Solar Photovoltaic: Fundamentals, Technologies and Applications

Prof. Chetan S. Solanki

Department of Energy Science & Engineering, IIT Bombay

Assignment 14
Solution
(Autumn Semester 2010)

Learning Objective and Outcome sheet

Fabrication of Si cells and thin film technologies – (a) Fabrication steps used in
Lecture-21 industrial cell process, surface texturing, diffusion and its parameters, ARC
deposition, metal printing, contact firing, (b) thin film technologies, advantages
of thin film technologies.
(1) Fabrication of Si solar cells
Describe the texturing of Si from alkaline and acidic solutions
List the parameters that affects the diffusion of dopant atoms in
Learning Objectives substrate
Describe the difference between constant source and limited source
diffusion
Explain the importance of using clean environment (absence of metals)
for solar cell processing
List the possible gases that can be used in solar cells, what precautions
should be taken
Describe the process of metal printing in industrial solar cells

(2) Thin film technologies

Describe the concept of thin film solar cells
List the advantages of thin film technologies as compared to wafer
based solar cell technologies

1. Understanding of processes used in industrial scenario

Learning Outcome 2. Understanding of diffusion process and its parameters
3. Ability to find out junction depth if temperature, time of diffusion and
base doping is specified.
4. Understanding of metal printing technique in industrial solar cells
5. Ability to distinguish between Si wafer and thin film technology
6. Ability to describe the advantages of thin film technologies
Example: A N-type junction is diffused in a P-type Si substrate of doping 1 1016
cm-3. Diffusion is being done with an inexhaustible source such the dopant
Problem/Assignment surface concentration is maintained at 2 1020 cm-3. What should be the product
of D (diffusion coefficient) and t (time) in order to obtain junction of 0.5 μm?

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 Solar Photovoltaic: Fundamentals, Technologies and Applications
Prof. Chetan S. Solanki
Department of Energy Science & Engineering, IIT Bombay

Assignment 14
1.0E+00

1.0E-01

1.0E-02

1.0E-03

1.0E-04
C(x,t)/Cs

1.0E-05

1.0E-06

1.0E-07

1.0E-08

1.0E-09

1.0E-10
0 2 4 6 8 10
x/Sqrt(Dt)

Solution: To solve this problem the use of the plot between C(x,t)/Cs and
x / Dt can be made. From the problem definition, surface concentration Cs
=2 1020 cm-3 As the dopant impurity diffuses their concentration decreases,
thus the C(x,t) at which the dopant concentration will become the base
concentration, the point at which junction will form is equal to 1 1016 cm-3.
Thus,

C(x,t)/Cs = 1 1016 / 2 1020 = 0.5 10-4. It can seen from the complimentary error
function plot of Error! Reference source not found.(b), at C(x,t)/Cs = 0.5 10-4
the x-axis value i.e. x / 2 Dt 5

Also it is required that junction would form at 0.5 μm, x=0.5 μm. Therefore

0.5 / 2 Dt 5 Dt 0.0025 (μm)2.

Thus the product of Dt should be 6.25 (μm)2. One can go one step forward and
calculate the temperature and time of the diffusion. Note that there can be
several combination of the D and t would be possible that would give us the
same junction depth. The D contains the information about the temperature of
E
kT
the diffusion, which can be written in the following form; D Doe as given

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 Solar Photovoltaic: Fundamentals, Technologies and Applications
Prof. Chetan S. Solanki
Department of Energy Science & Engineering, IIT Bombay

Assignment 14
in Eq. 7-4. If we know the Do (frequency factor) and the activation energy, E,
diffusion coefficient for given dopant at a given temperature can be obtained.

Example: In above example, consider the Do for P in Si 3.85 cm2/s and activation
energy, E, of P in Si is 3.076 eV. If the temperature of diffusion is fixed at 860oC,
what should be the time of diffusion in minutes in order to obtain the junction
depth of 0.5 μm.

Solution: It is given that Do=3.85 cm2/s and E=3. 076 eV, T=860+273 =1133 K.
E
kT
These values can be used in D Doe for calculation of diffusion coefficient.
We know that k, the Boltzmann constant is 1.3806 10-23 J/K or 8.617 10-5 eV/K.

3.076
8.617*10 5*1133
D 3.85 * e 8 10-14 cm2/s

Now from the last example we know that Dt = 0.0025 (μm)2=0.0025 (10-4)2 cm2.
Using the calculated value of D, we get the time t of diffusion in seconds = 1250
seconds.

1. Read Chapter 7 and Chapter 8 of book written by “C. S. Solanki, Solar

Suggested learning Photovoltaics: Fundamentals, Technologies and Applications, PHI, New
activity Delhi, 2009.”
Summary Two solar cells that are fabricated at industrial scale BCSC and screen printed
solar cells are compared. Later the processes used for screen printed industrial
solar cells are described. Acidic solution based on HNO3 and alkaline solution
based on KOH can be used for surface texturing. Acidic solution based texturing
can be isotropic or anisotropic depending on weather the reaction is oxidation
limited or dissolution limited. Thermal diffusion is done for junction formation.
Diffusion can be done in the constant source or limited source environment.
Junction depth on both the cases is controlled by the time, temperature and
based doping of the substrate. In practice, if diffusion is done using constant
source, it results in formation of dead layer. Therefore two step diffusion
wherein first step being constant source, and second step being limited source
is used. Diffusion is normally done at 800 to 900 oC for about 20 to 30 min.
Following junction diffusion at all surfaces, the junction separation or edge

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 Solar Photovoltaic: Fundamentals, Technologies and Applications
Prof. Chetan S. Solanki
Department of Energy Science & Engineering, IIT Bombay

Assignment 14
isolation is done using plasma etching. ARC is done using PECVD where in SiH4
with NH3is used as precursor gas. Metal contact deposition is done using screen
printing. In order to diffuse the metal contact through ARC layer and form BSF at
the rear side, contact firing is done at the end. Firing temperature ranges in 700
to 800oC.
Following discussion in industrial solar cell process, introduction to thin film
technology is made. Particularly advantages of thin film technologies with Si
wafer based technologies are discussed. Thin film technologies usage less
material and can be cost effective. Thin film solar cell requires supporting
substrate, processes can be done at low temperature, cell can be monolithically
integrated, there is no limitation on the size of solar cells or modules, it is only
limited by the size of the tools.

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