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● Head Chair
Hello everyone, my name is Shureen Baskaran and will be pleased to serve you as the chair
of the Economic and Social Council of Monash Model United Nations 2019 alongside
Gan. I am currently reading the Association of Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA)
programme at Kuala Lumpur.
To briefly share about my MUN journey, I am blessed to be voyaging in the Malaysian
MUN scene for over 3 years and have progressed by leaps and bounds from then to now. I
started back in 2016 as an admin in MCKLMUN and up to date I have been a part of a
total of 28 MUN conferences. Hence, MONMUNC 2019 will mark my 29th conference
experience and my 12th time as a chair.
I urge all of you, especially the first-timers to speak up confidently. Do not worry about
making mistakes, but instead focus on learning and exchanging ideas. Remember to read
through this research report but please be reminded that this research report is only a basic
guideline. Carry out your own research as it helps you to develop a better understanding to
the topics as a whole. Remember, delegates, RESEARCH is key!
Should you require my help, do not hesitate to contact me through:
Facebook: Shureen Baskaran
Email: shureenbaskaran@ymail.com
Hope to see all of you in MONMUNC 2019. Good luck!
● Co-chair
My name is Gan Chia Yong and I will be serving alongside Shureen as your co-chair of
ECOSOC this MONMUNC19. I am pursuing a degree at a UK based university in a
course I hold interest in. As I am relatively inexperienced, I apologise for any slip ups on
my part. There are two things that I wish to address.
Foremostly, there are those who believe that MUNs don’t matter, we dress up and we
argue, draft a fake resolution and go home. However I disagree. I believe that through a
MUN if you can change the way one person thinks about one thing and give someone a
fresh perspective, you will have succeeded. You will have changed the world.
Secondly, the belief that committees are subject to the whims of the more experienced is
outdated. If you are willing, you will rise above and succeed. To those that are new, I urge
you to try and fail over and over again. To those that are experienced, don't get
comfortable.
Welcome to MONMUNC19. My name is Gan. Do not worry. Do not fret. If you need
anything, anything at all and wish to contact me, i’d rather you didn’t.
I jest of course, f eel free.
Introduction to Committee.
Making ECOSOC a truly meaningful organ that has the capacity to make a difference calls for new
approach. This is so especially now, during times of hardened economic uncertainty that ECOSOC`s
role and relevance is ever- increasing. H.E. Mr. Miloš Koterec President, ECOSOC 2012
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) was formed under the United Nations Charter as
the principal organ to serve its role in coordinating economic, social, and related work of the
fourteen UN specialized agencies, functional commissions and five regional commissions. The
Council also receives reports from eleven UN funds and programmes. ECOSOC provides the
central platform for the discussions of international economic and social issues, and for the
formulation of policy recommendations addressed to Member States and the United Nations
system. It is responsible for:
● promoting higher living standards, full employment, and economic and social progress;
● resolving international economic, social and health problems;
● assisting international cultural and educational cooperation; and
● upholding universal respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.
It holds the power to conduct studies and reports on the aforementioned issues. It also assists the
preparations and organization of major international conferences in the economic and social and
related fields and to facilitate a coordinated follow up to these conferences. With an immensely
vast mandate, the council's purview extends to over seventy percent of the human and financial
resources of the entire UN system. The Council meets every two years at UN Headquarters or at
the UN Office in Geneva.
Topic A: Addressing Concerns for Economic Inequality within Nations.
1.1Background/ History
International income inequality (measured through the weighted Gini) increased quite sharply
between 1980 and 2000. A number of factors played a role in this, especially drop of incomes in
Latin America during the ‘lost decade’ of the 1980s and the prolonged economic implosion of
countries in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as the economic collapse of former soviets economies in
the late 1980s and 1990s. However, since about 2000, the decline in international inequality has
been observable even without the effect of the Chinese economy. Stronger economic growth in all
three major developing regions (Asia, Africa and Latin America) has contributed to this trend.
Despite this recent improvement, international inequality remains very high – in fact, excluding
China, the Gini coefficients of international inequality were higher in 2010 than they had been in
1980.
Only in OECD countries, the gap between rich and poor is at its highest level in the last 30 years.
Today, the richest1 10% of the population in the OECD area earn 9.5 times more than the poorest
10%. By contrast, in the 1980s the ratio stood at 7:1. This long term trend increase in income
inequality has contributed to curb economic growth significantly.
The global financial and economic crisis and its aftermath have added urgency to the need to
address inequalities and their consequences. Draconian fiscal austerity programmes still dominate
attempts to reduce sovereign debt in many developed countries, and a growing number of
1
http://www.oecd.org/social/inequality.htm
developing countries are cutting public expenditure. Popular discontent has grown and trust in
governments is dwindling, even in countries with consolidated democracies.
As member states of ECOSOC, you are required to exchange insights on policies and internal
mechanisms among yourselves and look for a common ground that could potentially establish a
common framework that is agreeable by council members in tackling the issue of economic
inequality.
Figure 1: Ratio of the average income of the richest 10% to the poorest 10%
Figure 2: Richest 10% share of total household net wealth
1.2 Definition of Key Terms
Income Inequality Income inequality is one of the three main types of economic
inequality, besides inequality for pay and wealth. Income refers
to the household disposable income in a certain year and is
adjusted to reflect the different needs for households of varying
sizes. Income inequality refers to how much income is
distributed unevenly in a group of people or society. It is used as
a relative term, not to be confused with poverty, which can be an
absolute term.
Gini index The Gini index or Gini coefficient is the most commonly used
measure of economic inequality compared to other methods like
ratio measures and the Palma Ratio. It measures inequality
across the entire society instead of merely comparing different
income groups. Theoretically, if all the income were to go to
only one person and everyone else received none, the index
would be 1, at perfect inequality. The closer the Gini value is to
0, the more equally income is distributed.
Organisation for The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
Economic Co-operation (OECD) is a forum formed in 1961, where 34 democratic
and Development (OECD) governments with market economies cooperated with 70
non-member economies. They can utilise this setting to compare
and coordinate domestic and international policies, promote
economic growth, sustainable development, and prosperity.
Gross Domestic Product The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) refers to the measure of the
(GDP) monetary value of goods and services, minus imports, a country
produced in a period of time. There are two types of GDP:
nominal, which is the raw amount not adjusted to inflation, and
real, which is usually lower than nominal as it takes inflation into
account. Even though GDP is the best way to measure a nation’s
economy, especially GDP per capita, it is not an accurate
measure of the society’s well-being but a limited measure of the
people’s standard of living.
Progressive taxes A progressive tax is one where the lower income entities or
individuals pay a lower proportion of their income in taxes than
the higher income entities or individuals do. Under this system,
marginal tax rates are often higher than the average rate and taxes
assessed on income and business profits are based on a
“progressive" or increasing tax rate schedule. An example would
be estate taxes as the tax burden is meant to be imposed on the
wealthy or people who owned more land.
Proportional taxes A proportional tax is also known as a flat tax, is one where
everyone, pays the same proportion of income in taxes no matter
the amount of income. Under this system, marginal tax rates are
equal to the average rate and entities or individuals pay a set
fraction of their income regardless of the total income earned.
An example would be sales taxes as the tax burden is meant to be
imposed on all buyers or consumers of the product.
Regressive taxes A regressive tax, the opposite of a progressive tax, is where the
lower income entities or individuals pay a higher proportion of
their income in taxes than the lower income entities or
individuals do. Under this system, marginal tax rates are less than
the average rate as the government assesses tax based on the
amount of asset the taxpayer purchases or owns instead of the
entities or individuals ability to pay. An example would be poll
taxes as it is imposed uniformly on the entire population.
1.3 Current Situation
Rising levels of inequality has become a key political issue in recent years; "the defining issue of our
time," as Barack Obama described it back in 2013. It was at the heart of the Occupy movement
protests, and has received a huge amount of attention in the media and in policy circles. But much
of this discussion has focussed on what's been happening in rich countries, in particular upon
trends seen in the US. We tend to hear less about inequality in the rest of the world.
How has income inequality within countries been changing around the world more generally?
To answer this question, a comparison of estimates of income inequality for two points in time has
been created: today and a generation ago in 1990. Metric of income inequality is the Gini index –
explained h
ere – which is higher in a country with higher inequality.
The chart below compares levels of inequality today with those one generation ago. If you've not
seen this sort of chart before, it may take a moment to understand what's going on. How high a
country is in the chart shows you the level of inequality in 2015. How far to the right shows you
the level of inequality in 1990. In addition, a 45 degree line is plotted. Countries below this line saw
a fall in the Gini index between the two dates; countries above saw an increase.
Key Issues
Technology
Income inequality is created when the rapidly advancing technology reduces the number of
medium-skilled workers in comparison to the higher and lower skilled workers. Demand for these
medium skilled workers decreases as their jobs can be completed by modern computers and other
machinery while the jobs of higher and lower skilled workers are not as easily replaced. Moreover,
highly skilled workers are presented with more benefits than the medium and lower classes like
getting more job opportunities in the market and receiving more rewards in business as the
economy shifts towards secondary and tertiary sectors which favour skilled labour.
Globalisation
As competition increases, firms are also forced to innovate and excel above others. The result is
offshoring, a type of outsourcing, of businesses, which means that companies are moving certain
processes, like manufacturing or other operations, from one country into another country. Specific
jobs are relocated from rich to poor countries thanks to the availability of lower costs of
production and labour, especially if they do not require much skill. Hence, globalisation has been
viewed as a negative force by majority of westerners.
Unemployment
Studies have shown that unemployment has also been one of the main reason of economic
inequality around the world and the worst affected group would be the less skilled labourers.
Unemployment contributes to the misery of these jobless “workers" as unemployment benefits
only support them for a limited amount of time. Once their insurance expires, they resort to
loaning more money and end up further buried by debt, even the generations after them get
negatively impacted. This eventually widens the income gap between the employed and
unemployed populations in society.
Education
Individuals and firms can take various actions to reduce their tax burdens. Tax avoidance are legal
means such as income splitting, tax postponement and tax arbitrage across income that faces
different tax treatment. On the other hand, tax evasion are illegal means such as underreporting
income, overstating deductions, exemptions, or credits, failing to file tax returns, engaging in
barter. When individuals or firms cheat on their tax obligations, it changes the real effects of
taxation, especially on income distribution. If the rich or anyone who feels that no one has a right
to tax their earnings and evade the taxes, it will throw the system off balance.
1.4 Major Bloc
Mexico
Mexico is an example as one of the countries with the worst income inequality. Its top 10% make
over 30 times more than the poorest 10%, despite averaging more working hours per day compared
to China or the US. Mexico faces multiple difficulties such as drug cartels which has always been
an uncontrollable problem for its government. Currently, they will focus more on tackling poverty
in hopes of narrowing the income gap.
Chile
Chile is also a nation with one of the most unequal wealth distributions, thanks to various factors
such as lack of higher education and corruption. Even though more Chileans are receiving college
degrees, many of the poor attend cheaper colleges in hopes of getting the same opportunities as
other students in richer schools but only to graduate with more debt. This combined with wealthy
universities lobbying against bills to improve the system and the wealthy simply covering up their
income to lack of restrictions on credit card interest rates.
United States of America
Despite being one of the most economically developed countries in the world, the United States of
America also ranks as one of the most unequal in terms of income distribution. An overwhelming
majority of its population is unemployed which results in its major wage gap. Today, the top 1%
own 38% of the nation’s wealth, while the bottom 40 % less than 1%. The government has made
several proposals to stimulate economic growth by investing more in research, infrastructure,
research and education. They have implemented a progressive tax system which basically
redistributes wealth from the rich to the poor and are focusing on more exports and fewer imports.
With more exports and fewer imports, it means that more people, whether within or outside the
country, are consuming the country’s product, which increases demand for its goods and services
and keeps it in business. The USA has also enacted a hike in its minimum wage in hopes to solve
the problem.
Figure 4: The effect of US federal taxes and transfers
United Kingdom
According to statistics, the average income of the richest 10% is almost 10 times as large as for the
poorest 10% in the United Kingdom. From 2005 to 2011, the average income of the poorest 10%
fell a further 2%. Despite so, the level of income inequality among the entire population has been
above the OECD average in the past thirty years as taxes and benefits have successfully reduce
income inequality by a quarter. Other policy changes have also reduced the income of higher
earning families thanks to the withdrawal of child benefits and higher social contributions.
China
Income inequality was between people of the primary economic sector (like fishing and farming)
and people of the secondary or tertiary economic sector (like manufacturing or service). This is
evident in the rural regions of China as China focused heavily on their industrial growth in the
cities. Investments in the agriculture sector were neglected while monetary and fiscal policies were
implemented for the benefit of the urban population. These benefits include low cost capital for
enterprises, unemployment benefits, housing and minimum wages for the people living and
working in the urban regions. However, China have tried to balance their policies between the two
regions by enacting a nationwide minimum wage as well as applying technological attention to its
agriculture.
Figure 5: Disposable income growth in China
Denmark
Denmark is an example as one of the countries with the least income inequality as the top 20% of
Danes earn on average four times as much as the bottom 20%. The Danes enjoy an expansive social
safety net including free college, health care and subsidised child care. However, all these benefits
do not com without a price. The Danes are also more heavily taxed compared to others. For
instance, total tax revenue is 49% of the size of the economy compared to 25.4% in the US; Danes
pay a top tax rate of 56% unlike the 39.6% in the US.
Brookings Institution
Brookings Institution is a non-profit public policy organization created to "conduct high-quality,
independent research and provide innovative, practical recommendations that will help democratic
America". They believe that income inequality will be a permanent economic threat in the US
which will reduce social mobility. They proposed solutions such as reform of the tax system and
moving beyond the current set of tax instruments to increase the revenues through methods like a
carbon tax.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has strongly disproved the "Okun" theory. The theory
states that more equal distribution of income will decrease incentives to work and earn more
money, and mechanisms such as the tax code or minimum wages which strive redistribute wealth
are costly. They said, "Societies do not face a choice between efficient production and equitable
wealth and income distribution. When growth is looked at over the long term, the trade-off
between efficiency and equality may not exist. In fact equality appears to be an important
ingredient in promoting and sustaining growth.” They have reason to believe that nations with a
larger income inequality have entered recessions more frequently while more equal societies have
enjoyed longer growth.
1.5 Past Actions
The United Nations has successfully cut the poverty rate in 1990 by half and the issue of economic
inequalities has been addressed. Many countries have implemented different policies and enforced
individual solutions but still, much has to be done to stimulate more progress.
In China, the plan “Action Aid” was developed to eradicate poverty and has tried to reduce the
wealth gap through various projects: the Revolving Fund helps provide reliable credit loans to the
poor, women's activity centers have been established to lower literacy rates and reduce educational
differences, the Participatory Budget Analysis project facilitates communication between the poor
or disadvantaged and the government to ensure that they will have a more equitable allocation of
public spending. Despite successfully resolving urban poverty, China still remains as one of the
countries with the highest income inequality.
In the United States of America, they set an increase in the federal minimum wage back in 2013.
However, a higher minimum wage only raises those in the bottom and does not touch those in the
top, failing to change the root causes of income inequality. As some workers will get a raise from
the hike, it will cause others especially the young who do no have experience to lose because some
employers will cut jobs to pay employees more. Hence, unemployment rates for teens in
high-minimum wage states are higher than those in low-minimum wage. Ultimately, the real
minimum wage is $0 as employers can choose to let employees go or not hire them at all.
1.6 Possible Solutions
Economic Growth
The basic step would be for nations to work on their economic growth. Economic growth can
mean either an increase in the output that an economy produces over a period of time or an
increase in the output an economy can produce. This can be measured by either the real Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) or production possibility frontier (PPF), which is a graph with two axis:
consumer and capital goods. To obtain an outward shift on the PPF, meaning an increase in the
capacity to produce, governments can: apply of new technology, employ a division of labour and
specialisation, introduce new production methods, increase the labour force or even discover new
natural resources. This would in turn raise the overall quality of life and standard of living for the
people by allowing for higher incomes and more job opportunities.
Figure 6: Outwards shift on the PPF curve
Taxes
However, with economic growth, there would still be income inequality. It would be impossible to
eliminate but can be reduced with certain policies by focusing on the lower income population.
Governments can support the lower class by providing cheaper housing or other social welfare like
free public education for children. They can allocate more tax money to fund other social welfare
programmes that help raise the real income of the lower income group. In order to tackle the issue
of tax evasion or tax avoidance, government can also use their authority to request for firms to
publish their wage ratios to increase transparency.
Another alternative would be to use taxes to redistribute income. A progressive tax allows for the
taxing authority to collect more as the taxpayer’s income increases. This income tax is divided into
blocks so if a taxpayer’s income passes a certain benchmark, the taxpayer is charged with a new tax
rate. This would in turn narrow the gap between the income classes and generate funds which can
be used to aid programmes that specifically help the poor. Countries like the US adopt this system
which is based on the logic of the “ability to pay" principle. However, it has been criticised for
punishing people who work harder and earn more money, reducing the motivation to excel
1.7 Questions A Resolution Must Answer (QARMAs)
I. Why are past actions of UN, Member States and other multilateral organizations deemed
ineffective and how could they be improvised to improve their effectiveness?
II. How inequality tackles economic growth and how it affects prosperity in the different
regions?
III. What are the principal problems caused by the rising of inequality both at national and
international level?
IV. As ECOSOC does not carry the jurisdiction of implementing or establishing direct
economic or political measures, nor decide on mandatory financial transfers, how can
member states be convinced to develop policies in this regard?
V. How can other UN bodies revise the actions and foster investigations and report on this
issue?
VI. How can multilateral organisations such as the IMF, the World Bank or the OECD
contribute to tackle global inequality?
1.8 Links for further reading
1. Economic Analysis and Policy Division: World Economic and Social Survey. Retrieved
from
https://www.un.org/development/desa/dpad/document_gem/wess-report/
2. The Guardian: “Gender Pay Gap will take 170 Years to Close”. Retrieved from
https://www.theguardian.com/business/2016/oct/25/gender-pay-gap-170-years-to-close-
world-economic-forum-equality
3. UN Sustainable Development Goals: Goal 10: Reduce inequality within and among
countries. Retrieved from https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/inequality/.
4. UNCTAD: Development Policies and Income Inequality in Selected Developing Regions,
1980-2010. Retrieved from
https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/osgdp20124_en.pdf
5. UNDP: Human Development Reports. Retrieved from
http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf
1.9 Bibliography
1. Holodny, Elena. "Here's What Income Inequality Looks like around the World." Business
Insider. Business Insider, Inc, 14 July 2015. Web. Jan. 2016. Retrieved from
http://www.businessinsider.com/ranked-incomeinequality-around-the-world-2015-7.
2. "How Is Economic Inequality Defined?" The Equality Trust, n.d. Web. Jan. 2016.
Retrieved from https://www.equalitytrust.org.uk/how-economic-inequality-defined.
3. "Inequality." OECD, n.d. Web. Jan. 2015. Retrived from
https://data.oecd.org/inequality/incomeinequality.htm.
4. Sutter, John D. "What Is Income Inequality, Anyway?" CNN. Cable News Network, 29
Oct. 2013. Web. Jan. 2016. Retrieved from
http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/29/opinion/sutter-explainer-income-inequality/.
5. "About the OECD." OECD. N.p., n.d. Web. Jan. 2016. Retrieved from
http://www.oecd.org/about/.
6. "General Assembly Adopts 68 Resolutions, 7 Decisions as It Takes Action on Reports of
Its Third Committee." Meetings Coverages and Press Releases. UN, 18 Dec. 2013. Web.
Jan. 2015. Retrieved from h
ttp://www.un.org/press/en/2013/ga11475.doc.htm.
7. "General Assembly, Taking up Second Committee Reports, Adopts 41 Resolutions, 2
Decisions, Deferring Action on Small Islands Text | Meetings Coverage and Press
Releases." UN News Center. UN, 20 Dec. 2013. Web. Jan. 2016. Retrieved from
http://www.un.org/press/en/2013/ga11478.doc.htm.
8. "Economics Online." Economics Growth. N.p., n.d. Web. Jan. 2016. Retrieved from
http://www.economicsonline.co.uk/Competitive_markets/Economic_growth.html.
9. "Economic Growth." Economics Help. N.p., n.d. Web. Jan. 2016. Retrieved from
http://www.economicshelp.org/macroeconomics/economic-growth/.
10. "Progressive Tax Definition." The Economic Times. N.p., n.d. Web. Jan. 2016. Retrieved
from http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/definition/Progressive-Tax.
11. "What Is GDP? Definition of Gross Domestic Product." About News & Issues. N.p., 23
Nov. 2015. Web. Jan. 2016. Retrieved from
http://useconomy.about.com/od/grossdomesticproduct/p/GDP.htm.
The term NIC began when the four Asian tigers of Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and
Taiwan rose to global prominence as NICs during the 1970s and 80s, with a fairly fast industrial
growth since the 1960s. All four countries have high GNI per capita, open political process, a
thriving export oriented economic policy and high income economies. Today, Newly
Industrialized Country (NIC) apply to several countries like South Africa, Mexico, Malaysia,
Brazil, China, India, Thailand, Philippines and Turkey whose economy has not yet reached the
MEDC stage but has surpassed the LEDC stage. NICs usually have common features such as
increased social freedoms and civil rights, strong political leaders, a switch from agricultural to
industrial economies, an increasingly open-market economy, a large national corporation operating
in several continents, strong capital investment from other countries, political leadership and rapid
growth of population.
Newly Industrialized Countries are rapidly developing transport infrastructure and engage in
global transport connectivity to bolster their economies, often running high Balance of Payment
surpluses often they
● Place Emphasis on manufacturing sectors, often importing from primary sector economies
and adding-value to goods before exporting them
● Engage in high levels or protectionism to protect infant industries such as Tariffs and
Quotas
● Participate in regional trading blocs, and attract foreign investment, especially from
developed countries.
2.5 Questions A Resolution Must Answer (QARMA)
● How would countries advance transport connectivity while ensuring that the initiative
delivers sustained economic, social and environmental benefits across generations?
● What measures are needed to integrate women, youth and marginalized populations into
mainstream global transport sectors?
● How would member nations allow both rural and urban areas equal access to economic
and social opportunities internationally?
● Is there a need for greater collaboration between public and private sectors across areas
such as risk sharing to accelerate innovation and development, operation and maintenance
funding?
● How should countries promote integrated intermodal transport systems to balance, link
and coordinate the varied modes of transport such as roads, railways, maritime and
aviation, in order to achieve optimum efficiency?
● How far should governments open markets for shipping and aviation, maximise
connectivity and consumer choice, and look beyond national markets?
● How would countries collaborate to identify, classify and overcome the emergence of
bottlenecks in Global Transport Connectivity?
2.6 Suggested Reading
1)Digital Connectivity and Trade Logistics-United Nations Conference on Trade
Retrieved from
https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/booksp_e/aid4trade17_chap3_e.pdf
2)Transport pivotal to Asia and the Pacific’s sustainability-United Nations
Retrieved from
https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2016/12/transport-pivotal-to-asia-and-the-pac
ifics-sustainability/
3)Economics of improved transport links in Belt and Road countries-World Economic Forum
Retrieved from
https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2018/09/measuring-the-economic-impact-of-improved-trans
port-links-in-belt-and-road-countries/
4)Transport-A Pivotal Sector in Asia Pacifics Journey to Sustainability- The Diplomat
Retrieved from
https://thediplomat.com/2016/12/transport-a-pivotal-sector-in-the-asia-pacifics-journey-to-sustai
nability/
5)Stronger Open Trade Policies Enable Economic Growth -World Bank
Retrieved From
https://www.worldbank.org/en/results/2018/04/03/stronger-open-trade-policies-enables-econo
mic-growth-for-all
6)Increased connectivity drives Asia’s regional and global trade growth-TFX news
Retrieved From
https://www.txfnews.com/News/Article/6571/Increased-connectivity-drives-Asias-regional-and-
global-trade-growth
7)Three factors that have made Singapore a global logistics hub-The World Bank
Retrieved from
http://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/three-factors-have-made-singapore-global-logistics-hub
2.7 Bibliography
1) “The Blessing of Bad Geography in Africa” Nunn, Puga 2007 .
Retrieved from
https://scholar.harvard.edu/nunn/publications/ruggedness-blessing-bad-geography-afric
a
2) “Guns,Germs and Steel” Diamond 1997
Retrieved from
https://jamesclear.com/book-summaries/guns-germs-and-steel
3) Cracking the global transport Challenge- Pwc
Retrieved from
https://www.pwc.com/ph/en/pwc-needles-in-a-haystack/cracking-the-global-transportation-chall
enge-for-future-generations.html
4) Aid for trade and trade in services-Vox
Retrieved from
https://voxeu.org/article/aid-trade-and-trade-services
5)The Economic Impact of Enhanced Multimodal Connectivity in the APEC
Retrieved from
https://www.apec.org/-/media/APEC/Publications
6) Governance for global transport connectivity-International Transport Forum
Retrieved from
https://2017.itf-oecd.org/governance-global-transport-connectivity
7)“ Transport and The World City Paradigm” Paul Knox
Retrieved from
https://books.google.com.my/books
8)Regional Connectivity- KPMG
Retrieved from
https://home.kpmg/xx/en/home/insights/2018/06/regional-connectivity.html