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A veril Cameron
Keble College
University of Oxford
might have emerged, the story of Byzancine power relations.7 Perhaps, but
that may take too literal a view of the literature. There may be other agendas
that heresiology also served, and I believe rhat ir is vvell worth looking at this
prolific, and ro us not very attractive, genre in order ro find out whar rhese
agendas might h ave been.
Ir seemed appropriate that an essay in a volume dedicared to Eliza
beth A. Clark should continue her own exrremely welcome exploration of
the rherorical techniques and the disc.ourses adopted by early Christian writ
ers. If I concentrare on a period somewhat later than the one Clark has
made her own, ir is with a lively consciousness both that the period covered
by what we often call '\he early Church" needs to be generously defined in
order ro understand it properly, and rhat rhe p atterns set in late antique and
By"Zanrine heresiological discourse form a coherent and easily uaceable tra
jectory from the earliest centuries of Christianity through to the medieval
world. In addressing this topic, moreover, I am able to build on Clark's work
on Epipha nius and others in The Orígenist Controveny, a book which set rhe
doctrinal quarrels of the late fourth cenrury firmly in the contexr not only of
personal rivalries but also of polemical writings. 8
Heresiology is an embarrassment ro modern scholars. It began early
repressive and unenlightened sociery. Scholars have in the main read heresi
ologies and other writings on heresy as indicative of real situat.ions. W ithin
the field of By zantine studies, orthodox rheology is generally regarded as a
the tvvelfth century.18 John !talos, the successor of Psellos as Consul of rhe
Philosophen, and others like him were in his view the ''ictims of a repressive
atmosphere in which genuine questioning was stifled. Many scholars have
refused ro rake the actual charges on their own terrns; rather, the victim�
were tried for "intellectual" heresy, to be distinguished from allegedly "pop
ular" heresies such as Bogomilism is said to have been.19 Real religiom
motives are discounred, and on rh.is reductionist view ir is rhe state rhat lead�
the attack; úe fact that the charges againsr John form part of the catalogue
in the Synodikon of Orthodoxy is noted rather rhan discussed.20 Written
sorne n.venry-five years ago now� Browning's anide still illustrares how
extremely hard ir is for modern historians to approach either rhe topic of
heresy or heresiological material assuch. More recencl:y, Michael Angold has
adopred an essentially similar approach, seeing the aials as "political, and
the charges as at least pardy "trumped up.,21 Indeed, refusal ro rake them on
their own terms is rather the norm than the excepcion, and I think we musr
recognize that it is a response arising from the assumption, familiar enough,
that the appropriate explanation must be both rationalizing and reducrion
ist.22 Perhaps, however, it is precisdy here where the inspection of heresio
logical texts as texrs can help.
Attempring ro write the history of late amique and Byzantine
heresy does indeed involve one in treading a very slippery parh. In the first
place, evideJce is often scanty, and particularly for the Byzantine period,
surviving tex:rs may lack modern editions. In the second, contemporaries
stated norm, and rhereby define5 the nature of that norm; it classifies, that is,
ir imposes an ordering on things according ro the principies of rhe writer; ic
lays down a virtual hierarchy of heresie5 accord.ing ro their origins; and
finally it prescribes their nature, and thereby defines and lays down the struc
ture of knowledge. As conceived in late antiquity, Christianity implied a
condemn; one had also ro state the correcr dogma. Thu s the rhird pan of
rhe Panarion consists of an Expositio of the orrhodox faith, and rhis is also
whar Theodoret of Cyrrhus did in his late Compena'ium, which illustrate.i
It tend5 ro be forgotten that heresiologies also continu ed, and at times over
lapped wirh the anti-Jewish rexts. How and v¡.·hy rhe two rypes of vvTiting
There are many and deep questions ro b e asked about Byzantine attitudes to
heresy: �'as there a gap berween l anguage a n d pracrice, ar:d if so how did
this come about? Who in facr read all rhese rrearises? \'\That is the relation ol
ogy? 1 am avvare, fi rst of all , that we have nor yer even defined whar it is that
we are ((reading," fo r even allowing for derivariveness and reperition in sorne
cases, heres iological rreatises i n facr come in many different shapes and
fo rm s . Dis m i ssing heresiology as srerile or boring, as mere scholastic exer
ci ses , therefore m isses several points ar the sam e ri m e. Insecurity and ascetic
closure, both explanations favored by me in the past, now seem too reduc
tionísr in the .first case and too ready ro rake Byzantium on i ts own terms i n
rh e seco n d.87 We can of course read rhese contests as a power game bet\veen
individuals or groups, the poli rics o f the early Christian world. Iv1any mod
ern critics, both of late antiquity and Byzantium, remain uncomfo n able
wirh the idea rhat theological argument needs ro be raken seriously as a his
torical factor; in this they could learn much fro m the hisroriography of
other periods such as Reformation histo ry. \-xr hether we l ike ir or nor as his
torians, vv·riting heresy, i n all i ts various forms, did occupy a major p lace i n
Byzantium-so much so i ndeed rhat a full rreatmenr would i n its 'vay con
stirure a new his rory of Byzanrium. This is far fro m hav i n g been written as
yet.88 Bu t meanwhile, at the very leasr , 1 suggesr thar one o ught m read these
compos i ti ons , so strange ro o u r minds , as part of Byzant i ne pedagogy and
che Byzantine sociology of knowledge, self-perpetuating constructions that
nelped to fo rmul are thought and underpi n social norms. 89
1 Hence one is grateful for the welcome collection edited by S. Elm, E. Rébillard, and
A. Romano, Orthodoxie, christianisme, histoire, Collection de l'École fran�se de
Rome 270 :Rome: t.cole frans:aise de Rome, 2000). I take the reference to literarure as
a "Cinderella" from Margaret Mulletr, a notable pioneer in the eff.)rt ro change rhe
situation.
2 For Epiphanius, see further below: fo:- earlier heresiology, which was already ""ell estab
lished by the late second century, see in the first place A. Le Boulluec, La notion
d'hérésie darzs la littérature grecque Ile-Ille siecles, 2 vols. (París: Études augusriniennes,
1 985). Forheresiology as a genre. and a lisr of exarnples in Greek md Latín up to ca.
430, see H. lngleberr, "'Lhistoire des hérésies chez les hérésiologue>," in B. Pouderon
and Y.-i\1. Duval, eds., L'histon·ogrophie de l'Église des premiers sieclts, Théologie his
rorique 1 1 4 (Paris: Beauchesne, 2001), 1 05 - 25.
3 See, ho"\ovever, Helen Siller, "Culture of Comroversy: The Chrisrological Disputes of
rhe Early Fifrh Century" (Ph.D. diss.. Universiry of California ar Berkeley, 1 999); lan
Tompkins, ·The Relarions benveen Theodoret of Cyrrhus and His City and Irs Terri
rory, with Particular Reference to the Letters and Historia Religiosa" (D.Phil. diss.,
University of Oxford, 1 993); Theresa Urbainczyk, Theodoret of C;n·hus: The Bishop
and the Ho� A1an (Ann Arbor: Universiry of ::viichigan Press, 2002): and see below.
4 Timothy of Constanrinople, De receptione haereticorum, Patrología Graeca ( PG)
86: 1 . 1 3 - 68; �icephorus, see further below. A work on "sects'' with sim ilar lisrings,
also beginn:ng with Hebrews and Samaritans (PG 86: 1 . 1 1 94- 1 2(5) , i s ascribed in
rhe manuscriprs to Leontius of Byzar.tium (sixth cenrury); see M. van Esbroek, "La
date er l'ameur du De Sectis amibué a Léo nce de Byzance," in C. laga, J. A. Munitiz,
and L. van Rompay, eds., Afier Chalcedon: Srudies in Theology and Church History
Ojfered to Professor Albert Van Roeyfor his Se1/entieth Birthday (LeuYen: Peerers, 1 985),
4 1 5 -24.
5 J . Gouillard, ed., "Le Synodikon d'orthodoxie.'' Titwaux et lvférnoires 2 ( 1 967): 1 -3 1 3 .
6 There is a vast literarure, consrancly increasing. A classic is R. l . 1'v1oore, The Fonnation
of a Persecuiing Society: Power and Deo.;iance in \"\'téstern Europe, 950-1250 (Oxford:
Oxford Universiry Press, 1 987). G. G. �v1erlo, ed., Eretici e emia n;ediet/ali nella stori
ografia contemporanea, Atri del XA.
rxll Convegno di Srudi sulla refcrme e i movimenri
religiosi in lralia, Bolleuino delle Sociera di rudi Valdensi 1 74 (Torre PeUici, Italy:
n.p., 1 994), conrains substantial bibliograplUcal surveys; and see ]. Le GotT, ed., Héré
fies et sociétfi dans l'liurope préindustrielle, 1 1 e-l Be siecles, Colloque du Royaumonr
27-30 Mai 1 962 (París: Mouton, 1 968). Bur rhere is almosr always a gap where
Byzamium should be.
7 G. \\7oolf, )oumal of Roman Studies 83 ( 1 993): 24 1 , reviewing Averil Cameron, Chris
tianit;• and the Rhetoric of Empire. The Formarían f Christi.an Discmme (Berkeley: Cni
o
do crrine. For good discu.ssion, see T Kolbaba, The B)'ztmtúze Lists: Errors of the Latim
(Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2000), 8 8 - l O l .
ll Ibid., 30 1 .
12 Ewhymius Zigabenus, PG 1 30. This panoplion, too, began early \.V ith Epicureanism
anc. took che listing up to the Paulicians and Bogomils of Euthymí us's ovm day.
13 "Kicetas Choniates, 'beasur}'• JlG 1 39 - 40. Again v..·e find the notion of coUecüng all
heresies rogether.
14 PG 3 0 1 .
15 Paulician texts are edired by C. Asrruc, \Y./ \'V'olska-Conus, J. Go uil lard , P. Lemerle, D.
Pa pachryssamhou, and J. ParameUe in Trat/aux et 1\1émoires 4 ( 1 970): 2 - 227; see also
che rranslations of rexts on the Paulicians and Bogomils i n Janet and Bernard Hamil
ton, Christian DuaList Heresies in the Byzantine W0rld, c. 650-c. 1405 (Manchesrer:
Manchester Universiry Press, l 998). Not uusting rhe rexts rhey present. che edirors
fre�uendy refer to "a ll eged" Pa.ulicians and the like. Following this line of argumem.
see also C. Ludvng, ''The Paulicians and Ninrh-Cemury Byzanríne Thought,'' in leslie
Bnba.ker, ed., B)zamium in tl'f! l'•lintb Cenru ry: Dead or Afive? (Alde:shot, Hampshire:
Ashgare, 1998), 23-35. Studes of dualisr beliefs include K. G. G a rsoia n, The Pauli
ci.;n Heresy (The Hague: :\1oumn, 1 967); P. Lemerle, ''[hisroire des Pauliciens d'Asie
:tviineure d'apres les sources grecques," Tm vaux et Mémozres 5 ( 1973): 1 - 1 44; �1. Loas,
D;ta/ist Heresy in the Afiddle Ages (Prague: Akademia, 1 974); D. Obolensky. The
Bcgomils (Cambridge: Cambridge Universiry Press, 1948h Y. Sroya nm·, The Hidden
Tutdition in Europe: The Secrtt Hist01J' ofA1edievaL Christian H�res_., I London: Arkana,
1 5 94), rev. as The Other God DuaList Refigions from A n!iquity to the Ctthar Heres;'
(l'Íe\\' Haven, Conn. : Yale Ur.iversity Press, 2000). Againsr sociaJ, regional, and duaJisr
i nterpretarions of che Paulicians, see l'\. G. Garsoian, "Byzamine Heresy: A Reinrer
pretation," Dumbarton Oaks Papers 2 5 ( 1 97 1 ) : 87 - 1 1 3.
16 Gouillard, ""L'hérésie,.... 324, righcly calls for more critical edirions: "r ausrere critique
des sou rces sans laquelle il n·est pas de synrhese qui vaille"; my poinr here is rather one
oi methodological approach.
17 See C. �1alrer. "Hererics in Byzamine An,'' Eastem Churches RetJte'.J.' 3 ( 1 9 70): 40 - 49.
Twe l frh Cen ruries," Past arul Present 69 ( 1 9 75 ) : 3 - 23; e[ Dion Smythe, "Alexios [
and rhe He retics . in M. :V1ullen aod D. Smythe, eds ., Alexios 1 Kom11enos: 1 Papers
"
(Belfasr: Belfast Byzantine Texts and Translations, 1 996 ), 232 - 59 ; also Smyrhe, "Om
s ide rs br Ta:�r.:is : Perceptions of 0lon-conformity i n Eleventh and T...velfth-Cemury Lir
e ra r ure " in L. Garland, ed., Conformity and Non-confonniry in Byza11tium (Amster
,
21 Michael Angold, Church rmd Societ;• in Byzantium under the Comneni, 1 081- 1261
(Cambridge: C<. mbr idge Universiry Press. 1 995). According ro Angold. the Emperor
Alexios's synchronizarion of John ltalos·s rrial vvirh che celebration of rhe Feast of Ortho
doxy was rhe emperor's "mosr briU ia m stroke" ( 5 1 ) . Of course a rhec ori cal analysis of
rhe te>.'"tS in no way predudes recognirion of political manipulaóon. See also P. Agapiros,
"Teachers, Pupi.s, and I mperial Power in Elevenrh-Cenrury Byzantium,� i n Y. Lee Too
and ="J. Livingstone, eds., Pedagogy and Ptnver: Rhetorics of Classical Leaming (Cam
bri dge: Cambridge Universiry Press. 1 998), 1 70-9 1 , at 1 84- 87. To adapt Kolbaba,
Byzantine Lists, 1 7 1 , ''religion is not all rheology"; but equally neither is ir all poli ríes.
,
23 See C. Stewart Working the Earth of the Heart: The Messalian ContrOilfrS)· in His tory
, ,
Theodoret of Cyrrhus.
45 Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Epistula 4.2 2 -25, in Yvan Azéma, ed. , Correspondance: Théo
doret de Cyr, 3 vok, Sour:es chrétiennes 40, 98, 1 1 1 (Paris: Cerf, 1 964 -82).
46 Theodoret lisrs antihereti:al works in Epistula 146. Th eodoret Curatio, ed. P Can iv e t ,
,
Sources chrétiennes 52 (Faris: Cerf, 1 9 58) ; see P. Canivet, Histoire d'une entrepr.se
apologétique au \ti siecle (París: Bloud and Gay, 1 9 5 7 ) . Theodoret, Eranistes, ed. G .
Ettlinger (Oxford: Clarendon Press , 1 975). The date of the \Vork is probably 447, and
Euryches v,ras co ndemned in 448 ( 3 - 4) .
47 See Siller, "Orthodoxy and Heresy ," 262 -63. Kolbi:>a. Byzantine Lists, emphasires
that rhe rexrs she discusses rake a simil ar or even more srereoryped form, bur also rh at
rhey were by no means the only heresiol ogical works di rected against the Larins in
� iddle Byzami um.
48 For the anat hemas, see Scph ronius PG 87:3.3 1 89-92, 3 1 93, also incl uded in the
,
menrs that Germanus wa.; not original, bur again rhat is because Gouillard is loolci ng
for historical evidence about actual heresy. For other examples, see J . Muniriz, "Synop
tic Greek Accoums of the Seventh Council," Revue des études byzantines 32 ( 1 974 ) :
1 47-86. Munitiz commmts rhar ..the :tarer] synoptic accoums of rhe Councils o ffe r
little atrracrion at fi rst sig:u " ( 1 77). But they make rheir own conrriburi o n ro the pe r
53 C. Waher, L'iconographie des conciles dam l 'a rt b;rzantin, Archives d e l'orient chrerien
3 1 3 - 5 9 , at 344 - 1 5 .
HO Jusri n i a n , Novellae 6. l .
81 See Alexal< is, (.'fJilex Pttrisim1s Graecus 1 1 1 5, chap . l . For :1 vivid c xp osi tio n of che
lt>ngths ro wh i ch this p ro c css could go, see Wol fr;¡m Rr;¡nJcs, "Ord wJuxy and H�.:rcsy
i n che Sevenrh Century: Prusopographical Ohservations u n Muuuthdc:-lism," i n A veril
Cameron, ed. , Fifiy 1'éarr of l'rn.rnpography: Rorne, Byzrmtimn, and Rrynnd (Oxford:
Oxford U n iversi ry Press fur thc Brirish A c a cl e my, 2003), 1 05 20; and cC E . o, ,y.c;os,
He ellkfesitlstikc politikc · trm lou..1tini.annu (Thcssaluniki: Patriardükon l l idrytna Patcri
kon Meleron, 1 969 ) ; Ch r ysos , "Kom:ilsa krcn und Kom.ilsprutukolle vom 4 . Ris 7.
J a h rhunde rc," Anrtt((/rium 1 listnrittl' Contiliorwn 1 S ( 1 9R3): 3 0 - 4 0 .
t$ 2 Scc W.1 l rer, L'i,·onogmphie dt.·s umá/e:;, 1 2 5 - 26, 1 5 1 - 5 5 .
83 G o uil l a rJ , "Le Sy n oJ i ko n ," 1 2- 1 3.
84 Wal ter, T:icnnoK'aphie des concilcs, 1 6 1 .
85 On the origins of t h c Synodikon, see Guuilbrd, "Le Synodikon," 1 4 1 ff.
R6 Cf., for· insnmce, rhc Synaxarirm or rhc Menologion uf Bas i l 1 1 ; 1it:e Wt� ltcr, " Hererics in
Ry�uuinc Art." 1 59- 60.
87 Cf. Av e ri l Camcrun, "J\!;cetic Closurc.� and rh l· End of A n riquity," in Vincent 1 .. W i m -
bush a n d Richard Val an w s i s , eds., Asceticism (New Yo rk: Oxfnrd Univcrsity Press,
1 995), 1 47 - 6 1 .
�8 l3ur G. Dagron, htnperrur et prem·: Htu.de mr le ''cbtt rop,zpisme'' byum tin (Paris: Galli-
mard, 1 996), pr�:¡cnrs a p owc rful case for rhc compc:: t icion and uncerrai nty which
(contrary ro pu p u l:H i mpn.:ssi ons) wcrc charéiCt cristil' or nyzantÍlll' pol i tical l i fc. Like
wisc Kulbaba, Ry:umtine Lists, 1 02- 23, a rg ucs for dll' complc:-xlty of By:t.anri n e rdi
gion, wltid1 ldr room for "gray are:�s bctwet"n rl o c t r i n c and ri tual."
R9 Scc Mary O ou gl as, Hnw lnstittttions Thinlt ( Lu ndo n : RourkJ ge and Kegan Pau l ,
1 987); Mary D ouglas and David l l ull, eds . , How CLassijimrion Workr: Nelson (;ood
man arnong thc Social Scicnces (Ed i nburgh: Ed i nb urg h U11 i vcrsity Prcss, 1 992); Nelson
Goodman, Ways of W0rldmaking (lndia.napolis: 1 lackert, 1 978).