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UNIT – 2

CONVECTION
2.1. Convection Heat Transfer-Requirements

The heat transfer by convection requires a solid-fluid interface, a temperature difference


between the solid surface and the surrounding fluid and a motion of the fluid. The process of heat
transfer by convection would occur when there is a movement of macro-particles of the fluid in
space from a region of higher temperature to lower temperature.

2.2. Convection Heat Transfer Mechanism

Let us imagine a heated solid surface, say a plane wall at a temperature Tw placed in an
atmosphere at temperature T ∞ , Fig. 2.1 Since all real fluids are viscous, the fluid particles
adjacent to the solid surface will stick to the surface. The fluid particle at A, which is at a lower
temperature, will receive heat energy from the plate by conduction. The internal energy of the
particle would Increase and when the particle moves away from the solid surface (wall or plate)
and collides with another fluid particle at B which is at the ambient temperature, it will transfer a
part of its stored energy to B. And, the temperature of the fluid particle at B would increase. This
way the heat energy is transferred from the heated plate to the surrounding fluid. Therefore the
process of heat transfer by convection involves a combined action of heat conduction, energy
storage and transfer of energy by mixing motion of fluid particles.

Fig. 2.1 Principle of heat transfer by convection

2.3. Free and Forced Convection

When the mixing motion of the fluid particles is the result of the density difference
caused by a temperature gradient, the process of heat transfer is called natural or free convection.
When the mixing motion is created by an artificial means (by some external agent), the process
of heat transfer is called forced convection Since the effectiveness of heat transfer by convection
depends largely on the mixing motion of the fluid particles, it is essential to have a knowledge of
the characteristics of fluid flow.

2.4. Basic Difference between Laminar and Turbulent Flow

In laminar or streamline flow, the fluid particles move in layers such that each fluid p
article follows a smooth and continuous path. There is no macroscopic mixing of fluid particles
between successive layers, and the order is maintained even when there is a turn around a comer
or an obstacle is to be crossed. If a lime dependent fluctuating motion is observed indirections
which are parallel and transverse to the main flow, i.e., there is a random macroscopic mixing of
fluid particles across successive layers of fluid flow, the motion of the fluid is called' turbulent
flow'. The path of a fluid particle would then be zigzag and irregular, but on a statistical basis,
the overall motion of the macro particles would be regular and predictable.

2.5. Formation of a Boundary Layer

When a fluid flow, over a surface, irrespective of whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent, the fluid particles adjacent to the solid surface will always stick to it and their velocity
at the solid surface will be zero, because of the viscosity of the fluid. Due to the shearing action
of one fluid layer over the adjacent layer moving at the faster rate, there would be a velocity
gradient in a direction normal to the flow.

Fig 2.2: sketch of a boundary layer on a wall

Let us consider a two-dimensional flow of a real fluid about a solid (slender in cross-
section) as shown in Fig. 2.2. Detailed investigations have revealed that the velocity of the fluid
particles at the surface of the solid is zero. The transition from zero velocity at the surface of the
solid to the free stream velocity at some distance away from the solid surface in the V-direction
(normal to the direction of flow) takes place in a very thin layer called 'momentum or
hydrodynamic boundary layer'. The flow field can thus be divided in two regions:

( i) A very thin layer in t he vicinity 0 f t he body w here a velocity gradient normal to


the direction of flow exists, the velocity gradient du/dy being large. In this thin region, even a
very small Viscosity µ of the fluid exerts a substantial Influence and the shearing stress
τ = µ du/dy may assume large values. The thickness of the boundary layer is very small and
decreases with decreasing viscosity.

(ii) In the remaining region, no such large velocity gradients exist and the Influence of
viscosity is unimportant. The flow can be considered frictionless and potential.

2.6. Thermal Boundary Layer

Since the heat transfer by convection involves the motion of fluid particles, we must
superimpose the temperature field on the physical motion of fluid and the two fields are bound to
interact. It is intuitively evident that the temperature distribution around a hot body in a fluid
stream will often have the same character as the velocity distribution in the boundary layer flow.
When a heated solid body IS placed in a fluid stream, the temperature of the fluid stream will
also vary within a thin layer in the immediate neighborhood of the solid body. The variation in
temperature of the fluid stream also takes place in a thin layer in the neighborhood of the body
and is termed 'thermal boundary layer'. Fig. 2.3 shows the temperature profiles inside a thermal
boundary layer.

Fig2.3: The thermal boundary layer


2.7. Dimensionless Parameters and their Significance

The following dimensionless parameters are significant in evaluating the convection


heat transfer coefficient:

(a) The Nusselt Number (Nu)-It is a dimensionless quantity defined as hL/ k, where h =
convective heat transfer coefficient, L is the characteristic length and k is the thermal
conductivity of the fluid The Nusselt number could be interpreted physically as the ratio of the
temperature gradient in the fluid immediately in contact with the surface to a reference
temperature gradient (Ts - T ∞ ) /L. The convective heat transfer coefficient can easily be obtained
if the Nusselt number, the thermal conductivity of the fluid in that temperature range and the
characteristic dimension of the object is known.

Let us consider a hot flat plate (temperature Tw) placed in a free stream (temperature T ∞
< Tw). The temperature distribution is shown ill Fig. 2.4. Newton's Law of Cooling says that the
rate of heat transfer per unit area by convection is given by

& / A = h (T − T )
Q w ∞

&
Q
= h(Tw − T∞ )
A

Tw − T∞
=k
δt

k
h=
δt

hL L
Nu = =
k δt
Fig. 2.4 Temperature distribution in a boundary layer: Nusselt modulus

The heat transfer by convection involves conduction and mixing motion of fluid
particles. At the solid fluid interface (y = 0), the heat flows by conduction only, and is given by

&
Q  dT 
= −k  ∴h =
( −k
dy )
dT

y =0

A  dy Y = 0 ( Tw − T∞ )
Since the magnitude of the temperature gradient in the fluid will remain the same,
irrespective of the reference temperature, we can write dT = d(T - Tw) and by introducing a
characteristic length dimension L to indicate the geometry of the object from which the heat
flows, we get

hL
=
(
dT
)
dy y = 0
, and in dimensionless form,
k ( Tw − T∞ ) / L

 d(Tw − T) /(Tw − T∞ ) 
= 
 d ( y / L)
 y=0

(b) The Grashof Number (Gr)-In natural or free convection heat transfer, die motion of
fluid particles is created due to buoyancy effects. The driving force for fluid motion is the body
force arising from the temperature gradient. If a body with a constant wall temperature Tw is
exposed to a qui scent ambient fluid at T ∞ , the force per unit volume can be written as

ρgβ ( t w − T∞ ) where ρ = mass density of the fluid, β = volume coefficient of expansion and g is

the acceleration due to gravity.


The ratio of inertia force × Buoyancy force/(viscous force)2 can be written as

Gr =
(ρV L ) × ρgβ ( T
2 2
w − T∞ ) L3
( µVL )2

ρ2gβ ( Tw − T∞ ) L3
= 2
= gβL3 ( Tw − T∞ ) / ν 2
µ

The magnitude of Grashof number indicates whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. If
the Grashof number is greater than 109, the flow is turbulent and for Grashof number less than
108, the flow is laminar. For 108 < Gr < 109, It is the transition range.

(c) The Prandtl Number (Pr) - It is a dimensionless parameter defined as

Pr = µ C p / k = ν / α

Where µ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, v = kinematic viscosity and α = thermal
diffusivity.

This number assumes significance when both momentum and energy are propagated
through the system. It is a physical parameter depending upon the properties of the medium It is
a measure of the relative magnitudes of momentum and thermal diffusion in the fluid: That is,
for Pr = I, the r ate of diffusion of momentum and energy are equal which means that t he
calculated temperature and velocity fields will be Similar, the thickness of the momentum and
thermal boundary layers will be equal. For Pr <<I (in case of liquid metals), the thickness of the
thermal boundary layer will be much more than the thickness of the momentum boundary layer
and vice versa. The product of Grashof and Prandtl number is called Rayleigh number. Or, Ra =
Gr × Pr.

2.8. Evaluation of Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient

The convective heat transfer coefficient in free or natural convection can be evaluated
by two methods:

(a) Dimensional Analysis combined with experimental investigations

(b) Analytical solution of momentum and energy equations 10 the boundary layer.

Dimensional Analysis and Its Limitations


Since the evaluation of convective heat transfer coefficient is quite complex, it is based
on a combination of physical analysis and experimental studies. Experimental observations
become necessary to study the influence of pertinent variables on the physical phenomena.

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical technique used in reducing the number of


experiments to a minimum by determining an empirical relation connecting the relevant
variables and in grouping the variables together in terms of dimensionless numbers. And, the
method can only be applied after the pertinent variables controlling t he phenomenon are
Identified and expressed In terms of the primary dimensions. (Table 1.1)

In natural convection heat transfer, the pertinent variables are: h, ρ , k, µ , Cp, L, ( ∆ T),
β and g. Buckingham π 's method provides a systematic technique for arranging the variables in
dimensionless numbers. It states that the number of dimensionless groups, π ’s, required to
describe a phenomenon involving 'n' variables is equal to the number of variables minus the
number of primary dimensions 'm' in the problem.

In SI system of units, the number of primary dimensions are 4 and the number of
variables for free convection heat transfer phenomenon are 9 and therefore, we should expect (9 -
4) = 5 dimensionless numbers. Since the dimension of the coefficient of volume expansion, β , is

θ−1 , one dimensionless number is obviously β ( ∆ T). The remaining variables are written in a
functional form:

( )
φ h, ρ,k, µ,Cp ,L,g = 0.

Since the number of primary dimensions is 4, we arbitrarily choose 4 independent


variables as primary variables such that all the four dimensions are represented. The selected
primary variables are: ρ ,g, k. L Thus the dimensionless group,

a b
(
π1 = ρa g b k c Ld h = ML−3 ) ( LT ) .( MLT
−2 −3 −1
θ )=M LT θ
0 0 0 0

Equating the powers of M, L, T, θ on both sides, we have


M : a + c + 1 = 0 } Upon solving them, 

L : -3a + b + c + d = 0 
 Up on solving them,
T : -2b -3c -3 = 0 
θ : -c - 1 = 0 

c = 1, b = a = 0 and d = 1.

and π 1 = hL/k, the Nusselt number.

The other dimensionless number

π 2= pagbkcLdCp = (ML-3)a (LT-2)b(MLT-3 θ -1)c(L)d(MT-1 θ−1 ) = M0L0T0 θ 0 Equating the


powers of M,L,T and θ and upon solving, we get

π 3= µ 2 / ρ2g L3

1/ 2
By combining π 2 and π 3 , we write π4 = [ π2 × π3 ]

1/ 2 µC p
= ρ2gL3C2p / k 2 × µ 2 / gL3  = (the Prandtl number)
k

1
By combining π 3 with ( β∆T ) , we have π 5= ( β∆T ) *
π3

ρ2gL3
= β ( ∆T ) × 2
= gβ ( ∆T ) L3 / ν 2 (the Grashof number)
µ

Therefore, the functional relationship is expressed as:

m
φ ( Nu,Pr,Gr ) = 0;Or, Nu = φ1 ( Gr Pr ) = Const × ( Gr × Pr ) (2.1)

and values of the constant and 'm' are determined experimentally.

Table 2.1 gives the values of constants for use with Eq. (2.1) for isothermal surfaces.
Table 2.1 Constants for use with Eq. 2.1 for Isothermal Surfaces

Geometry Gr f pr f C m

Vertical planes and cylinders 104 - 109 0.59 1/4

109 - 1013 0.021 2/5

109 - 1013 0.10 1/3

Horizontal cylinders 0 - 10-5 0.4 0

104 - 109 0.53 1/4

109 - 1012 0.13 1/3

1010 - 10-2 0.675 0.058

10-2 - 102 1.02 0.148

102 - 104 0.85 0.188

104 - 107 0.48 1/4

107 - 1012 0.125 1/3

Upper surface of heated plates or 8 × 106 - 1011 0.15 1/3


lower surface of cooled plates

- do - 2 × 104 - 8 × 106 0.54 1/4


Lower surface of heated plates or 105 - 1011 0.27 1/4
upper surface of cooled plates

Vertical cylinder height = diameter


characteristic length = diameter
104 - 106 0.775 0.21
Irregular solids, characteristic length
= distance the fluid particle travels in
boundary layer 104 - 109 0.52 1/4
Analytical Solution-Flow over a Heated Vertical Plate in Air

Let us consider a heated vertical plate in air, shown in Fig. 2.5. The plate is maintained
at uniform temperature Tw .The coordinates are chosen in such a way that x - is in the stream
wise direction and y - is in the transverse direction. There will be a thin layer of fluid adjacent to
the hot surface of the vertical plate within

Fig. 2.5 Boundary layer on a heated vertical plate

Which the variations in velocity and temperature would remain confined. The relative
thickness of the momentum and the thermal boundary layer strongly depends upon the Prandtl
number. Since in natural convection heat transfer, the motion of the fluid particles is caused by
the temperature difference between the temperatures of the wall and the ambient fluid, the
thickness of the two boundary layers are expected to be equal. When the temperature of the
vertical plate is less than the fluid temperature, the boundary layer will form from top to bottom
but the mathematical analysis will remain the same.

The boundary layer will remain laminar upto a certain length of the plate (Gr < 108) and
beyond which it will become turbulent (Gr > 109). In order to obtain the analytical solution, the
integral approach, suggested by von-Karman is preferred.

We choose a control volume ABCD, having a height H, length dx and unit thickness
normal to the plane of paper, as shown in Fig. 25. We have:

(b) Conservation of Mass:

H
& AB = ∫ ρudy
Mass of fluid entering through face AB = m
0
d  H
ρudy  dx
H
& CD = ∫ ρudy +
Mass of fluid leaving face CD = m ∫
0 
dx  0 

d  H
∴ Mass of fluid entering the face DA = ∫ ρudy  dx

dx  0 

(ii) Conservation of Momentum:

H
∫0 ρu
2
Momentum entering face AB = dy

H d  H 2 
Momentum leaving face CD = ∫0 ρu 2dy +
dx  ∫0
ρu dy dx


d  H 2 
dx  ∫0
∴ Net efflux of momentum in the + x-direction = ρu dy dx


The external forces acting on the control volume are:

du
(a) Viscous force = µ dx acting in the –ve x-direction
dy y=0

(b) Buoyant force approximated as  ∫ ρgβ ( T − T∞ ) dy  dx


H

 0 

From Newton’s law, the equation of motion can be written as:

d  δ 2  du δ

dx  ∫0
ρu dy = −µ

 dy
+ ∫ ρgβ ( T − T∞ )dy
0
(2.2)
y =0

Because the value of the integrand between δ and H would be zero.

(iii) Conservation of Energy:

& , convection + Q
Q & ,convection + Q
& ,conduction = Q
& convection
AB AD BC CD

H d H  dT
or, ∫0 ρuCTdy + CT∞  dx ∫0 ρudy  dx − k dy dx
y =0

d  H
ρuTCdy  dx
H
= ∫0 ρuCTdy +

dx  ∫0 
d δ k dT dT
or ∫
dx 0
ρu ( T∞ − T ) dy
ρC dy

dy
(2.3)
y =0 y =0

The boundary conditions are:

or,

(2.3)

Velocity profile Temperature profile

u = 0 at y = 0 T = Tw at y = 0

u = 0 at y = δ T = T ∞ at y = δ1 ≡ δ

du/dy = 0 at y = δ dT/dy ≡ 0 at y = δ1 ≡ δ

Since the equations (2.2) and (2.3) are coupled equations, it is essential that the
functional form of both the velocity and temperature distribution are known in order to arrive at a
solution.

The functional relationships for velocity and temperature profiles which satisfy the
above boundary conditions are assumed of the form:

2
u y y
= 1 −  (2.4)
u* δ  δ 

Where u * is a fictitious velocity which is a function of x; and

( T − T∞ ) = 1 − y 2 (2.5)
( Tw − T∞ )  δ 
After the Eqs. (5.4) and (5.5) are inserted in Eqs. (5.2) and (5.3) and the operations are
performed (details of the solution are given in Chapman, A.J. Heat Transfer, Macmillan
Company, New York), we get the expression for boundary layer thickness as:

0.25
δ / x = 3.93Pr −0.5 ( 0.952 + Pr ) Grx−0.25

Where Gr, is the local Grashof number = gβx 3 ( Tw − T∞ ) / ν 2


The heat transfer coefficient can be evaluated from:

dT
q& w = − k = h ( Tw − T∞ )
dy y=0

Using Eq. (5.5) which gives the temperature distribution, we have

h = 2k/ δ or, hx/k = Nux= 2x/ δ

The non-dimensional equation for the heat transfer coefficient is

Nux= 0.508 Pr0.5 (0.952 + Pr)-0.25 Grx0.25 (2.7)

1 L
L ∫0
The average heat transfer coefficient, h = h x dx = 4 / 3h x = L

NuL= 0.677 Pr0.5 (0.952 + Pr)-0.25 Gr 0.25 (2.8)

Limitations of Analytical Solution: Except for the analytical solution for flow over a flat
plate, experimental measurements are required to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient. Since in
free convection systems, the velocity at the surface of the wall and at the edge of the boundary
layer is zero and its magnitude within the boundary layer is so small. It is very difficult to
measure them. Therefore, velocity measurements require hydrogen-bubble technique or sensitive
hot wire anemometers. The temperature field measurement is obtained by interferometer.

Expression for ‘h’ for a Heated Vertical Cylinder in Air

The characteristic length used in evaluating the Nusselt number and Grashof number for
vertical surfaces is the height of the surface. If the boundary layer thickness is not to large
compared with the diameter of the cylinder, the convective heat transfer coefficient can be
0.25
evaluated by the equation used for vertical plane surfaces. That is, when D / L ≥ 25/ ( GrL )

Example 2.1 A large vertical flat plate 3 m high and 2 m wide is maintained at 75°C
and is exposed to atmosphere at 25°C. Calculate the rate of heat transfer.

Solution: The physical properties of air are evaluated at the mean temperature. i.e. T =
(75 + 25)/2 = 50°C

From the data book, the values are:


ρ = 1.088 kg/m3; Cp = 1.00 kJ/kg.K;

µ = 1.96 × 10-5 Pa-s k = 0.028 W/mK.

Pr = µ Cp/k = 1.96 × 10-5 × 1.0 × 103 /0.028 = 0.7

1 1
β= =
T 323

Gr = ρ2gβ ( ∆T ) L3 / µ 2

=
(1.088 )2 × 9.81 × 1 × ( 3)3 × 50
2
(
323 × 1.96 × 10−5 )
= 12.62 × 1010

Gr.Pr = 8.834 × 1010

Since Gr.Pr lies between 109 and 1013

We have from Table 2.1

hL 1/ 3
Nu = = 0.1( Gr.Pr ) = 441.64
k
2
∴ h = 441.64 × 0.028/3 = 4.122 W/m K

& = hA ( ∆T ) = 4.122 × 6 × 50 = 1236.6W


Q

We can also compute the boundary layer thickness at x = 3m

2x 2×3
δ= = = 1.4 cm
Nu x 441.64

Example 2.2 A vertical flat plate at 90°C. 0.6 m long and 0.3 m wide, rests in air at
30°C. Estimate the rate of heat transfer from the plate. If the plate is immersed in water at 30°C.
Calculate the rate of heat transfer

Solution: (a) Plate in Air: Properties of air at mean temperature 60°C

Pr = 0.7, k = 0.02864 W/ mK, v = 19.036 × 10-6 m2/s

Gr = 9.81 × (90 – 30)(0.6)3/ [333 (19.036 × 10-6)2]


= 1.054 × 109; Gr × Pr 1.054 ×109 × 0.7 = 7.37 × 108 < 109

From Table 5.1: for Gr × Pr < 109, Nu = 0.59 (Gr. Pr)1/4


8 1/4 2
∴ h = 0.02864 × 0.59 (7.37 × 10 ) /0.6 = 4.64 W/m K

The boundary layer thickness, δ = 2 k/h = 2 × 0.02864/4.64 = 1.23 cm

& = hA ( ∆T ) = 4.64 × (2 × 0.6 × 0.3) × 60 = 100 W.


and Q

Using Eq (2.8). Nu = 0.677 (0.7)0.5 (0.952 +0.7)0.25 (1.054 ×109)0.25,

& 92.81 W
Which gives h = 4.297 W/m2K and heat transfer rate, Q

Churchill and Chu have demonstrated that the following relations fit very well with
experimental data for all Prandtl numbers.

For RaL < 109, Nu = 0.68 + (0.67 RaL0.25)/ [1 + (0.492/Pr)9/16]4/9) (5.9)

RaL> 109, Nu = 0.825 + (0.387 RaL1/6)/[1 + (0.492/Pr)9/16]8/27 (5.10)

Using Eq (5.9): Nu = 0.68 + [0.67(7.37 × 108)0.25] / [1 + (0.492/0.7)9/16]4/9

& = 87.9 W
= 58.277 and h = 4.07 W /m2k; Q

(b) Plate in Water: Properties of water from the Table

Pr = 3.01, ρ2 g β Cp/ µ k = 6.48 × 1010;

Gr.Pr = ρ2 g β Cp L3( ∆ T)/ µ k = 6.48 × 1010 × (0.6)3 × 60 = 8.4 × 1011

Using Eq (5.10): Nu = 0.825 + [0.387 (8.4 ×1011)1/6]/ [1+ (0.492/3.01)9/16)]8/27 = 89.48


which gives h = 97.533 and Q = 2.107 kW.

2.9. Modified Grashof Number

When a surface is being heated by an external source like solar radiation incident on a
wall, a surface heated by an electric heater or a wall near a furnace, there is a uniform heat flux
distribution along the surface. The wall surface will not be an isothermal one. Extensive
experiments have been performed by many research workers for free convection from vertical
and inclined surfaces to water under constant heat flux conditions. Since the temperature
difference ( ∆ T) is not known beforehand, the Grashof number is modified by multiplying it by
Nusselt number. That is,
Grx* = Grx. Nux = (g β ∆T / ν 2 ) × (hx/k) = g β x4 q/k ν 2 (2.11)
Where q is the wall heat flux in Wm2. (q = h ( ∆T ))
It has been observed that the boundary layer remains lam mar when the modified

Rayleigh number, Ra* = Grx* ’. Pr is less than 3 × 1012 and fully turbulent flow appears for Ra* >
1014. The local heat transfer coefficient can be calculated from:
* *
q constant and 105 < Grx <1011: Nux = 0.60 ( Grx . Pr)0.2 (2.12)
q Constant and 2 × 1013< Grx* < 1016 : Nux= 0.17 ( Grx* . Pr)0.25 (2.13)
Although these results are based on experiments for water, they are applicable to air as
well. The physical properties are to be evaluated at the local film temperature.
Example 2.3 Solar radiation of intensity 700W/m’ is incident on a vertical wall, 3 m
high and 3 m wide. Assuming that the wall does not transfer energy to the inside surface and all
the incident energy is lost by free convection to the ambient air at 30oe, calculate the average
temperature of the wall
Solution: Since the surface temperature of the wall is not known, we assume a value for
h = 7 W/m 2 K.
∆ T = q& / h = 700/7 = 100oC and the film temperature = (30 + 130) /2 = 80oC
The properties of air at 273 +80 = 353 are: β = 1/353, Pr = 0.697
k = 0.03 W /mK, ν = 20.76 ×10-6 m2/s.
Modified Grashof number, Grx* = 9.81. (1/353)· (3)4 × 700/[0.03 ×(20.76 × 10-6 )2] = 1.15 × 1014
From Eq. (2.13), h = (k/x) (0.17) ( Grx* Pr)0.25
= (0.03/3) (0.17) (1.15 × 1014 × 0.697)1/4
2
= 5.087 W/m K, a different value from the assumed value.
Second Trial: ∆ T = q& / h = 700/5.087 = 137.66 and film temperature

= 98.8°C

The properties of air at (273 + 98.8) °C are: β =1/372, k = 0.0318 W/mK

Pr = 0.693, v = 23.3 × 10-6 m2/s

Grx* = 9.81. (1/372)· (3)4 × 700/ [0.318(23.3 × 10-6)2] = 8.6 × 1013

Using Eq (2.13), h = (k/x) (0.17) ( Grx* Pr)1/4 = 5.015 W/m2k, an acceptable value. In
turbulent heat transfer by convection, Eq. (5.13) tells us that the local heat transfer coefficient hx
does not vary with x and therefore, the average and local heat transfer coefficients are the same.
2.10 Laminar Flow Forced Convection Heat Transfer
2.10.1Forced Convection Heat Transfer Principles
The mechanism of heat transfer by convection requires mixing of one portion of fluid
with another portion due to gross movement of the mass of the fluid. The transfer of heat energy
from one fluid particle or a molecule to another one is still by conduction but the energy is
transported from one point in space to another by the displacement of fluid.
When the motion of fluid is created by the imposition of external forces in the form of
pressure differences, the process of heat transfer is called ‘forced convection’. And, the motion
of fluid particles may be either laminar or turbulent and that depends upon the relative magnitude
of inertia and viscous forces, determined by the dimensionless parameter Reynolds number. In
free convection, the velocity of fluid particle is very small in comparison with the velocity of
fluid particles in forced convection, whether laminar or turbulent. In forced convection heat
transfer, Gr/Re 2<< 1, in free convection heat transfer, GrRe2>>1 and we have combined free and
forced convection when Gr/Re2 ≈ 1 .

2.10.2. Methods for Determining Heat Transfer Coefficient

The convective heat transfer coefficient in forced flow can be evaluated by: (a)
Dimensional Analysis combined with experiments;
(b) Reynolds Analogy – an analogy between heat and momentum transfer; (c)
Analytical Methods – exact and approximate analyses of boundary layer equations.

2.10.3. Method of Dimensional Analysis

As pointed out in Chapter 5, dimensional analysis does not yield equations which can be
solved. It simply combines the pertinent variables into non-dimensional numbers which facilitate
the interpretation and extend the range of application of experimental data. The relevant
variables for forced convection heat transfer phenomenon whether laminar or turbulent, are
(b) The properties of the fluid – density p, specific heat capacity Cp, dynamic or
absolute viscosity µ , thermal conductivity k.

(ii) The properties of flow – flow velocity Y, and the characteristic dimension of the
system L.

As such, the convective heat transfer coefficient, h, is written as h = f ( ρ , V, L, µ , Cp,


k) = 0 (5.14)

Since there are seven variables and four primary dimensions, we would expect three
dimensionless numbers. As before, we choose four independent or core variables as ρ ,V, L, k,
and calculate the dimensionless numbers by applying Buckingham π ’s method:

a b d
(
π1 = ρa V b Lc K d h = ML−3 ) ( LT )
−1
( L )c ( MLT −3θ−1 ) ( MT −3 −1
θ )
= M o LoT oθo

Equating the powers of M, L, T and θ on both sides, we get

M:a+d+1=O

L : - 3a + b + c + d = 0

T : - b – 3d – 3 = 0 By solving them, we have

θ : - d – 1= 0. D = -1, a = 0, b = 0, c = 1.

Therefore, π1 = hL/k is the Nusselt number.

a b d
(
π2 = ρa V b Lc K dµ = ML−3 ) ( LT )
−1
( L )c ( MLT −3θ−1 ) ( ML −1 −1
T )
= M o LoT oθo

Equating the powers of M, L, T and on both sides, we get


M : a + d +1 = 0

L : - 3a + b + c + d = 1 = 0

T : - b – 3d – 1 = 0

θ : - d = 0.

By solving them, d = 0, b = - 1, a = - 1, c = - 1

1 ρVL
and π2 = µ / ρVL;or, π3 = =
π2 µ

(Reynolds number is a flow parameter of greatest significance. It is the ratio of inertia


forces to viscous forces and is of prime importance to ascertain the conditions under which a
flow is laminar or turbulent. It also compares one flow with another provided the corresponding
length and velocities are comparable in two flows. There would be a similarity in flow between
two flows when the Reynolds numbers are equal and the geometrical similarities are taken into
consideration.)
a b d
(
π4 = ρa V b Lc k d Cp = ML−3 ) ( LT )
−1
( L )c ( MLT −3θ−1 ) (L T
2 −2 −1
θ )
M o LoT oθo
Equating the powers of M, L, T, on both Sides, we get
M : a + d = 0; L : - 3a + b + c + d + 2 = 0

T : - b – 3d – 2 = 0; θ :-d–1=0
By solving them,
ρVL
d =- 1,a = l, b = l, c = l, π4 = C p ; π5 = π 4 × π 2
k
ρVL µ µCp
= Cp × =
k ρVL k

∴ π5 is Prandtl number.

Therefore, the functional relationship is expressed as:

Nu = f (Re, Pr); or Nu = C Rem Prn (5.15)

Where the values of c, m and n are determined experimentally.


2.10.4. Principles of Reynolds Analogy

Reynolds was the first person to observe that there exists a similarity between the
exchange of momentum and the exchange of heat energy in laminar motion and for that reason it
has been termed ‘Reynolds analogy’. Let us consider the motion of a fluid where the fluid is
flowing over a plane wall. The X-coordinate is measured parallel to the surface and the V-
coordinate is measured normal to it. Since all fluids are real and viscous, there would be a thin
layer, called momentum boundary layer, in the vicinity of the wall where a velocity gradient
normal to the direction of flow exists. When the temperature of the surface of the wall is
different than the temperature of the fluid stream, there would also be a thin layer, called thermal
boundary layer, where there is a variation in temperature normal to the direction of flow. Fig. 2.6
depicts the velocity distribution and temperature profile for the laminar motion of the fluid
flowing past a plane wall.

Fig. 2.6 velocity distribution and temperature profile for laminar motion of the fluid
over a plane surface

du
In a two-dimensional flow, the shearing stress is given by τ w = µ
dy y =0
& τ k dT
Q
and the rate of heat transfer per unit area is given by = w
A µ du

For Pr = µ Cp/k = 1, we have k/ µ = Cp and therefore, we can write after separating the
variables,

&
Q
du = −dT (5.16)
Aτw Cp

Assuming that Q and τw are constant at any station x, we integrate equation (5.16)
between the limits: u = 0 when T = Tw , and u = U ∞ when T = T ∞ , and we get,

(
w p ∞ w)
& / Aτ C × U = ( T − T )
Q ∞

& / A = h ( T − T ) , and τ = C × ρU 2 / 2,
Since by definition, Q x w ∞ w fx ∞

Where Cfx , is the skin friction coefficient at the station x. We have

Cfx /2 = hx/ (Cp ρ U ∞ ) (5.17)

( )
Since h x / CpρU∞ = ( h x.x / k ) × ( µ / ρ × U∞ ) × k / µ.Cp = Nu x / ( Re.Pr ) ,

Nu x / Re.Pr = Cfx / 2 = Stan tonnumer,St. (5.18)

Equation (5.18) is satisfactory for gases in which Pr is approximately equal to unity.


Colburn has shown that Eq. (5.18) can also be used for fluids having Prandtl numbers ranging
from 0.6 to about 50 if it is modified in accordance with experirnental results.

Nu x
Or, .Pr 2 / 3 = St x Pr 2 / 3 = Cfx / 2 (5.19)
Re x Pr

Eq. (5.19) expresses the relation between fluid friction and heat transfer for laminar
flow over a plane wall. The heat transfer coefficient could thus be determined by making
measurements of the frictional drag on a plate under conditions in which no heat transfer is
involved.
Example 2.4 Glycerine at 35°C flows over a 30cm by 3Ocm flat plate at a velocity of
1.25 m/s. The drag force is measured as 9.8 N (both Side of the plate). Calculate the heat transfer
for such a flow system.

Solution: From tables, the properties of glycerine at 35°C are:

ρ = 1256 kg/m3, Cp = 2.5 kJ/kgK, µ = 0.28 kg/m-s, k = 0.286 W/mK, Pr = 2.4 Re=
ρ VL/ µ = 1256 × 1.25 × 0.30/0.28 = 1682.14, a laminar flow.*

Average shear stress on one side of the plate = drag force/area

= 9.8/(2 × 0.3 × 0.3) = 54.4

and shear stress = C f ρ U2/2

τ
∴ The average skin friction coefficient, Cr/ 2 =
ρU 2

= 54.4/( 1256 ×1.25 × 1.25) = 0.0277

From Reynolds analogy, Cf /2 = St. Pr 2/3

1256 × 2.5 × 1.25 × 0.0277


or, h = ρ Cp U × Cf/2 × Pr -2/3 = 0.667
=59.8 kW/m2K.
( 2.45 )

2.10.5. Analytical Evaluation of ‘h’ for Laminar Flow over a Flat Plat –
Assumptions

As pointed out earlier, when the motion of the fluid is caused by the imposition of
external forces, such as pressure differences, and the fluid flows over a solid surface, at a
temperature different from the temperature of the fluid, the mechanism of heat transfer is called
‘forced convection’. Therefore, any analytical approach to determine the convective heat transfer
coefficient would require the temperature distribution in the flow field surrounding the body.
That is, the theoretical analysis would require the use of the equation of motion of the viscous
fluid flowing over the body along with the application of the principles of conservation of mass
and energy in order to relate the heat energy that is convected away by the fluid from the solid
surface.
For the sake of simplicity, we will consider the motion of the fluid in 2 space
dimension, and a steady flow. Further, the fluid properties like viscosity, density, specific heat,
etc are constant in the flow field, the viscous shear forces m the Y –direction is negligible and
there are no variations in pressure also in the Y –direction.
2.10.6. Derivation of the Equation of Continuity–Conservation of Mass
We choose a control volume within the laminar boundary layer as shown in Fig. 6.2.
The mass will enter the control volume from the left and bottom face and will leave the control
volume from the right and top face. As such, for unit depth in the Z-direction,

& BC = ρ  u + .dx  dy;  ∂u 


∂u
& AD = ρ udy ; m
m m& AB = ρ vdx ; m
& CD = ρ  v + .dy  dx;
 dx   dy 
For steady flow conditions, the net efflux of mass from the control volume is zero,
therefore,

∂u ∂v
ρudy + ρxdx = ρudy + ρ dxdy + ρvdx + ρ .dxdy
∂x ∂x

Fig. 2.7 a differential control volume within the boundary layer for laminar flow over a
plane wall
or, ∂u / ∂x + ∂v + ∂y = 0, the equation of continuity. (2.20)
Concept of Critical Thickness of Insulation

The addition of insulation at the outside surface of small pipes may not reduce the rate
of heat transfer. When an insulation is added on the outer surface of a bare pipe, its outer radius,
r0 increases and this increases the thermal resistance due to conduction logarithmically whereas t
he thermal resistance to heat flow due to fluid film on the outer surface decreases linearly with
increasing radius, r0. Since the total thermal resistance is proportional to the sum of these two
resistances, the rate of heat flow may not decrease as insulation is added to the bare pipe.

Fig. 2.7 shows a plot of heat loss against the insulation radius for two different cases.
For small pipes or wires, the radius rl may be less than re and in that case, addition of insulation
to the bare pipe will increase the heat loss until the critical radius is reached. Further addition of
insulation will decrease the heat loss rate from this peak value. The insulation thickness (r* – rl)
must be added to reduce the heat loss below the uninsulated rate. If the outer pipe radius rl is
greater than the critical radius re any insulation added will decrease the heat loss.
2.10.7 Expression for Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Cylindrical Pipe

Let us consider a pipe, outer radius rl as shown in Fig. 2.18. An insulation is added such
that the outermost radius is r a variable and the insulation thickness is
(r – rI). We assume that the thermal conductivity, k, for the insulating material is very small in
comparison with the thermal conductivity of the pipe material and as such the temperature T1, at
the inside surface of the insulation is constant. It is further assumed that both h and k are
constant. The rate of heat flow, per unit length of pipe, through the insulation is then,

& / L = 2π ( T − T ) / ( ln ( r / r ) / k + 1/ hr ) , where T is the ambient temperature.


Q 1 ∞ 1 ∞

Fig 2.8 Critical thickness for pipe insulation


Fig 2.9 critical thickness of insulation for a pipe

An optimum value of the heat loss is found by setting


(& /L
d Q ) = 0.
dr

or,
(
& /L
d Q ) = 0 = − 2π ( T1 − T∞ ) (1/ kr − 1/ hr 2 )
dr ( ln ( r / r ) / k + 1/ hr )
1
2

( )
or, (1/ kr ) − 1/ hr 2 = 0 and r = rc = k/h (2.21)

where rc denote the ‘critical radius’ and depends only on thermal quantities k and h.

If we evaluate the second derivative of (Q/L) at r = rc, we get

k  r   2k   k 
2
 + In   − 1 − 2 1 −  
d2 (Q / L)  hr  r1   hr   hr  
= −2π ( T1 − T∞ )  
dr 2
 1 k  r 

r = rc
 + r In   
 kr  h  r1   
r = rc

= −  2π ( T1 − T∞ ) h 2 / k  / [1 + 1n rc / r1 ]
2

Which is always a negative quantity. Thus, the optimum radius, rc = k/h will always
give a maximum heal loss and not a minimum.

2.10.8. An Expression for the Critical Thickness of Insulation for a Spherical Shell

Let us consider a spherical shell having an outer radius r1 and the temperature at that
surface T1 . Insulation is added such that the outermost radius of the shell is r, a variable. The
thermal conductivity of the insulating material, k, and the convective heat transfer coefficient at
the outer surface, h, and the ambient temperature T ∞ is constant. The rate of heat transfer
through the insulation on the spherical shell is given by

& =
Q
( T1 − T∞ )
( r − r1 ) / 4πk r r1 + 1/ h 4πr 2

&
dQ
=0=
(
4π ( T1 − T∞ ) 1/ kr 2 − 2 / hr 3 )
2
dr ( r − r1 ) / k r r1 + 1/ hr 2 
 

which gives, 1/Kr2 - 2/hr3 = 0;

or r = rc = 2 k/h (2.22)

2.10.9 Heat and Mass Transfer

Example 2.5 Hot gases at 175°C flow through a metal pipe (outer diameter 8 cm). The
convective heat transfer coefficient at the outside surface of the insulation (k = 0.18 W /mK) IS
2.6 W m1K and the ambient temperature IS 25°C. Calculate the insulation thickness such that
the heat loss is less than the uninsulated case.

Solution: (a) Pipe without Insulation

Neglecting the thermal resistance of the pipe wall and due to the inside convective heat
transfer coefficient, the temperature of the pipe surface would be 175°C.

& /L = h ×2 π r (T1-T ∞ ) = 2.6 ×2×3.14×.04{175-25) = 98 W/m (b) Pipe Insulated.


Q
Outermost Radius, r*

& /L = 98 = (T1-T ∞ ) /  1n ( r * / 4 ) +
Q
100 

 2π × 0.18 2.6 × 2π × r * 

150
or = 08841n (r*/4)+6.12/r*; which gives r* = 13.5 cm.
98

Therefore, the insulation thickness must be more than 9.5 cm.

(Since the critical thickness of insulation is rc = k/h = 0.18/2.6 = 6.92 cm, and is greater
than the radius of the bare pipe, the required insulation thickness must give a radius greater than
the critical radius.)
If the outer radius of the pipe was more than the critical radius, any addition of
insulating material will reduce the rate of heat transfer. Let us assume that the outer radius of the
pipe is 7 cm (r > rc)

& /L, without insulation = hA ( ∆ T) = 2.6 × 2 ×3.142 × 0.07× (175-25)


Q

= 171.55 W/m

By adding 4 cm thick insulation, outermost radius = 7.0 + 4.0 = 11.0 cm.

& /L= (175 - 25)/ 1n (11/ 7 ) + 1 


and Q   =133.58W/m.
 2π × 0.18 2.6π × 2 × 0.11 

171.55 − 133.58
Reduction in heat loss = = 0.22 or 22%.
171.55

Example 2.6 An electric conductor 1.5 mm in diameter at a surface temperature of


80°C is being cooled in air at 25°C. The convective heat transfer coefficient from the conductor
surface is 16W/m2K. Calculate the surface temperature of the conductor when it is covered with
a layer of rubber insulation (2 mm thick, k = 0.15 W /mK) assuming that the conductor carries
the same current and the convective heat transfer coefficient is also the same. Also calculate the
increase in the current carrying capacity of the conductor when the surface temperature of the
conductor remains at 80°C.

Solution: When there is no insulation,

& / L = hA ( ∆ T) = 16 × 2 × 3.142 × 0.75 × 10 - 3 = 4.147 W/m


Q

When the insulation is provided, the outermost radius = 0.75 + 2 = 2.75 mm

& / L = 4.147 = (T1-25) /  1n 2.75 / 0.75 +


Q
1000 
 
 2π × 0.15 16 × 2π × 2.75 

or T1 = 45.71oC

i.e., the temperature at the outer surface of the wire decreases because the insulation
adds a resistance.

The critical radius of insulation, r c = k/h = 0.15/16 = 9.375 mm

i.e., when an insulation of thickness (9.375 - 0.75) = 8.625 mm is added, the heat
transfer rate would be the maximum and the conductor can carry more current. The heat transfer
rate with outermost radius equal to rc = 9.375 mm

& /L = (80 - 25) /  1n 9.375 / 0.75 +


Q
1000 
  =14.7 W/m
 2π × 0.15 16 × 2π × 9.375 

The rate of heat transfer is proportional to (current)2, the new current I2 would be:

I2/I1 = (14.7 / 4.147)1/2 = 1.883

or, the current carrying capacity can be increased 1.883 times. But the maximum current
capacity of wire would be limited by the permissible temperature at the centre of the wire.

The surface temperature of the conductor when the outermost radius with insulation is
equal to the critical radius, is given by

& /L = 4.147 = (T-25/  1n 9.375 / 0.75 +


Q
1000 
 
 2 × 3.142 × 0.15 16 × 2 × 3.142 × 9.375 

or T = 40.83°C.
UNIT: II - CONVECTION
PART A - 2 Marks (Questions and Answers)

1. Define critical Reynolds number. What is its typical value for flow over a
flat plate and flow through a pipe? (May 2013, Nov/Dec 16)
The critical Reynolds number refers to the transition from laminar to
turbulent flow.
The critical Reynolds number for flow over a flat plate is 5*10 5; the critical
Reynolds number for flow through a pipe is 4000.

2. How does or Distinguish laminar flow differ from turbulent flow? (May
2013 & May 2015)
Laminar flow: Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this
type of flow, the fluid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth
continuous path. The fluid particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence
without mixing with each other.
Turbulent flow: In addition to the laminar type of flow, a distinct irregular
flow is frequently observed in nature. This type of flow is called turbulent flow.
The path of any individual particle is zig-zag and irregular.

Velocity

Turbulent flow

Laminar flow

Time
3. Differentiate viscous sub layer and buffer layer. (May 2014)
In the turbulent boundary layer, a very thin layer next to the wall where
viscous effect is dominant called the viscous sub layer. The velocity profile in this
layer is very nearly linear and the flow is streamlined.
In the turbulent boundary layer, next to viscous sub layer, a layer called
buffer layer in which turbulent effects are becoming significant, but the flow is
still dominated by viscous effects.

35
4. Define grashoff number and prandtl number. Write its significance. (May
2014 & Nov 2014 & Nov 2015-Reg 2008)(Nov 2015) (APR/MAY 2017)
Grashoff number is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and
buoyancy force to the square of viscous force.
Gr = Inertia Force * Buoyancy Force [HMT Data Book, P.No 112]
(Viscous Force)2
Significance: Grashoff number has a role in free convection similar to that
played by Reynolds number in forced convection.
Prandtl number is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity of the thermal
diffusivity.
Pr = Momentum Diffusivity [HMT Data Book, P.No. 112]
Thermal Diffusivity
Significance: Prandtl number provides a measure of the relative
effectiveness of the momentum and energy transport by diffusion.
5. Define velocity boundary layer thickness. (May 2015)
The region of the flow in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces
caused by fluid viscosity are felt is called velocity boundary layer. The velocity
boundary layer thickness, δ, is defined as the distance from the surface at which
velocity, u = 0.99V
6. Air at 27OC and 1 atmospheric flow over a flat plate at a speed of 2m/s.
Calculate boundary layer thickness at a distance 40 cm from leading edge of
plate. At 27OC viscosity (air) = 1.85 *10-5 kg/ms. (Nov 2012)
Given Data:
T = 27OC = 27+273 = 300K
P = 1 atm = 1 bar = 1.01325 * 105 N/m2
U = 2 m/s
µ = 1.85 *10-5 kg/ms. (At 27OC)
R = 287 (Gas constant)
To Find: δ at X = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Solution:
Step: 1 Density ρ = P/RT
= 1.01325 * 105
(287*300)

36
= 1.177 Kg/m3
(Note: If Surface temperature (T w) is given, then properties to be taken for T f
Value.)

Step: 2 Reynolds Number Re = ρUX/ µ [HMT Data Book, P.No. 112]


= 1.177*2*0.4
1.85 *10-5
= 55160. (Re < 5*105, flow is laminar)

Step: 3 Boundary layer thickness δ = 5* X * (Re)-0.5


[HMT Data Book, P.No.113]
= 5 * 0.4 * (55160)-0.5
= 0.0085 m

Boundary layer thickness δ at X (0.4m) = 0.0085 m

7. A square plate 40*40 cm maintained at 400K is suspended vertically in


atmospheric air at 300 K. Determine the boundary layer thickness at
trailing edge of the plate. (Nov 2012)
Given Data:
Length of horizontal plate X = 40 cm = 0.4m
Wide W = 40 cm = 0.40 m
Plate temperature Tw = 400K = 1270C
Fluid temperature Tα = 300K = 270C
ΔT = (Tw- Tα) = 400-300 = 100
To Find: δ at X = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Solution:
Step: 1 Film Temperature (Tf) = Tw+ Tα
2
= 127+27 = 770C = 350K
2
Step: 2 Properties of air at 77 0C (apprx 750C)
[HMT Data Book, P.No.34]

37
ν = 20.56 * 10-6 m2/s
Pr = 0.693
Step: 3 Find β = 1 / Tf in K
= 1 / 350
= 2.857 * 10-3 K-1
Step: 4 For free Convection (Note: As Velocity not given)
Gr = g* β*X3*ΔT [HMT Data Book, P.No.135]
ν2
= 9.81 * 2.857 * 10-3 * (0.4)3 * (400-300)
(20.56 * 10-6)2
= 4.24 * 108
Step: 5 Boundary layer thickness δ = 3.93 * X * (Pr)-0.5 * (0.952+Pr)0.25 * Gr-0.25
[HMT Data Book, P.No.135]
= 3.93 * 0.4 * (0.693) -0.5 * (0.952+0.693)0.25 * (4.24*108)-0.25
= 0.0155 m

Boundary layer thickness δ at X (0.4m) = 0.0155 m

8. Define the term thermal boundary layer thickness. (Nov 2013)


The thickness of the thermal boundary layer δt at any location along the
surface is defined as the distance from the surface at which the temperature
difference equals to 0.99(Tα-Ts), in general T=0.99Tα

9. Why heat transfer coefficient for natural convection is much lesser than
that for forced convection? (Nov 2013 & May 2016)
Heat transfer coefficient depends on the fluid velocity.
In natural convection, the fluid motion occurs by natural means such as
buoyancy. Since the fluid velocity associated with natural convection is relatively
low, the heat transfer coefficient encountered in natural convection is low.
The reason for higher heat transfer rates in forced convection is because
the hot air surrounding the hot body is immediately removed by the flow of air
around it. This is why forced convection heat transfer coefficient is greater than
natural convection heat transfer coefficient.

38
10. Name four dimensions used for dimensional analysis. (Nov 2014)
1. Velocity
2. Density
3. Heat transfer coefficient
4. Thermal conductivity

11. Mention the significance of boundary layer. (Nov 2015)


Boundary layer is the layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding
surface where the effects of viscosity are significant.
12. What is Dittus Boelter equation? When does it apply? (Nov 2015)
Dittus-Boelter equation (for fully developed internal flow - turbulent flow)
is an explicit function for calculating the Nusselt number. It is easy to solve but is
less accurate when there is a large temperature difference across the fluid. It is
tailored to smooth tubes, so use for rough tubes (most commercial applications)
is cautioned.
The Dittus-Boelter equation is:
NuD=0.023 ReD 0.8 Prn [HMT Data Book, P.No.126]
13. What is the difference between friction factor and friction coefficient?
(May 2016)
Friction factor, a dimensionless quantity used in the Darcy–Weisbach
equation, for the description of friction losses in pipe flow as well as open-
channel flow. Friction coefficient applied at the value of x (x=x-Local friction
coefficient, x=L – Average friction coefficient)
14. Differentiate free and forced convection. (May 2016) ( Nov/Dec 16)
Natural convection, or free convection, occurs due to temperature
differences which affect the density, and thus relative buoyancy, of the fluid. Free
convection is governed by Grashoff number and Prandtl number.
Example: Rise of smoke from a fire.
In forced convection, fluid movement results from external forces such as a
fan or pump. Forced convection is typically used to increase the rate of heat
exchange. It is governed by the value of the Reynolds number.
Example: Cooling of IC engines with fan in a radiator.

39
15. Differentiate hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer. (May 2016)
The hydrodynamic boundary layer is a region of a fluid flow, near a solid
surface, where the flow patterns (velocity) are directly influenced by viscous drag
from the surface wall. The velocity of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream
velocity.
The thermal boundary layer is a region of a fluid flow, near a solid surface,
where the fluid temperatures are directly influenced by heating or cooling from
the surface wall. The temperature of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream
temperature.
16. What are the difference between natural convection and forced

ww
convection? ( Nov/Dec 16)

w. E Natural convection is a mechanism of heat transportation in which the


fluid motion is not generated by an external source.

asy
Forced convection is a mechanism, or type of heat transport in which fluid motion
is generated by an external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.)
En
gi PART B - 13 Marks (Questions and Answers)

nee
1. Air at 250C at the atmospheric pressure is flowing over a flat plat at 3m/s.

following at a location of 1m from leading edge. r


If the plate is 1m wide and the temperature T w = 750C. Calculate the

ing
a) Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
.ne
b)
c)
d)
Local friction coefficient,
Thermal heat transfer coefficient,
Local heat transfer coefficient.
t
Given Data:
Fluid temperature, Tα =250C
Velocity, U=3m/s
Wide, W = 1m
Plate surface temperature, Tw=750C
Distance, x = 1m
To Find: δhx , Cfx, δTx , hx ,

40
Solution: [From HMT Data Book, P.No.113]

Film temperature, Tf =

= 323K

Tf = 500C
Properties of air at 50 0C:
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.34]
Density, ρ =1.093kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity, v=17.95 x 10-6 m2/s
Prandtl number Pr=0.698
Thermal conductivity, k =0.02826 W/mk
Reynolds number, Re =UL/v [From HMT Data Book, P.No.112]
[∵x=L=1m]

=1.67*105

Re=1.67*105<5*105
Since Re=<5*105 flow is laminar.
For the plate, laminar flow.
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.113 ]
1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,
δhx =5*x* Re-0.5
=5*x* (1.67*105)-0.5
δhx =0.0122m

2. Local friction coefficient, [From HMT Data Book, P.No.113 ]

Cfx, =0.664 Re-0.5


=0.664*(1.67*105)-0.5
Cfx, =1.62*10-3

3. Thermal heat transfer coefficient,


[From HMT Data Book, P.No.113]

41
δTx = δhx * (Pr)-0.333
=0.0122*(0.698)-0.333

δTx =0.01375

4. Local heat transfer coefficient, hx


[From HMT Data Book, P.No.113]
Local nusselt number Nux = 0.332 Re0.5 (Pr)0.333
= 0.332 (1.67*105)0.5 (0.698)0.333
Nux = 120.415
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.112]

Nux=

120.415= [∵x=L=1m]

Local heat transfer coefficient, hx =3.4W/m2K

Result:
a) δhx =0.0122m
b) Cfx, =1.62*10-3
c) δTx =0.01375
d) h =3.4W/m2K

2. Air at 290C flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 6 m/s. The plate is 1m
long and 0.5 m wide. The pressure of the air is 6 KN/m2. If the plate is
maintained at a temperature of 70C, estimate the rate of heat removed
from the plate.
Given:
Fluid temperature T = 290C
Velocity U = 6 m/s.
Length L = 1 m
Wide W= 0.5 m
Pressure of air P = 6 KN/m2  6  103 N/ m2
42
Plate surface temperature T w = 70C
To find:
Heat removed from the plate
Solution: [From HMT Data Book, P.No.113]

Film temperature Tf =

Tf =

Tf=180C
Properties of air at 180C (At atmospheric pressure)
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.34]
  0.799 Kg/m3
 = 32.49  10-6 m2 / s
Pr  0.681
K  37.80  10-3 W/mK
Note: Pressure other than atmospheric pressure is given, so kinematic viscosity
will vary with pressure. Pr, K, Cp are same for all pressures.

Kinematic viscosity

[∵1 bar=1×105N/m2]

Kinematic viscosity =5.145×10-4m2/s


[From HMT Data Book, P.No.112]

Reynolds number Re=

Re = 1.10×104-5×105
Since Re<5×105,flow is laminar
For plate, laminar flow, UL ν
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.113]
Local nusselt number Nux =0.332 Re0.5 (Pr)0.333
=0.332 (1.10×104)0.5 (0.681)0.333

43
Nux=30.63
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.112]

NUx=

hx  1
30.63  [  L = 1 m]
37.80  103
Local heat transfer coefficient hx =1.15 W/m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2hx
h = 21.15
h = 2.31W/m2K
Heat transferred Q= h A (Tα -Tw)
=2.13×(1×0.5)× (563-343)
Q=254.1W
Heat transfer from both side of the plate = 2  254.1
= 508.2 W.

Result: Heat transfer from both side of the plate = 508.2 W


3. A large vertical plate 4 m height is maintained at 606C and exposed to
atmospheric air at 106C. Calculate the heat transfer is the plate is 10 m
wide.
Given :
Vertical plate length (or) Height, L = 4 m
Wall temperature, Tw = 606C
Air temperature, T = 106C
Wide, W = 10 m
To find:
a) Heat transfer, (Q)
Solution: [From HMT Data Book, P.No.113]

Film temperature Tf =

Tf =356C

44
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.34 ]
Properties of air at 356C = 350C
Density, ρ =0.566kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity, v=55.46 x 10-6 m2/s
Prandtl number Pr=0.698
Thermal conductivity, k =49.08 x 10-3W/mk

Coefficient of thermal expansion β =

1 1
 
356  273 629
 = 1.58  10-3K 1
g    L3  T
Grashof number Gr =
v2
9.81 2.4  10-3  (4)3  (606  106)
 Gr =
(55.46  10 6 )2

 Gr = 1.61  1011
Gr Pr = 1.61  1011  0.676
Gr Pr = 1.08  1011
Since Gr Pr > 109, flow is turbulent
For turbulent flow,
Nusselt number Nu = 0.10 [Gr Pr] 0.333
 Nu = 0.10 [1.08  1011]0.333
Nu = 471.20
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.112]
hL
Nusselt number Nu 
K
h 4
 472.20 =
49.08  10-3
Heat transfer coefficient h = 5.78 W/m2K
Heat transfer Q = h A T
=h× W × L× (Tw - T )
=5.78×10×4× (606-106)
Q =115600 W

45
Q =115.6×103 W

Result:
Heat transfer Q=115.6×103 W

4. A thin 100 cm long and 10 cm wide horizontal plate is maintained at a


uniform temperature of 150C in a large tank full of water at 75C. Estimate
the rate of heat to be supplied to the plate to maintain constant plate
temperature as heat is dissipated from either side of plate.

Given :
Length of horizontal plate, L = 100 cm = 1m
Wide, W = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Plate temperature, Tw = 150C
Fluid temperature, T = 75C
To find:
a) Heat loss (Q) from either side of plate

Solution:

Film temperature, Tf = [From HMT Data Book, P.No.113]

= 323K

Tf = 112.50C
Properties of water at 112.5 0C
Ρ =951Kg/m3
V= 0.264×10-6 m2/s
Pr =1.55
K=683×10-3W/mK

Coefficient of thermal expansion β = = = 2.59×10-3k-1

46
g    L3  T
Grashof Number Gr =
v2
For horizontal plate,
W 0.10
Characteristic length L c  
2 2
Lc = 0.05 m

Gr=

Gr=3.41×109
GrPr=3.14×109×1.55
Gr Pr = 5.29  109
Gr Pr value is in between 8  106 and 1011
i.e., 8  106 < Gr Pr < 1011
For horizontal plate, upper surface heated:
Nusselt number Nu = 0.15 (Gr Pr)0.333
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.114 ]
Nu = 0.15 (5.29×109)0.333
Nu =259.41
huLc
Nusselt number Nu =
K
hu  0.05
259.41 
683  10 3
hu = 3543.6 W/m2K

Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient h u = 3543.6 W/m2K


For horizontal plate, lower surface heated:
Nusselt number Nu = 0.27 [Gr Pr] 0.25
Nu = 0.27 [5.29× 109]0.25
Nu =72.8
[From HMT Data Book, P.No.113]

Nusselt number Nu =

72.8 =

72.8 =

47
= 994.6W/m2K
Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient h 1 = 994.6 W/m2K
Total heat transfer Q = (hu + h1)  A  T
= (hu + h1)  W  L  (Tw - T)
= (3543.6 + 994.6)  0.10  (150 – 75)
Q = 34036.5 W
Result:
Total heat transfer Q = 34036.5 W

5. Explain in detail about the boundary layer concept.


The concept of a boundary layer as proposed by prandtl forms the starting
point for the simplification of the equation of motion and energy.
When a real i.e., viscous fluid, flow along a stationary solid boundary, a layer of
fluid which comes in contact with boundary surface and undergoes retardation
this retarded layer further causes retardation for the adjacent layer of the fluid.
So small region is developed in the immediate vicinity of the boundary surface in
which the velocity of the flowing fluid increases rapidly from zero at boundary
surface and approaches the velocity of main stream.
Types of boundary layer
1. Velocity boundary layer (or)hydrodynamic boundary layer
2. Thermal boundary layer
Velocity boundary layer (or) hydrodynamic boundary layer
In the Velocity boundary layer, velocity of the fluid is less than 99% of free
steam velocity.
The fluid approaches the plate in x direction with uniform velocity u ∞. The
fluid particles in the fluid layer adjacent to the surface get zero velocity. This
motionless layer acts to retard the motion of particles in the adjoining fluid layer
as a result of friction between the particles of these two adjoining fluid layers at
two different velocities. This fluid layer then acts to retard the motion of particles
of next fluid layer and so on, until a distance y =d from the surface reaches, where

48
these effects become negligible and the fluid velocity u reaches the free stream
velocity u∞ as a result of frictional effects between the fluid layers.

Thermal boundary Layer:


In the Thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less than 99%
of free steam temperature.
If the fluid flowing on a surface has a different temperature than the
surface, the thermal boundary layer developed is similar to the velocity boundary
layer. Consider a fluid at a temperature T∞ flows over a surface at a constant
temperature Ts. The fluid particles in adjacent layer to the plate get the same
temperature that of surface. The particles exchange heat energy with particles in
adjoining fluid layers and so on. As a result, the temperature gradients are
developed in the fluid layers and a temperature profile is developed in the fluid
flow, which ranges from Ts at the surface to fluid temperature T∞ sufficiently far
from the surface in y direction.
Velocity boundary layer on a flat plate:
It is most essential to distinguish between laminar and turbulent boundary
layers. Initially, the boundary layer development is laminar as shown in figure for
the flow over a flat plate. Depending upon the flow field and fluid properties, at
some critical distance from the leading edge small disturbances in the flow begin
to get amplified, a transition process takes place and the flow becomes turbulent.
In laminar boundary layer, the fluid motion is highly ordered whereas the motion
in the turbulent boundary layer is highly irregular with the fluid moving to and
from in all directions. Due to fluid mixing resulting from these macroscopic
motions, the turbulent boundary layer is thicker and the velocity profile in
turbulent boundary layer is flatter than that in laminar flow.

49
Velocity boundary layer on a tube:
Laminar Boundary Layer Flow
The laminar boundary is a very smooth flow, while the turbulent boundary layer
contains swirls or "eddies." The laminar flow creates less skin friction drag than
the turbulent flow, but is less stable. Boundary layer flow over a wing surface
begins as a smooth laminar flow. As the flow continues back from the leading
edge, the laminar boundary layer increases in thickness.
Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow
At some distance back from the leading edge, the smooth laminar flow breaks
down and transitions to a turbulent flow. From a drag standpoint, it is advisable
to have the transition from laminar to turbulent flow as far aft on the wing as
possible, or have a large amount of the wing surface within the laminar portion of
the boundary layer. The low energy laminar flow, however, tends to break down
more suddenly than the turbulent layer.

Thermal boundary Layer on a flat plate:


Consider a fluid of uniform temperature Tα approaching a flat plate of constant
temperature Ts in the direction parallel to the plate. At the solid/liquid interface

50
the fluid temperature is Ts since the local fluid particles achieve thermal
equilibrium at the interface. The fluid temperature T in the region near the plate
is affected by the plate, varying from Ts at the surface to Tα in the main stream.
This region is called the thermal boundary layer.

Velocity and Temperature boundary layer (Profile) for a vertical plate

51
6. In a long annulus (3.125 cm ID and 5 cm OD) the air is heated by
maintaining the temperature of the outer surface of inner tube at 50C. The
air enters at 16C and leaves at 32C. Its flow rate is 30 m/s. Estimate the
heat transfer coefficient between air and the inner tube.
Given : Inner diameter Di = 3.125 cm = 0.03125 m
Outer diameter Do = 5 cm = 0.05 m
Tube wall temperature Tw = 50C
Inner temperature of air Tmi = 16C
Outer temperature of air tmo = 32C
Flow rate U = 30 m/s
To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)
Solution:
Step 1. Mean temperature T m =

Tm = 24°C
Properties of air at 24°C [From HMT Data book page no. 34]
ρ = 1.185 Kg/m3
ν = 15.53 x 10-6 m2/s
Pr = 0.702
k = 0.02634 W/mK
Step 2. Hydraulic or Equivalent diameter

Dh = =

= Do - Di
= 0.05 – 0.03125
Dh = 0.01875 m
Step 3. Reynolds number, Re =

52
Re = 36.2 x 103
Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent.
For turbulent flow, general equation is (Re > 10000).
Nu = 0.023 (Re)0.8 (Pr)n
[From HMT Data book, Page No. 126]
This is heating process. So n = 0.4. [Tmo > Tmi]
Step 4. Nu = 0.023 x (36.2 X 103)0.8 (0.702)0.4

Nu = 88.59

Step 5. Nu =

88.59 =

h = 124.4 W/m2K

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 124.4 W/m 2K

7. In a surface condenser, water flows through staggered tubes while the air
is passed in cross flow over the tubes. The temperature and velocity of air
are 30°C and 8 m/s respectively. The longitudinal and transverse pitches
are 22 mm and 20 mm respectively. The tube outside diameter is 18 mm
and tube surface temperature is 90°C. Calculate the heat transfer
coefficient.

Given:
Fluid temperature, T∞ = 30°C
Velocity, U = 8 m/s
Longitudinal pitch, Sl = 22 mm = 0.022 mm
Transverse pitch, St = 20 mm = 0.020 m
Diameter, D = 18 mm = 0.018 m
Tube surface temperature, Tw = 90°C

53
To find:
Step 1. Heat transfer coefficient.

Solution:
We know that,
Film temperature, Tf =

Tf = 60°C
Properties of air at 60°C
[From HMT data book, Page No. 34]
ν = 18.97 x 10-6 m2/s
Pr = 0.696
K = 0.02896 W/mK
Step 2. Maximum velocity, Umax = U x

Umax = 8 x

Umax = 80 m/s
Step 3. Reynolds Number, Re =

Re = 7.5 x 104
= = 1.11

= 1.11

= = 1.22

= 1.22

= 1.11, = 1.22, corresponding C, n values are 0.518 and 0.556 respectively.

[From HMT data book, page No. 123 ]

54
C = 0.518 n = 0.556

Step 4. Nusselt Number, Nu = 1.13 (Pr)0.333 [ C (Re)n]


[From HMT data dook, Page No. 123 ]
Nu = 1.13x(0.696)0.333x[ 0.518 x (7.5 x 104)0.556]

Nu = 266.3

Step 5. Nusselt Number, Nu =

266.3 =

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 428.6 W/m2 K

8. A thin 100 cm long and 10 cm wide horizontal plate is maintained at a


uniform temperature of 150ºC in a large tank full of water at 75 ºC. Estimate
the rate of heat to be supplied to the plate to maintain constant plate
temperature as heat is dissipated from either side of plate.
Given:
Length of horizontal plate L = 100 cm = 1m
Wide W = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Plate temperature Tw = 150ºC
Fluid temperature T∞ = 75ºC

To find: Heat loss (Q) from either side of plate:


Solution:
Step 1. Film temperature, Tf =

Tf = 112.5ºC
Properties of water at 112.5ºC:
[From HMT data book, Page No. 22]
ρ = 951 Kg/m3
ν = 0.264 x 10-6 m2/s

55
Pr = 1.55
k = 0.683 W/mK
β(for water) = 0.8225 x 10-3 K-1
[From HMT data book, Page No. 30]

Step 2. Grashof Number, Gr =

For horizontal plate,


Characteristic length, Lc = =

Lc = 0.05 m

Gr =

Gr = 1.0853 x 109
GrPr = 1.0853 x 109 x 1.55
GrPr = 1.682 x 109
GrPr value is in between 8 x 106 and 1011
i.e., 8 x 106 < GrPr <1011
For horizontal plate, upper surface heated:
Step 3. Nusselt Number, Nu = 0.15 (GrPr)0.333
[From HMT data book, Page No. 136]
Nu = 0.15 [1.682 x 109]0.333
Nu = 177.13
Step 4. Nusselt Number, Nu =

177.13 =

hu = 2419.7 W/m2K
Upper surface heated, heat transfer coefficient
hu = 2419.7 W/m2K
For horizontal plate, lower surface heated:
Step 5. Nusselt Number Nu = 0.27 [GrPr]0.25
[From HMT data book, Page No. 136]
Nu = 0.27 [1.682 109]0.25
Nu = 54.68
Step 6. Nusselt Number, Nu =

56
54.68 =

hl = 746.94 W/m2K

Lower surface heated, heat transfer coefficient, hl = 746.94 W/m2K

Step 7. Total heat transfer, Q = (hu + hl) x A x ΔT


= (hu + hl) x W x L x (Tw - )
= (2419.7 + 746.94) X 0.10 X (150-75)
Heat transfer, Q = 23749.8 W

9. Atmospheric air at 275 K and a free stream velocity of 20 m/s flows over
a flat plate 1.5 m long that is maintained at a uniform temperature of 325 K.
Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient over the region where the
boundary layer is laminar, the average heat transfer coefficient over the
entire length of the plate and the total heat transfer rate from the plate to
the air over the length 1.5 m and width 1 m. Assume transition occurs at Re c
= 2 x 105.
Given: Fluid temperature, T∞ = 275 K = 2ºC
Velocity, U = 20 m/s
Length, L = 1.5 m
Plate surface temperature, Tw = 325 K = 52°C
Width, W = 1 m
Critical Reynolds number, Rec = 2 x 105

To find: 1. Average heat transfer coefficient, h l [Boundary layer is laminar]


2. Average heat transfer coefficient, ht [Entire length of the plate]

3. Total heat transfer rate, Q.


Solution:
Step 1. Film temperature, Tf =

57
Tf = 27ºC
Properties of air at 27ºC ≈ 25ºC
[From HMT data book, Page No. 34 ]
ρ = 1.185 Kg/m3
ν = 15.53 x 10-6 m2/s
Pr = 0.702
k = 0.02634 W/mK
Case (i): Reynolds number, Re =

Transition occurs at Rec = 2 x 105


ie., Flow is laminar upto Reynolds number value is 2 x 10 5, after that flow is
turbulent.
2 x 105 =

L = 0.155 m
For flat plate, laminar flow,
Step 2. Local Nusselt number, Nux = 0.332 (Re)0.5(Pr)0.333
[From HMT data book, Page No. 113]
Nux = 0.332 (2 x 105)0.5(0.702)0.333
Nux = 131.97

Step 3. Local Nusselt Number, Nux =

131.97 =

hx = 22.42 W/m2K

Local heat transfer coefficient, hx = 22.42 W/m2K


W/m2 K
Step 4. Average heat transfer coefficient, h = 2 x h x
= 2 x 22.42
= 44.84 W/m2K
Case (ii):
Step 5. Reynolds number, ReL [For entire length] =

= 1.93 x 106 5 x 106

58
Since ReL 5 x 105, flow is turbulent.
For flat plate, laminar-turbulent combined flow,
Step 6. Average Nusselt number, Nu = (Pr)0.333 [0.037 (ReL)0.8-871]
Nu = (0.702)0.333[0.037 (1.93 x 106)0.8-871]
Nu = 2737.18
Step 7. Nusselt number, Nu =

2737.18 =

h = 48.06 W/m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow, ht = 48.06 W/m2 K
W/m2 K W/m2 K

Step 8. Total heat transfer rate, Q = ht x A x


= ht x W x L x (Tw- T∞)
= 48.06 x 1 x 1.5 x (52-2)
Q = 3604.5 W
10. A steam pipe 10 cm outside diameter runs horizontally in a room at
23ºC. Take the outside surface temperature of pipe as 165 ºC. Determine the
heat loss per metre length of the pipe. [Dec 2004]

Given: Diameter of the pipe, D = 10 cm = 0.10 m


Ambient air temperature, T∞ = 23ºC
Wall temperature, T w = 165ºC
To find: Heat loss per metre length.
Solution:
Step 1. Film temperature, Tf =

Tf = 94ºC
Properties of air at 94ºC≈95ºC
[From HMT data book, Page No. 34]
ρ = 0.959 Kg/m3
ν = 22.615 x 10-6 m2/s

59
Pr = 0.689
k = 0.03169 W/mK
Step 2. Coefficient of thermal expansion, β =

= 2.72 X 10-3 K-1


β = 2.72 X 10-3 K-1
Step 3. Grashof Number, Gr =

[From HMT data book, Page No. 135]

Gr =

Gr = 7.40 x 106
GrPr = 7.40 x 106 x 0.689
GrPr = 5.09 x 106
For horizontal cylinder, Nusselt number, Nu = C
[From HMT data book, Page No. 138]
GrPr = 5.09 x 106, corresponding C = 0.48, and m = 0.25
Nu = 0.48 [5.09 x 106]0.25

Nu = 22.79

tep 4. Nusselt number, Nu =

22.79 =

h = 7.22 W/m2K
Step 5. Heat loss, Q = hA
= h x  DL(Tw-T∞)
= h x  x D x (Tw-T∞)

= 7.22 x  x 0.10 x (165 -23)


= 322.08 W/m

Heat loss per metre length, = 322.08 W/m

60
PART C – 15 Marks (Questions and Answers)
1. Consider the flow of oil at 20o C in a 30cm diameter pipeline at an
average velocity of 2 m/s. a 200m long section of the pipeline passes
through icy waters of a lake at 0o C. Measurements indicate that the
surface temperature of the pipe is very nearly 0 o C. Disregarding the
thermal resistance of the pipe material determine (a) the temperature
of the oil when the pipe leaves the lake, (b) the rate of heat transfer from
the oil, and (c) the pumping power required to overcome the pressure
losses and to maintain the flow of the oil in the pipe.

Solution
Oil flows in a pipeline that passes through icy waters of a lake at 0 0 C. The exit
temperature of the oil, the rate of heat loss, and the pumping power needed to
overcome pressure losses are to be determined.
Assumptions
1. Steady operating conditions exist. 2. The surface temperature of the pipe is
very nearly 0o C. 3. The thermal resistance of the pipe is negligible.4. The
inner surfaces of the pipeline are smooth. 5. The flow is hydrodynamically
developed when the pipeline reaches the lake.
Properties
We do not know the exit temperature of the oil, and thus we cannot determine
the bulk mean temperature, which is the temperature at which the properties of
oil are to be evaluated. The mean temperature of the oil at the inlet is 20°C, and
we expect this temperature to drop somewhat as a result of heat loss to the icy
waters of the lake. We evaluate the properties of the oil at the inlet temperature,
but we will repeat the calculations, if necessary, using properties at the evaluated
bulk mean temperature. At 20° C from HMT data book
888 kg/m3 901 m2/s
k = 0.145 W/m °C Cp =1880 J/kg _ °C
Pr = 10,400
=666

which is less than the critical Reynolds number of 2300. Therefore, the flow is

61
laminar, and we assume thermally developing flow and determine the nusselt
number from

= 3.66 + = 37.3

This nusselt number is considerably higher than the fully developed value of 3.66
then

h=

also we determine the exit temperature of air from


Te = Ts - (Ts - Ti) exp (-h As /m Cp)
here
As = PL = DL= (0.3 m)(200 m) =188.5 m2
·
m= V = (1.009 kg/m3)(0.15 m3/s) =0.151 kg/s

Substitute As and m in Te

Te = 60 - (60 - 80) exp (-13.5 6.4/0.151 1008) = 71.3


Then the logarithmic mean temperature difference and the rate of heat loss from
the air become
Tln= = -15.2°C

Q = h As Tln = (13.5 W/m2 °C)(6.4 m2)(-15.2°C) = -1313 W


Therefore, air will lose heat at a rate of 1313 W as it flows through the duct in the
attic.

2. In condenser water flows through two hundred thin walled circular


tubes having inner diameter 20mm and length 6 m. the mass flow rate of
water is 160 kg/s. the water enters at 30o C and leaves at 50 o C.
Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient.
Given :
Inner diameter D = 20mm
Length L = 6 m
Mass flow rate m = 160 kg/s

62
Inlet water temperature Tmi = 30 o C
Outlet water temperature, Tmo = 50 o C
To find: Heat transfer coefficient (h)
Solution:

Bulk mean temperature Tm = = °C

Properties of water at °C [ from HMT data boo page no 21]

ν = 0.657 x 10-6 m2/s


Pr = 4.340
k = 0.628 W/mK
Cp = 4178 J/kg K
Reynolds Number Re = UD/ ν
m=
Velocity U = m/

= = 2.55 m/s ( no of tubes = 200)

Re = UD/ ν
= =77625.57

Since Re 2300, flow is turbulent


For turbulent flow, general equation is ( R e > 10000)
Nu = 0.023 [ from HMT data boo page no 125]
This is heating process so n = 0.4 (
Nu = 0.023
Nu = 337.8
Nu =

337.8 =

Heat transfer coefficient h = 10606.9 w/m2K

63

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