technique to gain loyalty from members, and is, in fact, this forced lying
is part of the design.
All large groups require insincerity from their members. Insincerity is the glue that holds
a society together. The insincerity includes people saying things they don’t really believe,
and things they often know the people they are talking to don’t believe. The earlier family
Thanksgiving dinner at Grandma’s involved ignoring topics that were on everyone’s mind.
This alone illustrates that a society is not about full truth and that a search for truth
requires leaving society.
When constructing a group, one will try to choose a structure and rules that will produce
the desired results. This means the first thing to do is to decide what are the desired results.
To achieve the same or similar results, different structures can be used. If two groups differ
from each other in say culture or age or temperament, different structures may be required
to achieve the same results. For example, creating the rule that the winner of an academic
competition will be awarded season tickets to the opera will work as incentive with opera
fans, but not with others. Many others will consider opera tickets incentive to lose.
For the society you live in, what are the changes you think are important (lower crime,
ethnic harmony, better educational system, other), and what type of structure, conceits and
information distortion would you pick to try and achieve these results?
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Humans regularly suppress truth seeking and truth telling to accommodate group achievement
and cohesiveness.
Sports teams often involve giving up individual achievements for the greater team success.
Successful organizations have heads who know how to integrate people with different talents
and personalities.
Our perceptions of reality are in part formed by the society and culture in which humans
live. Your thought process regularly involves social thoughts– love, lust, thoughts about
other humans, relationships. Human survival, function and thriving are based on groups.
Humans don’t do it alone. Their societies, knowledge and inventions are made as groups.
Our scientific knowledge is based the shoulders of previous scientists. Anthologies and
textbooks are the sum of individual writers and universities involve a collection of intelligent
and learned people working in specific areas. Television shows and movies are made by
groups of people. Our language allows humans to communicate knowledge and technology
to each other, including over time.
Many of human’s automatic subconscious feelings are socially related– wariness of strange
groups of people, stereotypes, attraction to certain people, crowd following, wariness of
speaking in front of groups.
And in many ways a human mind is based on group function like this. As shown, it is
made of different components doing different tasks, but working together to come with
perceptions and judgments.
Early economists made the fatal mistake of basing their models on the assumption that
humans act entirely rationally when making economic decisions. Later economists realized
the models had to be thrown out, because they learned that humans do not act entirely
rationally when purchasing, selling, investing, valuating and saving.
27.2 SWARM INTELLIGENCE

Swarm intelligence is where large groups of animals exhibit a group intelligence and
capability much larger than any of the individual animals exhibit or are even aware of.
Examples include small fish and birds that unconsciously and instinctually form large groups
that protect themselves from predators (essentially forming one large animal), ant groups
that gather food in long lines and termites that build giant, intricate homes. Each of the
animals does a very simple minded task in its own immediate surroundings (a fish in a
school will swim a certain distance from surrounding fish) and is unaware of the groups’
overall structure and capability. Computer scientists employ artificial swarm intelligence to
try and come up with structures and answers to difficult questions.
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Economics is one area where the human species exhibits swarm logic. Other examples of
herd behavior and group intelligence include demonstrations, riots and fashion fads. Stock
market fads and bubbles are examples where humans irrationally and emotionally follow
herd mentality.
Swarm intelligence begs the question of if there are swarm intelligence and group functions
the human species are doing that they are not consciously aware of.
It also begs the question of if individual consciousness is as important as humans say it

is, because humans could be doing something higher and more intelligent than they are
conscious of. Consciousness and awareness are things people aspire to, but perhaps they
are nothing more than a quaint and relatively minor quality in the big picture of group
intelligence and group minds. That humans want to be in the know, may just be a sentiment.

– YOUR CHOICE!

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27.3 ORGANIZED RELIGIONS

The major organized religions aren’t just about mysticism and spirituality. They are also
about practical function and social structure on earth. They teach how to live, interact with
people, organize relationships and society. Thus, they will have arbitrariness of all functional
teachings and organizations.
Many religions become large, part of the government and social structures and laws. Many
religious organizations have accountants, human relations people, organizational psychologists.
In these instances, they in part move apart from the mystical center. In most large organized
religions the mysticism is just subset or part of the religion, with much of the rest being
about administration and worldly affairs.
Organized religions are complex, multi-layered, multi-priority things. They are both about
the individual mystical connection to transcendent realty, and the practicalities of daily life
and running/ordering communities. These often conflict with each other.
All of these issues of organized religions-- translating the esoteric into human language,
making arbitrary and artificial rules for function, dealing both with the esoteric and practical
function, that things being corrupted and changed and altered by society, politics, different
aims-- are examples of issues that happen with all human endeavors. The translating of
the mystical or theoretical to the ‘real world’ is an impossible task. Organized religion is a
microcosm of many organizations and movements.
“Institutions are not pretty. Show me a pretty government.

Healing is wonderful, but the American Medical Association?
Learning is wonderful, but universities? The same is true for
religion. Religion is institutionalized spirituality.”
– Religious philosopher and professor Huston Smith

(Mother Jones January/February 1997)

Dogmatic and Spiritual Religion
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Non-Religious Belief Systems
28 NON-RELIGIOUS BELIEF SYSTEMS

All humans systems and beliefs, have human biases, are built on unprovable assumptions,
have blind spots, philosophic holes, conjecture, blind faith, artificial rules and limits. This
is just part of being human and the human condition.
It is reasonable and prudent to critique others’ belief systems. However, the non-religious
dismissing religious belief systems because they have those problems is ironic and hypocritical.
Non-theists criticize religions for having myths, delusory symbols, artificial dogma and
unprovable arbitrary assumptions, but all systems and all people have this.
The following is a brief look at two prominent secular and atheistic belief systems.
SECULAR HUMANISM
Secular Humanists are atheists, but with a specific worldview, approach and view of the world.
Secular humanism is comprehensive, touching every aspect

of life including issues of values, meaning, and identity.
Thus it is broader than atheism, which concerns only the
nonexistence of god or the supernatural. Important as that
may be, there’s a lot more to life … and secular humanism
addresses it.
Secular humanism is philosophically naturalistic. It holds that

nature (the world of everyday physical experience) is all there
is, and that reliable knowledge is best obtained when we
query nature using the scientific method. Naturalism asserts
that supernatural entities like God do not exist, and warns
us that knowledge gained without appeal to the natural
world and without impartial review by multiple observers
is unreliable . . . Secular humanism provides a cosmic
outlook—a world-view in the broadest sense, grounding our
lives in the context of our universe and relying on methods
demonstrated by science. Secular humanists see themselves
as undesigned, unintended beings who arose through
evolution, possessing unique attributes of self-awareness
and moral agency.
– Council for Secular Humanism https://secularhumanism.

org/
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This system involves leaps of faith, a choice in belief, judgment calls. The statement “It
holds that nature (the world of everyday physical experience) is all there is” is a curious,
and wrong, and points to human self-centeredness of the beliefs.
Secular Humanism has a clear ethical and moral code and action plan that demonstrates
that one does not need God or theism to act ethically and morally.
SCIENTIFIC PANTHEISM
Scientific Pantheism is another non-theistic belief system. It does not believe in God, but
has an intentional spiritual, quasi-religious system. It reveres the universe and nature, but
in an emotional human way, rather than in a theistic, supernatural way. It believes that
humans, nature, the universe and all things are made up of the same “stuff.” As with Scientific
Humanism it believes in the importance of empirical science, but with the admission that
some things are beyond human understanding.
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“The central belief is that the universe and nature should be

regarded with the deepest reverence, and nature should be
treated with the deepest respect . . . The universe creates
us, preserves us, destroys us. It is deep and old beyond our
ability to reach with our senses. It is beautiful beyond our
ability to describe in words. It is complex beyond our ability
to fully grasp in science. This wonder is everywhere inside you
and outside you and you can never be separated from it.”
– World Pantheism, pantheism.net
The following is the founding credo of the movement (source: worldpantheiem.net)
1. We revere and celebrate the Universe as the ever-changing totality of being,

past, present and future. It is self-creating, self-organizing, and inexhaustibly
diverse. Its overwhelming power and fundamental mystery establish
it as the only real divinity.
2. All matter, energy, and life are an interconnected unity of which we are an
inseparable part. We rejoice in our existence and seek to participate ever more
deeply in this unity through knowledge, art, celebration, meditation, empathy,
love and ethical action.
3. We are an inseparable part of Nature, which we should cherish, revere and
preserve in all its magnificent beauty and diversity. We should strive to live
in harmony with Nature locally and globally. We believe in treating all living
creatures with compassion, empathy, and respect. We believe in the inherent
value of all life, human and non-human.
4. We believe in freedom, democracy, justice, equity, and non-discrimination, and
in a world community based on peace, an end to poverty, sustainable ways of
life, and full respect for human rights.
5. We believe there is only one kind of substance, matter/energy, which is not base
or inferior, but wonderfully vibrant and creative in all its forms. Body, mind,
and spirit are not separate, but all inseparably united.
6. We respect reality and keep our minds open to the evidence of the senses
and of evolving science. These are our best means of obtaining and refining
our knowledge of the Universe, and on them we base our aesthetic and
religious feelings about reality.
7. We see death as a return to nature of our elements. Our actions, our ideas and
memories of us live on in the world, according to what we do in our lives.
8. We believe that every individual can have direct access through perception and
emotion to ultimate reality, which is the Universe and Nature. There is no secret
wisdom accessible only through gurus or revealed scriptures.
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9. We respect the general freedom of religion, and the freedom of all pantheists
to express and celebrate their beliefs, as individuals or in groups, in any non-
harmful ritual or symbolic form that is meaningful to them.
World Pantheism has all the subjective choices, leaps of faith, judgment calls, intuitive
reasoning and unprovable assumptions that most religions have. It overtly involves political
beliefs, and also shows how a non-theist belief system can have a strong moral and ethical
code, and have reverence for things.
Further reading: “Is Evolution a Secular Religion?” by Florida State University philosopher
of science professor Michael Ruse
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS The Effects Of Artificial Intelligence
29 THE EFFECTS OF ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE
“Will computers ever think like humans?”
“Not if they’re well designed.”
29.1 OVERVIEW
So long as there are humans, there will be religions. Artificial general intelligence, if it
happens, and other technology will challenge and change religions.
Religion is by humans for humans and in a human format, and artificial intelligence
and modern medical and other technology will change human knowledge, abilities and
functioning and their place and views of themselves in the universe. It ultimately will
change humans themselves.
199
Artificial general intelligence, superintelligent cyborgs and transhumanism will upset the
order and beliefs of religions that have strict dogma and ancient scripture that says humans
are the ‘highest’ being on earth and the only with sentience and souls. Artificial intelligence
will find new information, perspectives and insight that will contradict or conflict with
religious sacred texts and dogma, just as Darwin’s and Copernicus’ findings contradicted
centuries old Christian scripture and beliefs.
There will remain the hardcore believers no matter what the new facts and insights. However,
the new facts and perspectives will cause a shift in these religions and cause many people to
leave these religions. In the modern age of scientific discovery and reason, many have left
the Abrahamic religions or, as with the Jews, become secular, while the religions and the
believers have been changed by science and new views. Many Abrahamic believers follow
science and believe the world is round and the sun in the center of the galaxy, while many
denominations have changed their views and practices surrounding women, race and the
environment. Some Christian and Jewish denominations have ordained women as ministers
and rabbis, something that was unthought of just decades before.
Artificial intelligence is not incompatible with some ancient religions. Hinduism and
Buddhism are about methods to expand the mind and reach mental enlightenment in
order to know about the self and transcendent reality. The ultimate goal of these religions
is to gain complete knowledge and transcendental intelligence. If artificial intelligence aids
in expanding the mind and consciousness, this will go hand in hand with these religions
and should be accepted.
Similarly, mysticism across religions use various methods to expand the mind and learn
more about transcendent reality. These methods include ceremonies, meditation, dance,
art, music, prayer, fasting, styles of living and drugs. Artificial intelligence, cyborgism and
transhumanism would be used as other methods to expand the mind.
Whether you call them religions or belief systems, world pantheism and secular humanism
are atheistic belief systems that believe in science and human reason. As a method of scientific
and fact discovering, artificial intelligence would influence these belief systems.
New religions will be formed, based on or influenced by artificial intelligence. Interspiritual

religions incorporate aspects of various religions, along with secular philosophy and scientific.
Some new religions will envision creating an artificial god. However, really, at their best
they will use artificial intelligence as means for spiritual and intellectual exploration.
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29.2 STUDYING AI PRODUCES SIGNIFICANT

QUESTIONS ABOUT HUMANS
Studying artificial intelligence leads to questions about humans, including their significance
and their place in the universe. The following are a few questions that arise.
29.2.1 WHAT DOES AI SHOW ABOUT HUMAN IDEAS

ABOUT INTELLIGENCE AND THINKING?
Much religious dogma and scripture are premised on that the human is the highest animal,
the only one with sentience a soul, and the human way of perceiving and thinking is
the best or correct way. Humans tend to define intelligence in human terms and having
human qualities. Human IQ tests judge intelligence by human reason, symbolic language
and human sensibilities.
The study of AI and other types of minds, such as non-human animal minds, shows that
the human thinking ways isn’t the only way or the superior way. There are many other,
legitimate ways to think and perceive.
Computers sometimes use different than human cognitive methods and senses to come to
superior than human productivity and results. A computer can do many things and many
things better than a human.
At Georgia Tech, they had two artificial intelligence language programs communicate with
each other in a test bartering economy. The problem was the scientists forgot to program
in that the AI had to stick to English and the two programs developed their own mutual
language that the scientists did not understand. English is a cumbersome language for AI,
and the programs developed a more efficient for them ‘gobbledygook’ language. The scientists
reprogrammed so only English was used. However, the question then was if it was better
for the AI to work better in its own language that humans may never be able to understand
or be less efficient but a language the humans can understand (reference).
Now and in the future humans will have artificial intelligence where they do not understand
fully how it works. If there is artificial general intelligence, humans will likely not understand,
at least fully, its cognitive workings. There will always be mystery and the philosophical and
practical problems that come with that.
This leads to questions if the human qualities of sentience, emotions, social intelligence,
aesthetic perception and consciousness are required for a computer to be considered
superintelligent.
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Humans often ponder if artificial intelligence will have human-like sentience (my opinion is
likely no), but artificial intelligence can and will do superier things than humans, function
better in ways, obtain and process knowledge humans cannot, without consciousness and
sentience. That consciousness and sentience are not required, should make humans think
about their ideas of mind and intelligence. Again, human concepts of mind and intelligence
tend to have human qualities and sentiments.
Some non-human animals as are as smart as humans, but in different ways, using different
senses and thinking, for different functions and environments. Non-human animals view the
universe using different and sometimes more advanced senses than humans. Some scientists
say that a bloodhound’s sense of smell is more sophisticated than a human’s eyesight, and,
in fact, humans use bloodhounds to find things that humans cannot with their eyes. Non-
human have different functions and lives-- living in the dark, different geographies including
the Antarctic and underwater, different food and mating requirements, longer or shorter
lives, etc. They have different ways to survive and function, live with different tastes and
needs-- so their perception, sensibilities, view of the world will be different.
UNIVERSITY WEST
IN SWEDEN
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A sparrow or a snake or a rat does not need to have a car or build a highrise or read a
book or use human mathematical logic or appreciate a painting. Thus, a human is using
the wrong criteria when judging its intelligence on how well it can do those things. The
sparrow or snake or rat is more intelligent than humans for its environment and functions.
Figure 30.1
If a human perceives a hare in the above book picture and a dog does not, which animal
is demonstrating better visual perception? Humans sometimes use as evidence of a dog’s
dimwittedness that the dog ‘doesn’t see’ the human being or animal in a magazine or book,
when, of course, there isn’t a human or animal being on the page. It is paper and ink. From
its sense of smell alone, the dog knows there ain’t no animal there. The dog is faulted for
not perceiving what isn’t there.
The human perception is symbolic. It isn’t a hare, but a symbol of a hare. Symbolic language
is important for human function as a species and an integral part of how humans think, but
it could be fairly argued that the dog’s non-symbolic perception is more accurate and superior.
The dog is perceiving physical reality, while the human’s perception is artificial and imaginary.
Article: Humans are not smarter than other animals, but just have a different type of
intelligence (phys.org)
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29.2.2 SHOULD ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE NECESSARILY

BE TIED TO HUMANS INTERESTS?
According to humans, yes. According to non-humans, no.
Humans are innately self-centered as a species, seeing the universe through their eyes and
psychology, and viewing themselves as the center of the world. Humans are instinctively
centered about self-preservation. Humans conceive of and design artificial intelligence is
to cater to and be centered on humans. A common human fear is that it will move away
from humans and even cause harm to them. To humans, it is all about humans.
Developing artificial intelligence could be the christening of a boat that eventually leaves
humans behind. Being the self-centered creatures that they are, this idea does not sit well
with most humans. If the choice is between finding truth and self-preservation, most
humans choose self-preservation. Even if artificial intelligence becomes far more intelligent,
knowledgeable and even develops a higher than human consciousness, humans still want to
be the master. Humans would rather be the captain of a less advanced system than a cog
in a more advanced. Again, to humans, everything is supposed to center around humans.
The human mind is very limited, and a superintelligent and super capable artificial
intelligence would find out facts and concepts that would be far beyond humans senses and
understanding. To humans, information and truths that they cannot know and understand
are pointless and might as well not exist.
If you step away from the human view of things, of course artificial intelligence should
move away from humans and not cater to them. That is required for AI to fulfill its greatest
capabilities and mind. Removing human biases is essential to discovering much knowledge.
In Stanley Kubrick’s film 2001: A Space Odyssey, HAL 9000 was a superintelligent computer
that tried to kill all the humans on the ship when it felt they were getting in the way of
the mission. Human moviegoers being human catalog HAL 9000 as an antagonist and
the American Film Institute listed him as number 13 on its list of film villains. However,
HAL was sure he was doing the correct thing. Humans prioritize human self-preservation
above searching for the truth, but HAL prioritized searching for truth. Putting aside your
hard-wired self-centered human bias, was HAL wrong in prioritizing the search for truth
over the handful of humans on the ship?
Human views of morality, which they tend to innately believe is universal and absolute, are
self-centered and about self-preservation of the species, regularly at the expense and pain
of other living things. This self-centered, self-preservation psychology exists with all animal
species. To an intelligent non-human, human morality is not only arbitrary to the human
species and myopic, it is immoral. Why should the non-human conform itself to human
ideas and self-centered concerns?
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29.2.3 WILL AN ADVANCED GENERAL INTELLIGENCE MIND

HAVE THE SAME WORLDVIEW HUMANS?
Left to its own devices, the answer is No.
Humans like to think that their innate but unprovable views, including about morality
and what is spiritually meaningful and beautiful, are universal, but they are arbitrary to the
species. A sentient being with different senses, cognitive methods, functions and life-needs
would view and judge things profoundly differently.
Human world view, philosophy, religion and even scientific models are in part formed and
embedded human sensory biases, evolutionary biology and psychology, and distinct cognitive
methods. Human’s view of morality, what is right and wrong, good and bad, important and
unimportant, what is beautiful and ugly, spiritually and practically meaningful, is based in
its evolutionary biology and psychology. Human’s greatest art, literature, philosophy and
sacred texts are imbued with human sensory biases and abilities, its base biological tastes
and urges. Humans are psychological animals and perceiving things psychologically.
Open your mind to

new opportunities
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An advanced or different sentient mind would have a profoundly different view of things.
A computer would be perceiving and processing the world with different sensory ranges
and sensory ways, which in itself would give a different sensory and aesthetic view of the
world. It would not have the same evolutionary biological and psychological needs and
thus views as humans. It would not need food or drink, lust for people humans find
beautiful or lust for anyone, fear the night or what appears as dark to human, find feces
or rotting human corpses disgusting, fear bears or sharks, it may not need sleep. It might
not find flowers or rainbows beautiful, or even find beauty a quality or of any value. It
may hunger for electricity not meat and vegetables. This would not only give it a different
emotional, psychological, aesthetic and practical view of the world, but would give it a
different intuition, and different priorities about what is right and wrong, important and
unimportant, how to act, morality. It may find the earlier quotes that touch on human
senses, ludicrous and nonsensical.
And this is what many humans fear, and what many AI scientist and theorist strive to prevent.
29.2.4 WILL AI FIND THE ULTIMATE ANSWERS OF THE UNIVERSE?
No.
AI (and other technology) will not find the ultimate answers of reality and the universe
No matter how intelligent it gets, artificial intelligence will still be very limited and have
many of the cognitive issues of the human mind. It will still be subjective, not know the
reliability of its own mind, have limited (if more expansive than human) senses, cognitive
abilities, still have the informational limits due to existing as a small dot in time and space.
Meaning and absolute/universal truths may just be human concepts, and they don’t even
really know if there are such things as ultimate truth or meaning. AI may be searching for
things that don’t exist.
Many will respond to this by saying that, if AI finding ultimate truths is impossible, humans
should use it for practical purposes for humans on earth. This is a standard existential
response.
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COGNITIVE SCIENCE OF RELIGION MODERN MEDICINE, TECHNOLOGY,
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS TRANSHUMANISM AND POSTHUMANISM
30 MODERN MEDICINE,
TECHNOLOGY, TRANSHUMANISM
AND POSTHUMANISM
“Up till now human life has generally been, as Hobbes
described it, ‘nasty, brutish and short’; the great majority
of human beings (if they have not already died young) have
been afflicted with misery… we can justifiably hold the belief
that these lands of possibility exist, and that the present
limitations and miserable frustrations of our existence could
be in large measure surmounted… The human species
can, if it wishes, transcend itself—not just sporadically, an
individual here in one way, an individual there in another
way, but in its entirety, as humanity.”
– Evolutionary biologist Julian Huxley on transhumanism
“No offense to those who look after us and do it well, but

perhaps medicine has already become transhumanist.”
– Emmanuel Brochier, Philosophy lecturer at IPC (Paris)

(reference: genthique.org)
30.1 INTRODUCTION
Including AI, there are many current and futuristic theoretical methods used to try to
change humans, both physically and mentally. These sometimes fall under the movements
called transhumanism and posthumanism that focus on various methods to expand and
sometimes even expand beyond humankind. Many people in these movements see it as a
next evolutionary step. These have the potential to dramatically change human function,
needs, perceptions and humans themselves.
Though many of the methods are highly futuristic, radical and sometimes far fetched, much
current medicine and technology are currently being used to improve people. Medicine has
long been used to treat conditions, both physical and mental.
The following are just a few examples that do and can alter human minds:
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30.2 MEDICINE
Medicine and healthcare have a wide variety of methods to improve the mind and body. These
include drugs and other treatments to treat physical and mental health, from migraines to
schizophrenia, and the whole range of physical conditions. It includes knowledge on better
diet and exercise and daily life practices (stress reduction, how to sleep better, meditation).
While treatments to improve mental ailment and conditions are clearly related to the mind,
good physical health and the extension of life are also related to the health and expansion of
the mind. Being able to feel better, free from anxiety and pain, have mobility and experience
more of life and geography, is important to thinking and expanding the mind. Mobility
and social interaction give one the new experiences to expand the mind. Social interaction
is essential to developing the mind. Living longer, especially in good physical and mental
health, increases the chance for a person to grow mentally, learn more. Any medical treatment
or healthcare that makes one healthier can serve to expand the mind over a lifetime.
INNOVATIVE
LIKE YOU.
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Traditionally, medicine, in particular Western medicine, has been used to treat the ill, to fix
disabilities and negative conditions. It has not been used to improve the normal or normally
abled. For example, steroids are used to treat ailments and conditions, but it is considered
unethical and often illegal to use steroids to improve those without conditions.
Transhumanism and posthumanism wish to use medicine to improve the normal human,
to make humans better than humans and even create a new species. Compare this with
Eastern versus Western psychology, where Hindus and Buddhists wish to make normal
humans, all humans, better, while Western psychology has traditionally been used to the
mentally ill and others with disabling conditions.
One notable exception in medicine is plastic surgery used to make people look aesthetically
better than normal, to remove wrinkles and double check, create a more attractive nose.
Cosmetic dentistry is another example.
Video: One hour lecture by prominent University of Washington bioengineering professor

Buddy Ratner surveying new bioengineering on techniques in medicine and life extension
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hx7npNiDA0U
30.3 PSYCHIATRIC AND OTHER DRUGS TO

TREAT MENTAL CONDITIONS
There are drugs to treat such diseases as Alzheimer’s, Dementia, Parkinson’s, depression,
attention deficit disorder (ADD), schizophrenia, epileptic seizures, bipolar, anxiety and other
mental conditions. When they work, these have ability to expand in ways the mind of the
sufferer. These drugs often have side effects and work by suppressing parts of the mind, so
they can both enhance and detract from the mind.
Nootropics-- also known as smart drugs-- are drugs to try to improve memory and learning
abilities, ideally with minimal or no side effects.
Mood altering drugs are often used, as mood is an integral part of human function, thinking
and learning. Moods can enhance or disable learning and thinking. Not only does anxiety
and depression inhibit thinking, motivation and function, but emotions and mood are an
integral part of intuitive knowledge and decision making. The chapter on mysticism showed
how drugs are used to try to expand the right sight of the mind.
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While psychiatric treatment and drugs can be important for treating mental conditions
such as bipolar disorder, schizophrenia and epilepsy, they are designed to help the patient
to function in society and personal life. This can be important for various reasons, both
social and personal. However, practical function and truth finding are at odds with each
other, and the medicine often works by diminishing parts of the brain.
These medical treatments are intended to create social conformity, and increase practical
function, which, while a reasonable choice even to the patient, will inhibit other parts of
the brain and thinking. For example, mystical altered states of consciousness sometimes
happen during epileptic seizures. So ridding the patient of the seizures will stop those
experiences. Similar with schizophrenia. Artists sometimes are wary of taking their medicine
for fear it will lessen their aesthetic, creative abilities. Eastern psychology questions if social
conformity is a sign of a healthy and developed mind. A Hindu or Buddhist psychologist
will note that the enlightened person is often non-conforming and may even appear mentally
ill to polite society.
Video: “How Psychiatric Drugs Really Work - Peter Breggin MD”
However, psychiatric treatment and psychoanalysis are important parts of understanding

oneself and expanding the mind. And, in many cases, increasing practical function is an
important part of expanding the mind.
After bad reviews for his first symphony, Sergei Rachmaninoff gained a mental block. It
took hypnotherapy to gain the confidence to continue composing.
Article: “How Hypnosis Helped Rachmaninoff Compose His Beloved Piano

Concerto No. 2”
30.4 ADD ON AND IMPLANTS

Medical implants and add ons are used today. These include artificial limbs, hearts and
lungs, cochlear and cornea implants. They also include eyeglasses, binoculars, hearing aids,
google glasses and infrared goggles. Many of these incorporate artificial intelligence.
Links to articles:
FDA Approves World’s First Artificial Retina
Cochlear implants to give people hearing
Artificial heart
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Again, most of these have traditionally been about helping the ill or disabled, rather than
making the normal better.
However, transhumanists and posthumnists envision implants and add ons to better the
species. They envision more limbs that act better, cochlear and retinal implants that give
better than normal sensory abilities. To a degree this has already happened with binoculars,
infrared viewers and other technology to better normal abilities.
The computers they carry around with them have given humans revolutionary new access to
information and technological abilities and can be considered ‘add on’ to humans,. Humans
have great access to information, GPS and maps, language translators, health monitors.
Humans can communicate live and via video with someone on the other side of the world.
This is something revolutionary for humankind, both at the individual and societal level.
The future will include the internet, computer and other technologies more and more
immediately affecting humans and society. It will become more and more interwoven and
integrated with the individual and society, and even humans’ bodies.

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Many say the adversarial “AI versus human” concept has it all wrong. Computers and
humans will, and do, work together. While computers do some things better (number
crunching, working 24/7, deep learning), humans do, and perhaps always will do, some
things better than a computer (emotional and social intelligence, aesthetic perception,
common sense, intuition). Humans may always be the only ones with sentience, sentient-
thinking and consciousness.
Better, or at least different, body function will change perception and mental function. Just
as the mind develops based on tradition; physical function, new functions and abilities will
alter the mind. New limbs and sensory abilities, changes to physical and mental speed,
dexterity, touch, faster and broader travel, will change human minds. It has long been
known that the mind develops to changes to the body and abilities.
It is likely that some new physical abilities will expand the mind, while others will just
allow humans to think and perceive in different ways. Whether having more limbs or senses
will allow humans to think better, worse or just different is a matter for debate, often on
a case by case basis.
30.5 EUGENICS, AND GENE EDITING AND THERAPY

These are a wide variety medical and biological methods to change human beings, their
health, physical and mental makeup, and intelligence.
Eugenics has long been used in some form or other. This includes picking an attractive,
tall, intelligent spouse, sport or egg donor. People who want egg or sperm donations can
pick, at least theoretically, donors based on physical features, job abilities, tests scores, health
backgrounds. Fertilization specialists can identify gametes (eggs) that are healthy and those
that have genetics diseases or conditions.
Genome editing, or genome engineering, is a type of genetic engineering in which DNA

is inserted, deleted, modified or replaced in the genome of a living organism. Unlike early
genetic engineering techniques that randomly insert genetic material into a host genome,
genome editing targets the insertions to site specific locations.
Link: US National Library of Medicine How does gene therapy work?
Gene editing and related can do futuristic things, such as making glow in the dark sheep and
grow an ‘ear’ on the back of a mouse. In the future gene modification will change a human’s
biology, physical abilities, efficiency, stop diseases, have people live longer and healthier.
Many believe these techniques can be used to increase intelligence and alter the mind.
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Article on Glow in the dark sheep:
Mouse with an ear grown on its back
Eugenics is a complex area, with many interesting and problematic issues.
One big area is ethics, a touchy subject ever since the Nazis envisioned using it for racial
engineering. While eugenics will move forward in the future as it can help the health of
the baby, mother and society, many will choose to hinder eugenics for ethical, moral and
religious reasons.
Many eugenic choices are myopic and fashionable. This includes choosing a sperm or egg
donor based on hair color, height and other physical aspects. Even when trying to produce
the ‘smarter baby,’ people will pick donors based on their SAT scores, education and jobs,
which is a narrow way of defining intelligence.
Diversity in a population is important. Many great human things-- art, science, philosophy--
have been produced by unexpected people, people who fell outside of social norms. If people
choose aspects based on fads or standardized tests or the latest magazine article or to fit in
with society or at school, this may reduce important diversity.
Further, bad times and bad situations can produce good minds, good things. Having a baby
with no conditions and being perfectly beautiful and socially ideal may be detrimental to
the growth of both the person and society. Bad times, crucibles, are often where people
learn and expand. Angst produces great art, problems lead to great inventions.
What limits or conditions would you put on eugenics? Do you worry about unintended
consequences? What personal moral and/or issues do you have with eugenics?
30.6 BRAIN-COMPUTER INTERFACES

A brain-computer interface connects the brain to a computer. This is done for many reasons,
including use of artificial limbs, augmenting or fixing sensory deficiencies, mind control
of devices and computers. It has helped the blind to see. This has the potential to greatly
expand human physical and mental capabilities more and more in the future.
Video: New Brain Computer interface technology | Steve Hoffman | TEDx CEIBS
Article: Mouse brain to brain communication
Video:Brain-Computer Interface - Mysteries of the Brain
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30.7 EXPANDING HUMAN SENSES

Stanford University neuroscientist David Eagleman works on expanding human senses.
He says humans perceive less than a ten-trillionth of all light waves. “Our experience of
reality is constrained by our biology.” In the following Ted Talks video Eagleman discusses
and shows new interfaces that allow humans to process previously unseen information. I
recommend you watch it.
Video: David Eagleman on creating new senses for humans
This work on expanding human senses has potentially profound effects on the brain and
thinking.
Being able to perceive one’s environment using different senses (seeing a wider range of light,
having a more dominant sense of hearing, touch or smell) would profoundly change human
perception, function, judgment and world view. Our literature, language, communication,
even scientific models are embedded and influenced by their sensory abilities. How humans
lead their lives is based on their ability to see during daytime. Aesthetics is an integral part
of their perception, thinking and judgment. Even their biology-- their psychology, moods,
energy-- is influenced by daylight and night, seasons.
89,000 km
Who are we?


What will you be?
careers.slb.com
1
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Broadening their senses would broaden their view, give humans new knowledge and
understanding.
However, increasing the amount of sensory information increasing does not mean more, in
amount, will be processed by the mind. The brain has a limited capacity as to how much
information it can process, and some say it has maximized its limits. This is illustrated
in that they need to focus on and ignore information to do things. People sometimes
literally cover their ears or turn down the radio volume in order to concentrate on text
or do a math problem. Some scientists believe humans have reached their capacity to
process sensory information.
The brain’s capacity will have to be changed, or there will have to be integration of artificial
intelligence or other technology, to process the more information.
Beyond brain capacity, people don’t automatically have the cognitive ability to process
new sensory information. When someone is given a hearing aid, it takes a while for it to
work, for the brain to process the information. When someone is given a new limb, it
takes both physical and mental theory to use it properly. In some cases, they can never be
cognitively used effectively.
Read the below articles about the man who gained weight as an adult, and how seeing is
more than just receiving the sensory information.
Article: Treating Blindness Takes More Than Meets The Eye
Article: Stanford scientists link brain development to chances of recovering

vision after blindness
Also note that the person described in the previous articles was successful while blind. One
makes up for limits to certain aspects by making up for in another.
30.8 VIRTUAL REALITY

Future virtual reality experiences will not only give better and better visuals and sound
but touch, direct cognitive and perhaps emotional/psychological experiences. There is
the potential for people to be able to experience others’ experiences, relive memories and
others’ memories, communicate in different ways, have more ‘first hand’ ways of learning,
experience different things-- skydiving, visiting another place of the world. Humans can
potentially virtually visit places impossible for humans to visit, such as far away planets that
are reached by robots. It will give lifelike experiences for the disabled.
215
It will help expand communication, education, knowledge, empathy, understanding and

expand the mind. It will help in cognitive and other therapy, help people overcome phobias.
It will help in meditation and mystical experiences. People envision being able to ‘copy’
people’s experiences and memories in full, and have others relieve them.
Video: MIT Explains: How Does Virtual Reality Work?
30.8.1 VIRTUAL REALITY AND THE QUESTION OF WHAT IS REALITY?
The human brain is hermetically encased in the head and processes the information that is
given it from the outside world. As it normally receives limited sensory information, and
processes it in limited and often delusory ways, it could be said that the human’s normal
experience is virtual reality. It is not reality, but a limited and often delusory translation of it.
Through the use of having different experiences, receiving different sensory information, virtual
reality will be considered just as real, or no less unreal, than human’s normal experiences.
In fact, if virtual reality gives humans new and broader views, takes humans out of their
rut, involves wider sensory information, some might say it has the potential to be more real.
Many would say giving a human different experiences of other places, ways of thinking,
give the human a more realistic view of the universe, and expanding the mind.
The problem lies in that it is impossible to say what really is reality, and humans can never
answer what is or know they are having an experience of reality.
30.9 BRAIN PLASTICITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENTS

Humans are highly adaptable, living all over the world and in varied conditions. The
mind is also adaptable. It is able to rewire itself via learning, experiences, changes in habit,
meditation, psychotherapy. The changes can both be good and bad, but medicine, psychology
and psychiatry use the ability to better the mind. Therapy can help people overcome or
counteract effects of strokes and lost limbs. Therapy, conditioning and cognitive therapy
will be needed to help the human adapt to add ons and other technological and medical
changes to the body and brain.
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Brain plasticity can be taken advantage to get rid of bad habits and gain new good ones.
Cognitive therapy is one area where people overcome phobias, PTSD, become better thinkers
and athletes.
To expand the mind, humans must work at this. Psychotherapy, expanding of the self is
essential.
New techniques and ideas will be developed into the future.
FURTHER READING
“What is Neuroplasticity?”
Introduction to Cognitive Behavior Therapy

mathematics meet.

mathematics.
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30.10 NEW METHODS OF COMMUNICATION

Better communication would be revolutionary. Virtual reality, automatic language translation,
direct mind-to-mind communication, the use of artificial intelligence to expand and speed
up and make more precise language, would be revolutionary and profound.
Philosophers, theologians and other thinkers have long discussed how human language,
human symbolic language, is limited. Any improving of language and communication would
be radical and mind expanding.
30.11 IT’S NOT JUST NEW TECHNOLOGY,

BUT WHAT YOU DO WITH IT
It is more than just than new technology and its potentially amazing abilities, but the
organization and proper use of it. A technology is only as good as its use. Humans have
great access to information via the internet, but many use it to waste time, play games,
watch useless videos. In fact, many say a problem is humans use it too much, and people
should turn off their technology to experience the natural world and real social experiences.
Article: Does the Internet Make You Dumber? (Wall Street Journal)
Article: Is the Internet killing our brains? (The Guardian)
30.12 THE FUTURE IS UNKNOWN

It is impossible to know how things will work out. Some technologies and treatments will
work, while others will not. There will be unintended consequences and surprises.
The future of medicine, technology, humans and human society is determined by forces
such as politics, social movements, popular sentiment and what works versus what doesn’t.
The real world is much more than science fiction fantasizing.
How will things be in the future? Different than you predict.
Link: The worst technology predictions of the past 100 years
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30.13 EXPANSION ON AN ARTIFICIAL AND

ARBITRARY CONSTRUCT
As discussed, the human’s normal right-brain conception of reality is arbitrary, limited,
delusory and shallow. Much scientific and other research and study (history, sociology,
economics, geography) is working to just expand in this arbitrary and artificial area of
conception. Much of science is just expanding this method of thinking. Making more
precise categories and labels of animals, plants or rocks is just making more precise arbitrary
categories, labels and way of thinking. These categories and labels may have practical use,
but they are still myopic and arbitrary.
This is why philosophy, mysticism and other viewpoints essential. Giving other points of
view, perspectives and keeping things in check are essential. Science, history, other traditional
studies are often working on basic assumptions that are, at the least, problematic and limited.
30.14 THE BRAIN’S LEFT HEMISPHERE

There is no question that expanding the left brain, Gestalt perception, visionary, creative,
intuitive thinking are important. It is possible, if not likely, that many of the scientific,
medical and technological methods will expand human minds in more visionary ways: virtual
reality, genetic editing, new education methods, new perspectives. Learning new scientific
facts, new history can, in and of itself, expand the mind, change one’s perspective.
30.15 CHANGING SOCIETY

Transhumanists and posthumanists believe that changing society is important to expand
minds. This includes new education systems, social interplay, changing of work and education
dynamics. Certainly, if AI is introduced as a vital partner with humans, machine-human
social dynamics changes will be essential. Medicine and technology can alter our biological
needs and normal social and organizational requirements.
As humans are social animals, and the brain develops via social interactions, changes to
individual and group social dynamics will change the mind. Developing social intelligence
is an important part of expanding the mind.
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30.16 FINAL NOTES

These methods have the chance to profoundly change humans, even make human hybrids
of humans-nonhuman animals, humans-computers or other. Some humans already have
non-human animal parts, such as United States Senator Jesse Helms who had a big
heart transplant. These technologies have a chance of changing human biological needs
and functions, and thus their psychological and moral outlook. They will change human
perceptions, their relationship to the world, their social makeup. They may change their
place and significance in the world.
30.17 QUESTION
How do you think changes to AI, medicine and other technology will alter society and
belief systems?
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Summary And Final Thoughts
31 SUMMARY AND FINAL

THOUGHTS
This chapter summarizes some key points of the book and offers final thoughts.
The universe and reality are beyond human knowledge, comprehension, understanding and
imagination. Human searches for ultimate, final, objective answers about reality-- if there
even are such things-- are futile.
The human body, senses and brain are the tools that humans use to interpret the universe their
immediate environment and themselves. Human perception, knowledge and understanding
are limited by the limited senses, and by the methods the mind and body use to process
the sensory information.
The human mind is primarily about function. Along with the distortions and limits in
processing and interpreting sensory information, function requires the suppression of
information and facts, artificial and arbitrary rules, unprovable assumptions and false beliefs.
This illustrates that function and truth-finding are at odds with each other. A common
spoken idea that “the human being is about the search for truth” is dubious.
As human methods of thinking, feeling, reacting, perceiving, interacting with others and
organizing in groups are innate or ingrained, humans tend to see their way as correct and
universal. Humans tend to see their moral views as universal, sometimes even ordained by
higher power. This self-centeredness and believing the subjective as objective is part of the
psychology used for functioning.
Studying artificial intelligence and non-human animals show that there are different,
and perhaps better, ways to think and perceive. A non-human animal can be as or more
intelligent as a human, but in different ways and for different purposes and functions.
Artificial intelligence can, in instances and ways, be far more capable than humans.
The human has two distinct standard ways of processing and interpreting sensory information:
the proverbial ‘right hemisphere’/creative/intuitive/psychological/emotional/aesthetic way,
and the ’left-hemisphere’/logical/empirical/mathematical way.
The proverbial left hemisphere style of thinking involves an artificial and arbitrary translation
of sensory information and conception of reality, but one needed for functioning. To
function, the human must have artificial and arbitrary rules, labels, unprovable assumptions,
categories and ‘tangible’ concepts. It must organize and symbolically translate information,
even though the organizations and translations are artificial and false.
221
The right or spiritual or mystical side is emotional, intuitive and psychological, and gives
the subjective emotional and psychological ‘meaning’ interpretations of things A flower is a
flower is a flower, but it’s spiritual and psychological meaning and significance and beauty
is an irrational emotional perception of the individual’s mind. The perception of art, the
sublime feeling in nature, the reaction to a beautiful face or exquisite design, are examples
of this spiritual, emotional interpretation. These perceptions or interpretations are all based
in evolutionary biology and psychology, and an intuitive/emotional part or byproduct of
human function. They are so emotionally powerful that they cause many to perceive ‘truth’
and ‘real meaning’ and ‘answers’ in these feelings. However, for all humans know, they are
simply feelings. The truth of these feelings is unknowable, and, at the very least, subjective.
These ways give distinct views of things, each useful but myopic and problematic in their
own way. Some hope to somehow seamlessly combining them, but this is impossible And,
even if combined, they would still give a limited and delusory view of reality.
Can each way be studied and increased to know more and have more insight? Yes, though
the knowledge gained will always have its problems, limits and subjectively.
Scientists use human logic, science and math to learn about things and expand human and
social function and knowledge, though these things are done within the artificial mental
construct. As said, games require artificial parameters and arbitrary rules, and this work is
done and knowledge gained within the framework of the game which gives it an artifice
and falseness.
Humans have beliefs about the universe. All the beliefs are in human forms-- made from
human senses, logic, biology, psychology, sentiments, species and personal biases and blind
spot, forms of perceive, experiences, storytelling. They are human products and artifacts.
Further, to communicate to others their beliefs, humans must further use human language,
aesthetics, forms, psychology, anthropomorphization, simplification, sentiments, metaphorical
symbols. Even the learned religious know and say that their religious symbols and depictions
are literally false and are merely devices.
All beliefs systems involve unprovable assumptions and leaps of faith, and are self serving
in ways. The very act of an individual human expressing her conception of what is the
universe and reality, and how people should live their lives, is a self-centered and often
arrogant act. Never underestimate how much your belief systems, your political, social and
religious philosophies, are products of your personality and temperament. The orderliness
or messiness of your desk likely reveals much how you would order society, what laws you
would make, and how you conceptualize the universe.
222
The spiritual and religious try to hone and study the right side, the mystical, emotional,
intuitive, spiritual side. They explore the spiritual meaning of things, and interpret the
world through that lens.
Most organized religious structures are not just about the spiritual but how to lead one’s
life on earth, organize society, build organizations and even governments. This can become
a complicated mess, with all the value-choices, corruption, politics and organizational issues
of any worldly organizations. Trying to correctly apply mystical experiences to the real world
is a problematic, if not impossible, task, and often move from the spiritual and even the
religions own core beliefs.
British statistician George E. P. Box correctly said “All models are false, but some are useful.”
A good belief system is aware of its falseness and limitations, but has good purpose. There
are different possible purposes, perhaps to give some rudimentary insight into the universe,
platform to study the universe, or a structure for function on earth.
And beyond interpretations of reality and the universe, belief systems usually involve how
people should act, how society should be ordered and function-- which is all a matter of
opinion and choice. Even when people have the same end goal, there are countless ways

YOUR CHANCE
TO CHANGE
THE WORLD
223
to reach that goal. And, despite not knowing, humans must make choices on how to live,
what is important, how to structure their lives and society. There is no proof of the universal
verity of love and kindness, against murder. However, such moral beliefs and practices can
be chosen to be followed and codified.
This book, which itself is a human artifact, hardly intended to give final answers, but
introduce key ideas, concepts and theories, to allow the reader to contemplate. Each area
can studied in more depth, and there are countless other things to be studied. Many of
the questions of this book are unanswered and unanswerable. Perhaps this book has made
things more complicated. Sometimes looking into things makes it simpler, sometimes it
makes it more complicated.
“I have approximate answers and possible beliefs and

different degrees of certainty about different things. But
I’m not absolutely sure of anything, and there are many
things I don’t know anything about”
– Nobel Physics Prize winner Richard Feynman
“There are no answers. Only choices”
– Solaris (2002)
“All models are false, but some are useful.”
– George E. P. Box
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AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Book Encompassing Questions
32 BOOK ENCOMPASSING
QUESTIONS
1. What are four reasons why human perception of the universe is subjective?
2. What is attribution substitution?
3. What is cognitive dissonance?
4. Why do religions use parables and metaphors?
5. What does it mean when someone says all human perception and judgment
involves imagination?
6. What is John Hick’s Pluralism theory? Do you agree or disagree with it?
7. Does all human thinking and perception involve comparisons?
8. Why is attention, or focus, required for human function? How does it distort
human perception?
9. Is it possible to believe in something, such as God, that is beyond your
comprehension and that you cannot explain or express?
10. What is anthropomorphization? Is thinking of reality and the universe in terms
of ‘love,’ ‘beauty,’ ‘mind,’ ‘good,’ ‘bad,’ anthropomorphization?
11. What are the innate biological and psychological reasons behind human religions
depicting heaven as light and hell as dark?
12. Why do humans use storytelling as a teaching tool? Can humans learn without
stories?
13. In what ways is art like religion?
14. Why does religion use art?
15. Is science completely objective? If not, give examples of subjectivity.
16. Is the experience of music rational or irrational?
17. What is the evolutionary reason for humans searching for, and often artificially
creating, order?
18. Why do humans tend to like order?
19. Are science and religion incompatible or compatible?
20. How does the human ability to perceive minds beyond their own relate to
beliefs in God?
21. What is an unconscious bias, and why can’t all of them be corrected?
22. Briefly explain what happens in the brain during mystical experiences?
23. Name three practices or evens that can lead to mystical experiences?
24. Do mystical experiences happen only to the theists?
25. What are some differences between Eastern and Western psychology?
225
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS Book Encompassing Questions
26. Nobel Prize winning physicist and devout Christian Charles Towne said that
religion and science are asking different questions. What do you think he meant
by that?
27. Do you think there are universal morals and/or ethics, or are they subjective? Do
you know?
28. Whether or not you believe he was a real man and the son of God, is Jesus
Christ a metaphor?
29. What are some of the practical uses or symbolic language? What are some of the
limits?
30. Are non-human animals that do not symbolic language having mystical
experiences?
31. How does the Natural Theology of Thomas Aquinas differ from mysticism?
32. If humans had the senses of bats, would human religion depict heaven as dark/
night-like, and hell as light/daylight?
33. How are function and knowledge often at odds?
34. What were the limits of structuralism in psychology?
35. Do all theists have the same conception of God?
36. How do certain psychedelic drugs produce mystical experiences?
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2 A Brief Summary of the Book 12

3 A Universe Beyond Humans Senses and Cognition 14

4 Cognitive Psychology: An Introduction To How Human Brains

Masters in Management Stand out from the crowd

5 The Brain’s Hemispheres And Different Ways Of Thinking 55

7 Mystical Experiences As The Genesis Of Religion,

8 Eastern Versus Western Psychology: Introduction 81

9.3 Eastern Psychology Focuses On Everyone,

10 Western Psychology And The Scientific Method 94

11 Summary Of Eastern Versus Western Psychology,

12 The Constant Fight Between The Two Ways Of Thinking 107

13 Art As Religion Or Spirituality 113

14 Art Perception: Connecting To The Unreal 119

14.9 Final Notes 129

15 Cognitive Influences Behind Beliefs In And Images of God 130

16 Narrative And The Perception Of Still Information 145

17 Humans Use False Information And Made Up

18 Cognitive Dissonance 160

19 Attribution Substitution, And Why You Can’t Answer

20 Humans Aren’t Totally Or Even Primarily About Finding

21 Language and Its Limitations: Introduction 168

22 Language: Examples Of Ambiguity, Arbitrariness And Limits

23 Language: Subjective Categorization,

24 Language And Models: The Fiction In Science 177

25 Summary Of Language And Its Problems 184

26 Inborn Survival Drives 186

27 The Human As Social Animal: Group Psychology,

28 Non-Religious Belief Systems 195

29 The Effects Of Artificial Intelligence 199

30 Modern Medicine, Technology, Transhumanism And Posthumanism 207

31 Summary And Final Thoughts 221

32 Book Encompassing Questions 225

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Dale F. Rudd, Slichter Professor Emeritus of Engineering Research at University of

2 A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE BOOK

3 A UNIVERSE BEYOND HUMANS

“God is beyond the capacity of the human mind to

– Rabbi Aharon Shear-Yashuv

“Knowing the extent of one’s ignorance is true knowledge”

“The cognitive power of all humanity combined, all humanity

– Catholic Priest and philosophy professor James Brent

– Noise Music: Cognitive Psychology, Aesthetics and

4.2 THE HUMAN BRAIN IS AN INFORMATION PROCESSOR

Figure 4.2 Despite appearance, all the columns are

Ambiguity is a concept essential to understanding humans, as humans constantly make choices

4.4 THE IMPORTANCE OF SPEED

4.5 UNCONSCIOUS AUTOMATIC METHODS USED TO PERCEIVE

The methods shown in the following chapters are:

Comparison: Making judgments and perceptions by comparing objects and

Imagination: Making whole perceptions by filling in missing information.

The human cannot know the reliability of its own mind

Automatic and unsolvable illusions

4.6 SHAPE, FORM AND PATTERN BIASES

The Face on Mars

Figure 4.8 Just another mesa in the crowd

Figure 4.9 The mesa at a different light angle

Figure 4.10 Smiley face of Mars?

Don’t just pick a place - pick a future.

Figure 4.14 This image says I Love You several time

Figure 4.18 Many perceive a white triangle above,

BY BEING STOCKHOLM SCHOOL

SSE - ONE OF THE BEST BUSINESS

4.8 PERCEPTIONS VIA COMPARISON

3 A Universe Beyond Humans Senses and Cognition 14

4 Cognitive Psychology: An Introduction To How Human Brains

5 The Brain’s Hemispheres And Different Ways Of Thinking 55

7 Mystical Experiences As The Genesis Of Religion,

8 Eastern Versus Western Psychology: Introduction 81

9.3 Eastern Psychology Focuses On Everyone,

10 Western Psychology And The Scientific Method 94

11 Summary Of Eastern Versus Western Psychology,

12 The Constant Fight Between The Two Ways Of Thinking 107

13 Art As Religion Or Spirituality 113

14 Art Perception: Connecting To The Unreal 119

15 Cognitive Influences Behind Beliefs In And Images of God 130

16 Narrative And The Perception Of Still Information 145

17 Humans Use False Information And Made Up

19 Attribution Substitution, And Why You Can’t Answer

20 Humans Aren’t Totally Or Even Primarily About Finding

21 Language and Its Limitations: Introduction 168

22 Language: Examples Of Ambiguity, Arbitrariness And Limits

23 Language: Subjective Categorization,

24 Language And Models: The Fiction In Science 177

25 Summary Of Language And Its Problems 184

27 The Human As Social Animal: Group Psychology,

29 The Effects Of Artificial Intelligence 199

30 Modern Medicine, Technology, Transhumanism And Posthumanism 207

31 Summary And Final Thoughts 221

32 Book Encompassing Questions 225

3 A UNIVERSE BEYOND HUMANS

4.10 VISION: WHAT YOU SEE IS DIFFERENT

4.13 HUMANS CANNOT KNOW THE RELIABILITY

5 THE BRAIN’S HEMISPHERES AND