ME501 L1 Stress Oct 2018

Lecture Title: Stresses University Of Technology
Lecture Notes on Theory of Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department
Lecture Notes on Theory of Elasticity

(2018-2019)
Lecture Notes By:
Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah
References
1- Timoshenkeno S.P., and Goodier J.N., Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill
(1970).
2- Ugural A.C., and Fenster S.K., Advanced Strength and Applied Elasticity,
Prentice Hall (2003)
3- Shames, I.H., Mechanics of Deformable Solids, Krieger Publishing Company
(1983).
4- Sokolnikoff I.S., Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Krieger Publishing
Company (1983).
1

STRESSES
Definition of Stress: Consider a body in equilibrium subject to a system of external

forces, as shown in Figure 1. Under the action of these forces, internal forces will be
developed within the body. To examine the latter at some interior point Q, we use an
imaginary plane to cut the body at a section a-a through Q, dividing the body into
two parts. As the forces acting on the entire body are in equilibrium, the forces acting
on one part alone must be in equilibrium.
Figure 1: (a) Sectioning of a body; (b) free body with internal forces; (c) enlarged
area A with components of the force F.
The molecular structure of elastic bodies will not be considered here. It will be
assumed that the matter of an elastic body is homogeneous and continuously
distributed over its volume so that the smallest element cut from the body possesses
the same specific physical properties as the body. To simplify the discussion it will
also be assumed that the body is isotropic, i.e., that the elastic properties are the same
in all directions.
2

Figure 1b shows the isolated left part of the body. Decomposing F into
components parallel to x, y, and z (Figure 1c), we define the normal stress x and the
shearing stress xy and xz as,
Δ𝐹𝑥 d𝐹𝑥 Δ𝐹𝑦 d𝐹𝑦 Δ𝐹𝑧 d𝐹𝑧

𝜎𝑥 = lim = , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = lim = , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = lim =
Δ𝐴→0 Δ𝐴 d𝐴 Δ𝐴→0 Δ𝐴 d𝐴 Δ𝐴→0 Δ𝐴 d𝐴
Components of Stress: Stress Tensor
The general case of a three-dimensional state of stress is shown in Figure 2. Consider

the stresses to be identical at points Q and Q' and uniformly distributed on each face,
represented by a single vector acting at the center of each face. In accordance with
the foregoing, a total of nine scalar stress components define the state of stress at a
point. The stress components can be assembled in the following matrix form, wherein
each row represents the group of stresses acting on a plane passing through Q(x, y, z):
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜏𝑥𝑧
[𝜎] = [𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦𝑧 ]
𝜏𝑧𝑥 𝜏𝑧𝑦 𝜎𝑧
The double subscript notation is interpreted as follows: The first subscript indicates
the direction of a normal to the plane or face on which the stress component acts; the
second subscript relates to the direction of the stress itself. A face or plane is usually
identified by the axis normal to it; for example, the x faces are perpendicular to the x
axis.
Figure 2: Stress components

3

Sign Convention
Referring again to Figure 2, we observe that both stresses labeled 𝜏𝑦𝑥 tend to twist
the element in a clockwise direction. It would be convenient, therefore, if a sign
convention were adopted under which these stresses carried the same sign. Applying
a convention relying solely on the coordinate direction of the stresses would clearly
not produce the desired result, inasmuch as the 𝜏𝑦𝑥 stress acting on the upper surface
is directed in the positive x direction, while 𝜏𝑦𝑥 acting on the lower surface is directed
in the negative x direction. The following sign convention, which applies to both
normal and shear stresses, is related to the deformational influence of a stress and is
based on the relationship between the direction of an outward normal drawn to a
particular surface and the directions of the stress components on the same surface.
When both the outer normal and the stress component face in a positive direction
relative to the coordinate axes, the stress is positive. When both the outer normal and
the stress component face in a negative direction relative to the coordinate axes, the
stress is positive. When the normal points in a positive direction while the stress
points in a negative direction (or vice versa), the stress is negative. In accordance
with this sign convention, tensile stresses are always positive and compressive
stresses always negative. Figure 2 depicts a system of positive normal and shear
stresses.
Equality of Shearing Stresses
We now examine properties of shearing stress by studying the equilibrium of forces

acting on the cubic element shown in Figure2. As the stresses acting on opposite
faces (which are of equal area) are equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction,
translational equilibrium in all directions is assured; that is, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0, and
∑ 𝐹𝑧 = 0. Rotational equilibrium is established by taking moments of the x-,y-, and z-
directed forces about point Q,
∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0: (−𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑥 + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑦 = 0

4

Simplifying,
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥
Similarly, ∑ 𝑀𝑦 = 0 and ∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0, we have
𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 and 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦
Some Special Cases of Stress
Under particular circumstances, the general state of stress (Figure2) reduces to

simpler stress states as briefly described here. These stress, which are commonly
encountered in practice,
1. Triaxial Stress. In this kind of state of stress the element is subjected to three
stresses acting in mutually perpendicular directions is said to be in a state of
triaxial stress. Such a state of stress can be written as,
𝜎𝑥 0 0
[0 𝜎𝑦 0]
0 0 𝜎𝑧
The absence of shearing stresses indicates that the preceding stresses are the
principal stresses for the element. A special case of triaxial stress, known as
spherical or dilatational stress, occurs if all principal stresses are equal.
Equa1triaxial tension is sometimes called hydrostatic tension.
2. Two-dimensional or Plane Stress. In this case, only the x and y faces of the
element are subjected to stress, and all the stresses act parallel to the x and y
axes as shown in Figure 3a.The plane stress matrix is written
𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥𝑦
[𝜏 𝜎𝑦 ]
𝑦𝑥
3. Pure Shear. In this case, the element is subjected to plane shearing stresses
only, for example, 𝜏𝑦𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (Figure 3c). Typical pure shear occurs over the
cross sections and on longitudinal planes of a circular shaft subjected to
torsion.
4. Uniaxial Stress. When normal stresses act along one direction only, the one
5
dimensional state of stress is referred to as a uniaxial tension or compression.

Figure3:(a) Element in plane stress; (b) two-dimensional presentation of plane stress;

(c) element in pure shear.
Variation of Stress within a Body

The components of stress generally vary from point to point in a stressed body. These
variations are governed by the condition of equilibrium of statics. Fulfillment of
these conditions establishes certain relationships, known as the differential equations
of equilibrium, which involve the derivatives of the stress components.
Consider a two dimensional thin element of sides dx and dy shown in Figure 4.

Note that because the element is very small, for the sake of simplicity, the stress
components may be considered to be distributed uniformly over each face. As we
move from one point to another, for example, from the lower-left corner to the
upper-right corner of the element, one stress component, say x, acting on the
negative x face, changes in value on the positive x face. The stresses y, xy and yx
similarly change. The variation of stress with position may be expressed by a
truncated Taylor's expansion:
𝜕𝜎𝑥
𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑥
6

Figure 4: Element with stresses and body forces.

Consider now the equilibrium of an element of unit thickness, taking moments of
force about the lower-left corner. Thus, ∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0 yields;
𝜕𝜎𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦

( 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦) −( 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦) + (𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
− (𝜏𝑦𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 =0
𝜕𝑦 2 2
Neglecting the triple products involving dx and dy, this reduces to 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 . In a
like manner, it may be shown that 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 as already obtained before.
From the equilibrium of x forces, ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0,
𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦
(𝜎𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑦 + (𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Simplify the above equation leads to;
𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Similarly, from the equilibrium of y forces yield to the equation of equilibrium in y

direction;
𝜕𝜎𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦
+ + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
The differential equations of equilibrium for the case of three-dimensional stress may
be generalized from the preceding expressions as follows:
7

𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧

+ + + 𝐹𝑥 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜎𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧 𝜕𝜏𝑦𝑧 𝜕𝜎𝑧
+ + + 𝐹𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
A succinct representation of these expressions, on the basis of the range and

summation conventions, may be written as
𝜕𝜏𝑖𝑗
+ 𝐹𝑖 = 0, 𝑖, 𝑗 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧
𝜕𝑥𝑗
Two-Dimensional Stress at a Point

A two-dimensional state of stress exists when the stresses and body forces are
independent of one of the coordinates, e.g. z-axis. Such a state is described by
stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 and the coordinates x and y and body forces. Two-
dimensional problems are of two classes: plane stress and plane strain.
Consider now determining the equations for transformation of the stress
components𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 at any point of a body represented by an infinitesimal
element, as shown in Figure 5a. For the current analysis an infinitesimal wedge is cut
from the loaded body shown in Figure 5b.
Equilibrium of forces in the x and y directions requires that
𝑝𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃
(1)
𝑝𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 sin 𝜃
where 𝑝𝑥 and 𝑝𝑦 are the components of stress resultant acting on AB in the x and y
directions, respectively. The normal and shear stresses on AB plane can be written in
the x' and y' directions as:
𝜎𝑥′ = 𝑝𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝑝𝑦 sin 𝜃
(2)
𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ = 𝑝𝑦 cos 𝜃 − 𝑝𝑥 sin 𝜃
8

Figure 5: Element in plane stress.

Substitute equations (1) into equations (2),
𝜎𝑥′ = 𝜎𝑥 cos 2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 sin2 𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

(3a)
𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃) + (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥 ) sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
The stress 𝜎𝑦′ can be obtained by substituting 𝜃 +𝜋/2 for  in the expression for 𝜎𝑥′ ,
𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑥 sin2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 cos 2 𝜃 − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 (3b)
Equations (3) may be further simplified using the following trigonometric identities,
1 1
cos 2 𝜃 = (1 + cos 2𝜃), sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin 2𝜃 , and
2 2
1
sin2 𝜃 = (1 − cos 2𝜃)
2
The transformation equations for stress now become,

1 1
𝜎𝑥′ = (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) + 2 (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 (4a)
2
1
𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ = − (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) sin 2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 cos 2𝜃 (4b)
2
1 1
𝜎𝑦′ = (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 ) − 2 (𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 ) cos 2𝜃 − 𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 2𝜃 (4c)
2
9

The above expressions permit the computation of stresses acting on all possible
planes AB.
The maximum normal stresses can be obtained via differentiating equation (4a) with
respect to  and equating to zero, i.e. 𝑑𝜎𝑥′ /𝑑𝜃 = 0, which yields to
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃 = (5)
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
Substituting equation (5) into equation (4a):
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 2
𝜎1,2 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (6)
2 2
The plane of zero shear may be found by equating eq. (4b) to zero, this yields to,
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2𝜃 = (7)
It is clear that equation (5) and equation (7) are identical, this means that the planes
of maximum and minimum normal stresses are the same planes for the zero shear,
therefore, equations (6) represents principal stresses.
Similarly, the maximum shearing stresses is obtained via differentiating equation

(4b) with respect to  and equating to zero, i.e. 𝑑𝜏𝑥′𝑦′ /𝑑𝜃 = 0, which yields to
tan 2𝜃 = − (8)
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
Substituting equation (8) into equation (4b), the maximum shearing stress is
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 2 1
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ± √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = ± (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 ) (9)
2 2
10

Example (HW)
Q1. A thin-walled pressure vessel is subjected to an internal pressure of 1.38 MPa and
a torque of 2.26 kNm, as shown in the figure. The thickness and mean radius of the
vessel are 2.5 mm and 100 mm. Determine the principal stresses and principle angle
with respect to the x-axis (the axial axis) at point A.
Q2. The steel pipe of 500-mm outer diameter

(Figure 1) is fabricated by forming an 8-
mm thick strip into a 30° helix and
welding the joints. Compute the normal
stress acting across the weld caused by the
axial and torsional loads shown.
Figure 1
Q2. The compressed-air tank AB, Figure 2,

has an inner diameter of 450 mm and a
uniform wall thickness of 6 mm. Knowing
that the gage pressure inside the tank is
1.2 MPa, determine the maximum normal
stress and the maximum in-plane shearing
stress at point b on the top of the tank. Figure 2
11

Mohr’s Circle for Two-Dimensional Stress

A graphical technique, based on equations (4), permits the rapid transformation of
stress from one plane to another and leads also to the determination of the maximum
normal and shear stress. In this method, equations (4) are represented graphically by
a stress circle, called Mohr's circle. However, for the purposes only of constructing
and reading values of stress from Mohr's circle, the sign convention for shear stresses
as follows: If the shearing stresses on opposite faces of an element would produce
shearing forces that result in a clockwise couple, as shown in Figure 6c, these stresses
are regarded as positive. Accordingly, the shearing stresses on the y faces of the
element in Figure 6a are taken as positive, but those on the x faces are now negative.
Figure 6: (a) Stress element; (b) Mohr's circle of stress; (c) interpretation of positive
shearing stresses.
The procedure for obtaining Mohr's circle, Figure 6b, is as follows:
1. Establish a rectangular coordinate system, indicating + and +. Both

stressscales must be identical.
1
2. Locate the center C of the circle on the horizontal axis a distance (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
2
from the origin.

12

3. Locate point A by coordinates 𝜎𝑥 and −𝜏𝑥𝑦 . These stresses may correspond to

any face of an element such as in Figure 6a. It is usual to specify the stresses
on the positive x face, however.
4. Draw a circle with center at C and of radius equal to CA.
5. Draw line AB through C.
The angles on the circle are measured in the same direction as e is measured in Figure
6a. An angle of 2 on the circle corresponds to an angle of  on the element. The
state of stress associated with the original x and y planes corresponds to points A and
B on the circle, respectively. Points lying on diameters other than AB, such as A' and
B', define states of stress with respect to any other set of x' and y' planes rotated
relative to the original set through an angle . It is clear that points A1and B1on the
circle locate the principal stresses, while D and E represent the maximum shearing
stresses.
Three-Dimensional Stress Transformation
Equations governing the transformation of stress in the three dimensional case may
be obtained by the use of a similar approach to that used forthe two-dimensional state
of stress.
Consider a small tetrahedron isolated from a continuous medium, Figure 7,

subject to a general state of stress. The body forces are taken to be negligible. In the
figure, px ,py and pz are the Cartesian components of stress resultant p acting on
oblique plane ABC. It is required to relate the stresses on the perpendicular planes
intersecting at the origin to the normal and shear stresses on ABC.
The orientation of plane ABC may be defined in terms of the angles between a
unit normal n to the plane and the x, y, and z directions (Figure 7b). The direction
cosines associated with these angles are
cos 𝛼 = cos(𝒏, 𝑥) = 𝑙
cos 𝛽 = cos(𝒏, 𝑦) = 𝑚 (10)
13
cos 𝛾 = cos(𝒏, 𝑧) = 𝑛
The three direction cosines for the n direction are related by

𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 = 1 (11)
Figure 7. Stress components on a tetrahedron.

The area of the perpendicular plane QAB, QAC, QBC may now be expressed in terms
of A, the area of ABC, and the direction cosines:
The other two areas are similarly obtained. In so doing, we have altogether
Next, from the equilibrium ofx, y, z-directed forces together with the above equations,
we obtain, after canceling A,
(12)
The stress resultant on A is thus determined on the basis of known state of stresses
and knowledge of the orientation of A. In the limit as the sides of the tetrahedron
approach zero, plane A contains point Q. It is thus demonstrated that the stress
resultant at a point is specified. This in turn gives the stress components acting on any
14

three mutually perpendicular planes passing through Q as shown next. Although

perpendicular planes have been used there for convenience, these planes need not be
perpendicular to define the stress at a point.
Consider now a Cartesian coordinate system x, y, z, wherein xcoincides with n and
y, zlie on an oblique plane. The xyz, and xyz systems are related by the direction
cosines:𝑙1 = cos(𝑥′, 𝑥),𝑚1 = cos(𝑥′, 𝑦), 𝑙2 = cos(𝑦′, 𝑥),𝑚2 = cos(𝑦′, 𝑦) and so on.
The normal stress 𝜎𝑥′ is found by projecting px, py and pz in the 𝑥′direction and adding
(13)
From equation (12) and (13),
(14)
Similarly, by projecting px ,py and pz in the 𝑦′and 𝑧 ′ directions, we obtain,respectively,
(15)
The remaining stress components are as follows:
(16)
 PRINCIPAL STRESSES IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Forthe three-dimensional case, it is now demonstrated that three planes of zero shear
stress exist, that these planes are mutually perpendicular, and that on these planes the
normal stresses have maximum or minimum values. As has been discussed, these
15

normal stresses are referred to as principal stresses, usually denoted𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 . The
algebraically largest stress is represented by𝜎1 , and the smallest by𝜎3 : 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 >𝜎3 .
We begin by again considering an oblique xplane. The normal stress acting on this
plane is given by equation (14)
(17)
The problem at hand is the determination of extreme or stationary values of 𝜎𝑥′ to

accomplish this; we examine the variation of 𝜎𝑥′ relative to the direction
cosines.Inasmuch as l, m, and n are not independent, but connected by𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 +
𝑛2 = 1only l and m may be regarded as independent variables. Thus,
(18)
Differentiating equation (17) as indicated by equation (18), we obtain
(19)
From 𝑛2 = 1 − 𝑙 2 − 𝑚2 , we have𝜕𝑛/𝜕𝑙 = −𝑙/𝑛and 𝜕𝑛/𝜕𝑚 = −𝑚/𝑛.

Introducingthese into equation (19), the following relationships between the
components of p and n are determined:
(20)
These proportionalities indicate that the stress resultant must be parallel to the unit
normal and therefore contains no shear component. It is concluded that, on a plane
for which 𝜎𝑥′ has an extreme or principal value, a principal plane, the shearingstress
vanishes.
It is now shown that three principal stresses and three principal planes exist. Denoting
the principal stresses by 𝜎𝑝 equation (20) may be written as
(21)
16

These expressions, together with equation (12), lead to
(22)
A nontrivial solution for the direction cosines requires that the characteristic
determinant vanish:
(23)
Expanding equation (23) leads to
(24)
where
(25a)
(25b)
(25c)
The three roots of the stress cubic equation (24) are the principal stresses,
corresponding to which are three sets of direction cosines, which establish the
relationship of the principal planes to the origin of the non-principal axes. The
principal stresses are the characteristic values or eigenvalues of the stress tensor 𝜏𝑖𝑗 .
Since the stress tensor is a symmetric tensor whose elements are all real, it has real
eigenvalues. That is, the three principal stresses are real. The direction cosines l, m,
and n are the eigenvectors of 𝜏𝑖𝑗 .
17

It is clear that the principal stresses are independent of the orientation of the
original coordinate system. It follows from Eq. (24) that the coefficients 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and
𝐼3 must likewise be independent of x, y, and z, since otherwise the principal stresses
would change. Thus, the coefficients 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 and 𝐼3 representthree invariants of the
stress tensor in three dimensions or, briefly, the stress invariants.
 NORMAL AND SHEAR STRESSES ON AN OBLIQUE PLANE

A cubic element subjected to principal stresses 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 and 𝜎3 acting on mutually
perpendicular principal planes is called in a state of triaxial stress, as shown in Figure
8. In the figure, the x, y, and z axes are parallel to the principal axes. It is sometimes
required to determine the shearing and normal stresses acting on an arbitrary oblique
plane of a tetrahedron, as in Figure 8b, given the principal stresses or triaxial stresses
acting on perpendicular planes. In the figure, the x, y, and z axes are parallel to the
principal axes. Denoting the direction cosines of plane ABC by l, m, and n, Eqs. (12)
with𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎1 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 0 and so on, reduce to
(26)
Figure 8. Elements in triaxial stress.
Referring to Figure 8 and equation (26), the stress resultant p is related to the
principal stresses and the stress components on the oblique plane by the expression
(27)
18

The normal stress 𝜎 on this plane, from Eq. (14), is found as
(28)
Substitution of this expression into Eq. (27) leads to
or
(29)
Expanding and using the expressions 1 − 𝑙 2 = 𝑛2 + 𝑚2 and 1 − 𝑛2 = 𝑙 2 + 𝑚2 so

on, the following result is obtained for the shearing stress on the oblique plane:
(30)
This clearly indicates that if the principal stresses are all equal, the shear stress
vanishes, regardless of the choices of the direction cosines.
For situations in which shear as well as normal stresses act on perpendicular planes
(Figure 8b), we have px, py and pz defined by Eqs. (12). Then, Eq. (28) becomes
(31)
Hence,
(32)
where is given by Eq. (31). Formulas (28) through (42) represent the simplified
transformation expressions for the three-dimensional stress.
It is interesting to note that substitution of the direction cosines from Eqs. (26) into
Eq. (11) leads to
19

(33)
which is a stress ellipsoid having its three semi-axes as the principal stresses (Fig. 9).
This geometrical interpretation helps to explain the earlier conclusion that the
principal stresses are the extreme values of the normal stress. In the event that a state
of hydrostatic stress exists, and the stress ellipsoid becomes a sphere. In this case,
note again that any three mutually perpendicular axes can be taken as the principal
axes.
Figure 9. Stress ellipsoid.
 OCTAHEDRAL STRESSES
The stresses acting on an octahedral plane is represented by face ABC in Figure 8b
with QA = QB = QC. The normal to this oblique face thus has equal direction cosines
relative to the principal axes. Since 𝑚2 + 𝑛2 + 𝑙 2 = 1, we have
(34)
Plane ABC is clearly one of eight such faces of a regular octahedron (Fig. 10).
Equations (30) and (34) are now applied to provide an expression for the octahedral
shearing stress, which may be rearranged to the form
(35)
Through the use of Eqs. (28) and (34), we obtain the octahedral normal stress:
20

(36)
The normal stress acting on an octahedral plane is thus the average of the principal
stresses, the mean stress. The orientations of octahedral normal and shear stresses are
indicated in Fig. 10. That the normal and shear stresses are the same for the eight
planes is a powerful tool for failure analysis of ductile materials.
Figure 10. Stresses on an octahedron.
 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN TERMS OF SURFACE FORCES
Consider now the relationship between the stress components and the given surface
forces acting on the boundary of a body. The equations of equilibrium must be
satisfied within a body. The distribution of stress in a body must also be such as to
accommodate the conditions of equilibrium with respect to externally applied forces.
The external forces may thus be regarded as a continuation of the internal stress
distribution.
Consider the equilibrium of the forces acting on the tetrahedron shown

inFigure7b, and assume that oblique face ABC is coincident with the surface of the
body. The components of the stress resultant p are thus now the surface forces per
unit area, or surface tractions. The equations of equilibrium for this element,
representing boundary conditions, are,
21

(*)
For example, if the boundary is a plane with an x-directed surface normal, Eqs. (*)
give 𝑝𝑥 = 𝜎𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝑝𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 ; under these circumstances, the applied surface
force components 𝑝𝑥 , 𝑝𝑦 and 𝑝𝑧 are balanced by 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜏𝑥𝑧 , respectively.
It is of interest to note that, instead of prescribing the distribution of surface forces

on the boundary, the boundary conditions of a body may also be given in terms of
displacement components. Furthermore, we may be given boundary conditions that
prescribe surface forces on one part of the boundary and displacements on another.
When displacement boundary conditions are given, the equations of equilibrium
express the situation in terms of strain, through the use of Hooke’s law and
subsequently in terms of the displacements by means of strain–displacement
relations. It is usual in engineering problems, however, to specify the boundary
conditions in terms of surface forces rather than surface displacements.
 MOHR’S CIRCLES IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Consider a wedge shown in Figure 11, cut from the cubic element subjected to
triaxial stresses, the only stresses on the inclined x face (parallel to the z axis) are the
normal stress 𝜎𝑥 and the shear stress 𝜏𝑥𝑦 acting in the xy plane. Inasmuch as the
foregoing stresses are determined from force equilibrium equations in the xy plane,
they are independent of the stress 𝜎3 . Thus, the transformation equations of plane
stress and Mohr’s circle can be employed to obtain the stresses 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦 . The
foregoing conclusion is also valid for normal and shear stresses acting on inclined
faces cut through the element parallel to the x and y axes.
22

Figure 11. Triaxial state of stress: (a) wedge; (b) planes of maximum shear stress.
The stresses acting on elements oriented at various angles to the principal axes can
be visualized with the aid of Mohr’s circle. The cubic element subjected to triaxial
stresses, viewed from three different directions, is sketched in Figure 12a to c. A
Mohr’s circle is drawn corresponding to each projection of an element. The cluster of
three circles represents Mohr’s circles for triaxial stress, as shown in Figure 12d. The
radii of the circles are equal to the maximum shear stresses, as indicated in the figure.
The normal stresses acting on the planes of maximum shear stresses have the
magnitudes given by the abscissa as of the centers of the circles.
The largest shear stresses occur on planes oriented at 45° to the principal planes. The
shear stress is a maximum located as the highest point on the outer circle. The value
of the absolute maximum shearing stress is therefore
(37)
acting on the planes that bisect the planes of the maximum and minimum principal
stresses, as shown in Figure 11b.
23

Figure 12. (a– c) Views of elements in triaxial stresses on different principal axes;
(d) Mohr’s circles for three-dimensional stress.
Example The state of stress on an element of a structure is illustrated in Fig13a.

Using Mohr’s circle, determine (a) the principal stresses, (b) the maximum
shearing stresses, and (c) the octahedral stresses.
Solution
24

Figure 13. (a) Element in three-dimensional stress; (b) Mohr’s circles of stress; (c)
stress element for 𝜃𝑝′′′ = 26.56°.
END OF STRESS LECTURES

25

26

Solution of the Stress Cubic Equation
𝜎𝑝3 − 𝐼1 𝜎𝑝2 + 𝐼2 𝜎𝑝 − 𝐼3 = 0
where
𝛼 1
𝜎𝑎 = 2𝑆 [cos ( )] + 𝐼1
3 3
𝛼 1
𝜎𝑏 = 2𝑆 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( + 120°)] + 𝐼1
3 3
27

𝛼 1
𝜎𝑐 = 2𝑆 [𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( + 240°)] + 𝐼1
3 3
Here the constants are given by
1 1/2
S= (3 𝑅)
𝑄
𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (− )
2𝑇
1
𝑅 = 𝐼12 − 𝐼2
3
1 2
𝑄 = 𝐼1 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 − 𝐼13
3 27
1/2
1
𝑇 = ( 𝑅3 )
27
End of Solution of the Stress Cubic Equation

28

ME501 L1 Stress Oct 2018

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Lecture Title: Stresses University Of Technology

Lecture Notes on Theory of Elasticity (2018-2019) Mechanical Engineering Department

Lecture Notes on Theory of Elasticity

Lecture Notes By:

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Definition of Stress: Consider a body in equilibrium subject to a system of external

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Δ𝐹𝑥 d𝐹𝑥 Δ𝐹𝑦 d𝐹𝑦 Δ𝐹𝑧 d𝐹𝑧

The general case of a three-dimensional state of stress is shown in Figure 2. Consider

Figure 2: Stress components

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Equality of Shearing Stresses

We now examine properties of shearing stress by studying the equilibrium of forces

∑ 𝑀𝑧 = 0: (−𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑥 + (𝜏𝑦𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑧)𝑑𝑦 = 0

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Similarly, ∑ 𝑀𝑦 = 0 and ∑ 𝑀𝑥 = 0, we have

𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 and 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦

Some Special Cases of Stress

Under particular circumstances, the general state of stress (Figure2) reduces to

dimensional state of stress is referred to as a uniaxial tension or compression.

Figure3:(a) Element in plane stress; (b) two-dimensional presentation of plane stress;

Variation of Stress within a Body

Consider a two dimensional thin element of sides dx and dy shown in Figure 4.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Figure 4: Element with stresses and body forces.

𝜕𝜎𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦

Similarly, from the equilibrium of y forces yield to the equation of equilibrium in y

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

𝜕𝜎𝑥 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝜕𝜏𝑥𝑧

A succinct representation of these expressions, on the basis of the range and

Two-Dimensional Stress at a Point

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Figure 5: Element in plane stress.

𝜎𝑥′ = 𝜎𝑥 cos 2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 sin2 𝜃 + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃

𝜎𝑦′ = 𝜎𝑥 sin2 𝜃 + 𝜎𝑦 cos 2 𝜃 − 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 (3b)

The transformation equations for stress now become,

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Substituting equation (5) into equation (4a):

Similarly, the maximum shearing stresses is obtained via differentiating equation

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Q2. The steel pipe of 500-mm outer diameter

Q2. The compressed-air tank AB, Figure 2,

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

Mohr’s Circle for Two-Dimensional Stress

The procedure for obtaining Mohr's circle, Figure 6b, is as follows:

1. Establish a rectangular coordinate system, indicating + and +. Both

from the origin.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

3. Locate point A by coordinates 𝜎𝑥 and −𝜏𝑥𝑦 . These stresses may correspond to

Three-Dimensional Stress Transformation

Consider a small tetrahedron isolated from a continuous medium, Figure 7,

The three direction cosines for the n direction are related by

Figure 7. Stress components on a tetrahedron.

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

three mutually perpendicular planes passing through Q as shown next. Although

From equation (12) and (13),

Similarly, by projecting px ,py and pz in the 𝑦′and 𝑧 ′ directions, we obtain,respectively,

The remaining stress components are as follows:

 PRINCIPAL STRESSES IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Asst. Prof. Dr. Mohsin Noori Hamzah

The problem at hand is the determination of extreme or stationary values of 𝜎𝑥′ to

Differentiating equation (17) as indicated by equation (18), we obtain

From 𝑛2 = 1 − 𝑙 2 − 𝑚2 , we have𝜕𝑛/𝜕𝑙 = −𝑙/𝑛and 𝜕𝑛/𝜕𝑚 = −𝑚/𝑛.