Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

In this Variable View, you can adjust the properties of each of your variables under 10
categories: Name, Type, Width, Decimals, Label, Values, Missing, Columns, Align and
Measure.

To change the name of a column (variable) in the Data View sheet, click in the
appropriate cell and type in the new name. The names in this column must not start with a
number. They also cannot contain special characters such as / * $, space etc. You will be given
an error message if your name is in illegal format. When you view data in SPSS, each row in the
Data View represents a case, and each column represents a variable.

Cases represent independent observations, experimental units, or subjects. For example, if the
data are based on a survey of college students, then each row in the data would represent a
specific college student who participated in the study.

Variables are attributes, characteristics, or measurements that describe cases. For example,
your data might include information such as each college student’s date of birth, grade point
average (GPA), date of enrollment, and date of graduation. Each of these pieces of information is
a variable that describes each case (college student).
Published with written permission from SPSS Statistics, IBM Corporation.

In the -Value Labels-, enter the numeric code value "1" in the text box, Value:. This value
corresponds to the group representing "Males", so enter "Males" in the Label: box.

Click on the button

Data View

In the Data View, the data are laid out in the standard
rectangular format for statistical software. Each row represents
a unit of observation, sometimes also referred to as a record or
in SPSS as a case. The case (observation) number in the
leftmost column is assigned automatically and is not saved as
data. Each column represents a variable. All of the data in a
column must be of the same type,
either numeric or string (also called character).
Each data cell holds a data value. If data are missing, they are
displayed as a period (".") or as a blank (" "). Data values may
be displayed as either the actual value or as a formatted value.
For example, a data value about a person's income might be
15000, while its formatted value might be shown as $15,000.
Formats can also take the form of value labels, for instance,
data recorded as 1's and 2's might be labeled as "Male" and
"Female." While formatting makes it easier to interpret results,
it is important to remember that the data values are what SPSS
actually processes. In particular, when you set up a command
that requires you to specify one or more data values, you use
values and not formatted values.
 and in this window you can copy and paste value label sets.
Variable labels are set by simply typing them in, value labels
work through a dialog box.
The Missing attribute is a place for you to designate certain
data values that you want SPSS to ignore when it calculates
statistics. For instance, in survey data it is common practice to
record a data value of 8 when a respondent says "I don't know"
in response to a question, and you can have SPSS treat the 8's
in a variable as if they were missing data.
The other
attributes, Width, Decimals, Columns, Align, Measure,
and Role, are minor settings related to data display. Although
Measure (level of measurement) is statistically a very
important concept, it has little meaning within the SPSS
software.

SIMULTANEOUS EQUATION MODEL(SEM)

Single equation model assumes regression of a dependent variable on explanatory variable(s)

and this directly means a one way causation between the dependent variable and explanatory

variable(s). But, what if the explanatory variables are not truly exogenous? This invariably

means a two way causation between the dependent variables and exogenous variables in

which one equation cannot be treated in isolation as single equation model. In other words,
 After the data has been copied , go and paste it in the eviews work environment

Click Next

STEP FIVE: Navigate to Object/New object in the main menu

STEP SIX: Click on Object and navigate to System.

Click OK and you would have a display like this:

STEP SEVEN: Now you can specify all your equations in the empty space.

STEP EIGHT: Click Estimate in the Menu options and this would appear:

Click on OK, you should now have the estimation result

What is data labeling in spss?

A data label is a static part of a chart, report or other dynamic layout. The label defines the
information in the line item. Labels are an integral part of reporting and application
development.

Labelling your data

Later on, when you’re running some analyses and you want to look at, say,
how many of your respondents are male or female, you’ll run a procedure and the
results will be displayed in the Output Viewer window. If we left our data as they
are, we’d get the results we want, but we probably wouldn’t know how to read
them. E.g., if I ran that procedure, here’s the output I’d get:
3. On the output, SPSS allows you to print out Variable Names or Variable Labels or both. I
usually like to have both. Just go to Edit–>Options. In the Output tab, choose ‘Names and
Labels’ in the first and third boxes.

Value Labels are similar, but Value Labels are descriptions of the values a variable can
take. Labeling values right in SPSS means you don’t have to remember if 1=Strongly Agree
and 5=Strongly Disagree or vice-versa. And it makes data entry much more efficient–you can
type in 1 and 0 for Male and Female much faster than you can type out those whole words, or
even M and F. But by having Value Labels, your data and output still give you the meaningful
values.

Once again, SPSS makes it easy for you.

1. If you’d rather see Male and Female in the data set than 0 and 1, go to View–>Value Labels.

2. Like Variable Labels, you can get Value Labels on output, along with the actual
values. Just go to Edit–>Options. In the ‘Output Labels’ tab, choose ‘Values and Labels’ in
the second and fourth boxes.

Want to learn more? If you’re just getting started with data analysis in SPSS, or would like a
thorough refresher, please join us in our online workshop Introduction to Data Analysis in
SPSS.

What is descriptive statistics in spss?

This tutorial will show you how to use SPSS version 12.0 to perform exploratory data analysis and
descriptive statistics. You will use SPSS to create histograms, frequency distributions, stem and leaf plots,
Tukey box plots, calculate the standard measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode), calculate
the standard measures of dispersion (range, semi-interquartile range, and standard deviation / variance),
and calculate measures of kurtosis and skewness. This tutorial assumes that you have:

 Downloaded the standard class data set (click on the link and save the data file)
 Started SPSS (click on Start | Programs | SPSS for Windows | SPSS 12.0 for Windows)
 Loaded the standard data set

The descriptives command can be used to determine measures of central tendency (mean), measures of
dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance, minimum and maximum), and measures of kurtosis and
skewness. The command is found at Analyze | Descriptive Statistics | Descriptives (this is shorthand for
clicking on the Analyze menu item at the top of the window, and then clicking on Descriptive Statistics
from the drop down menu, and Descriptives from the pop up menu.):
The Bivariate Correlations window opens, where you will specify the variables to be used in the
analysis. All of the variables in your dataset appear in the list on the left side. To select variables
for the analysis, select the variables in the list on the left and click the blue arrow button to move
them to the right, in the Variables field.

A Variables: The variables to be used in the bivariate Pearson Correlation. You must select at

least two continuous variables, but may select more than two. The test will produce correlation
coefficients for each pair of variables in this list.

B Correlation Coefficients: There are multiple types of correlation coefficients. By

default, Pearson is selected. Selecting Pearson will produce the test statistics for a bivariate
Pearson Correlation.

C Test of Significance: Click Two-tailed or One-tailed, depending on your desired

significance test. SPSS uses a two-tailed test by default.

D Flag significant correlations: Checking this option will include asterisks (**) next to

statistically significant correlations in the output. By default, SPSS marks statistical significance
at the alpha = 0.05 and alpha = 0.01 levels, but not at the alpha = 0.001 level (which is treated
as alpha = 0.01)

E Options: Clicking Options will open a window where you can specify which Statistics to

include (i.e., Means and standard deviations, Cross-product deviations and

covariances) and how to address Missing Values (i.e., Exclude cases pairwise or
Exclude cases listwise). Note that the pairwise/listwise setting does not affect your
computations if you are only entering two variable, but can make a very large difference if you
are entering three or more variables into the correlation procedure.
The NERI inland water database is structured as a number of observation programs, where
each program has its own set of tables. The observation programs cover both research projects
and monitoring programs without public access.
The objective of the IOW database is to distribute data, usually as products after processing.
The stored data comes from national thematic databanks and the River basin data banks. The
technical architecture is based on an ORACLE database server, and an ARC/INFO server for
map processing.
In addition to the structure of the databases, other differences between NERI and IOW were the
understanding of simple concepts such as the medium “water”. A water sample from a lake or
river includes small organic or inorganic particles (and even fish), which can be filtered and
divided into a water and particle phase. A determinand like Nitrogen can be found in the water
fraction as well as in the particle fraction, or it can be analysed as total nitrogen in the water
sample. It is obviously very important to define every determinand precisely to ensure that at
least the main concepts are commonly accepted, as the concepts may not be represented in the
same way in different databases. If the definitions of the determinands in the relevant databases
do not correspond to each other, new intermediate determinands may be needed.

Although the main concepts may be commonly accepted, local implementations can vary
substantially. Similar observations may be handled differently in different database
implementations. The result of the differences between databases, see Table 9.1, is that data
from different databases requires additional concepts and primitive classes to be defined.
Data retrieval is the retrieval of items (objects, Web pages, documents, etc.) which satisfy
specific conditions set in a regular expression like query. While IR aims at satisfying a user
information need usually expressed in natural language, data retrieval aims at determining
which documents contain the exact terms of the user queries. Learn more in: Towards a Model
for Evaluating Web Retrieval Systems in Non-English Queries
Find more terms and definitions usin

Q.Macros in ms word

In Word, you can automate frequently used tasks by creating and running macros. A macro is a
series of commands and instructions that you group together as a single command to
accomplish a task automatically.

To save time on tasks you do often, bundle the steps into a macro. First, you record the macro.
Then you can run the macro by clicking a button on the Quick Access Toolbar or pressing a
combination of keys. It depends on how you set it up.
simple macro definition which
incorporates arguments:

The CES Production Function

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0px; outline: 0px; font-size: 14px; vertical-align: bottom; background: transparent; max-width:
100%;">

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The below mentioned article provides a close view on the CES Production
Function.
Arrow, Chenery, Minhas and Solow in their new famous paper of 1961 developed the Constant
Elasticity of Substitution (CES) function. This function consists of three variables Q, С and L,
and three parameters A, and.

It may be expressed in the form:

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Q = A [aC-θ+ (l-α)L-θ] -1/θ

where Q is the total output, С is capital, and L is labour. A is the efficiency parameter indicating
the state of technology and organisational aspects of production.

It shows that with technological and/or organisational changes, the efficiency parameter leads
to a shift in the production function, α (alpha) is the distribution parameter or capital intensity
factor coefficient concerned with the relative factor shares in the total output, and θ (theta) is
the substitution parameter which determines the elasticity of substitution.

And A > 0; 0 < a < 1; > -1.

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Its Properties:
The CES production function possesses the following properties:
1. The CES function is homogenous of degree one. If we increase the inputs С and L in the CES
function by n-fold, output Q will also increase by n-fold.
ADVERTISEMENTS:

5. CES function is very easy to estimate.

6. CES function is free from unrealistic assumptions.

CES function vs. CD function:

There are some fundamental differences between the CES function and the CD
production function:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

1. The CD function is based on the observation that the wage rate is a constant proportion of
output per head. On the other hand, the CES function is based on the observation that output
per head is a changing proportion of wage rate.

2. The CES production function is based on larger parameters than the CD production function
and as such allows factors to be either substitutes or complements. The CD function is, on the
other hand, based on the assumption of substitutability of factors and neglects the
complementarity of factors. Thus the CES function has wider scope and applicability.

3. The CES production function can be extended to more than two inputs, unlike the CD
function which is applicable to only two inputs.

4. In the CES function, the elasticity of substitution is constant but not necessarily equal to
unity. It ranges from 0 to ∞. But the CD function is related to elasticity equal to unity. Thus the
CD function is a special case of the CES function.

ADVERTISEMENTS:

5. The CES function covers constant, increasing and decreasing returns to scale, while the CD
function relates to only constant returns to scale.

Limitations of CES Production Function:

But the CES function has certain limitations:
1. The CES production function considers only two inputs. It can be extended to more than two
inputs. But it becomes very difficult and complicated mathematically to use it for more than two
inputs.
  In the Data Editor window, click the Variable View tab at the bottom.
 In the Data Editor window, in the Data View tab, double-click a variable name at the top
of the column. This method has the advantage of taking you to the specific variable you
clicked.

The Variable View tab displays the following information, in columns, about each variable in
your data:

NAME

The name of the variable, which is used to refer to that variable in syntax. Variable names can
not contain spaces. Note that when you change the name of a variable, it does not change the
data; all values associated with the variable stay the same. Renaming a variable simply changes
the name of that variable while leaving everything else the same. For example, we may want to
rename a variable called Sex to Gender.

To change a variable's name, double-click on the name of the variable that you wish to re-name.
Type your new variable name.

TYPE

The type of variable (e.g. numeric, string, etc.). (See the Variable Types tutorial for descriptions
of the variable types in SPSS.)

To change a variable's type, click inside the cell corresponding to the “Type” column for that
variable. A square "..." button will appear; click on it to open the Variable Type window. Click
the option that best matches the type of variable. Click OK.

WIDTH

The number of digits displayed for numerical values or the length of a string variable.

To set a variable's width, click inside the cell corresponding to the “Width” column for that
variable. Then click the "up" or "down" arrow icons to increase or decrease the number width
Example: In the sample dataset, the variable Rank represents the student's class rank. The
values 1, 2, 3, 4 represent the categories Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, and Senior, respectively.
Let's define the category labels for the Rank variable in the sample data.

Under the column “Values,” click the cell that corresponds to the variable whose values you wish
to label. If the values are currently undefined, the cell will say “None.” Click the square “…”
button. The Value Labels window appears.

Type the first possible value (1) for your variable in the Value field. In the Label field type the
label exactly as you want it to display (e.g., "Freshman"). Click Add when you are finished
defining the value and label. Your variable value and label will appear in the center box. Repeat
these steps for each possible value for your variable. When all of the labels have been defined,
the Value Labels window should look like this:

Click OK at the bottom of the window.

If you wish to change or remove a value and label that you have added to the center dialog box,
do the following:

 To change a specific value or label, highlight the value/label in the center text box in the
Value Labels window. Now the selected value/label will be highlighted yellow. Make
changes to the selected value or label as needed. Click Change. The changes will be
applied to the value/label you highlighted.
 To remove a specific value/label, highlight the value/label in the center text box.
Click Remove. The selected value/label will be removed from the center text box.

MISSING

The user-defined values that indicate data are missing for a variable (e.g., -99). Note that this
does not affect or eliminate SPSS's default missing value code for numeric variables ("."). This
column merely allows the user to specify up to three unique missing value codes; or, to specify a
numeric range of values to treat as missing, plus one additional unique missing value code.
ALIGN

The alignment of content in the cells of the SPSS Data View spreadsheet. Options include left-
justified, right-justified, or center-justified.

To set the alignment for a variable, click inside the cell corresponding to the "Align" column for
that variable. Then use the drop-down menu to select your preferred alignment: Left, Right, or
Center.

MEASURE

The level of measurement for the variable (e.g., nominal, ordinal, or scale).

Some procedures in SPSS treat categorical and scale variables differently. By default,
variables with numeric responses are automatically detected as “Scale”
variables. If the numeric responses actually represent categories, you must change the
specified measurement level to the appropriate setting.

To define a variable's measurement level, click inside the cell corresponding to the “Measure”
column for that variable. Then click the drop-down arrow to select the level of measurement for
that variable: Scale, Ordinal, or Nominal.

It is vital that you correctly define each variable's measurement level. This setting
affects everything from graphs to internal algorithms for statistical analysis. Incorrectly
specifying measurement level can have unintended and potentially disastrous
effects on your results.

ROLE
The role that a variable will play in your analyses (i.e., independent variable, dependent variable,
both independent and dependent). Some options in SPSS allow you to pre-select variables for
particular analyses based on their defined roles. Any variable that meets the role requirements
  Sample standard deviation
 Making a bar chart or boxplot
 Describing the shape of the sample probability distribution

With inferential statistics you take that sample data from a small number of people and and try
to determine if the data can predict whether the drug will work for everyone (i.e. the population).
There are various ways you can do this, from calculating a z-score (z-scores are a way to show
where your data would lie in a normal distribution to post-hoc (advanced) testing.

A hypothesis test can show where your data is placed on a distribution like this one.

Inferential statistics use statistical models to help you compare your sample data to other
samples or to previous research. Most research uses statistical models called the Generalized
Linear model and include Student’s t-tests, ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), regression analysis
and various other models that result in straight-line (“linear”) probabilities and results.

Inferential Statistics Articles

You can find hundreds of inferential statistics articles and videos on this site and on
our YouTube channel. The main indexes for inferential statistics articles are:
 Binomial Theorem
 Hypothesis Testing
 Normal Distributions
 T-Distributions
 Central Limit Theorem
 Confidence Intervals
 Regression Analysis / Linear Regression
 Comparison of Means.

the main purpose of inferential statistics is to: A. Summarize data in a useful and
informative manner. B. Estimate a population characteristic based on a sample. C. Determine
if the data adequately represents the population.
What is performance management

Performance Management - Definition

Performance management is an ongoing process of communication between a supervisor and
an employee that occurs throughout the year, in support of accomplishing the strategic
objectives of the organization. The communication process includes clarifying expectations,
setting objectives, identifying goals, providing feedback, and reviewing results.

Managing Employee Performance – The Cycle

Overseeing performance and providing feedback is not an isolated event, focused in an annual
performance review. It is an ongoing process that takes place throughout the year. The
Performance Management process is a cycle, with discussions varying year-to-year based on
changing objectives.
The cycle includes Planning, Checking-In, and Review.

 To begin the planning process, you and your employee review overall expectations,
which includes collaborating on the development of performance objectives. Individual
development goals are also updated. You then develop a performance plan that directs
the employee's efforts toward achieving specific results to support organizational
excellence and employee success.
 file-scope in C and the same as the global namespace-scope in C++) is visible in any part of the
file. Its scope will end at the end of the translation unit, whether or not that name has been given
external or internal linkage.
If the name has external linkage, the entity that name denotes may be referred to from another
translation unit using a distinct declaration for that same name, and from other scopes within the
same translation unit using distinct declarations. Were the name given internal linkage, such a
declaration would denote a distinct entity, although using the same name, but its entity could be
referred to by distinct declarations within the same translation unit. A name that has no linkage
at all cannot be referred to from declarations in different scopes, not even from within the same
translation unit. Examples of such names are parameters of functions and local variables. The
details differ between C (where only objects and functions - but not types - have linkage) and
C++ and between this simplified overview.
Linkage between languages must be done with some care, as different languages adorn their
external symbols differently. A common idiom uses extern "C" to link C++ and C code.
What is output navigator printing

From System i® Navigator, you can find and manage printer output from two locations: basic
operations and work management.
 To see a list of spooled files waiting specifically for printing, expand Basic Operations, and
then click Printer Output. This displays all spooled files associated with the current user.
Right-click a spooled file to hold, release, move, or delete the print job, or convert it to a PDF.
Additionally, you can select Properties to change many of the spooled file attributes.
 To work with other print jobs, select View > Customize this view > Include from the System i
Navigator menu.
 To see a list of all output queues, expand Work Management, and then click Output
queues. This will display all output queues for all users. An output queue is an object that
contains a list of spooled files to be written to an output device, such as a printer.
Select any output queue to display the list of spooled files for that queue.

Uses of Computer at Home

Computer can be used at home in the following ways.

Home Budget

Computer can be used to manage Home Budget. You can easily calculate your expenses and
income. You can list all expenses in one column and income in another column. Then you can
apply any calculation on these columns to plan your home budget. There are also specialize
software that can manage your income and expenses and generate some cool reports.

Computer Games

An important use of computers at home is playing games. Different types of games areavailable.
These games are a source of entertainment and recreation. Many games areavailable that are
specially developed to improve your mental capability and thinking power.

Working from Home

People can manage the office work at home. The owner of a company can check the work of the
employees from home. He can control his office while sitting at home.
student can attend the lecture at home by connecting to a network. The student can also ask
questions to the teacher.

Online Examination

The trend of online examination is becoming popular. Different examination like GRE, GMAT
and SAT are conducted online all over the world. The questions are marked by computer. It
minimizes the chance of mistakes. It also enables to announce the result in time.

Uses of Computers in Business

The use of computer technology in business provides many facilities. Businessmen are using
computers to interact with their customers anywhere in the world. Many business tasks are
performed more quickly and efficiently. Computers also help them to reduce the overall cost of
their business. Computer can be used in business in the following ways.

Marketing

An organization can use computers for marketing their products. Marketing applications
provide information about the products to customers. Computer is also used to manage
distribution system, advertising and selling activities. It can also be used in deciding pricing
strategies. Companies can know more about their customers and their needs and requirements
etc.

Stock Exchange

Stock Exchange is the most important place for businessmen. Many stock exchanges use
computers to conduct bids. The stockbrokers perform all trading activities electronically. They
connect with the computer where brokers match the buyers with sellers. It reduces cost as no
paper or special building is required to conduct these activities.

Uses of computers in Medical Field

Hospital Management System

Specialized hospital management softwares are used to automate the day to day procedures and
operations at hospitals. These tasks may be Online appointments, payroll admittance and
discharge records etc.

Patient History

Hospital management systems can store data about patients. Computers are used to store data
about patients, their diseases & symptoms, the medicines that are prescribed.

Patients Monitoring

Monitoring systems are installed in medical wards and Intensive care units to monitoring
patients continously. These systems can monitor pulse, blood pressure and body temperature
and can alert medical staff about any serious situations.

Life Support Systems

  Present value estimation:

 Present value is simply the inverse of future value. If we have opportunity to receive a

given sum in the future, and we know the appropriate interest rate, we can calculate its

value today.

 Image Courtesy : battlegroundblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/nys.jpg

 ADVERTISEMENTS:

 Whereas we spoke of compounding cash flows forward in time, we speak of discounting

back in time. In calculating a present value, the interest rate is reflected to as the

discount rate.

 In order to develop a consistent system of security valuation theory, it has become

fashionable to apply the techniques of present value theory to the equity valuation. To

illustrate this method of evaluation, let us assume an investor, whose cost of capital

equals k, is to decide whether to invest in the equity of a particular company.

 As a first step he calculates the adjusted earnings per share (EPS) over the past few

years, examines the stability of the earnings and their growth, and on the basis of these

findings and of an analysis of the company’s outlook derives an estimate of future

earnings per share.

 ADVERTISEMENTS:

 For convenience let us assume that the expected earnings are constant, and equal to per

share; that these earnings will be received on the last day of each year; and that the

earnings will continue indefinitely into the future. What is the value of such a share to

this particular investor? Given his cost of capital of k, the present value of such a share of

equity can be calculated as follows:

Thus the expected stream of earnings, capitalised at the investor’s cost of capital,
measures the share “intrinsic” value to him. Invoking the present value, we find that if
estimating all the perceived private and external costs and benefits of alternative spending
options, such as alternative sites for a new airport, and then selecting the option with the highest
net benefit.

The process is subject to a system called discounting, which involves taking into account
the rate of interest which could have been earned had the funds used for investment been
deposited in an interest-bearing account. The rate must be deducted from the estimated gains
from a project, because the funds could have sat in a bank and earned a reward without
incurring a risk. Therefore, the rate of interest on investment funds represents an opportunity
cost of capital spending.

Public-Private Initiatives

Increasingly, the private sector has been encouraged to form a partnership with the public
sector to fund, construct, and manage large investment projects. One such partnership is
the Private Finance Initiative (PFI), which was introduced in the UK in 1995.

The PFI has been controversial because critics argue that the involvement of the private sector
in projects associated with healthcare and transport might result in a reduction in safety in
pursuit of reduced costs and increased profits.

Q.The regression functions support the fitting of an ordinary-least-squares

regression line of the form y = a * x + b to a set of number pairs. The first element of

each pair (expression1) is interpreted as a value of the dependent variable (that is, a "y

value"). The second element of each pair (expression2 ) is interpreted as a value of the

independent variable (that is, an "x value").

Most commonly, regression analysis estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent
variable given the independent variables – that is, the average value of the dependent variable
when the independent variables are fixed. Less commonly, the focus is on a quantile, or
other location parameter of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable given the
independent variables. In all cases, a function of the independent variables called
the regression function is to be estimated. In regression analysis, it is also of interest to
characterize the variation of the dependent variable around the prediction of the regression
function using a probability distribution. A related but distinct approach is Necessary Condition
Analysis[1] (NCA), which estimates the maximum (rather than average) value of the dependent
variable for a given value of the independent variable (ceiling line rather than central line) in
order to identify what value of the independent variable is necessary but not sufficient for a
given value of the dependent variable.
Regression analysis is widely used for prediction and forecasting, where its use has substantial
overlap with the field of machine learning. Regression analysis is also used to understand which
among the independent variables are related to the dependent variable, and to explore the
forms of these relationships. In restricted circumstances, regression analysis can be used to
infer causal relationships between the independent and dependent variables. However this can
lead to illusions or false relationships, so caution is advisable.
h