Vortex flow meter:

Vortex flow meter is a differential pressure measuring flow meter which can measure
both liquid and gas flow measurement. Vortexes are used for continuous flow measurement.

Principle:
When flow stream passes a stationary object or a bluff body and causes the formation of swirls,
called vortices, downstream from the body. Each vortex will form, then detach from the object
and continue to move with the flowing gas or liquid, one side at a time in alternating
fashion. Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices are formed and shed. This pressure
variation is used to actuate the sealed sensor at a frequency proportional to the vortex shedding

The principle of vortices measurement is based on the Theodore von Karman’s theory. The
Karman’s frequency is f is proportional to the velocity V; therefore it is possible to obtain the
flow rate by measuring the Karman vortex frequency:
f=StV/d

f = vortex frequency
St = Strouhal’s number dimensionless
V = medium flow rate
d = the width of triangle prim

Construction and Working:

The bluff body is fixed at the centre of the flow stream, fluid gets passed aside the bluff
body. Differential pressure changes occur as the vortices are formed and shed. This pressure
variation is used to actuate the sealed sensor at a frequency proportional to the vortex shedding.
The vortex flowmeter is available with a sensor attached to it.

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Assistant professor
The pressure sensors used in vortex flowmeters are not standard differential pressure transmitters
since the vortex frequency is too high to be successfully detected by such bulky instruments.
Instead, the sensors are typically piezoelectric crystals.

This is the metallic bar installed in the vortex instrument, otherwise the transducer part. The
shedder bar is installed perpendicular to the flow. If the differential pressure sensor is installed
immediately downstream of the stationary object in such an orientation that it detects the passing
vortices as pressure variations, an alternating signal
will be detected:

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Assistant professor
The frequency of the alternate signal generated is proportional to the flow velocity of the fluid
passing through the shedder bar. These pressure sensors need not be calibrated since the
amplitude of the pressure waves detected is irrelevant. Only the frequency of the waves matter
for measuring flow rate. There are bluff bodies available in different shapes cylindrical,
triangular, rectangular, swirl type etc.,
Applications:
 Transformation of natural gas metering
 Steam measurement
 General water metering
 In pharmaceutical & chemical industries

Advantages:
 Suitable for liquid, gas or steam.
 Used with non-conductive fluids.
 No moving parts, they do not suffer the problems of wear and lubrication facing turbine
meters.
 Sensors available to measure both gas and liquid.
 Not affected by viscosity, density, pressure or temperature.
 Low installation cost.
 Good accuracy.
 Linear response
Disadvantages:
 low flow cutoff, where the flowmeter simply stops working below a certain flow rate.
 Uni-directional measurement only.
 Clean fluids only.
 Not suitable for partial phase change.
 Not suitable for viscous liquids.
 Large unrecoverable pressure drop.
 Straight pipe runs required for installation

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Mass flow meters:
Mass flowmeters are devices that measure the amount fluid passed to a process. Mass
flowmeters are used where the composition of materials used are important, which ensures the
quality of the product. These are the different types of mass flowmeters:
1. Coriolis Mass Flow Meters

In this type, two parallel measuring tubes containing flowing fluid were oscillated in antiphase,
acting as a tuning fork using strong electromagnets. The Coriolis forces produced in the
measuring tubes cause a phase change in the oscillations of the tube.
The tubes stay standstill when there is no flow. (1).The mass flow causes the deceleration of the
oscillation at the entrance of the pipes (2) and the acceleration at the exit (3). The phase
difference (A-B) increases with increasing mass flow.
2. Thermal Mass Flowmeters

In thermal mass flowmeter method, a heated object is placed at the middle of the flow channel.
The fluid convect heat from the wire, The reduction of the temperature by that heated object is a
function of the true mass flow rate because the mechanism of heat loss is the speed at which the
fluid molecules come into contact with the heated object, and each of those molecules has a mass
definite.
3. Impeller-Turbine Mass Flow Meters
In this device, there are two rotating elements impeller and turbine. The impeller is
driven by a synchronous motor at constant speed, through a magnetic coupling and imparts an
angular velocity to the fluid as it flows through the meter.

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The turbine located downstream of the impeller eliminates all the angular momentum of the fluid
and, therefore, receives a torque proportional to the angular momentum. This turbine is
constrained by a spring that deflects through an angle that is proportional to the torque that the
fluid exerts on it, which gives a measure of mass flow.
4. Twin-Turbine Mass Flow Meter:

In this instrument two turbines are mounted on a common shaft. A reluctance type transducer is
mounted over each turbine and a strong magnet is located in each turbine within the twin-
turbine assembly.
Each turbine is designed with a different blade angle; therefore there is a tendency for the
turbines
to turn at different angular velocities. When the flow happens the both turbine rotate in different
angular velocity, which is the function mass flow.
Gyroscopic Mass Flow Meter:

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 It consists of a tube with a circle or square shape. A motor introduces an oscillating
vibration at a constant angular velocity “ω” on the axis A.When the fluid passes through the
loop, a moment of precession type occurs on the B axis and is measured by the deviation of the
sensor element. It can be shown that this deviation is directly proportional to the mass flow.

ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS:

Introduction
There are two types of ultrasonic flow measurement:
 Transit Time Measurement
 Doppler Effect
The fundamental difference is that the transit-time method should be used for clean
fluids, while the Doppler reflection type used for dirty, slurry type flows.

1. Transit time
The transit-time flowmeter device sends pulses of ultrasonic energy diagonally across the pipe.
The transit-time is measured from when the transmitter sends the pulse to when the receiver
detects the pulse. Each location contains a transmitter and receiver. The pulses are sent
alternatively upstream and downstream and the velocity of the flow is calculated from the time
difference between the two directions.

Installation Techniques
Designs are available that allow installation and removal of the transducers without interrupting
the process flow. However there are three main options available:
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  Fitted section of pipe
 Clamp on
 Transducers installed in-situ
The first option is where the manufacturer supplies a section of pipe fitted with the
transducers factory mounted. These units have the advantage of being calibrated by the
manufacturer to meet specifications. Allowances need to be made when fitting this section of
pipe – something that can complicate existing installations.
Clamp-on transducers have the added advantage of being easy to install. They are mounted
outside of the existing pipe. Since no section of pipe need to be installed then this type of
flowmeter is easily retrofitted onto an existing system. They can be installed on metal, plastic
and ceramic pipes
Because they are portable and non-intrusive, clamp-on devices provide a good means of
determining flowrates of unknown flows in existing installations. A cheaper option is to install
the transducers into the pipework. This does require tapping into the pipe and care needs to be
taken to ensure the correct angles and tolerances are adhered to. This method generally requires
calibration by the user once installed.
Application Limitations
Clamp-on designs are limited because of the differing mediums in which the ultrasonics signals
pass through. For optimum results, a sound-conductive path is required between the transducer
and the process fluid inside the pipe. Couplings are available for reducing these effects but are
quite expensive.
Typical Applications
Transit-time ultrasonic flow measurement is suited for clean fluids. Some of the more common
process fluids consist of water, liquefied gases and natural gas.

2.Doppler Effect
The Doppler effect device relies on objects with varying density in the flowstream to return the
ultrasonic energy. With the Doppler effect meter, a beam of ultrasonic energy is transmitted
diagonally through the pipe. Portions of this ultrasonic energy are reflected back from particles
in the stream of varying density. Since the objects are moving, the reflected ultrasonic energy has
a different frequency. The amount of difference between the original and returned signals is
proportional to the flow velocity.

It is quite common for only one sensor to be used. This contains both the transmitter and
receiver. These can also be mounted outside of the pipe.
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Application Limitations

As the Doppler flowmeter relies on reflections from the flowstream, it therefore requires
sufficiently sized solids or bubbles. It is also required that the flow be fast enough to maintain a
suitable quantity of solids and bubbles in suspension. Higher frequency Doppler flowmeters are
available, but are limited to cleaner fluids.
Most ultrasonic flowmeters are mounted on the outside of the pipe and thus operate without
coming in contact with the fluid. Apart from not obstructing the flow, they are not affected by
corrosion, erosion or viscosity. Most ultrasonic flowmeters are bi-directional, and sense flow in
either direction.
Advantages
 Suitable for large diameter pipes.
 No obstructions, no pressure loss.
 No moving parts, long operating life.
 Fast response.
 Installed on existing installations.
 Not affected by fluid properties
Disadvantages
 Accuracy is dependent on flow profile.
 Fluid must be acoustically transparent.
 Errors cause by build up in pipe.
 Only possible in limited applications.
 Expensive.

Turbine flow meter:

Working principle
Turbine flow meter is used for translates the mechanical action of the turbine rotating in
the liquid flow around an axis into a user readable rate of flow. Blades on the rotor are angled to
transform energy from the flow stream into rotational energy. The rotor shaft spins on bearings.
When the fluid moves faster, the rotor spins proportionally faster.
Turbine flow meters measure the velocity of liquids, gases and vapors in pipes, such as
hydrocarbons, chemicals, water, cryogenic liquids, air, and industrial gases.
These meters are an ideal solution when high accuracy, compact size and fast response are
critical requirements
Theory
Shaft rotation can be sensed mechanically or by detecting the movement of the blades.
Blade movement is often detected magnetically, with each blade or embedded piece of metal
generating a pulse. Turbine flow meter sensors are typically located external to the flowing
stream to avoid material of construction constraints that would result if wetted sensors were
used. he flowing fluid engages the vaned rotor causing it to rotate at an angular velocity
proportional to the fluid flow rate.

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Assistant professor
 The angular velocity of the rotor results in the generation of an electrical signal (AC sine
wave type) in the pickup. The summation of the pulsing electrical signal is related directly to
total flow. The frequency of the signal relates directly to flow rate. When the fluid moves faster,
more pulses are generated. The transmitter processes the pulse signal to determine the flow of the
fluid. Transmitters and sensing systems are available to sense flow in both the forward and
reverse flow directions

The output signal voltage of the magnetic coil is approximately sinusoidal. The frequency
range of the pulsing signal varies from meter size to meter size. However, standard ranges allow
for maximum output frequencies at the nominal linear flow of 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2000,
and 2500 Hz.
Turbine flow meters are designed for use in a clean fluid service. However, the service
fluid may carry some particulate material which would need to be removed before reaching the
flow meter. Under these conditions a strainer/filter may be required to reduce the potential
hazard of fouling or damage that may be caused by foreign matter.

Parts of turbine flow meter

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1.Permanent conduit connection is standard.
2.ROTOR is pitched and pre-calibrated to determine accuracy.
3.END CONNECTIONS available, flanged or threaded, standard or special.
4.FLOW VANES increase performance at low rates
5.FLOW VANE HUB supports rotor assembly
.6.ROTOR SHAFT, BEARINGS, AND THRUST BALL are tungsten carbide for long service
without lubrication other than by the liquid being measured.
7.RETAINING RINGS make disassembly easy.8.FLOW METER BODY is sturdy, one-piece
construction, precisionfinished.

Installation
 The meter should be installed with the arrow on the meter body corresponding to flow
direction of the line
 A 10-diameter length of straight unrestricted pipe must be upstream and a 5-diameter length
of straight unrestricted pipe must be downstream of the flow meter. Both pipe sections
should be the same nominal pipe size as the flow meter’s end connection.
 Throttling/Control valves should be located downstream of the flow meter
Applications
 Water-injection measurement
 Heater treaters
 Test and production separators
 Disposal wells
 CO2 injection
 Steam generator fuel and feed water
 Food and beverage industry
 Metering liquid fertilizer
 Water, fuel, and chemical measurement in plant settings
 Chemical tank loading and unloading
 Measuring liquid propane

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Advantages
 high accuracy
 suitable for extreme temperature and pressure
 it can be used on gas and liquids
Disadvantages
 only for low viscosity fluids.
 moving parts
 sensitive to flow profile
 Require clean fluids.

Quantity Meters:
Quantity meters are used for the measurement of low flow rates in industries. These
meters operate by passing the fluid to be measured through the meter in separate and distinct
increments of alternately filling and emptying containers of known capacity. The number of
times the container is filled and emptied gives the quantity of flow.

Positive Displacement Meters:

Positive displacement type flow meters are generally used for accurate measurement of
steady flow. These flow meters are working under the following principle. Positive displacement
meters split the flow of liquids into separate known volumes based on the physical dimensions of
the meter, and count them or totalize them. They are mechanical meters in that one or more
moving parts, located in the flow stream, physically separate the fluid into increments. Energy to
drive these parts is extracted from the flow stream and shows up as pressure loss between the
inlet and the outlet of the meter. The general accuracy of these meters is dependent upon
minimizing clearances between the moving and stationary parts and maximizing the length of the
flowing path. For this reason, accuracy tends to increase as size increases.
Positive displacement meters may be divided into following categories:
(i) Nutating disc type.
(ii) Reciprocating piston type.
(iii) Oval gear type and
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 (iv) Helix type.
Nutating Disk Type: This meter, also known as disk meter, is used extensively for residential
water service. The moving assembly, which separates the fluid into increments consists of an
assembly of a radially slotted disk with an integral ball bearing and an axial pin. Fig. 1.28 shows
the nutating disk type meter.

This part fits into and divides the metering chamber into four volumes, two above the disk on the
inlet side and two below the disk on the outlet side. As the liquid attempts to flow through the
meter, the pressure drop from inlet to outlet causes the disk to wobble or nutate, and for each
cycle to display a volume equal to the volume of the metering chamber minus the volume of the
disk assembly. The end of the axial pin, which moves in a circular motion, drives a cam that is
connected to a gear train and the totalizing register.

Inaccuracy : ± 1 to 2%.
Temperature range : – 150 to 120°C.
Max working pressure : 10 kg/cm2.

Reciprocating Piston Meter: In the reciprocating piston meter shown schematically in Fig. 1.29,
the reciprocating piston passes the liquid alternately through each end of the cylinder from the
inlet to the outlet and also the slide valve which controls the inlet and outlet ports and operates
the counter. A number of piston operations on a center crank are generally incorporated in this
type of meter. For low flow, the differential pressure is small, for which large diameter pistons
and small piston strokes are chosen with minimum of friction. Accuracy of this flow meter is
within 0.5%.

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Measurement of pH:
pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in aqueous solution. It is an important
parameter to determine the quality of water. The pH value is expressed as:

Where C is the concentration of H+ ions in a solution.In pure water, the concentration of H+ ions
is 10-7 gm/ltr at 25 oC. So the pH value is

The advantage of using pH scale is that the activities of all strong acids and bases can be
brought down to the scale of 0-14. The pH value of acidic solutions is in the range 0-7 and
alkaline solutions in the range 7-14.
The pH value of a solution is measured by using pH electrode. It essentially consists of a
pair of electrodes: measuring and reference electrode, both dipped in the solution of unknown
pH. These two electrodes essentially form two half-cells; the total potential developed is the
difference between the individual electric potential developed in each half cell. While the
potential developed in the reference cell is constant, the measuring cell potential is dependent on
the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution and is governed by Nernst’s equation:
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 Where:
E= e.m.f of the half cell
E0= e.m.f of the half cell under saturated condition
R= Gas constant (8.314 J/ 0 C)
T= Absolute temperature (K)
N= valance of the ion
F= Faraday Constant = 96493 C
a= Activity co-efficient (0 ≤ a ≤ 1); for a very dilute solution, a →1
C= molar concentration of ions.

Measuring Electrode
The measuring electrode is made of thin sodium ion selective glass. A potential is
developed across the two surfaces of this glass bulb, when dipped in aqueous solution. This
potential is sensitive to the H+ ion concentration, having a sensitivity of 59.2 mv/pH at 250 C.
Fig. 7 shows the basic schematic of a measuring probe. The buffer solution inside the glass bulb
has a constant H+ ion concentration and provides electrical connection to the lead wire.

Reference Electrode
The basic purpose of a reference electrode is to provide continuity to the electrical circuit,
since the potential across a single half cell cannot be measured. With both the measuring and
reference cells dipped in the same solution, the potential is measured across the two lead wires.
A reference electrode should satisfy the following basic requirements:
(v) The potential developed should be independent of H+ ion concentration.
(vi) The potential developed should be independent of temperature
(vii) The potential developed should not change with time.

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 Considering all these requirements, two types of reference electrodes are commonly
used: (i) Calomel (Mercury-Mercurous Chloride) and (ii) Silver-Silver Chloride. The
construction of a Calomel reference electrode is shown in Fig. 8. The electrical connection is
maintained through the salt bridge.

Sometimes the reference and measuring electrodes are housed together, as shown in Fig.
9. This type of electrode is known as Combination Electrode. The reference electrode used in
this case is Silver-Silver Chloride. The combination is dipped in the solution whose pH is to be
measured and the output voltage is the difference between the e.m.f.s generated by the measuring
glass electrode and the reference electrode.

Measuring scheme
The sensitivity of pH probe is around 59.2mv/pH at 250 C. This sensitivity should be
sufficient for measurement of voltage using ordinary electronic voltmeters. But, that is not the
case; special measuring circuits are required for measurement of pH voltage. This is because of
the fact that the internal resistance of the pH probe as a voltage source is very high, in the order
of 108 -109 Ω. This is because of the fact; the electrical path between the two lead wires is
completed through the glass membrane. As a result, the input resistance for of the measuring
device must be at least ten times electrode resistance of the electrode. FET-input amplifier
circuits are normally used for amplifying the voltage from the pH probe. Not only that, the
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insulation resistance between the leads must also be very high. They are normally provided with
moisture resistance insulation coating. The voltage in the pH probe is temperature dependent, as
evident from Nernst equation. As a result suitable temperature compensation scheme should also
be provided in the measuring scheme.

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